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The Properties of Steam

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The Properties of Steam INFRASTRUCTURE DAVID HULSE The properties of steam Industrial engines before 1800 The cutting-edge technology of the difficult to remove the water that from below the natural drainage level of 18th century was the atmospheric accumulated in them. the mines. engine, driven by the pressure of The water-extraction problem would With his assistant John Calley, the earth’s atmosphere helped be solved as soon as someone found a Newcomen experimented for many along by steam. These engines first cheap source of mechanical power to years, trying to harness the properties powered the pumps that removed work the water pumps. During the 16th of steam. His work came to fruition in water from mines but later became and 17th centuries mines were drained the year 1712 when he was able to the major source of power for mostly by horse power, sometimes demonstrate the first atmospheric industries of all kinds. David Hulse requiring teams of horses to work the engine, pumping water from a coal takes a look at a 300-year-old pumps at a single mine. mine near Dudley Castle in South breakthrough. In 1663/4 when the water-extraction Staffordshire. crisis was reaching its height, Thomas The eighteenth-century engines were ne of the most important Newcomen was born at Dartmouth. powered by the weight of the earth’s industrial problems of the late After an apprenticeship as an atmosphere, acting against a vacuum O17th century was the drainage ironmonger he began selling tools to that was created on the underside of of mines, particularly coal mines. Coal the Cornish mining industry. On his the piston by the condensation of had replaced wood as the major source visits to the mines he began to realise steam (see Figure 1). The engines were of fuel for trades such as glass- and what a great financial reward there powered in this way because, in the ingenia soap-making and metal working and would be if he could develop a early eighteenth century, technology demand for it was high. So coal mines mechanical means for removing the had not advanced enough to make were pushed to greater and greater flood water: ore could then be boilers which would restrain the forces depths and it became more and more extracted much more quickly and safely of steam raised to a high pressure. 52 INFRASTRUCTURE Figure 1: A diagram showing the main features of the Newcomen engine. Steam is generated (to 1.5–2.0 pounds per square inch above the pressure of the atmosphere) in the boiler and fills the cylinder during the upward stroke of the piston. The steam valve is then closed and the steam is condensed by a jet of cold water, causing a vacuum under the piston. The atmospheric pressure acting on the top of the piston forces it down, hence the description ‘atmospheric’ engine, and this constitutes the working stroke. The piston is raised again by the overbalancing weight of the pump rods. (Courtesy of J.S. Allen.) stroke of Newcomen’s engine about six gallons of water had to be removed from the powering cylinder before the piston could complete its full movement. The Smethwick engine Engines worked on the principle described above until James Watt Large, safe, steam-tight vessels simply per square inch. With the overhead patented the separate condenser in could not be made at that time. rocking beam of the engine stationary 1769. Watt created his vacuum in a and the piston as near as possible to the water-cooled vessel away from the boiler top, catches would have been powering cylinder. The heating and then The first commercial steam released and the heavy pump rods at cooling of the powering cylinder on engine the other end of the rocking beam would each stroke of the engine was The Newcomen engine of 1712 had a then draw the piston to the other end of eliminated: this single improvement boiler made from copper with a the vertical cylinder. The suction created doubled the power output of the engine hemispherical dome made from beaten by the ascending piston drew the steam for the same amount of coal consumed. lead. The engine made 12 pumping into the cylinder from within the boiler A Boulton and Watt pumping engine movements in each minute, and on each underneath it. With the cylinder full, a was built for the Birmingham Canal movement brought 10 gallons of water spray of cold water would condense the Navigation Company in 1779 and was from the mine workings 150 feet below steam and, on the formation of a in service on the canal until 1891. This to drain safely away at the surface. The vacuum, the piston would be drawn to engine raised water a distance of 38 powering cylinder, positioned vertically the other end of the cylinder, completing feet from the bottom to the top lock on and made from brass, was 21 inches in a working stroke. The pump rods with the canal and was situated at the top of diameter. The piston made a working the heavy weights attached then Bridge Street in Smethwick. On each stroke of almost 8 feet. returned the piston to the top of the stroke of the engine 229 gallons of When the engine was set in motion at cylinder and the cycle continued. water were raised. The engine is to be the beginning of the working period, the The accumulated water from the displayed at the Think Tank in steam would have been raised within the condensing spray controlled the Birmingham: it will be the oldest ingenia boiler to a pressure of 1.5–2.0 pounds working speed of the engine: on each working steam engine in the world. 53 INFRASTRUCTURE Figure 4: The front section of the engine which was built at Smethwick in 1778/9. This view shows where the water flowed into the well shaft before being lifted 38 feet to flow by gravity to refill the canal at the top lock. The boiler is housed in a separate room at the back. The Smethwick engine was powered by low-pressure steam on the top of the piston and a vacuum on the underside. It represented a new generation of Figure 2: The only pictorial record of the world’s first steam engine, the Newcomen pumping engine; these engines were engine of 1712, drawn in 1719 by Thomas Barney. This drawing was quickly accepted by the Cornish mining rediscovered in 1868 and is now in the William Salt library in Stafford. industry. Engines working with separate condensers and using the expansive force of steam developed more power. Figure 3: A front view of the engine They were able to remove flood water house down to the level of the basement, showing the from mines to a much greater depth than world’s first fireman about to had been possible with the Newcomen- shovel coal onto the furnace. type engine. The new design was so The photograph shows the successful that the 75 Newcomen engine in miniature, as engines which were working in the constructed by the author to Cornish mineral mines in 1779 had all 1/16 size. Every part used in been superceded within four years. the construction is made The Boulton and Watt organisation from materials which would only sold their improved steam engines have been used by craftsmen on an agreement with the customer in the early 18th century. The that an annual premium was to be paid. complete miniature This premium was based on calculating Newcomen engine is the amount of coal which would have ingenia constructed from 42,300 bricks laid with specially been used had the customer installed a blended mortar in Flemish standard Newcomen-type engine. One Bond; 3,800 ceramic tiles third of the cost of the difference in fuel complete the roof. had to be paid annually to the Boulton 54 INFRASTRUCTURE and Watt organisation. For the Figure 6: Drawing of the completed model of the Lap engine showing the waggon Smethwick engine, the Canal Company boiler and the flywheel above the level of the factory floor. paid £210 per year. Rotary motion The early steam engines produced linear motion, that is, the up and down movement of the pump rod used to move water. In order to power other machinery the engines would need to produce continuous rotary motion. This was not as easy to achieve as might be imagined. The first engine in the world successfully to produce rotary motion, by the use of a flywheel and crank, was designed by Matthew Wasborough (a Bristol engineer) for James Pickard, a Birmingham manufacturer. It was originally installed in 1779 and at this unsuccessful and the engine was later rotary motion. By this time many other time the rotary motion was achieved by fitted with the flywheel and crank beam engines had been adapted to a ratchet and paul arrangement. mechanism. Pickard and Wasborough provide rotary motion, but they had not However, this proved to be obtained a patent for their idea in 1780. been designed and built with this aim in The granting of this patent started a mind and were usually adaptations of long controversy, with the result that single-acting pumping engines. Watt’s James Watt had to use a different new engine was powered by vacuum arrangement (the ‘Sun and Planet’ and also by the expansive force of method) to achieve rotary motion on his steam. The vacuum was first directed engines until the Pickard patent expired to the top and then to the underside of in 1792.
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