Confucius Best known for creating the philosophy Confucianism, which focused on personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, kindness, and sincerity. Based around Chinese traditions and beliefs, leading to an emphasis on family loyalty and structures, ancestor veneration, and respect of elders.
➢ Recommended Sites: Confucius
Guan Zhong He is well known for his administrative reforms while serving during the rule of the Qi, increasing its strength and organization. Due to his transformative reforms, he is affiliated with the system of Legalism and is seen as the origins of it, despite not formally establishing the philosophy.
➢ Recommended Sites: Guan Zhong ➢ Legalism (Chinese philosophy)
Lao Tzu Usually credited with writing the Tao Te Ching, which is the text that serves as a basis for Taoism/Daoism. Detailed the idea that there is a force from which everything exists or is the “root” of everything, the Tao/Dao. Despite this common force, many people act “unnaturally” and upset the Tao/Dao.
➢ Recommended Sites: Laozi ➢ Wikipedia – Tao Te Ching ➢ Taoism
Siddhartha Gautama Known as the creator of Buddhism, which praises the use of philosophical reasoning and meditation in order to achieve liberation, or Nirvana. Critiqued Brahmanism, attacking their belief that some had “superior birth” or certain castes and bloodlines were pure and impure, noble and ignoble. Argues that differences between people lie in their actions and occupations.
➢ Recommended Sites: Gautama Buddha Plato Details how a government should be run in Plato’s Republic, advocating for a government ruled by a philosopher king, who is wiser than his citizens. Only an educated king will be able to determine who or what is “Good.” Based merits and worth on education, and due to the lack of women receiving an education, viewed women as inferior.
➢ Recommended Sites: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato#Ethics ➢ Republic (Plato) ➢ Philosopher king ➢ Form of the Good
Socrates Created the Socratic method in order to discuss philosophical questions, such as what is “Good” or what is “Justice.” It is difficult to discern his true beliefs and positions on topics, due to him not producing works of his own, but rather his beliefs being captured through the lenses of other philosophers. Although a challenge to have a concrete stance, it can be inferred through reading of those who have taught him and those who learned from him.
➢ Recommended Sites: Socrates
Aristotle His work was highly influential throughout history, having impacted the pursuit of knowledge up until the Enlightenment. He argued for humanity’s ability to use reason, which separates it from other species on the planet. Additionally, he believed that ethics and politics were heavily connected and that some, if not all, citizens of a city deserved to live a good life.
➢ Recommended Sites: Aristotle - Wikipedia ➢ Politics (Aristotle)
Niccolo Machiavelli Wrote The Prince, all of which is about how to best run a government. Used specific case studies to prove his points, some of which include the use of conquering other states to increase power and authority, using the power of the people for a ruler to gain favor, etc.
➢ Recommended Sites: Niccolò Machiavelli ➢ The Prince
Michel de Montaigne He is most well-known for his collection of Essays, which focuses on his own thoughts and experiences in life. Most notably, however, his essay On the Cannibals, Montaigne points out the bias shown towards indigenous peoples and their lack of differences between them and Europeans. ➢ Recommended Sites: Michel de Montaigne ➢ Essays (Montaigne)
Rene Descartes He believed that God was benevolent and gave humans the ability to reason. From this emphasis on reason, Descartes is best known for using a logical, rational approach to human beings. He primarily focused on philosophy, even being named the father of modern philosophy. However, he did not discuss politics or apply his thinking to politics.
➢ Recommended Sites: René Descartes
Thomas Hobbes Wrote Leviathan, which begins by considering a state in which everyone is equal. Is well known for his development of the “social contract theory,” in which justifies the authority of the state over the individual. He has written several works on his political philosophy, including Leviathan (as mentioned earlier), De Cive, The Elements of Law, and more.
➢ Recommended Sites: Thomas Hobbes
John Locke “Life, liberty, and property” was characterized as a fundamental human right. Was also heavily involved in the slave-trade, as an investor in the Royal African Company and drafting a work that would give masters absolute power over their slaves. He also supported child labor.
➢ Recommended Sites: WIKIPEDIA: John Locke
David Hume Considered a father of conservatism, believed in limited government, private property, and constitutionalism. Argues in favor of private property, due to the scarcity of resources. Ideas about equality can be inferred from his stances on economic and political theory, specifically those shown during the American Revolution.
➢ Recommended Sites: David Hume
J.S Mills Openly wrote about his opposition to slavery and the inequality between the sexes. An influential thinker for liberalism, heavily contributing to several significant ideas, such as liberty and freedom of speech. Known as a naturalist, utilitarian, and a liberal.
➢ Recommended Sites: Wikipedia - John Stuart Mill
Mary Wollstonecraft Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, which discusses how women are not naturally inferior to men, but rather, only appear inferior due to the negligence of education. Fierce advocate for the advancement of women’s education. Wrote to try and create an understanding of human relations within a civilization.
➢ Recommended Sites: Mary Wollstonecraft ➢ A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
William Godwin Considered the first modern proponent of anarchism, found monarchies to be corrupt. Work attacked public institutions. Believed in perfectibility of race, making all vices and virtues a result of personal actions. Argued that the government was a corruptive influence on society. Wrote An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice.
➢ Recommended Sites: William Godwin
Peter Kroptokin Russian anarchist and advocated for anarcho-communism, decentralized communist society free from central government. Was a critic of capitalism and feudalism, due to their creation of poverty and promotion of privilege, leading to his support for a decentralized economic system that focused on voluntary cooperation and mutual support.
➢ Recommended Sites: Peter Kropotkin - Wikipedia
Rumi An Islamic philosopher that taught love and the love of God. Believed Islam was superior. Classified as a transcendental philosopher, whose beliefs are repeatedly seen throughout his works. Typically emphasizes the unity of being throughout his works.
➢ Recommended Sites: Rumi
Sun Tzu Known as the author of The Art of War, making him an important military figure. Differentiated who would work best for an army and what would lead it to success. Focused on the psychological aspect of warfare, electing to create chaos among the enemy’s leadership rather than using force.
➢ Recommended Sites: Sun Tzu ➢ Sun Bin's Art of War ➢ The Art of War by Sun Tzu
Augustine of Hippo aka St. Augustine City of God is a direct response to Aristotle’s Politics & Nicomachean Ethics. Opposed slavery and the selling of children. Well-known for his Christian philosophy, the transformation of which can be seen in his autobiographical work, Confessions.
➢ Recommended Sites: Augustine of Hippo
Thomas Aquinas Advocated for the division of labor. Thought that the monarchy was the best form of government due to the lack of compromises that have to be made. Defended the mendicant order (beggars). Argued for the Greek philosophy, leading to its peaceful coexistence with religion until the development of physics.
➢ Recommended Sites: Thomas Aquinas - Wikipedia
Ayn Rand An individualist, who developed a philosophical system named objectivism. A large influence for right-wing politics and libertarianism. Her works became increasingly philosophical over time, but not taken seriously by professional philosophers.
➢ Recommended Sites: Wikipedia – Ayn Rand
James Wesley Rawles Former U.S. Army Intelligence officer, who writes the survivalist novel series, Patriots. Also a founder and senior editor for SurvivalBlog.com, which similarly, covers preparedness and survival. Self-identifies as a Constitutionalist Christian Libertarian.
➢ Recommended Sites: James Wesley Rawles - Wikipedia
Friedrich Nietzche Discussed master-slave morality, Christian morality, and the existence of God. Typically associated with Karl Marx, and Freud. Used psychological analyses to criticize European morality and religion and to support theories about the nature of the self.
➢ Recommended Sites: WIKIPEDIA: Friedrich Nietzsche ➢ Master–slave morality
Simone de Beauvoir A feminist, whose works had great influence on feminist existentialism and feminst theory. Most notably, her treatise The Second Sex discusses women’s oppression.
➢ Recommended Sites: wikipedia: Simone de Beauvoir
Adam Smith Known as the father of Economics or the father of Capitalism. Beliefs held are to be inferred from his published works, since there are no lasting personal papers. Potential hints towards thoughts on hierarchy, inequality, and racial inequality within his works, such as The Wealth of Nations (specifically Book 5, Chapter 1, Part 2).
➢ Recommended Sites: WIKIPEDIA: Adam Smith
Charles Darwin Opposed slavery and racist ideas, thought women were inferior. Despite his opposition to slavery, did not comment on the work conditions of servants and factory workers in England. Confused about why all religions weren’t considered equally valid.
➢ Recommended Sites: Wikipedia – Charles Darwin
Martin Luther Was the first to call out corruption within the church as a result of the widespread use of indulgences in place of repentance and other religious acts, shown through his 95 Theses.
➢ Recommended Sites: Martin Luther ➢ Ninety-five Theses
John Calvin Wanted to safeguard the rights and freedoms of the ordinary person. Favored democracy and aristocracy. Also worked to call out the corruption of the church, believing that the Bible is the one and only source of information about God. Believed that one should come to their own judgements, rather than relying on a priest, as argued in this work.
➢ Recommended Sites: John Calvin - Wikipedia ➢ Institutes of the Christian Religion
Ralph Waldo Emerson Leader of the transcendentalist movement and a significant proponent of individualism. Believed that all things are divine, since everything was connected to God. Was always interested in freeing slaves, but eventually spoke out about it and called it a human injustice.
➢ Recommended Sites: Ralph Waldo Emerson