1 the Formation of the Yakushi Cult

1 The Formation of the Yakushi Cult

akushi, the buddha Bhaiṣajyaguru, Soga clan’s control over Buddhism and began mo- has played a prominent role in East Asia bilizing its eff orts to unify Japan with this new reli- Ysince the third century CE. Known as Yao- gion. Many of the Buddhist temples and images shi Fo in China, Yaksa Yŏrae in Korea, sangs commissioned by the court were motivated by po- rgyas sman bla in Tibet, and Otochi in Mongolia, litical eff orts to bring Buddhism under state con- the cult surrounding this deity fi rst fl ourished in trol, and to increase the sacral authority of the China from the late sixth to the eighth century. reigning sovereign. The large-scale Yakushi images It was then transmitted fi rst to the Korean penin- in Nara temples such as Yakushiji and Yamadadera sula and later to the Japanese archipelago. Material commissioned by Emperor Tenmu (r. 673–686) ap- evidence of the Bhaiṣajyaguru cult in China can be pear to refl ect such political incentives. Neverthe- found at Buddhist sites such as Longmen and Dun- less, in this chapter I argue that these commissions huang.1 The numerous paintings of Bhaiṣajyaguru reveal a more personal preoccupation with issues and his Lapis Lazuli Pure Land at Dunhuang dem- such as healing and well-being. Such private mat- onstrate that this Buddha had a faithful following ters were played out on a grandiose, public scale during the Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) peri- through these magnifi cent visual monuments. ods.2 In Korea, a few extant images from the Three Buddhism came under increasing state patron- Kingdoms era (57 BCE–668 CE) and a substantial age in the eighth century, especially during the rule number of granite, gilt bronze, and iron statues of Emperor Shōmu (r. 724–749) and his principal from the Unifi ed Silla period (668–935) attest to consort, Kōmyō (701–760). In analyzing eighth- his popularity.3 Although the cult of Yakushi ar- century Buddhist practices, scholars generally em- rived much later in Japan than on the continent, it phasize Shōmu and Kōmyō’s grand-scale projects became a dominant force in Japanese Buddhism. designed to unify the state. For example, Shōmu This chapter explores the lineage of the Yakushi passed an imperial edict commanding the estab- cult as it extended to Japan, particularly its early lishment of state monasteries (kokubunji) and nun- origins and development during the seventh and neries (kokubunniji) in every province. He also eighth centuries. constructed Tōdaiji, which became the head tem- Concrete evidence of Yakushi worship in Japan ple in Nara of the state monasteries, and commis- may be found in the last quarter of the seventh cen- sioned a colossal sixteen-meter gilt-bronze statue tury. In this period, the imperial court broke the of the Buddha Birushana (S: Vairocana) for its Daibutsuden (Great Buddha Hall)—at the time, one of the largest wooden structures in the world. Seated Yakushi. Hōrinji, detail of fi g. 3. This great Cosmic Buddha, extending its powers

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over the entire country, was a visual statement of known during Tenmu’s reign, but was widely stud- Shōmu’s empire. ied during the Nara period. During the eighth century the central govern- In light of Raoul Birnbaum’s excellent study of ment also ordered Buddhist rituals—especially each of these translations from Sanskrit to Chi- those rites dealing with penitence—to be performed nese, here I will present only a brief outline of the with greater frequency for the sake of the entire two sutras, highlighting points that are important nation. In such a climate, Yakushi ascended in status in considering later ritual practices using Yakushi as a major healing deity protecting the country; con- icons. sequently, the rituals associated with Yakushi became more publicly prominent. No longer used Xuanzang’s Translation from 650 solely for the private healing of individuals (as dur- Yaoshi liuliguang rulai benyuan gongde jing can be ing the reign of Emperor Tenmu), Yakushi rituals translated literally as the “Sutra on the Merits of for Emperor Shōmu rose in importance to become the Fundamental Vows of the Master of Healing, potent prescriptions for the country’s well-being. the Lapis Lazuli Radiance Tathāgata” (J: Yakushi This ritual emphasis extended until the middle of rurikō nyorai hongan kudoku-kyō; hereafter, Yakushi the Heian period. Sutra).6 Xuanzang brought this sutra back to China from his travels in Central Asia.7 Typically, all of the Yakushi sutras, regardless of the diff erent translations, emphasize the conduct of ritual worship and textual transmission of the powers of the deity. The content of this sutra yakushi belief can be divided into four main sections:8

The cult of a Buddhist deity relied primarily on the 1. The twelve vows of Bhaiṣajyaguru. (A de- material manifestation of the deity through icons. tailed description of his Lapis Lazuli Pure But the sutras expounding the deity’s magical Land is included.) powers were also crucial in disseminating infor- 2. An explanation of the merits of hearing, mation on how to properly worship the divinity. recollecting, and reciting the name Sutras on the Medicine Buddha were transmitted Bhaiṣajyaguru, and the blessings that accom- to Japan during the second half of the seventh and pany these practices. (Dhāraṇīs, ritual incan- fi rst half of the eighth century.4 These scriptures tations, are included.) had a signifi cant impact on the Buddhism of the 3. A description of how to conduct the ritual Nara period, and changed the nature of worship. worship of Bhaiṣajyaguru. They contained vital information pertaining to the 4. A description of the Twelve Divine Generals powers of this Buddha, the proper methods of (Jūni Shinshō), who are supporters of making off erings to the deity, and the splendid Bhaiṣajyaguru. benefi ts that were promised the devotee who called upon Bhaiṣajyaguru’s aid. The fi rst section of the sutra describes the won- Of the three main Buddhist scriptures on derful Pure Land of Bhaiṣajyaguru and the vows he Yakushi worship, two Chinese translations were had made before he became a Buddha. As is typical widely circulated in Japan. The earlier of these two of Buddhist scriptures, the sutra begins with the texts was the Yaoshi liuliguang rulai benyuan gongde Buddha Śākyamuni (Shaka) arriving at the city of jing, translated by Xuanzang (ca. 602–664) in 650. Vaiśālī and preaching to an assembly of people un- The second text, translated by Yijing (635–713) in der a tree. Śākyamuni then proceeds to expound 707, was the Yaoshi liuliguang qifo benyuan gongde on the wonders of the Lapis Lazuli Pure Land, jing.5 Being a later translation, this text was not where Bhaiṣajyaguru resides. Like all Pure Lands

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