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Lives in Engineering

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Lives in Engineering LIVES IN ENGINEERING John Scales Avery January 19, 2020 2 Contents 1 ENGINEERING IN THE ANCIENT WORLD 9 1.1 Megalithic structures in prehistoric Europe . .9 1.2 Imhotep and the pyramid builders . 15 1.3 The great wall of China . 21 1.4 The Americas . 25 1.5 Angkor Wat . 31 1.6 Roman engineering . 38 2 LEONARDO AS AN ENGINEER 41 2.1 The life of Leonardo da Vinci . 41 2.2 Some of Leonardo's engineering drawings . 49 3 THE INVENTION OF PRINTING 67 3.1 China . 67 3.2 Islamic civilization and printing . 69 3.3 Gutenberg . 74 3.4 The Enlightenment . 77 3.5 Universal education . 89 4 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 93 4.1 Development of the steam engine . 93 4.2 Working conditions . 99 4.3 The slow acceptance of birth control in England . 102 4.4 The Industrial Revolution . 106 4.5 Technical change . 107 4.6 The Lunar Society . 111 4.7 Adam Smith . 113 4.8 Colonialism . 119 4.9 Trade Unions and minimum wage laws . 120 4.10 Rising standards of living . 125 4.11 Robber barons and philanthropists . 128 3 4 CONTENTS 5 CANALS, RAILROADS, BRIDGES AND TUNNELS 139 5.1 Canals . 139 5.2 Isambard Kingdon Brunel . 146 5.3 Some famous bridges . 150 5.4 The US Transcontinental Railway . 156 5.5 The Trans-Siberian railway . 158 5.6 The Channel Tunnel . 162 6 TELEGRAPH, RADIO AND TELEPHONE 171 6.1 A revolution in communication . 171 6.2 Ørsted, Amp`ereand Faraday . 174 6.3 Electromagnetic waves: Maxwell and Hertz . 179 6.4 The discovery of electrons . 181 6.5 History of the electrical telegraph . 182 6.6 The transatlantic cable . 185 6.7 Marconi . 187 6.8 Alexander Graham Bell . 189 7 THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE 193 7.1 The history of internal combustion engines . 193 7.2 The automobile culture . 199 7.3 The end of the fossil fuel era . 204 8 THE FIRST COMPUTERS 213 8.1 Pascal and Leibniz . 213 8.2 Jacquard and Babbage . 215 8.3 Harvard's sequence-controlled calculator . 220 8.4 The first electronic computers . 221 8.5 Biosemiotics . 225 8.6 Some personal memories of early computers . 227 8.7 The invention of transistors . 229 8.8 The Traitorous Eight . 230 8.9 Integrated circuits . 232 8.10 Moore's law . 233 8.11 Self-reinforcing information accumulation . 236 8.12 Automation . 237 8.13 Neural networks . 241 9 CINEMA AND TELEVISION 255 9.1 Cinema . 255 9.2 The invention of television . 257 CONTENTS 5 10 AVIATION AND SPACE EXPLORATION 263 10.1 Aviation history . 263 10.2 The history of space exploration . 284 11 ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING 295 11.1 The UK declares a climate emergency . 295 11.2 The 2018 IPCC report . 296 11.3 Greta Thunberg . 298 11.4 Worldwide school strike, 15 March, 2019 . 301 11.5 Solar energy . 301 11.6 Wind energy . 308 11.7 Hydroelectric power . 311 11.8 Energy from the ocean . 313 11.9 Biomass . 316 11.10Geothermal energy . 321 11.11Hydrogen technologies . 324 11.12Renewables are now much cheaper than fossil fuels! . 327 11.13Lester R. Brown . 328 11.14We must create a livable future world . 330 12 SOCIETY AS A SUPERORGANISM 349 12.1 The evolution of cooperation . 349 12.2 We stand on each other's shoulders . 369 12.3 The collective human consciousness . 372 INTRODUCTION1 Human history as cultural history We need to reform our teaching of history so that the emphasis will be placed on the gradual growth of human culture and knowledge, a growth to which all nations and ethnic groups have contributed. This book is part of a series on cultural history. Here is a list of the other books in the series that have, until now, been completed: Lives in Astronomy • Lives in Chemistry • Lives in Medicine • Lives in Ecology • Lives in Physics • Lives in Economics • Lives in the Peace Movement • The pdf files of these books may be freely downloaded and circulated from the following web address: http://eacpe.org/about-john-scales-avery/ Human mastery over nature Science and engineering have combined to give humans mastery over nature. This book traces that historical development, looking mainly at the contri- butions of engineering. It is a success story, but human society has now reached a critical point where our mastery of nature may destroy not only nature but also ourselves. Chapter 11 of this book discusses Ecological Engineering, in other words, the engineering that we need to produce urgently needed renewable energy infrastructure. Without very rapid action, uncontrollable feedback loops may take over. At the same time we can be encouraged by the fact that renew- ables are now cheaper than fossil fuels. 1This book makes some use of my previously published book chapters, but much of the material is new. Pride in human achievements can be seen in a famous poem by Sophocles, who wrote: Numberless are the world’s wonders, but none More wonderful than man; the storm gray sea Yields to his prows, the huge crests bear him high; Earth, holy and inexhaustible, is graven With shining furrows where his plows have gone Year after year, the timeless labor of stallions. The light-boned birds and beasts that cling to cover, The lithe fish lighting their reaches of dim water, All are taken, tamed in the net of his mind; The lion on the hill, the wild horse windy-maned, Resign to him; and his blunt yoke has broken The sultry shoulders of the mountain bull. We can take pride in human mastery over nature, but at the same time we must remember that excessive pride was called “hubris” by the ancient Greeks, and in their dramas, it as always punished by the gods. We are not outside nature. We are part of the natural world, and our survival depends on whether we respect nature, and care for it. 8 CONTENTS Chapter 1 ENGINEERING IN THE ANCIENT WORLD 1.1 Megalithic structures in prehistoric Europe Timeline1 c. 9500 BCE: Construction in Asia Minor (GA~ bekli Tepe); from proto-Hattian or • else a yet-to-be-discovered culture (the oldest religious{ structure in the world). Submerged by around 7400 BCE: a 12m long monolith probably weighing around • 15000 kg found 40m under water in the Strait of Sicily south-west of Sicily whose function is unknown c. 7000 BCE: Construction in proto-Canaanite Israel (Atlit Yam). Possibly first • standing stones in Portugal. c. 6000 BCE: Constructions in Portugal (Almendres Cromlech, Evora)´ • c. 5000 BCE: Emergence of the Atlantic Neolithic period, the age of agriculture • along the western shores of Europe during the sixth millennium BC pottery culture of La Almagra, Spain near by, perhaps precedent from Africa. c. 4800 BCE: Constructions in Brittany, France (Barnenez) and Poitou (Bougon). • c. 4500 BCE: Constructions in south Egypt (Nabta Playa). • c. 4300 BCE: Constructions in south Spain (Dolmen de Alberite, CA<diz).~ • c. 4000 BCE: Constructions in Brittany (Carnac), Portugal (Great Dolmen of Zam- • bujeiro, Evora),´ France (central and southern), Corsica, Spain (Galicia), England and Wales, Constructions in Andalusia, Spain (Villa MartAn,~ CA<diz),~ Construc- tion in proto-Canaanite Israel c. 4000-3000 BC: Constructions in the rest of the proto-Canaanite Levant, e.g. Rujm el-Hiri and dolmens. c. 3700 BCE: Constructions in Ireland (Knockiveagh and elsewhere). • c. 3600 BCE: Constructions in Malta (Skorba temples). • c. 3600 BCE: Constructions in England (Maumbury Rings and Godmanchester), • and Malta (A¨ gantija and Mnajdra temples). 1from the Wikipedia article Megalith 9 10 THE ANCIENT WORLD c. 3500 BCE: Constructions in Spain (MA<laga~ and Guadiana), Ireland (south-west), • France (Arles and the north), Malta (and elsewhere in the Mediterranean), Belgium (north-east), and Germany (central and south-west). c. 3400 BCE: Constructions in Sardinia (circular graves), Ireland (Newgrange), • Netherlands (north-east), Germany (northern and central) Sweden and Denmark. c. 3300 BCE: Constructions in France (Carnac stones) • c. 3200 BCE: Constructions in Malta (Hagar Qim and Tarxien). • c. 3100 BCE: Constructions in Russia (Dolmens of North Caucasus) • c. 3000 BCE: Constructions in Sardinia (earliest construction phase of the prehistoric • altar of Monte d'Accoddi), France (Saumur, Dordogne, Languedoc, Biscay, and the Mediterranean coast), Spain (Los Millares), Sicily, Belgium (Ardennes), and Orkney, as well as the first henges (circular earthworks) in Britain. c. 2500 BCE: Constructions in Brittany (Le Menec, Kermario and elsewhere), Italy • (Otranto), Sardinia, and Scotland (northeast), plus the climax of the megalithic Bell- beaker culture in Iberia, Germany, and the British Isles (stone circle at Stonehenge). With the bell-beakers, the Neolithic period gave way to the Chalcolithic, the age of copper. c2500 BCE: Tombs at Algarve, Portugal. Additionally, a problematic dating (by • optically stimulated luminescence) of Quinta da Queimada Menhir in western Algarve indicates \a very early period of megalithic activity in the Algarve, older than in the rest of Europe and in parallel, to some extent, with the famous Anatolian site of G¨obekli Tepe" c. 2400 BCE: The Bell-beaker culture was dominant in Britain, and hundreds of • smaller stone circles were built in the British Isles at this time. c. 2000 BCE: Constructions in Brittany (Er Grah), Italy : (Bari); Sicily (Cava dei • Servi, Cava Lazzaro);, and Scotland (Callanish). The Chalcolithic period gave way to the Bronze Age in western and northern Europe. c. 1800 BCE: Constructions in Italy (Giovinazzo, in Sardinia started the nuragic • civilization). c. 1500 BCE: Constructions in Portugal (Alter Pedroso and Mourela). • c. 1400 BCE: Burial of the Egtved Girl in Denmark, whose body is today one of the • best-preserved examples of.
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