Lean's Engine Reporter and the Development of The

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Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society coal savings. installed, inthehopeofavoiding theproblemsrelatedwithcomputationof actual a fixedannualsumbasedon thegeneralfuel-savingpotentialitiesofenginethey had frequently objectedto,sothatinanumberofcasesBoulton andWattdecidedtoswitch in themine.Thecalculationsystemwascumbersome andthefigurescomputedwere sumption ofaNewcomenenginesupplyingthesame power astheWattengineinstalled number ofquitecomplicatedcalculations,aimedatidentifying the attained bytheWattengineincomparisonwithNewcomen engine.Thisrequireda partners wastochargeanannualpremiumequalone thirdofthesavingsfuelcosts in 1769,whichanActofParliamentprolongeduntil1800. Thepricingpolicyofthetwo engine. Watt’sinventionwasprotectedbythepatentfor theseparatecondenserhetookout associated withtheerectionofaBoultonandWattengine. two partnersandtobuildtheenginehouse.Thesewereallelementsoftotalfixedcost mine adventurerhadtobuytheothercomponentsofenginenotdirectlysuppliedby adventurers atcost(i.e.notincludinganyprofitforBoultonandWatt).Inaddition,the (such assomeofthevalves).Theseexpenditureswouldhavebeenchargedtomine of theengine;theywouldalsosupplysomeparticularlyimportantcomponentsengine preneurs, thetwopartnerswouldprovidedrawingsandsuperviseworksoferection high priceforcoalwhichwasimportedfromWalesbysea. to thesurface).Incomparisonwithothercounties,Cornwallwascharacterizedbyarelative copper andtinmines(smallerengines,called‘whimengines’werealsoemployedtodrawore steam power. Cornwall progressivelybecameoneoftheBritishcountiesmakingmostintensiveuse A BoultonandWattenginewasfirstinstalledinCornwall1776and,fromthatyear, Soc. Newcomen Trans. when mineswerenotprofitable. Itmustberememberedthat,fromtheearly1780s, the by Cornishmineadventurers butthefixedannualsumsfrequentlycametobedisputed the localparlance). attractive propositionbyCornishminingentrepreneurs(commonlytermed‘adventurers’in to theirsuperiorfuelefficiency,Wattengineswereimmediatelyregardedasaparticularly Boulton andWattderivedtheirprofitsfromtheroyalties chargedfortheuseoftheir Under atypicalagreementbetweenBoultonandWatttheCornishminingentre- Development oftheCornishEngine: Lean’s EngineReporter 4 1 Atthebeginning,thistype ofagreementwasratherfavourablyaccepted InCornwall,steamenginesweremostlyemployedfordrainingwaterfrom THE ORIGINSOF 3 Alessandro NUVOLARIandBartVERSPAGEN , 77 20) 167–189 (2007), A Reappraisal LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER by 2 Itisnotsurprisingthenthat,due DOI: 10.1179/175035207X204806 andthe hypothetical

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coal con- brought toyouby CORE Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 168 ‘the condensationofsteamraisedbyquickfire’(i.e.,high-pressureandexpansion). of theefficiencysteamengines)possibilityadoptinginhiscompoundengines in theearly1800s—engagealongcorrespondencewithRichardTrevithickonsubject enough, about1785,HornblowerdiscussedwithDaviesGilbert(whowouldalsolateron— Hornblower enginecouldnotexploittheadvantagesofcompounding.Interestingly formance oftheenginewasfarfrombeingsatisfactory.Workingatlowpressures, the HornblowertypewaserectedforRadstockcollierynearBristol.Initially,per- of hisinventionobstructedbytheactionsBoultonandWatt.In1782,afirstengine a patentforthefirstcompoundenginein1781andwhofoundfurtherdevelopment strain. reduction incopperpricesputtingtheprofitabilityofmanyCornishminingventuresunder exploitation onalargescaleoftheParysMountaincopperminesinAngleseycaused the followingfeatures:1)cylinder withclosedtop,2)pistondrivenbysteam(instead of published anoticeintheBristol newspapersclaimingthathis1769patentcovered Watt’s patentthusgivingcomplete victorytoBoulton&Watt.Duringthelawsuit, Watt the specification.Thedispute endedin1799withthecourtsconfirminglegalvalidity of explicitly calledinquestion the validityofWatt’spatentonbasisinsufficiency of Cornish mineentrepreneurswerereadytochallengeexplicitly thevalidityofWatt’spatent. and thusamuchclearercaseofpiracythanHornblower’s, butatthistimethemajorityof version ofWatt(theydispensedwiththebeam,piston rodactingdirectlythepumps) install steamenginesforseveralCornishmines.Bull’s wereessentiallyasimplified by BoultonandWatt.Atthesametime,anotherCornish engineerEdwardBullbeganto the possibilityofreducingtheircostsbyavoidingpayment ofthehighroyaltiesclaimed went onerectinghisenginesinCornishmines.Many adventurerssawinhisengines Hornblower andhispartnersdecidedtowithdrawthepetition. powerful influencesucceededingainingthefavourofParliamentonhissidesothat of Watt’sinvention.Asinthecaseprolongation1769patent,Boulton’s petition onthegroundsthatsalientfeaturesofenginewereaclearplagiarism sary toenablehimreapafairprofitfromhisinvention.BoultonandWattopposedthe a longandcostlyperiodofrefinementafterthepatentwastaken,soanextensionneces- Parliament wasthesameasthatunderlyingWatt’spetitionof1775:enginehadrequired extension ofhis1781patent.TheargumentonwhichHornblowerbasedpetitionto Boulton andWatt’smonopolyposition.Concomitantly,heappliedtoParliamentforan performance similartothatofWattengines. After aperiodofexperimentation,theHornblowerenginebecamecapabledelivering crucial componentofBoultonandWatt’sbusinessstrategy. evolution ofsteamtechnology,usingthelargeblockingpowerpatent,wasindeeda using steamasa‘workingsubstance’).Theenforcementofalmostabsolutecontrolonthe broad inscope(coveringallenginesmakinguseoftheseparatecondenser attempts werefrustratedbyBoultonandWatt’sinterventions.patentwasvery in Cornwallhadbeguntoworkonfurther improvementstothesteamengine,buttheir Boulton andWatthadnochoicebuttosueBullforinfringement. Inhisdefence,Bull Yet, theconflictwasfarfrombeingsettled.AfterParliament’s decision,Hornblower In 1791,HornblowerbegantoerectenginesinseveralCornishmines,threatening The mostfamouscaseinthisrespectwasthatofJonathanHornblower It isalsoworthremarkingthat,inthelateeighteenthcentury,severalengineers 5 LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER ANDTHECORNISHENGINE 6 whohadtaken and allengines all 7 Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society features. away fromthedesignofNewcomenenginewithoutmakingusesomethese condenser, 5)airpump,6)pistonsealedbyoilorgrease. atmospheric pressureasintheNewcomenengine,3)steamjackettocylinder,4)separate favourable effectsontherate oftechnicalprogress. of competitionamongthe engineers entrustedwiththedifferentpumpingengines, with identification anddiffusion of best-practicetechniques.Secondly,itwouldcreatea climate Appendix 1). (for moredetailsontheproceduresadoptedforcalculating thedutyofCornishengines,see engineers, the‘duty’)ofmanysteamenginesatworkin theCornishtinandcoppermines one foothighperconsumptionofabushelcoal,or, asitwastermedbycontemporary containing detailedreportsontheperformance(measured inmillionsoflbswaterlifted respected colleagueJoelLeantoproduceamonthly journal ( lasted until1811,whenagroupofmine‘captains’(mine managers)appointedahighly content withthefinancialreliefcomingfromcessation oftheroyalties.Thissituation of Cornishpumpingenginesunderwentaperiod‘slackness’, asthemineadventurerswere the company. mention that,atthisstage,themarketforindustrialpowerhadbecomemainfocusof their engineerworkinginthecounty,backtoBirmingham.However,itisalsoimportant from CornishminesceasedcompletelyandthetwopartnershadtocallWilliamMurdock, After theexpirationofWatt’spatentin1800,steamengineorderstoBoultonandWatt with relentlessdetermination),completelyalienatedanyresidualsympathytowardsthem. had otherfar-reachingconsequences.BoultonandWatt,withtheirlegalvictory(pursued to someformofsettlementforthepaymentroyalties.InCornwall,disputealso engines). Atthispoint,noneofthemwasabletoopposetheinjunctionsandsotheyallcame ‘pirate’ enginestheycouldidentify(includingtheownersofJonathanHornblower’s obtained inthesetwocases,BoultonandWattsentinjunctionstoalltheotherusersof started erectingpiraterotativeenginesintheLondonarea.Onbasisofvictory was directedagainstJabezHornblower(brotherofJonathan)andMaberleywhohad ing thepatent.ThefirstlawsuitwasonedirectedagainstEdwardBull;asecond starting theircampaignoflegalactionsbysuingmakersengineswhowereclearlyinfring- Hornblower didnotmeetagainincourt.BoultonandWattadoptedthecautiousstrategyof invalid duetoinsufficientspecification. condenser inhisenginesandtoresistclaimsfromWattonthegroundWatt’spatentwas ready tomeettherequest.AtthatpointHornblowerdecidedadoptseparate extended patent.Aswehaveseen,Parliament,byvirtue’sofBoulton’sinfluence,wasnot the effectofprolongingprotectionforHornblower’sinventionafterexpiryWatt’s would haveexpirednormallyin1795,asuccessfulrequestforextensionhad fully exploithisinventionwithoutinfringingWatt.SinceHornblower’spatentof1781 improve theperformanceofhisenginebutthisadditionmeantthatHornblowercouldnot infringing Watt’spatent.Helaterfoundoutthattheseparatecondensercouldgreatly (low-pressure) cylinderand,forthisreason,Hornblowerwasconvincedthathenot condenser. Inhisengine,steamcondensationtookplaceinthelowestpartofsecond The explicitintentionwas twofold. Firstly,thepublicationwouldpermitrapid Following thedepartureofBoultonandWatt,maintenance andtheimprovement After theclashonprolongationofpatent,BoultonandWattJonathan Hornblower, however,consideredWatt’spatenttobelimitedtheseparate 9 LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER ANDTHECORNISHENGINE 8 Inpractice,itisimpossibletomove Lean’s EngineReporter 169 ) 10 Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 170 high pressureexpansiveengine. century engineersfoundextremely difficulttoaccountforthesuperiorfuelefficiency ofthe Given theirconceptionof the steamengineasvapour-pressureengine,earlynineteenth words ofCarnot: pressure onesbecausetheyoperatebetweenawiderrange ofoperatingtemperatures.Inthe to beverylimited).Highpressureexpansiveengineshaveahigherfuelefficiencythanlow atmospheric onesoughttobeemployed(atlowpressures,thegaininefficiencywasbound to achievesomegaininfuelefficiencyusingsteamexpansion,higherpressuresthan letting theexpansionofsteaminsidecylindercompletestroke.However,inorder This wasdonebycuttingoffthesteamwhenpistonatbeginningofitscourseand fuel economy(allowingthe‘expansiveforce’ofsteamtoperformsomeoverallwork). before condensation.Theideabehindtheadoptionofprincipleexpansionwasthat In oneofhispatentstakenoutin1782,Watthadsuggestedtheideaexpandingsteam engine. unparalleled perspectiveononeofthemosttopicalmomentshistorysteam The availabilityofahistoricalsourcesuchas thename oftheengineerentrustedwithengineandeventualremarkson theaveragenumberofstrokesperminute,and xiii) thedutyofengine(lbswaterliftedonefootperbushelcoalconsumed), xii) thenumberofstrokeseffectuatedinperiod considered, xi) theconsumptionofcoal(inbushels), x) ix) theweight ofwaterraisedateachstroke(inlbs.), thelengthofstrokeinpumps(infeet), viii) theperiodduringwhichenginewasinoperation, vii) vi) thenumber ofpumplifts,thedeptheachlift(infathoms),diameter thelengthofstrokeincylinder(infeet), v) theloadonpistons(inlbs.persquareinch), iv) thediameterofcylinder(ininches), iii) thenameofengineandmineinwhichitwaslocated, ii) i) and progressivelydecrease. a pressuresthatarenotconstantbutwhichvarysubstantially fromonemomenttothenext engine, therefore,mustbenotonlythatitusessteamathigh pressure butalsothatituses through expansion,itshouldreachasufficientlylowtemperature. Themarkofagoodsteam enough thatthesteamshouldbeformedatahightemperature; itisalsoessentialthat, high-pressure engines,thefallofcaloricmustbeusedin bestpossibleway.Itisnot fall ofcaloricisobviouslygreater.But,inorder,toderivereally advantageousresultsfrom temperature, andsincethetemperatureofcondensationalways remainsmuchthesame, a greaterfallofcaloric.Sincesteamthatisproducedathigher pressureisalsoatahigher at alowerpressurearenowevident.Theirsuperiorityliesessentially intheirabilitytoutilize The reasonsforthesuperiorityofwhatwecallhighpressureengines overenginesoperating For eachenginereported,theLeans THE CONTOURSOFTECHNICALPROGRESSINCORNISHENGINES potentially interestingfeaturesoftheengineanditsworkingbehaviour. pump (ininches), LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER 13 14 11 publishedthefollowinginformation: ANDTHECORNISHENGINE Lean’s EngineReporter provides analmost 12 Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society nineteenth century. the Cornishengineprovedtobehighestpeakinsteamengineeringoffirsthalf these designfeatureswouldlaterbecomeknownas‘Cornish’engines.Inthefollowingyears employing highpressuresteamexpansivelyinacondensingengine.Enginesembodying pressure expansiveenginesinCornishmines.Thesewerethefirstsystematicattemptsof followed byaperiodofsubstantialstagnation. conversely, thephaseofrecessionafter1850sdeterminedaslowdeclineaverageduty high dutygrowthcoincidedwiththerapidexpansionofCornishminingindustryand, mentation withdesignsfacilitatingthediscoveryofnewimprovements.Hence,period formation intheCornishminingindustry.Installationofnewcapacitypermittedexperi- growth intheefficiencyofCornishenginesseemstobetightlylinkedwithratecapital information sharingresultedinamarkedaccelerationtherateoftechnicaladvance.The the tablesof to continuousimprovementsinitsefficiency.Mostofthesewerecharted tion of high-pressure/expansion combination.Concomitantly,withthebeginningofpublica- Watt’s keypatentin1800,engineerswere,however,freetobegintheexplorationof (based onthecollationofseveralsources). could havediscreditedtheuseofsteampowerirreparably. of thepossiblenegativeconsequencespublicityaboutboilerexplosions,fearingthatthis iue1displaystheevolutionovertimeofefficiency ofCornishsteamengines Figure Watt, however,wasstronglyadversetotheuseofhigh-pressuresteam.Heafraid Lean’s EngineReporter LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER i.1 DutyofCornishEngines,1769–1895. Sources:seetext(note17). Fig. 1. Lean’s EngineReporter. 16 Theenginehadnegligiblecostsofmaintenanceanditwassusceptible , RichardTrevithickandArthurWoolfinstalledhigh- 17 Thefigureclearlyindicatesthatthepracticeof ANDTHECORNISHENGINE 18 Figure1seemsalsotosuggesttheexistence 15 Aftertheexpirationof 171 Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 172 advantages ofusinghighpressure steamastheywereapparenttoCornishengineers during 2mightprovideanindicationofthe the Wattlowpressureengine. Hence,Figure This enginewasconsistently abletodeliverdutiesabove40million,clearlyoutperforming a singlecylinderengine,working expansivelywithsteamgeneratedbyTrevithick boilers. steam enginesembodyingwhat wouldbecomethattypicaldesignforCornishengine. Itwas Engine Reporter mately theperiod1811–1818.Thisperiod,whichalsocorrespondstostartof characterize thebehaviourofseriesbestduty). of three‘epochs’rapidtechnicalchange(particularlyvisibleinthesharpburststhat In November1818,thecylinderofthisenginewasreplaced. The bestdutydeliveredbythisenginewasalittleabove 30millionintheperiod1814–1815. ments infuelefficiencyattainedbyCornishengineers intheearlynineteenthcentury. by BoultonandWattitcanbeusedasausefulyardstick toevaluatesuccessiveimprove- values incorporatingshortrunfluctuationsarerepresented bythinlines. tion ofthistechnique).Thefilteredvaluesarerepresented bythicklines,whilsttheoriginal filtered thevaluesusingso-calledHodrick–Prescott filter (seeAppendix2,foradescrip- month totheother.Inorderidentify‘trendbehaviour’ ofthedutyvalues,wehave (amount ofwatertobepumped,qualitycoal,etc.)weresubjectedvariationfromone engines exhibitsashorttermfluctuatingbehaviour.Thiswasbecauseoperatingconditions this veryearlyuseofhighpressuresteaminCornwall. expansively. der toexistinglowpressureengineswhichcouldthenbeoperatedusinghighsteam particular typeofcompounddesigncomprisingtheadditionasmallhighpressurecylin- layout. Inthesameperiod,anotherCornishengineer,WilliamSims,alsointroduceda apprentice underJonathanHornblower,preferredinsteadacompounddouble-cylinder would becomethedefinitivelayoutof‘Cornishengine’.Woolf,whohadservedasan with ArthurWoolf.Trevithickadoptedasingle-cylindercondensingdesign,whichlateron designs emergedinthisperiod,oneassociatedwithRichardTrevithickandtheother implementing theuseofhigh-pressuresteaminanexpansiveway.Twodistinctiveengine h is pc frpdtcnclcag n a icr nFgr 1coversapproxi- The firstepochofrapidtechnicalchangeonecandiscerninFigure Dolcoath 76 Dolcoath StrayPark63 2showsthemonthlydutyvaluesoftwoengines whicharecharacteristicof Figure i.2 DutyofCornishengines(theemergencethehighpressure‘paradigm’). Fig. 2. LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER , canbeseenasoneofexperimentationaimedatfindingthebestdesignfor q erectedbyJefferyandGribbleinSeptember1816was oneofthefirst q wasoneofthebestlowpressureengineserectedinCornwall Source: Lean’s EngineReporter ANDTHECORNISHENGINE 19 Asisapparent,thedutyofCornish . 20 Lean’s Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society refitted. above 40millionandthen50million.InAugust1818,thecylindersofenginewere performance ofanexisting Watt engine,convertingittohiscompounddesign(cylinders The enginedidnotdelivera particularlyremarkableduty. and onceagainthemodification seemstodetermineanewphaseofincreasingduty. rapidly. Theenginewasconvertedtosinglecylinderby SimsandRichardsinMarch1824 years ofitslifehistory;however,inthesubsequentperiods, theperformancedeteriorated Woolf inCornwall(seeFigure3).Theenginescoredduties above40millioninthefirsttwo 45 Arthur Woolf.WhealAbrahamWoolf45 interruptions foralmost50years. usually setbetween40and45psi. to besustainableforlongperiodsandsteampressurein normaloperatingconditionswas trial steampressureintheboilerwas65psi.However,such steampressurewasnotdeemed Welsh coals’scoredtheunprecedenteddutyof65.21million. Fareynotedthatduringthe August 1818towhichJohnFareypersonallyattended, theenginesuppliedby‘thebest setting in,makingpossibleanewphaseofdutygrowth.Intrialthreedaysperformedin the 1810s.Dolcoath76 1824. q ) erectedbyArthurWoolfinCornwall.Afteritsinstallation,theenginescoredaduty In 1816,withtheWhealUnity Tadpole60 Wheal Abraham60 3showsthe behaviourofsometheearlycompoundenginesdesignedby Figure Wheal Vor53 23 i.3 DutyofCornishengines(earlycompounddesignedbyArthurWoolf). Fig. 3. Afterthetransferperformancedeterioratedremarkably. 21 Asisapparentfromthefigure,theserepairshalteddecliningtrendwhichwas LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER q wasthesecondcompoundengine(cylinders28 q isalsoofparticularinterestbecauseitwasreportedwithoutmajor q wasthethirdWoolfcompound engine(cylinders33 Source: 22 Theenginewasre-erectedatWhealWentworthminein Lean’s EngineReporter q wasthefirstcompoundengine(cylinders24 ANDTHECORNISHENGINE q engine,Woolfattemptedto improvethe . q and53 q ) erectedby q and60 q and 173 q ). Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 174 the castingswhichmightfatallyweakenthem. heating andinthisperiodtherewasnowayofdiscoveringwhetherwereanyflaws cast ironwasnotasuitablematerialforboilerswhereitcouldbesubjectedtounequal the repeatedheatingandcoolingofcastironmadeboilersusceptiblecracking.Infact, boiler, inparticularthesmalltubesthat,consequently,tendedtoburnout.Furthermore, tained agooddealofresidualminerals.Hence,incrustationsdevelopedquicklyinsidethe rapid obsolescence.ThewaterusedforgeneratingsteaminCornishminestypicallycon- keeping thetwocylinderssteamtightandii)castironwater-tubeboilerswereproneto reasons forthequickdeteriorationofperformanceinWoolfcompounds:i)difficulties seem capableofsustainingsuchperformancesforlongperiodstime.Thereweretwomain tion ofWhealAbraham45 stable performancearound40million,Woolfcompoundsinstead(withthepartialexcep- behaviour ofDolcoath76 of operationtendedtodeteriorate.Inthisrespect,itisenlighteningcomparethe terms ofdutyimprovement. high-pressure one.AsshownbyFigure4,theresultwasnotparticularlysatisfactoryin 34 in 1816(lateron,itwasconverted backtoasinglecylinderagain).InJune1817, United engines. 4showstheduty behaviourofsomethese‘upgraded’ wrought ironboilers.Figure before thelatterleftforPeru in1816).High-pressuresteamwasgeneratedbyTrevithick performed thefunctionofpiston.(Simshadbought Trevithick’splunger-polepatent pressure cylinder.TothisSimsaddedasmallhigh-pressure cylinderinwhichapole steam. William Simswasmoresuccessful thanWoolfinupgradingexistingenginestohighpressure role playedbyWoolf’sexampleonCornishengineeringpractices: engineering worksofJosephBramahinPimlico. ship. DuringtheyearsspentinLondon,Woolfwastrainedasamillwrightfamous exerted amajorimpactinraisingthegeneralstandardofCornishengineeringworkman- reaping theadvantagesofexpansiveaction. after aperiodofusehadtobeoperatedatlowerpressuresthanthoseneededforfully q and60 the enginesthathavesincebeenerectedindistrict. introduced intoCornwallwerefoundsoadvantageous,that they havebeenadoptedinall .TheimprovementsinexecutionthatMr.Woolfthus . . putting theirpartstogether.. certainty ofactionthatcouldbederivedfromthemostaccurate anddurablemannerof ments andaddedothersofhisown,wherebyhegavetonew enginesallthestabilityand great exertionstoexceltheminstyleofworkmanship;Mr.Woolf adoptedalltheseimprove- Mr. Watt’ssuccessorsintheSohomanufactory,andbytheir earlycompetitors,whomade at theexpirationofhispatentin1800:theseimprovementswereintroducedpartlyby manship anddurablematerials,thatwerebroughtintouseafterMr.Watt’sretirement, applying allthoseimprovementsinmeansofexecutingsteamengineswithsuperiorwork- Mr. Woolf,inhispreviouspracticeLondon,hadtakenanactivepartextendingand time, andwhichhadneverbeforeextendedtosuchlargeenginesinanyotherdistrict. Mr. WoolfintroducedaperfectionofexecutionthatwasquiteunknowninCornwallat In theconstructionofthesetwoengines[WhealAbraham45 iue3clearlyshowsthattheperformance ofWoolfcompoundenginesafteraperiod Figure United MinesPoldorey63 Besides introducingthecompoundengineandwater-tubeboiler,ArthurWoolf 28 Inhiscompounddesign,thecylinderofexistingWatt engineactedasthelow q ), bymeansoftheadditionasmallcylinderandreplacingboilerwith LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER q withthatofWoolfcompounds.Dolcoath76 q ), althoughcapableofscoringdutiesabove40million,donot q wasalteredtocompoundin 1818,WhealChanceSims45 25 ANDTHECORNISHENGINE 24 Forthesereasons,Woolfwatertubeboilers 26 Fareygivesadetaileddescriptionofthe 27 q andWhealVor53 q exhibitsarather q ], q Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society rather thantothedoublecylinderdesign. in fuelefficiencywerelikelytoberelatedmuchmore to theuseofhighersteampressure did notprovidesizableadvantagesintermsofdutyandthattheexperiencedimprovements early 1820s,thebeliefgrewinCornishengineeringcommunitythatcompoundengines note thatmostoftheseengineswereconvertedbacktosinglecylinderdesign,when,inthe enable oldWattenginestodeliverdutiesbetween30and40million.Itisalsointeresting Sims. AsshownbyFigure5,thesemodificationscanbeconsideredrathersuccessfulasthey William Poleasthebestengineerectedaccordingtocompounddesignconceivedby verted theTreskerby58 engine wasalsoconvertedbacktoasinglecylinder.Finally,inNovember1817,Simscon- Mines Williams65 i.5 DutyofCornishengines(thetestatWheal Alfred mine).Source: Fig. 5. LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER i.4 DutyofCornishengines(WilliamSimscompounddesign). Fig. 4. q wasconvertedtotheplungerpoledesignalthoughinMay1821this q enginetohiscompounddesign.Thiswasconsideredby Source: Lean’s EngineReporter. ANDTHECORNISHENGINE Lean’s EngineReporter. 175 Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 176 innovation. 1 is theresultofthis system; thesecondsharpburstinvaluesofbestdutyFigure shows thedutyoftwoenginesdesignedbyGroseandincorporatingnewinsulation insulated pipes,cylindersandboilersinordertoavoidallpossibleheatlosses.Figure6 favoured, becomingthepredominantdesigninCornwall. On thegroundsofitsreducedcostand‘ease’maintenance,singlecylinderwas ent, duringtheyear1825,twoenginesscoredasimilarduty(slightlyabove40million). 70 engines wereinstalledbyArthurWoolf.Thedutyofthetwo(WhealAlfredWoolf design wascarriedoutin1825atWhealAlfredminewheretwonewandfullycomparable A sortofultimatetestbetweentheTrevithicksinglecylinderandWoolfcompound compound engines: q (compound40 high pressuresteamintothesinglecylinder. dable rivalstoWoolf’sengines,butwere,withthem,equallyputasidebytheintroductionof allowed togetinbadorder.Someoftheengineswereuseformanyyears,andformi- reached verynearly50million,butafterwardsfelloff,fromtheengineandboilersbeing Boulton andWattengines.ThedutyoftheWhealChanceengineforonemonth,in1817, one atTreskerby,andtheapplicationgenerallyeffectedconsiderableimprovementon at 40lbspersquareinchabovetheatmosphere.Thebestengineofthisconstructionwas drical boilersweresubstitutedfortheoriginalwaggon-shapedones,steambeingworked immediately alteredfiveenginestothisplan. beinginpartnershipatthetime, ., . . action tothoseerectedbyWoolf.Mr.Simsandhisson. attached tothesamebeamaspistonofgreatcylinder,andenginewassimilarin was furtherextended,andafterwardsthecondensationtookplaceasusual.Theplunger then permittedtopassintothecylinderofaBoultonandWattengine,whereexpansion partially toexpandinthatcylinder,bybeingcutoffatacertainfractionofthestroke.Itwas was donebyallowingsteamtoenterfirstathighpressureunderthepoleorplunger,and purpose ofattachingittoBoultonandWatt’s,soforminganexpandingengine.This considerable reputationinCornwallagreedwithhimforthepatentrightofpole In 1816,whenTrevithickleftEnglandforSouthAmerica,Mr.WilliamSims,anengineerof The singlecylinderdesignwasfurtherimprovedinthemid1820sbySamuelGrosewho In his Treatise LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER i.6 DutyofCornishengines(enginesdesignedbySamuel Grose). Fig. 6. q and70 , PolegaveadetaileddescriptionoftheintroductionWilliamSims’ q ) andWhealAlfredTaylor90 Source: Lean’s EngineReporter. 29 ANDTHECORNISHENGINE ....., and inallthesecasesTrevithick’scylin- q sgvni iue5.Asisappar- ) isgiveninFigure Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society Engine Reporter. designed byHockingandLoamtheonlyonetoscoredutiesabove100millionin Figure 8givesalsothedutyvaluesofUnitedMinesTaylor85 were HockingandLoam(thesuccessorsofWoolfintheminesmanagedbyJohnTaylor). engine ofSims’compounddesign.Inthisphase,themaincompetitorsJamesSims duty of125million. Fowey ConsolsAusten80 to scoredutiesabove80million.Figure7reportsthedutyoftwoenginesthisphase. ‘spurt’ indutygrowth,sothat,thisphase,itwasnotuncommonforenginesnewlyerected Cornish engineersalsoincreasedtheratioofexpansionfurther.Thisledtoanadditional could exploitfor‘upgrading’existingmachines. the transferofasteamenginefromoneminetoanotherwereoccurrencesthatengineers of innovationscouldbe‘retrofitted’intoexistingengines.Thus,maintenanceoperationsor ways oftechnicaladvance.Thisexamplealsoshowsthat,atleasttosomeextent,anumber design, thetwocylinderswereputsidebyside). principle, puttingthesmallhigh-pressurecylindersabovelowpressureone(inWoolf can alsobeconsideredasanenginetypicalofthisperiod. Lean’s EngineReporter the dutyvaluesafterreinstallation.Thisexamplealsowellillustratesroleplayedby Encouraged bytheperformancedeliveredWhealHope60 which nevertheless,determinedadrasticimprovementintheduty(above60million). tion systemofSamuelGrose. transferred atConsolidatedMineswhereitwasrenamedas‘Woolf’. cylinder engineusedinthetestbetweensingleandcompounddesign).InOctober,itwas played inFigure5.ThisenginewasoriginallyinstalledattheWhealAlfred(itsingle (above 80million). practices ofheatconservationinWhealTowan80 Grose’s practiceswerequicklyandwidelyadopted.Additionally,fromtheearly1830s, The CarnBrea90 In thelate1830sJamesSimssonofWilliamattemptedtorevivecompound Wheal Hope60 Woolf tooktheopportunityofreinstallationenginetoincorporateinsula- In thisrespect,itisinterestingtonotethebehaviourofWhealAlfredTaylor90 i.7 DutyofCornishengines(the1830s).Source: Fig. 7. LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER By theearly1840s,Cornishenginehadprobablyreached itspractical 31 q WhealVorBorlase80 wasthefirstengineembodyingtheserelativelyminormodifications, q (cylinders50 inpermittingthepromptidentificationofmostfruitfulpath- q erectedbyWilliamWestinatrial1835reachedtherecord 30 Thisaccountsforthesharpperformancejumpexhibitedby q and90 q , anotherenginedesignedbyThomasRichards, q ANDTHECORNISHENGINE ) displayedinFigure8wasthemostsuccessful q engine,achievingfurthergainsinduty 32 Lean’s EngineReporter. q themostsuccessfulengine q , Groseadoptedsimilar Lean’s q dis- 177 Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 178 and theirsupportstoacceleratetheweartearofengine. Such anoperatingcyclewaslikelytoincreasetheprobabilityofbreakagesinpumps extremely powerfulshocktothepistonandpitworkateachopeningofsteamvalve. of theCornishenginedesign.Carriedtoextreme,principleexpansionproducedan limits, soonecanconsiderthisperiodasthematurityphaseoftechnologicaltrajectory progressively ranintodiminishing returnsanditwasfinallyoffsetbyphysicalwear and The increaseofdutybymeans ofthisprocesslearningbyusingattheengine level improvedoperationoftheenginestemmingfromlearningbyusingprocess: inparticu- 2) sometimeofactualoperationwasnecessaryinordertoidentifyandremedyleaks 1) engine. Inparticular,Fareyindividuatedtwofactorsaccounting forinitialdutyrise: essentially amountingtofindtheoptimalwayofdealingwithspecific‘quirks’each using. Agooddealofthisaccumulatedexperiencewasidiosyncratic(i.e.,engine-specific), rise steadily.Thiswasbecausethisperiodaphaseofparticularlyintensivelearningby inverted Ushapepattern. cal lifecycleofthedutyaCornishengineingeneralcouldbeseenascharacterizedbyan using’ arisingfromtheactualoperationofeachengine.AccordingtoJohnFarey,typi- the UnitedMinesTaylorengine. indeed tosuggesttheoccurrenceofanumberbreakdownsbothforCarnBreaand the cylindertop)didnotencountermuchsuccess. Hocking &Loam(acircularprotuberanceinthepistonwithacorrespondingcavity were puttingonthepitwork.BothSims’designandcompetingsolutionproposedby for furtherfueleconomies,buttheneedtofindaremedystrainthatlargeengines motivation behindJamesSims’elaborationofanewcompounddesignwasnotthesearch i thebest ratioofexpansion(determinedbythecut-offpoint)atwhich the engine thebestlevelofsteampressure intheboiler; vi) the bestmanagementofthecleaningboilers; v) iv) theregulationoffeedingboilers; thesizeoffiregratesandnumberboilerstobeworkedatonce; iii) themanagingoffiresanddampers; ii) i) lar, itwasnecessarytoaccumulateexperienceconcerning: construction anderectionoftheengine. the engineandinboilersand/ortocorrectotherstemming deficienciesfromthe Figures 2–8allowustoshedsomelightonfeaturestheprocessof‘learningby i.8 DutyofCornishengines(thematurityphase).Source: Fig. 8. (given aparticularloadinthe pumps)wastobeoperated. LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER 35 Inthefirstperiodofoperationdutyenginetendedto 36 ANDTHECORNISHENGINE 34 ThevaluesreportedinFigure8seems Lean’s EngineReporter. 37 33 Infact,themain Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society )thewearingoutofpumps,engineandpitworkcausing‘derangements’whichnegatively 1) deterioration identifiedbyFareywere: tear, producinganinvertedUshapepatternofdutyevolution.Themainsourcesphysical of consolidationwithanumberinnovationsfocusedonreducingthedispersionheat major phase:i)anearlyphaseofexplorationthemeritshighpressuresteam;ii)a technological historyoftheCornishenginecanbeusefullyconsideredasdividedinthree behaviour ofsometheenginesmentionedabove.Thepictureagainsuggeststhat declines. behaviour. Repairsandmodificationsdeterminedalternatingphasesofdutyincreases modifications, whichcouldaffectitsperformance.Hence,mostenginesexhibitawave-like account thatduringitslifetimeanenginewassubjectedtoaseriesofrepairsandothers understood asa‘notional’patternofdutyevolution.Inparticular,onehastotakeinto may besaidtofitthatpattern).Inourinterpretation,theinvertedUshapepatternis tion fortheinvertedUshapepatternhypothesizedbyFarey(althoughsomeofengines was likelytoforcetheengineoperateatasub-optimalrateofexpansion. Additionally, astheminedeepened,anincreasingloadwaschargedonengineandthis wearingoutofboilersplateswhichmeantthatsteampressurehadtobereducedforsafe 3) leaksinboilers. 2) affected theperformancedeliveredbyengine. operation. Figure 9providesaunifiedviewofinnovationinCornishenginesbyshowingtheduty In generalterms,inspectingFigures2–8,onedoesnotfindgenerallyaclearcorrobora- i.9 Dutyofsomefamous Cornishengines.Source: Fig. 9. LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER 39 ANDTHECORNISHENGINE 38 Lean’s EngineReporter . 179 Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 180 to itsverylimits. (Grose); andiii)amaturityphaseinwhichtheprincipleofexpansionisprobablystretched following statement(hisitalics): In thesecondissueof‘hisown’enginereporter(October1827),JohnLeanpublished rate editionsoftheenginereporter(eachthemreportingenginesdifferentmines). Howard observesthat,fromSeptember1827,ThomasandJohnLeanpublishedtwosepa- Reporter paid theexpensesforhisexperimentsandpatents)publishedextractsof Alexander Tilloch,oneofthe‘patrons’WoolfduringhissojourninLondon,whohad 1810s, Cornish adventurersandmanagers.Insupportofherargument,shenoticesthatinthe due toArthurWoolfandtherealaimwaspromotecompoundengineamong Lean’s EngineReporter Bridget Howardhasrecentlysuggestedadifferentinterpretationofthefoundation effective sharingoftechnicalinformation.AsCardwellnoticed: Traditionally, historiansoftechnologyhaveregardedthereporterasavehiclefor culable; forsuchawretchedstatewerethingsreducedtobythe bushels ofcoalmonthly.Butthelosswhichwassustained,independently ofthis,wasincal- which ofitselfconsumedfromfivetosixhundredor,perhaps, Imayevensaysevenhundred six steam-whimsatwork,whereasin1823theyhadeight,besides asteamstampingmill, ance thisveryconsiderably,Ihavetomentionthatintheyear 1811, theadventurershadonly £6587 4s.11d.!Thepriceofcoalin1811wasrathergreaterthan thatof1823;buttooverbal- that minewas£1117915s.10d.—intheyear1823itonly £459210s.11d.;difference the otherto35andthird45!Inyear1811amount ofbillsforcoalconsumedin used indrawingwaterfromthemine)—Thelastofthesethree hassincerisento30nearly, month 13 fell underhisinspectionwerethoseofDolcoathmine.Onetheseaccomplishedinthefirst father begantomakehisobservationsintheyear1811.Amongfirstofengineswhich engines withinthelastsixteenorseventeenyears,itmaynotbeunadvisabletostatethatmy have adequateconceptionsofthestrikingimprovementswhichbeenmadeinsteam As few,probably,evenofthoseintowhosehandstheenginereportshaveregularlyfallen, everybody couldseewhichmodelswereperformingbestandbyhowmuch. all engineseverywherebypublishingthedetailsofperformanceeachone,sothat improvements tothesteamengine.Itwasacooperativeendeavorraisestandardsof and instrikingcontrasttothefurtivesecrecythathadsurroundedsomanyofnotable The publicationofthemonthly they havebeenthemeansof raising andmaintainingacommendableemulation;of those concernedinminingspeculations; andamongengineersenginemen, rendered ablessingtothecommunity. Theyhaveexcitedaspiritofinquiryamongall prejudiced astoquestiontheutility ofsuchmonthlyexposures.Engine-reportshavebeen of steamengines.Numerousothers mightbestated,ifthereyetremainedanindividualso be clearlydemonstratedtohaveresultedfromthe able portionoftheminedeluged.Nowtheseareafewmany happyfactswhichmight of engineers,andengine-men,thatnotawinterpassedbywithout leavingaveryconsider- Philosophical Magazine with thenot-so-veiledpurposeofadvertisingWoolfengine. LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER:ISSUESOFINTERPRETATION LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER millions , andtheothertwo,8 . 41 Inherview,theideaofsettingupenginereporterwasactually (aLondon-basedjournal,whoseeditoratthetimewas Engine Reporter millions each ANDTHECORNISHENGINE seemstohavebeenquiteunprecedented publicity —(Iamnowspeakingoftheengines whichhasbeengiventotheduty inattention and 40 42 carelessness Furthermore, especially Lean’s , Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society of thedutiesreported,trial wouldhaveprobablybeenthemostconvenientopportunity design developedbyWoolf. IfWoolfcouldexertsomeeffectiveinfluenceintheregistration ‘controversy’ concerningthe fuelefficiencyofthesinglecylinderversuscompound by JohnTaylorfortheWheal Alfredmine.Theexplicitaimoftheorderwastosolve the compound designandtheother onthemorepopularsinglecylinderdesign—were ordered supposed inHoward’saccount.Aswehaveseen,1825 twoengines—oneonWoolf duties reported—ifitwaseverexertedprobably muchmorelimitedthanwhatis created Browne’sEngineReporter. in theperiod1847–1858,WilliamWestwouldinstead submit allhisenginestothenewly ued tohaveaconsiderablenumberoftheirenginesreported inThomas’reports.Aswillsee, particular, WilliamandJamesSims,oneofthemaincompetitors ofArthurWoolf,contin- with After the‘divorce’,mostengineerscontinuedtohaveengines (atdifferentmines)reported decision whethertohaveanenginereportedornotwas aprerogativeoftheminecaptains). Lean didnotresultina‘perfect’segregationofengineersamongthetworeporters(the one issuedbyThomas.ThecompilationoftwoseparatereportersThomasandJohn John Lean’sreporterwhereasArthurWoolf’sbestenginecontinuedtobereportedinthe long periodofunhappiness’. Grose andWoolfintheperiod1826–1828,but‘maywellhavebeenculminationofa quence ofthesupposedirregulardutiesreportedduringfiercecompetitionbetween Lean inOctober1827.However,JohnLean’sdecisionto‘divorce’maynotbejustaconse- race’ againstGrose.ThiswouldexplainthelastpartofstatementpublishedbyJohn inclined toconcedeWoolfwhenreportingtheperformanceofhisenginesin‘duty separate reportwaspreciselymotivatedbytheunduefavoursthathisbrotherThomas scored dutiesabove60million.HowardsuggeststhatJohnLean’sdecisiontopublisha engine atConsolidatedMinesadoptingGrose’ssystemofthermallagging competitor ofGroseintheraceforhighestduty.InOctober1827,Woolfinstalledanew 60 millionandthenabove80million,seeagainFigure6).Atthetime,Woolfwasmain lagging oftheenginewhichdeterminedaquantumjumpinperformance(firstabove reconstruction, wasliabletobeheavilyconditionedbyArthurWoolf. ous engines.ThomasLean(I),whoemergesasratheradeceitfulfigureinherhistorical conflict wasrelatedtothestandardofcorrectnessadoptedinreportingdutyvari- the twobrothersconcerningpracticesofreporting.Inparticular,shesuggeststhat statement andtheseparationofreportersrevealaprofounddisagreementbetween John Lean’sdecisionofissuingtwoseparatereporters.Inherview,itcanbearguedthatthe lation’. Infact,HowardpinpointsthelastpartofstatementlinkingitwithThomasand John Lean’swords—excitinga‘spiritofinquiry’andby‘maintainingcommendableemu- successful wayofraisingthegenerallevelengineeringstandardsinCornwall,by—using tional accountswhichconsidertheoriginsofpracticeenginereportingasarather It isworthremarkingthattheentiretoneofstatementverymuchinlinewithtradi- importance aslongtheycontinuetobemadewith stimulating toincreasedexertions,diligenceandattention.Northeywillceasebeofvital should steadfastlyholdasthe dated bythemenacesofself-interestedmen,orshakenfromthatinflexibleintegritywhichhe as longhetowhomtheofficeofengine-reporterhasbeenintrusted,isnotbeintimi- Be thisasitmay,anotherepisodeseemstoindicatethat Woolf’s influencein‘fixing’the As wehaveseen,in1827SamuelGrosesuccessfullydevelopedasystemofthermal both ThomasandJohn.Grose,Sims,Jeffreehadengines inbothreporters.In LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER 44 Aftertheseparation,Grose’sbestenginewasreportedin dearest , the brightest ANDTHECORNISHENGINE gemofhislife! scrupulous regardtotruthandequity 43 whichalso — 181 Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 182 reservations inusingthedutyfiguresreportedissueofJuly1826 a paperpublishedin (an intimatefriendofRichardTrevithick,oneWoolf’smainrivalsintheearly1810s) contemporaries notdirectlyconnectedwithWoolfandhissupporters.DaviesGilbert were, byandlarge,consideredasreportedwithasufficientdegreeofaccuracyinformed of theusefulnessthisundertaking. interpretation, thisprovidessomesupportfortheargumentthathewas It isalsoworthnotingthatJohnTaylor, adopted. This,inpractice,amountedtoadefinitivedefeatforWoolf’scompounddesign. that thelowercostsoferectionsinglecylinderdesigncausedittobegenerally trial, accordingtothedutiesregisteredbyLeans,deliveredsameperformance,so for himtostrengthenhispositionontheCornishmarket.Thetwoenginesengagedin should bealsonotedthatthe statementpublishedbyJohnLeansuggeststhatifthere were be withcertaintylinkedto aconflictconcerningtheaccuracyofdutiesreported; it John andtheensuingcompilation oftwoseparatereportersintheperiod1827–1831 cannot sions ofindependentexperts. engines wasfrequentlychecked inpublictrialsundertakenbypurposelycreatedcommis- of variousenginesandontheaccuracydutyreported. Infact,thedutyofparticular tion amongengineerstimeandagaingeneratedheateddebates ontherelativeperformances peacefully accepted.Howardisundoubtedlycorrectinpointing outthatthefiercecompeti- some oftheenginesnowreportedbyJohnwouldhave undergone somemajorchange. one couldhaveexpectedthat,aftertheseparationof tworeports,thedutyofatleast disagreements concerningthe‘fairness’inprocedures adoptedforcalculatingtheduties, the dutiesreported.IfdivisionbetweenThomasand Johnwasactuallymotivatedby separation occurredinSeptember1827.Asitispossible to see,therearenomajorchangesin average dutyoftheenginesreportedbyJohnLeanin fourmonthsbeforeandafterthe 10showsthe Concerning theissueofaccuracydutyfiguresreported,Figure plained whatdeterminedthedecisionofThomasandJohnLeantoissueseparatereports. niques), oughtstilltobeconsideredasbroadlyaccurate.Allthis,ofcourse,leavesunex- to improveengineeringstandardsandensuringtherapiddiffusionofbest-practicetech- in mostofthecontemporaryengineeringliterature(i.e.,reporterwassetuporder foundation ofthe Cornish enginesemployingthedutyfigurescontainedin short essaypublishedin1849 partnership withhisfatherWilliamwasoneofmostprominentrivalsArthurWoolf,ina work inCornishminestheperiod1811–1870. Engine Reporter Royal InstitutionofCornwall to beconnectedwithanyparticularCornishengineer,inhis performed anumberoftestsontheperformanceCornishsteamengineswithoutseeming principle. W.J.Henwood,acontemporaryobserverwhointhelate1820sandearly1830s illustrate improvementsattainedinsteamtechnologyduetotheadoptionofexpansive in whichhewasinvolvedoutsideCornwall,particularWalesandMexico. adopted thesystemofalsoreportingdutiesenginesinotherminingventures In ourjudgment,othershredsofavailableevidenceindicatethatengineperformances This isnottosaythatthedutyfiguresreportedin The upshotoftheseconsiderations,inourview,isthatthetraditionalaccount LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER todocumentthehistoricalevolutionofperformanceenginesat Lean’s Reporter Philosophical TransactionsoftheRoyalSociety 51 Inourview,theseparation between Thomasandhisbrother made extensiveuseofthedutyfigurespublishedin Mining Almanack , suchastheonegivenbyPole 45 oneofthemostimportantminingentrepreneurs, ANDTHECORNISHENGINE 48 Finally,JamesSims,anengineer,whoin 49 discussedtheperformancesofvarious Lean’s EngineReporter Lean’s Reporter. Presidential Addresstothe 50 andwhichisrepeated 47 genuinely hadnoparticular Lean’s Reporter were always convinced 46 Inour Lean’s to Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society Tonkin. attempt tosetupanewindependentreporter,covering theperiod1834–1841,byWilliam to thenewreporter.Finally,itmustrecalledthatthere wasanother,stillratherobscure, West ceasedtohaveallhisenginesreportedin Cornish engineersoftheperiod,towardsdutyfigures reportedbyThomasLeanII. 1858 wasclearlytheoutcomeofdissatisfactionWilliam West,oneofthemostactive very successful)attemptofsettingupanewreporterby William Browneintheperiod1847– engines asfaithfullyregistered.However,theexistingevidencedoessuggestthat(not cified) periodfollowingthecreationofreports,JohnLeanconsideredduties Cornish mines.Thetoneofthestatementseemsalsotosuggestthat,atleastforan(unspe- role thatthereportshadingeneralgrowthofdutyenginesemployed immediately precedingtheseparation.Infact,statementacknowledgesbeneficial ever aconflictconcerningtheperformancesreported,thisprobablyaroseinperiod this broaderperspective, when nofullyfledgedunderstanding oftheworkingsteamenginewasavailable. In ogy. absence ofanadequatetheoretical understandingoftheoperativeprinciplesa technol- Vincenti suggeststhatengineers tendtomakeuseofsystematicdatacollection 54 i.1.DutyfortheenginesinJohnLean’sEnginereporter(May1827–December1827. Fig. 10. Thiswasexactlythesituation inearlynineteenthcenturysteampowertechnology, 53 LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER Lean’s EngineReporter Source: CONCLUSION Lean’s EngineReporter ANDTHECORNISHENGINE Lean’s EngineReporter seems tobeanotherofthese attempts . , submittingthem bypass 183 the 52 Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 184 (expressed inlb), foot high by consumingabushelofcoal), where 1) observations usedinthecomputation.Letusconsidereachofthemseparately: bushels). Clearly,thereliabilityofdutyestimateddependedonfour strokes performedbytheengineduringmonth, The dutywascomputedusingthefollowingformula: The mainaimofthereporterswastoascertainmonthlydutyperformedbyeachengine. engineering andtotheprecociousadoptionofhigh-pressuresteam. been rathersuccessful,leadingtoaremarkableaccelerationofinnovationinCornishsteam at systematiccollectionofperformancedata.Overall,theundertakingseemstohave lated usingthevolumeofpumps. Wheal Towanengineandfoundthatitwasabout7.6per centlowerthantheonecalcu- Henwood andJohnRenniemeasuredtheactualweight ofthewaterpumpedby were carriedoutinordertomeasure downward biases)intheoverallestimationof water. Thisintroducedanupwardbias(goingintheoppositedirectionsofforegoing negligible amountofmineralsinsuspension,wasgeneralheavierthanpurespring spring water.Ofcourse,thewaterpumpedfromCornishmines,containinganon- the volumeofpumpsforaconstantthatrepresentedweightunit performed. Ontheotherhand,weightofwaterliftedwascomputedbymultiplying an overestimateoftheweightwateractuallyliftedand,asaconsequence,duty overestimated. Additionally,onehastonoticethatleakagesinthepumpsledalso happen whentheminewaswelldrainedorinperiodsoflowrainfall),dutytendedtobe with water,(theCornishtermforsuchabehaviourwas‘workinginfork’,thiscould the basisofvolumepumps.Thus,whenpumpswerenotcompletelyfilled L performance oftwoengines wascompared. inclination, etc.).Thiswas animportantfactortobetakenintoaccountwhen the circumstances ofoperation of eachsingleengine(lengththepumps,theirstate, made forfriction.Theamount offrictiontobeovertakendependedonthespecific safely beconsideredtobetween 4and10percent.Furthermore,noallowance was slightly results oftheseexperimentswasthatthe that contemporariessuchasWilliamPoleandThomas Wicksteeddrawnfromthe on theEldon’sengineatUnitedMinesfoundagapofabout 4percent. Holmbush engine,insteadfoundagapofabout13.5per cent;finally,otherexperiments APPENDIX 1:THEPERFORMANCEOFCORNISHSTEAMENGINESAS (theweightofwaterinthepumps):thiswasnotmeasured D indicatesthedutyperformedbyengine(expressedinmillionsoflbliftedone overestimatethewateractuallypumpedbyengine. Overestimationcould LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER l thelengthofstrokeinpump(expressedfeet), MEASURED IN D LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER = 55 ThomasWicksteed,duringhisexperimentonthe Lls L xx ANDTHECORNISHENGINE theloadofwatercontainedinpumps C directly 57 Reporter L . Duringthe1830s,variousexperiments C theweightofwaterlifted.William themonthlyconsumptionofcoal(in contained aninnertendencyto directly butestimatedon 56 s Theconclusion thenumberof (A1.1) Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 2) approximate 4) 3) maximum observationbeing98lbandtheminimum88 lb). 31 Cornishminesandfoundoutthattheaverageweight wasequalto92.43lb(the difference betweenactualandreportedstrokelengthdidnotexceed1percent). an experimentconductedonengineatConsolidatedMineswhichshowedthatthe between 1816and1844inthemeasurementofstrokelength.Polealsomentioned mean However, accordingtoPole(1844),thelengthofstrokeusedinreportswas and actuallengthofabout1/25,asresultedfromanexperimentcarriedoutin1816. was aboutthreeoffourinchesshorterandthisproducedadifferencebetweenreported between thepivotpointandattachmenttopumpstroke). the lengthofpistonstroke(multipliedbyproportionbeamcomprised l from thatvaluewerelikelytohaveonlyminoreffectson theestimatedduty. 1 bushel=94lbcouldbeusedrathersafelyasageneral conversion figure,discrepancies According toWilliamPole,thesecriticismswerewide ofthemark.Henotedthat against theuseofaunitvolumeratherthanweight as ameasureofthecoalinput. reports, thebushelwasformallyreckonedtobe94lb. Variouscriticismswerevoiced mating itsactualweight. compared withtheNewcastleoneandconsideredbushel equalto84lb,underesti- Henwood andTaylordidnottakeintoaccountthegreaterweightofWelshcoal Rather surprisingly,earlycommentatorsoftheCornishenginereportssuchasGilbert, Cornwall whereWelshcoalwasusedtheweightofbushelnormallyhigher. was reckonedtobe84lb.ThisafairlygoodestimateforNewcastlecoal. base ofthecylinderandatleast6incheshigh. deep. Thisvesselwastobeheapedupabovetheborderformaconewithsame volume, correspondingtoacylindricalvesselof18.8inchesdiameterand8 as resultingfromtheminingaccounts.Itisworthnotingthatbushelwasameasureof C strokes performedbyabout2.5percent. four monthsconductedin1839showedthatthecounteroverestimated thenumberof lock andthekeywasentrustedexclusivelytoenginereporter.Anexperimentof counter thatwasinstalledbythe‘reporter’.TheprotectedaBramah’s s reporter wasthe the oneactuallyperformed).AccordingtoFarey,lengthofstrokeusedin sible wayof‘cheating’(inthesensehavinganenginecreditedforahigherdutythan In fact,makingtheengineperformashorterstrokewasconsideredaseasiestpos- engineer byproperlyadjustingthetappetswhichcontrolledthatdescentofpiston. The lengthofthestrokeperformedbyenginecouldberegulatedquiteeasily the engineperformedashorterstroke,thismethodledtoanoverestimationofduty. economic in termsofbushelsprovided ameasureofengineefficiency,endowedwithdirect (more preciselybythewey,correspondingto64bushels). Hence,thedutycalculated ally, onehastonotethatinCornwall,untiltheendof1836, coalwassoldbythebushel The upshotofallthisisthat thedutyfiguresreportedaretobeconsideredas an (thelengthofthestrokeinpumps):wascalculatedonbasis (thenumberofstrokesperformed):thewasregisteredbyaspecial (thebushelsofcoalconsumed):thiswasmeasuredonthebasispurchased length. Thiscontrastingevidenceprobablyindicatesthatsomechangeoccurred LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER estimationofthefuelefficiency oftheenginesreported.However,sincemost significance. full lengthofthestrokeincylinder. 67 64 In1831,ThomasLeanmeasuredtheweightofabushel in ANDTHECORNISHENGINE 61 62 Typicallytheweightofcoalbushel 59 Theactualstrokeperformed 65 From1835intheengine 58 Accordingly,when 66 Addition- 63 Butin 60 185 Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 186 most casesfoundtocorrespondveryclosely. the onepublishedinmonthlyreporterwhenthiswasissued.Thetwomeasureswere counter underthecontrolofminecaptains.Theaveragedailydutywascomparedwith Consolidated Mines,thedutyofengineswascalculated of theengineinquestion. took caretoascertainproperlythefourobservationsnecessaryforcalculatingduty best-duty enginesorondubiouscases.Inthesetrials,anumberofindependentobservers ated. Infact,itwascommonpracticetoperformspecialtrialslastingoneortwodaysonthe influence ofspecialcircumstancesontheestimateddutycouldhavebeeneasilyindividu- of theengineswerereportedforanumberconsecutivemonths,itislikelythatpossible The parameter that theestimatedvalueshould notbetoo‘distant’fromtherestoftrend(second term). the followingfunction the originaltimeseries.Theestimationoflong-term trend( estimation ofthelongtermcomponentaseries.Assume that The Hodrick–Prescott(orWhittaker)filterisasmoothing methodwhichprovidesan of theengines,generallyregardedpublicationasprovidingreliableestimates. William Henwood,whohadfirsthandexperiencewiththemethodsusedtoreportduty observers, suchasDaviesGilbert,ThomasWicksteed,JohnFarey,WilliamPoleand convinced advocatesoftheaccuracy fairly expressedbytheprintedreports’.Taylorwaswithoutdoubtoneofmost improved soastoeconomizefuelinCornwall,andthattherateofimprovementhasbeen The overallconclusionofTaylor’spaperwasthat‘theapplicationsteamhasbeen coal expenditure.Heobserved: him alsothepossibilityofcrosscheckingvaliditydutyfigureswithreduction workers entrustedwiththeengines.Furthermore,hispositionofmineentrepreneurgave procedures noticingthatthetherewasverylittleroomforfraudbyengineersand published in in several paperswiththeaimofdispellingscepticismwhichdutyfigurespublished the range14000–16000. series. Theestimatesshown inFigures2–9wererobusttovariationsoftheparameter over trend). Inourestimationwe haveused The functionminimizesthevarianceof Lean’s EngineReporter are intheotherapparentsolidconditionofmoneysaved,andsofactgained. those savingswhichintheone[themonthlydutypapers]appearsomewhattheoreticform on toexhibit,iscorroboratedbytheunerringtestimonyofaccountbooksmines;and .whichtheperiodicalreportsofdutyhavegone . . The evidenceofprogressiveimprovement. John Taylor,oneoftheleadingminingentrepreneursinCornishdistrict,published LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER Quarterly MiningReview l APPENDIX 2:THEHODRICK–PRESCOTTFILTER controls the‘curvature’of the trend(as ∑∑ t = T 1 68 )[(() )( )] hadbeenreceivedoutsideCornwall.Inoneofthesepapers Furthermore,insomeofthelargestminingventures,suchas xxxxx x x xx tt +--- -+ 2 , Taylorprovidedadetailedaccountofthereporting l l t x = T = Lean’s Reporter t 2 around 14400 asisconventionalfor monthlyeconomic ANDTHECORNISHENGINE 69 tt + 1 x r t (firstterm)subjectedtotheconstraint . Othercompetentcontemporary tt l DA x - r daily 1 t ) isobtainedbyminimizing x 2 t 2 (with , usinganotherstrokes x r t approachesalinear t = ,...... 1,2. 70 (A2.1) T ) is Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 3 CarnotS. 13. Overtime,anumberofminorchangeswereintroduced inthetablesof 12. Thefirstthreereportswerepublishedonthe 11. Lean(I),T.andbrother 10. 5 Cardwell,D.S.L. 15. Ibid,introductionbyR.Fox. 14. 6 vonTunzelmann, G.N. 16. 7 ThesourcesforFigure1areasfollows:1769, 1772,1776,1778fromLean,op.cit.(10); 17. .Jenkins,R.‘JonathanHornblowerandtheCompoundEngine’, 9. Dickinson,H.W.andJenkins, R. 8. Tann,J.‘Richesfrom Copper:theAdoptionofBoulton&WattEnginebyCornishMine 3. Nuvolari 2. .Barton,D.B. 4. .Todd,A.C. 7. Ibid.pp.90–95;seealsoTorrens,H.‘NewLightontheHornblowerandWinwoodCompound 6. Rowe,W.J. 5. Kanefsky,J.W. 1. measure thecoalinputincalculationofduty1856. significant isperhapsthepassagefrombusheltoimperial hundredweight(112lb)to various reportscompiledbytheLeanfamilysimplyas over time.Inthispaper,forsakeofconvenience,weshallfollow thetraditionofreferringto various compilersofsteamenginereportsinCornwall.Alsothe nameofthepublicationchanged Mr. LeanandtheEngineReporters for theperiod1847–1897.Thefinalyears1897–1904werecoveredbyJ.C.Keast.SeeHoward,B. tion withhisbrotherJoel(II).Afterthat,ThomasII(ThomasI’sson)tookchargeofthereporter 1831–1837 wascoveredbyThomasIaloneandtheperiod1837–1847incollabora- 1812–1827. Intheperiod1827–1831,twobrotherscompiledseparatereports.The After hisdeath,thereporterwascontinuedbytwosonsThomas(I)andJohnforyears Engine Reporter David &Charles,NewtonAbbot1971,p.91. also Farey,J. the SteamEnginesinCornwall Society 11 p. 305. Adventurers’, technology duringtheeighteenthcentury. assessment ofthevarious‘drivers’diffusionprocess. and theKnowledge-BasedEconomy Eighteenth CenturyBritain’inPyka,A.andHanusch,H.(eds.), Nuvolari, A.,Verspagen,B.andG.N.vonTunzelmann,‘TheDiffusionoftheSteamEnginein University ofExeter1979givesageneralaccountthediffusionsteampowertechnology. pressure enginescouldhaveavoided theuseofseparatecondenser. Steam Engine pp. 208–209).Moreprosaically,Hills,R.L. Steam Engine’, pp. 71–72andp.76Tannop.cit. Reflections ontheMotivePowerofFire 1978, p.263. 1786, 1792,fromDickinson,H. W.andJenkins,R.,op.cit.(8);1798fromGilbert,D.‘On the LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER et al. 1930–1 pp.138–155. Reflexions surla PuissanceMotriceduFeu Beyond theBlaze:ABiographyofDaviesGilbert CambridgeUniversityPress1989p.97suggeststhatWattwas alsoawarethathigh Cornwall intheAgeofIndustrialRevolution The CornishBeamEngine Transactions oftheNewcomenSociety67 A TreatiseontheSteamEngine,Historical,PracticalandDescriptiveVolumeII op.cit.describestherelationshipbetweencoalpricesanddiffusionofsteam Journal oftheTrevithickSociety9 appearedasanindependentpublication.JoelLeandiedinSeptember1812. The DiffusionofPowerTechnologyinBritishIndustry,1760–1870 The FontanaHistoryofTechnology Historical StatementoftheImprovementsmadeinDutyPerformedby Steam PowerandBritishIndustrialization to1860 NOTES ANDREFERENCES London 1839 Trevithick SocietyPenryn2002forbiographicaldetailsofthe James WattandtheSteamEngine Cheltenham,EdwardElgar2006pp.166–197providesan , ManchesterUniversityPress,1986,p.104. D.B.Barton,Truro1965,p.31. ANDTHECORNISHENGINE

West Briton gives anaccountoftheoriginsreporter;see Power fromSteam.AHistoryoftheStationary 1982pp.21–41. Harper,London1994.pp.166–167and Lean’s EngineReporter. 1995–6, pp.27–51. 1824 (EnglishtranslationbyR.Fox, , alocalnewspaper.From1812 D.B.Barton,Truro1967p.94. LiverpoolUniversityPress1953 Applied EvolutionaryEconomics Transactions oftheNewcomen Clarendon,Oxford1927 Reporter Clarendon Oxford PhDThesis . Themost Lean’s

1779, 187 Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 188 6 Howardop.cit.pp.69–75. 46. Tilloch,A.‘SomeObservationsonSteamEngines;withaTableofWorkdonebyCertain 42. Howard,B. 41. 5 Burt,R. 45. Howardop.cit.p.31. 44. Barton1965 op.cit.p.47. 43. CardwellD.S.L., 40. Farey op.cit.p.85. 39. Leaksinthepumps,amountingtoareducedloadcould,atleast,potentiallyalsohavepositive 38. Fareyop.cit.p.85. 37. Ibid.p.85alsosuggeststhat‘inthisperiodofratherprimitivelubricants’aninitialphase 36. Fareyop.cit.p.211;seealsovonTunzelmann,G.N.‘TechnologicalDiffusionduring 35. Poleop.cit.(29),p.137. 34. Ibid.pp.57–58. 33. Barton,1965op.cit.p.49. 32. Leanop.cit.p.100. 31. Barton,1965op.cit.pp.46–47. 30. Pole,W. 29. Ibid.pp.186–189andBarton1965op.cit.39–40. 28. Farey,op.cit.p.102. 27. Barton1965op.cit.p.142. 26. Harrisop.cit.pp.59–60. 25. Hills,R.L.(15)op.cit.p.131. 24. Harris,T.R. 23. Ibid.p.123. 22. Ibid.p.96. 21. Farey,Jop.cit.(10)p.200. 20. ThefiguresforthedutyofCornishenginesreportedinFigures2–10havebeentakenfrom 19. 8 Barton,D.B. 18. gives ausefulsketchofJohnTaylor’s life. Magazine 46 Engines inCornwall,fromAugust1811toMay1815,both Monthsinclusive’, pressure hadtobereducedavoidtherisksofbreakdowns. effect onduty.However,inmostcases,thedeteriorationof pitworkalsomeantthatsteam smooth. operation wasnecessaryinordertopermitirregularrubbing surfacestowearthemselves The IndustrialRevolution the IndustrialRevolution:CaseofCornishPumpingEngine’inHartwell,R.M.(ed.), Library inLondon. ing thefiguresfromcollectionof (Cornwall Centre),Redruth,UK.Wehaveintegratedsomemissingorunreadablepages,retriev- almost completecollectionof Barton, D.B.op.cit(4). and ascomparedtoothers’, Mechanical Engineers26 ‘On theapplicationofportableenginesforminingpurposes’, tions oftheRoyalSocietyLondon120 tions ofthemethodsbestadaptedforimpartinggreatangularvelocities’, progressive improvementsmadebytheefficiencyofsteamenginesinCornwallwithinvestiga- foot-pounds liftedperconsumptionofabushelcoal(94lb). Note thatallfiguresinFigure1areexpressedusingadefinitionofdutyasmillions LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER John Taylor,MiningEntrepreneur andEngineer,1779–1863 A TreatiseontheCornishPumpingEngine Mr. LeanandtheEngineReporters 1815pp.116–120. Arthur Woolf,theCornishEngineer A HistoryofCopperMininginCornwallandDevon From WatttoClausius 1873; Trestrail,N.‘ThedutyofCornishpumpingengines,past,present Blackwell Oxford1970pp.85–86. Transactions oftheFederatedInstitutionMiningEngineers5 Lean’s EngineReporter Lean’s EngineReporter 1830; 1811–1872,LeanII,‘Comment’onJ.Richardson , Heinemann,London1971,p.156. ANDTHECORNISHENGINE Trevithick Society,Penryn2002. , 1766–1837 London1844pp.58–59. conservedintheCornishStudiesLibrary D.B.Barton,Truro1966p.88. conserved intheScienceMuseum Proceedings oftheInstitution D. B.Barton,Truro1961and Moorland,Hartington1977 Philosophical Transac- Philosophical 1896. Published by & (c) The Newcomen Society 9 Fareyop.cit. 59. VonTunzelmannop.cit.p.81. 58. Wicksteed,T.‘On theEffectivePowerofHigh-PressureExpansiveCondensingEngines 57. Poleop.cit.p.154. 56. 4 Howard, B.‘WastheBushel84lbs.or94lbs.?’ 64. Ibid.p.337. 63. Fareyop.cit.p.181. 62. VonTunzelmannop.cit.p.81. 61. Poleop.cit. 60. 9 Taylor,J.‘OntheDutyofSteamEngines’, 69. See,forexample,Leanop.cit.(10),pp.57–62. 68. vonTunzelmann op.cit.p.82. 67. Poleop.cit. 66. Fareyop.cit.p.232. InthesameyearWilliamHenwoodmeasuredweightofbushelatthree 65. 8 Henwood,W.J.‘Presidentialaddress’, 48. 5 Henwood, W.J.‘OntheExpansiveActionofSteaminSomePumpingEngineson 55. Vincenti,W.G. 54. Howardop.cit.pp.56–58. 53. Barton,1965 op.cit.pp.54–57. 52. Leanop.cit.(10),pp.57–62. 51. Poleop.cit.(29),pp.46–47. 50. Sims,J.‘RiseandProgressoftheCornishSteamEngine’, 49. Gilbert,D.‘OntheExpediencyofAssigningSpecificNamestoAllsuchFunctionsSimple 47. 0 Taylor,J.op.cit.,pp.51–52. 70. p. 121. in UseatSomeoftheCornishMines’, was 87.1lbs. weight ofthebushel.Whencoalsweredriedaveragebushelinthreemines mines andfoundanaverageof93.6lbs.Thedegreewetnessthecoalalsoinfluenced pp.123–128. Cornish Mines’, (1871–1873). 117 Observations ontheSteamEngine’, Mechanics; IllustratedbyanInvestigationofaMachineMovedRecoil,andalsoSome Elements asRepresentDefinitePhysicalProperties;withtheSuggestionofaNewTermin great stimulustotheeconomy in workingoftheengine.’ give apremiumtotheengineers accordingtoitsamount.Thisiscalledmillion-moneyand isa mines acertainamountofdutyisassignedtoeachengine;and ifitdoesmore,theproprietors weeks beforeitcouldbediscoveredbyafallingoffoftheduty oftheengine.Inseveral stoppage intheflueofanyboilers,itmightwithoutthis dailycheckcontinuetwoorthree of theirengines.Asthegeneralreportsaremademonthly, if accidentshouldcauseapartial fixed upataparticularhour,andtheengine-menarealwaysin waiting,anxioustoknowthestate good economytoemployamanmeasurethedutytheyperform everyday.Thisdailyreportis great thattheproprietorsofonelargestmines,onwhich thereareseveralengines,findit ‘The advantagearisingfromregisteringthedutydonebysteam-engines inCornwallhasbeenso Machinery andManufacturing Babbage alsomentionedthesystemofdailyassessment dutyinhis Aeronautical History 1827pp.25–38. LEAN’S ENGINEREPORTER

p. 153. p. 155.

vol II. Transactions oftheInstitutionCivilEngineers2 What EngineersKnowandHowTheyIt.AnalyticalStudiesfrom JohnHopkinsUniversityPressBaltimore1990. (Kelley NewYork1971reprintof1835originalpp.284–285): Philosophical TransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyLondon Transactions oftheInstitutionCivilEngineers2 Quarterly MiningReview5 ANDTHECORNISHENGINE Journal oftheRoyalInstitutionCornwall4 Journal oftheTrevithickSociety29 Mining Almanack 1838p.58. 1831 pp.54–55.Charles On theEconomyof 1849 pp.170–175. , 1838 2002 189