SUBURBANIZATION IN TÜRKİYE WITHIN THE PROCESS OF INTEGRATION TO GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT AND A NEW LIFE-STYLE SETTLEMENT A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY OYA ERİŞEN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF CITY AND REGIONAL PLANNING DECEMBER 2003 Approval of the Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences __________________ Prof. Dr. Canan Özgen Director I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy __________________ Prof. Dr. Ali Türel Head of Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. __________________ Prof. Dr. Numan Tuna Supervisor Examining Commitee Members Prof. Dr. Numan Tuna __________________ Prof. Dr. Tansı Şenyapılı __________________ Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sibel Kalaycıoğlu __________________ Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zuhal Özcan __________________ Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Tuncer __________________ ABSTRACT SUBURBANIZATION IN TÜRKİYE WITHIN THE PROCESS OF INTEGRATION TO GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT AND A NEW LIFE-STYLE SETTLEMENT Erişen, Oya Ph.D., Department of City and Regional Planning Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Numan Tuna December 2003, 259 pages This study aims to analyze the emergence and evaluation of a new type of suburbanization in Türkiye, which are concomitant with the rise of new middle class having a high purchasing power. It examines different urbanization and suburbanization processes in various societies and demonstrates that the suburbanization of Türkiye does not exactly fit in these models. Such a suburban expansion is taking place under the prevailing impact of political economy in the world and leads to a social segregation within metropolitan areas, which is argued to become permanent. Upper middle class have developed privatized, enclosed, and monitored exclusive spaces of residence, work, leisure, and consumption. The main focus of the study, therefore, is the gated communities, which is the last extension of suburbanization. In this thesis, the gated communities are mainly residential in character and offer a new concept of life-style, which is based upon the idea of total security and retreat from the illnesses of the urban core in terms of noise, dust, disorder, crowds and related issues. It is argued that, in the specific case of Angora Evleri-Kooperatif-18, gated communities can be viewed as a further theme of fragmentation of the city of Ankara. iii The new urban fragmentation indicates a dual process of increasing social and spatial polarization on the urban land. These dualities have been identified in society. One part of the society has experienced affluence, and success while the other has suffered degradation. The economic growth has been at the expense of sharp increases both at the top and bottom ends of the income distribution. Social inequality, in return, has manifested itself spatially. Keywords: Ankara, Gated Communities, Security, Social Segregation, Suburbanization, Inequality, Life-Style, Angora Evleri iv ÖZ KÜRESEL DÜNYA İLE BÜTÜNLEŞME AŞAMASINDAKİ TÜRKİYE’DE ALT KENTLEŞME (SUBURBANIZATION) ve BU SÜREÇTE YENİ BİR YAŞAM TARZI Erişen, Oya Doktora, Şehir ve Bölge Planlama Anabilim Dalı Tez Yöneticisi: Prof. Dr. Numan Tuna Aralık 2003, 259 sayfa Bu çalışma, Türkiye’de yüksek alım gücüne sahip yeni orta sınıfın ortaya çıkmasıyla eş zamanlı gelişen yeni alt kentleşme “suburbanization” biçimini analiz etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Tezde, farklı toplumların kentleşme ve alt kentleşme süreçleri incelenmekte ve Türkiye’de yaşanan üst orta sınıf alt kentleşme sürecinin bu modellere tam olarak uymadığı vurgulanmaktadır. Dünyada, ekonomi ve politiğin etkisinin yoğun hissedildiği bir dönemde, böyle bir alt kentleşme, metropolitan alanlarda, bir sosyal ayrışmaya doğru gitmekte ve bunun kalıcı olacağı tartışılmaktadır. Toplumdaki orta üst kesim kendi içine dönük, özel, sürekli gözetim-kontrol altında tutulan yaşam, çalışma, tüketim ve boş zamanlarını geçirecekleri seçkin mekanlar üretmektedir. Bu çalışma, alt kentleşmenin devamı niteliğinde olan korunaklı ve etrafı çevrili site alanları “gated communities” üzerinde odaklanmaktadır. Tezde ele alınan korunaklı ve etrafı çevrili site alanları, esas itibariyle konut alanlarıdır. Tam güvenlik ve kentin gürültüsü, kirliliği, kargaşası, kalabalığı ve benzeri meselelerine karşı kentten kaçış üzerine kurgulu yeni bir yaşam tarzını beraberinde getirmektedir. Çalışmada, Angora Evleri-Kooperatif-18 özelinde, korunaklı ve etrafı çevrili site alanlarının Ankara kentinde parçalı bir yapıya yol açtığı tartışılmaktadır. v Yeni kentsel parçalanma “urban fragmentation”, kentsel alanların giderek artan şekilde sosyal ve mekansal ikili kutuplaşma sürecine işaret etmektedir. Bu ikilik, toplumda ifadesini bulmuştur. Toplumun bir bölümü zenginliği, başarıyı yaşarken, diğer kesimi eski sosyal ve ekonomik konumunu kaybetmenin sıkıntısını yaşamaktadır. Economik büyüme, gelir dağılımının her iki ucu arasındaki ani ve keskin artış karşılığında gerçekleşmiştir. Sosyal eşitsizlik, kendisini, mekanda açıkca belli etmektedir. Anahtar kelimeler: Ankara, Korunaklı ve Etrafı Çevrili Site Alanları, Güvenlik, Toplumsal Ayrışma, Alt Kentleşme, Eşitsizlik, Yaşam Tarzı, Angora Evleri. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work would not have been possible without advice, help, and friendship. I would like to offer my special thanks to my dear old -kadim- friend Prof. Dr. Numan Tuna, who shepherded me throughout all phases of the study. I owe a dept to him for his continuous support. I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr. Tansı Şenyapılı whose advises and suggestions have inspired me in choosing the subject and contributed a lot in the formation of the study. Her persistent urgings to make attacks upon problems have added immensely to the context of the volume. I am thankful for her guidance, and insight throughout the study. Tremendous stimulations have been derived from discussions with Assoc. Prof. Sibel Kalaycıoğlu of Department of Sociology who read and contributed a lot in the formative stages of this study. I am deeply grateful to her for her patience, kind, careful, delicate helps, suggestions and comments. Aslı Didem Danış of Bilgi University supported and directed me to the related literature. I am highly thankful to my friends/colleagues, Hülya Yaylım, İsmail Hakkı Sayın, Serdar Nizamoğlu, Gürsel Yıldırım, Hülya Ulusoy from the Municipality of Greater Ankara; İzlem İnger, Aysun Acuner, Goncagül Tokuç from the Municipality of Çankaya District Council; Bedriye Kaba Işık, Çoşkun Tunç from the Municipality of Yenimahalle District Council who have provided me with all the possible data and information. Muzaffer Ünsal was helpful during the archive studies. I am thankful to Aytekin Durutürk, the Chairman of Kooperatif-18, and Uluç Tekeli, Çiğdem Görenel and Selin Gürsoy for their permission to use the Angora Evleri and Kooperatif-18 data. I also thank Ekrem Sabaz for his support in editing and printing of the thesis. The final form of the figures and maps is a result of the energy and efforts of Orhan Yenilmez. vii Last but not least, thanks also go to my brother, Orhan Erişen for reading the text. And Sissy was a wonderful source of inspiration. This study is dedicated to her memory, albeit she could not read it. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT . iii ÖZ . v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . vii TABLE OF CONTENTS . ix LIST OF TABLES . xii LIST OF FIGURES . xiii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . 1 II. THE RESEARCH TASK . 12 II.1 A Hypothetical Work: The Hypotheses of the Research . 13 II.1.1 The General -Theoretical- Level . 13 II.1.2 The Urban Level . 15 II.1.3 The Unit Level . 17 II.2 Methodology and Material . 18 II.2.1 Methodology . 19 II.2.2 Source of Information . 19 II.2.3 Material . 21 III. URBAN SOCIO-SPATIAL PROFILE OF THE RESTRUCTURING OF A SOCIETY - AN ONGOING DEBATE: FORDISM AND POST-FORDISM . 23 III.1 Fordism . 24 III.1.1 Economic Context of Fordism . 25 III.1.2 Social Context of Fordism . 26 III.1.3 Political Context of Fordism . 27 III.2 Crisis of Fordism and Its Transition . 28 III.2.1 The Regulation Approach . 30 III.2.2 The Neo-Schumpeterian Approach . 32 III.2.3 The Flexible Specialization Approach . 33 ix III.3 Post-Fordism . 34 III.3.1 Economic Context of Post-Fordism . 35 III.3.2 Social Context of Post-Fordism . 39 III.3.3 Political Context of Post-Fordism . 41 III.4 Fordism and Post-Fordism as Metropolitan Phenomena . 42 IV. SUBURBAN EXPANSION and GATED COMMUNITIES . 46 IV.1 Development of Suburbanization . 47 IV.1.1 Suburban Expansion in Europe: Great Britain, France and Sweden 50 IV.1.2 Suburban Expansion in the New World: the United States. 51 IV.1.3 Recent Changes in Suburbanization . 55 IV.2 Gated Communities . 61 IV.2.1 Defining Gates and Community . 64 IV.2.2 Walls and Gates in the History of Urbanization . 68 IV.2.3 Gated Communities in Literature . 74 V. URBAN SOCIO-SPATIAL PROFILE OF ANKARA . 78 V.1 Urbanization Process of Ankara . 80 V.1.1 Radical Modernity: Early Republican Period Until 1946 . 81 V.1.2 Populist and Planned Period: Post-War Rapid Urbanization Between 1946-1980 . 84 V.1.3 The Effects of Globalization After the 1980s . 88 V.2 Housing Production Process and Deployment Pattern of Affluent Households in Ankara . 96 V.2.1 Early Republican Period Until 1946 . 96 V.2.2 Post-War Years Between 1946-1980 . 101 V.2.3 After the 1980s . 105 V.3 Suburban Expansion and Çayyolu Development . 111 V.3.1 Suburban Expansion in Ankara . 112 V.3.2 Historicity of Çayyolu Urban Growth as a Suburbia . 116 V.3.3 Taxonomy of Gated Communities in Çayyolu . 129 x VI. THE CASE of ANGORA EVLERİ as an EXAMPLE of GATED COMMUNITIES . 134 VI.1 Development of Angora Evleri-Kooperatif-18 . 136 VI.1.1 Provision of the Land . 137 VI.1.2 Planning Activities . 139 VI.1.3 Building Activities . 144 VI.2 Physical Setup . 147 VI.2.1 General Layout of the Site . 147 VI.2.2 Pattern of Dwelling Units .