Meeting of the Network for Neotropical Biogeography 4th Program and Abstracts

PANAMA - January 14-17, 2015

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Program 4th Meeting of the Network for Neotropical Biogeography NNB4

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute 14-17 January, 2015

This meeting is being hosted by the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI), and financially supported by the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Indicasat and the Florida Museum of Natural History/University of Florida.

Organizers Liliana Londoño and Carlos Jaramillo, STRI

PANAMA CHANGED THE WORLD! The Isthmus of Panama emerged from the sea millions of years ago, joining two continents and producing one of the largest vicariance events in Earth’s history: the Great American Biotic Interchange (GABI). At that time, marine populations were separated while terrestrial plants and animals underwent massive migrations between North and South America, dramatically changing the Earth. The rise of the isthmus also impacted atmospheric and oceanic circulation, including substantial changes in Atlantic and Caribbean salinity.

There is no better place to have a symposium on Neotropical Biogeography!

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NETWORK FOR NEOTROPICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY

Tropical America – the Neotropics – is the most species-rich region on Earth. Understanding the mechanisms underlying the historical assembly and evolution of this extreme biodiversity constitutes a major challenge in biology, and will require hitherto unrealized inter- disciplinary scientific collaboration.

The primary goals of this network are to:

• Promote scientific interaction • Stimulate the exchange of material, students and researchers • Increase inter-disciplinarity between different fields • Discuss and plan joint projects and grant applications • Stimulate collaborative field work and reciprocal help with field collection of research material • Inform on upcoming events, recent papers and other relevant material

The NNB was created in 2011 and has been increasing every year, with previous meetings in Germany, USA and Colombia.

• The NNB was established during a symposium at the BioSystematics conference in Berlin, in February 2011. • The second meeting was held at the Montgomery Botanical Center, Coral Gables, Miami, Florida, USA, in January 2013. • The third meeting was held at Universidad de los Andes, in January 2014

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NNB4 Meeting Program Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panamá 2015

Wednesday Jan. 14 Thursday Jan. 15 Friday Jan. 16 Saturday Jan. 17 8:30 Registration

Departure for Field 8:50 - 9:00 Introductory Remarks

Trips 9:00 - 9:30 Mark Torchin 9:00 - 9:30 Ben Turner 6:00 1. Barro Colorado Island 2. Canopy Crane Camilo Montes Pierre Sepulchre 3. Panama Canal. 9:30 - 9:45 9:30 - 9:45 David Buchs Christine Bacon 9:45 - 10:00 9:45 - 10:00 8:30 Registration Opens Coffee Break Coffee Break 10:00 - 10:30 10:00 - 10:30 Juan S. Tello 10:30 - 10:45 Cristina Robins 10:30 - 10:45 Rebecca Buckman 10:45 - 11:00 10:45 - 11:00 María C. Gómez-Gutiérrez Ángela Cano 11:00 - 11:15 Ryan Haupt 11:00 - 11:15 Camilo Zalamea Workshop 11:15 - 11:30 Ingrid Romero 11:15 - 11:30

11:30 - 11:45 Mónica Carlsen 11:30 - 11:45 Héctor Arita 9:00 Analysis and 11:45 - 13:00 Lunch 11:45 - 13:00 Lunch visualization of spatial Field Trips data with R 1. Barro Colorado Island 13:00 - 13:15 Camila Martínez 13:00 - 13:15 Bruce MacFadden 6:00 - 14:00 (BCI) 2. Canopy Crane 13:15 - 13:30 Luis F. Hinojosa 13:15 - 13:30 Nathan Jud PNM. 3. Panama Canal

13:30 - 13:45 Gary Morgan 13:30 - 13:45 John Ortiz

13:45 - 14:00 Douglas Jones 13:45 - 14:00 Alexander Zizka

14:00 - 14:15 Brett Wolfe 14:00 - 14:15 Leonardo Avilla Return from Field Trips 1. Barro Colorado 14:15 - 14:45 Coffee break 14:15 - 14:45 Coffee break/Poster Session 14:00 Island 2. Canopy Crane 14:45 - 15:00 14:45 - 15:00 3. Panamá Canal Philip Ward Julia Tejada

15:00 - 15:15 Dimila Mothe 15:00 - 15:15 Hans ter Steege

15:15 - 15:30 Victor J. Pérez 15:15-15:45 Aldo Rincón 17:00 Workshop ends

15:30 – 15:45 Laura Lagomarsino 15:45-16:00 Departure to Punta Culebra Brian E. Sedio Inaugural Cocktail 15:45-16:15 Closing BBQ 17:30 - 19:00 Tupper Conference 16:00:18:00 16:15 - 17:30 Coffee Break/Poster Session Punta Culebra Hall

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Wednesday, January 14, 2015

6:00 Departure for Field Trips 1. Barro Colorado Island (BCI) 2. Canopy Crane PNM 3. Panamá Canal

8:30 Registration

9:00 Workshop. Analysis and visualization of spatial data with R.

14:00 Return from Field Trips 1. Barro Colorado Island (BCI) 2. Canopy Crane PNM 3. Panamá Canal

17:00 Workshop ends

17:30-19:00 Inaugural Cocktail. Tupper Conference Hall

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Wednesday, January 14, 2015

Field Trips

Field Trip 1. Lowland moist tropical forests: Barro Colorado Island (BCI)

6:00 Depart “Hyatt Place Panama City/Downtown Hotel” to STRI dock in Gamboa

7:15 Boat departs dock to Barro Colorado Island

8:00 Arrive Barro Colorado: Breakfast

9:00 Walk in the forest

12:00 Lunch at BCI Visitors Center

13:00 Water Taxi departs BCI to the mainland town of Gamboa

13:45 Arrive Gamboa and back to the Hotel

Field Trip 2. Seasonally dry forest: Tour to jump on the Canopy Crane PNM

6:45 Depart “Hyatt Place Panama City/Downtown Hotel” to Parque Natural Metropolitano (PNM)

7:15 Arrive to Metropolitan Park.

10:30 Back to the hotel

Field Trip 3. Geology and Paleontology of the Panama Canal

6:30 Depart "Hyatt Place Panama City/Downtown Hotel"

7:15 Arrive at Panama Canal guardhouse near Puente Centenario

7:40 Las Cascadas Quarry

9:00 Culebra Formation

10:30 Hodges Hill

12:00 Zion Hill Overlook

12:30 Return to hotel.

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Wednesday, January 14, 2015

Workshop

The workshop will introduce you to some basic analytical and graphical techniques for spatial data using the programming language R.

Morning session: GIS mapping in R (Types of spatial data and packages that allow specialized visualization, manipulation and analysis of spatial data).

Afternoon session: Graphics with spatial point patterns and krigging interpolation (graphics: 2D, 3D and contours)

Datasets will be provided, but the participants are encouraged to bring their own data as well.

§ Requirements

Participants should be familiar with R: manipulating dataframes and graphing.

§ Software required 1. You must have R base package installed 2. RStudio, or other programming editor such as Geany, Notepad++, Gedit, Vim or Notepad++ (NOT Wordpad NOT Notepad).

§ Optional

Bring any shape files (ArcView format) that you are interested in graphing

Bring your point pattern data (spatial data in x,y coordinates or in x,y,z coordinates)

Workshop will be led by John Ortiz (Institute for Geoinformatics - University of Münster, Germany and Corporación Geológica Ares)

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Thursday, January 15, 2015

8:50-9:00 Introductory remarks

9:00-9:30 Mark Torchin. Asymmetry of marine invasions across latitude and oceans: exploring the mechanisms

9:30-9:45 Camilo Montes. New paleogeographic model for the closure of the Isthmus of Panama

9:45-10:00 David Buchs. Tectono-magmatic processes in the central eastern Pacific region and implications for the Cretaceous to present inter-American paleogeography

10:00-10:30 Coffee Break

10:30-10:45 Cristina Robins. Population study of Palaeopinnixa sp. (Decapoda: Hexapodidae) from the Culebra Formation of the Early Miocene Panama Canal Basin 10:45-11:00 Rebecca Buckman. Caribbean Biogeography of Velvet worms (Phylum Onychophora)

11:00-11:15 Ryan Haupt. Potential record of a Panamanian Miocene fossil crocodylian nesting ground at Hodge's Hill Microsite

11:15-11:30 Ingrid Romero. Dispersed pollen of Spirosyncolpites spiralis: Modern affinity, biogeography and ecological implications

11:30-11:45 Mónica Carlsen. Anthurium (Araceae) through time and space: when?, where? and how fast?

11:45-13:00 Lunch

13:00-13:15 Camila Martínez. A Late Cretaceous Piper (Piperaceae) from Colombia and diversification patterns for the genus

13:15-13:30 Luis F. Hinojosa. Into the tropics Hypothesis: from Temperate Gondwana to Tropical Latitudes

13:30-13:45 Gary Morgan. Oligocene And Miocene Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) from Florida and Panama, and the Origins of the Neotropical Chiropteran Fauna

13:45-14:00 Douglas Jones. Fossil invertebrates and Sr-isotope age estimate for the Alajuela Formation, central Panama

14:00-14:15 Brett Wolfe. Does deciduousness protect tropical trees from drought stress?

14:15-14:45 Coffee Break

14:45-15:00 Philip Ward. The acacia-ants revisited: the evolutionary history of a classic ant-plant mutualism

15:00-15:15 Dimila Mothe. Phylogeny and Historical Biogeography of trilophodont gomphotheres (Mammalia: Proboscidea: Gomphotheriidae)

15:15-15:30 Victor J. Pérez. Sharks (Chondrichthyes) of the Chucunaque Formation of Lake Bayano and their Biogeographic Implications

15:30-15:45 Laura Lagomarsino. Both abiotic and biotic factors drive explosive plant diversification in the Andes

15:45-16:15 Brian E. Sedio. Fine-scale niche structure of Neotropical forests reflects a legacy of the Great American Biotic Interchange

16:15-17:30 Coffee Break/ Poster Session 7

Friday, January 16, 2015

9:00-9:30 Ben Turner. Soil phosphorus and the ecology of lowland tropical forests

9:30-9:45 Pierre Sepulchre. Links between tectonics, climate and evolution throughout the Cenozoic

9:45-10:00 Christine Bacon. Biome evolution in Iriarteeae palms

10:00-10:30 Coffee Break

10:30-10:45 Juan S. Tello. The evolutionary and ecological assembly of a tropical flora along an elevational gradient in the Andes

10:45-11:00 María C. Gómez-Gutiérrez. Evolution in the high-altitude Paramo ecosystem

11:00-11:15 Ángela Cano. Calibrated phylogeny of the Neotropical Thatch Palms reveals Eocene dispersal from North into South America

11:15-11:30 Camilo Zalamea. Seedling responses to phosphorus predict regional distributions of tropical trees

11:30-11:45 Héctor Arita. Higher taxon diversity and the diversification of Neotropical mammals

11:45-13:00 Lunch

13:00-13:15 Bruce MacFadden. Late Miocene vertebrates from Lake Alajuela, Panama

13:15-13:30 Nathan Jud. Paleobiogeographic implications of Parinari (Chrysobalanaceae) fossils from the early Miocene of Panamá

13:30-13:45 John Ortiz. Open Source tools for Geographical Analyses

13:45-14:00 Alexander Zizka. Contrasting African vs South American biodiversity: An eco-evolutionary approach

14:00-14:15 Leonardo Avilla. The Systematics of the Hippidiformes (Equidae: Perissodactyla: Mammalia)

14:15-14:45 Coffee Break/ Poster Session

14:45-15:00 Julia Tejada. Pebas, Acre, and Parana systems: connecting the dots to elucidate mammalian biogeographic patterns in the Miocene of South America

15:00-15:15 Hans ter Steege. Are all species necessary to reveal ecologically important patterns?

15:15-15:45 Aldo Rincón. Miocene Terrestrial Mammalian Biogeography of Southern Central America

15:45-16:00 Departure to Punta Culebra Nature Center

16:00-18:00 Closing BBQ at Punta Culebra Nature Center

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Saturday, January 17, 2015

Field Trips

Field Trip 1. Lowland moist tropical forests: Barro Colorado Island (BCI)

6:00 Depart “Hyatt Place Panama City/Downtown Hotel” to STRI dock in Gamboa

7:15 Boat departs dock to Barro Colorado Island

8:00 Arrive Barro Colorado: Breakfast

9:00 Walk in the forest

12:00 Lunch at BCI Visitors Center

13:00 Water Taxi departs BCI to the mainland town of Gamboa

13:45 Arrive Gamboa and back to the Hotel

Field Trip 2. Seasonally dry forest: Tour to jump on the Canopy Crane PNM

6:45 Depart “Hyatt Place Panama City/Downtown Hotel” to Parque Natural Metropolitano (PNM)

7:15 Arrive to Metropolitan Park.

10:30 Back to the hotel

Field Trip 3. Geology and Paleontology of the Panama Canal

6:30 Depart "Hyatt Place Panama City/Downtown Hotel"

7:15 Arrive at Panama Canal guardhouse near Puente Centenario

7:40 Las Cascadas Quarry

9:00 Culebra Formation

10:30 Hodges Hill

12:00 Zion Hill Overlook

12:30 Return to hotel.

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ABSTRACTS

Arita, Hector; Vargas-Baron J Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México (UNAM)

Higher taxon diversity and the diversification of Neotropical mammals

The Neotropical region harbors one of the most diverse mammalian faunas of the world, and this diversity is reflected in the very high species richness of the individual countries of the New World. Here we compare the diversity of higher taxa of the countries of the Americas and of other regions of the world seeking patterns that could reflect diversification processes at different temporal scales. We developed a model that allowed us to partition species richness into components measuring the relative contribution of species diversity among genera, genus diversity among families, and so on. We confirmed that countries of the New World are among the richest in mammalian species (eight of the first 20 countries ranked by non-volant mammal richness and 13 of the first 20 countries by chiropteran richness). For non-volant mammals, species richness of fully Neotropical countries is explained mostly by genus richness, but in the case of Mexico, diversity of species among genera has a stronger effect. In the Old World, diversity is driven primarily by diversity of families among orders (Asia) or by order richness (Africa). In the case of bats, Neotropical countries are clearly the richest, but a major component of this richness is the diversity of genera among families, whereas most Old World faunas show high diversity of species among genera. Overall, the New World shows a comparatively low taxonomic diversity (measured with Clarke and Warwick's delta+), but individual countries of the continent, particularly the Neotropical ones, have taxonomic diversities that exceed expected values.

All these results suggest different diversification processes for bats and non-volant mammals in different regions of the world. In the Neotropics, the very high diversity of non-volant mammals is probably the result of relatively recent events, such as the Great American Biotic Interchange (GABI), that have produced an impressive diversity of species among g enera and, to a lesser extent, of genera among families. In the Old World, particularly in Africa, mammalian diversity is explained mostly by the diversification of higher taxa (families and orders), suggesting the primary role of older processes. For bats, the high genus richness in the Neotropics and the geographical distribution of diversity suggest that processes occurring before the onset of the GABI might have a stronger contribution to today's patterns of diversity.

Keywords: Diversity; Higher taxa; Mammals; Neotropics

Armesto, Luis O.; Señaris JC Grupo de Investigación en Ecología y Biogeografía (GIEB), Universidad de Pamplona, Pamplona, Colombia; Centro de Ecología, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, Venezuela

Biogeographic patterns of frogs and toads in northern Andes

The uplift of the Andes is considered as most influential geological event in the diversification of the South American tropical biota. We present an updated list of species of the northern Andes, and describe and analyze historical and contemporary factors proposed to explain current biogeographic patterns of anurans in this Andean subregion. For this, we reviewed lists of species from Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela, and literature on biogeographic hypotheses of the most representative families in this region. We found that the northern Andes harbor 720 species of anurans, being families Craugastoridae (325 spp.), Dendrobatidae (102 spp.), Bufonidae (89 spp.), Centrolenidae (76 spp.) e Hylidae (71 spp.) the most numerous. 10

Attitudinally, most species richness is concentrated between 1000 and 2000 m, and the Cordillera Central de Colombia has most species richness (194 spp.). Most species is endemic to the northern Andean, but none family is exclusive to the norther n Andes. The historical biogeography has played an important role in determining these patterns, being geological history of the Andes the main cause of the current distribution of species of frogs and toads. We found that species richness correlated with area size of mountain ranges. Similarly, climatic and reproductive factors are also determining in distribution of the anurofauna in this region. Although temperature is not clearly established as an influential factor, recently was found a strong relationship between environment and amphibian richness. Also, pH of water and the availability of O2 are considered as other factors that should be studied. There are clades that have been able to retain their ancestral niche, influencing on current distribution patterns, but it only has been analyzed in few taxa from northern Andes.

Keywords: Cordillera de los Andes, anurans, historical biogeography, species richness

Ávila, Fabio Jardín Botánico de Bogotá, Colombia

Conservation Biogeography Approach to Preserve Plants on Ex Situ Conditions

One of the approaches of conservation biogeography involves assigning conservation priorities, which includes ecological and evolutionary processes. Bogota Botanic Garden preserves about three thousand species of Neotropical Plants but biogeographical efforts had not been employed to enrich live plant collections. Nowadays, Botanic Garden of Bogotá is leading a innovative research called “Nodos de Biodiversidad [Biodiversity nodes]” focused on social assumption and application of knowledge in plants diversity. A primary goal is to preserve plants on ex situ conditions regarding to the main natural areas of Colombia: Pacific swamps, Caribbean Coast dry forest, Guayana outcrops, and cloudy forests. Selection of priorized groups will belong to those groups which are most diverse in the country: i.e. Asteraceae, Melastomataceae and Rubiaceae. Every group is analyzed according to the most recent and well supported phylogeny and hence include a potential wide range of phyllogenetic diversity.

Avilla, Leonardo S.; Mothe D Laboratório de Mastozoologia, Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil, Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade Neotropical, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil; 3 Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Zoologia), Museu Nacional/UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil.

The Systematics of the Hippidiformes (Equidae: Perissodactyla: Mammalia)

The validity and diversity of Hippidiformes have been highly debated issues. Traditionally, two genera and four species are recognized: Hippidion principale, H. saldiasi, Onohippiddium devillei and O. galushai. The first three species are considered endemic to the Pleistocene of South America (SALMA Ensenadean to Lujanean), while O. galushai is exclusive to the early Pliocene (NALMA Hemphillian) of North America. Moreover, some fossils from the late Miocene to early Pleistocene of North America are assigned as Hippidion sp. In order to conduct a systematic revision of Hippidiformes, we analyzed specimens from American and European collections. Taxonomic results are as follows: 1) the type-species of Onohippidium, O. munizi, is junior synonym of Hippidion principale based mainly on the morphological variability of the Dorsal Preorbital Fossae (DPOF) within Hippidiformes. 11

Therefore, O. devillei and O. galushai should be included in Hippidion; 2) there is no diagnostic feature that distinguishes H. principale from H. devillei. Thus, the only valid species of Hippidion in South America are H. principale and H. saldiasi; and 3) “Hippidion” galushai presents unique features on its rostral area when compared to Hippidion, so we will propose a new genus for “Hippidion” galushai. The phylogenetic analysis produced a matrix with 30 homologies and 26 taxa. The outgroup comprises Parahippus leonensis and Merychippus primus, and the ingroup includes several Equini (Hippidiformes, “Dinohippus”, Astrohippus and American and extant Equus). Two most parsimonious trees were obtained through the TNT software on the implied weighting and the new technology search options. The group Hippidiformes is monophyletic and sister-group of a clade including both paraphyletic Dinohippus, Central/North American Equus, Astrohippus, and the monophyletic South American Equus. Apparently, Hippidiformes appeared during the Late Miocene of North America, when probably both Hippidion and “Onohippidium” galushai got diversified. Although this lineage was already extinct in North America by the middle Pleistocene, Hippidion has dispersed to South America during the Great American Biotic Interchange. The diversification of Hippidiformes in South America resulted in two species: H. principale, which dispersed throughout the South American lowlands; and, H. saldiasi, that was restricted to the Pacific side of Southern Andes. Both species became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene.

Keywords: Diversity; Phylogeny; Biogeography; Equidae

Bacon, Christine D.; Velásquez-Puentes FJ.; Antonelli A University of Gotheburg, Sweden

Biome evolution in Iriarteeae palms

Iriarteeae comprise five genera and 32 species and includes keystone species essential for forest structure and ecological assembly such as Iriartea deltoidea and Socratea exorrhiza. The tribe is found in lowland to mid-elevation forests from Nicaragua to Bolivia and from the Pacific coast of South America to the eastern flanks of the Andes and east into the Guiana Shield. The phylogeny of Iriarteeae was inferred using 93% of sampled species represented by two or more individuals for 11 loci (5 chloroplast and 6 nuclear). To understand biome evolution species were classified in two ways: 1) as distributed in three broad biogeographic regions (Chocó, Andes, and Amazon) and 2) as highland or lowland species. These approaches allow us to avoid the difficulty in inferring biogeographic areas that are recently evolved and/or have a complex geological history. The pattern of lineage diversification corresponds to the geological periods of Andean orogeny and the formation of the Amazon basin. Diversification rates were higher in the Andes than in the Chocó and Amazon, and higher in the highlands compared to the lowlands. Furthermore, dispersal rates from the highlands to the lowlands were inferred to be much higher than vice versa. As expected, the rapid Andean radiation exhibited phylogenetic clustering, but interestingly, the high dispersal out of the highlands is detected in the randomness of the phylogenetic community in the lowlands. A lack of a pattern in the Choco was unexpected because of its putatively ancient Iriarteeae lineages and unique environmental niche. Andean taxa are important elements of the Amazonian community, even if they did colonize recently, which is potentially indicative of niche filling and competitive exclusion in the highlands.

Keywords: Amazon; Andes; Arecaceae; diversification; Palmae

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Buchs, David School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Cardiff University, UK

Tectono-magmatic processes in the central eastern Pacific region and implications for the Cretaceous to present inter-American paleogeography

The formation of the Panama Isthmus and associated biological, oceanographic and climatic changes are intrinsically linked to the formation and tectonic evolution of the south Central America volcanic arc. The collision of this arc with South America is generally regarded as the main reason for the Isthmus emergence. However, geological constraints in Costa Rica and Panama show that the arc has been one of the most prominent topographic features in the inter-American region for the past ~75 m.y. The arc started to form due to subduction initiation along the southwestern margin of the Caribbean Plate, and was associated with the emergence of volcanic edifices as early as the Late Campanian. Subsequent local and regional uplifts occurred in response to the collision and accretion of seamounts that formed in the eastern Pacific before drifting towards the Central American subduction zone. Accreted seamounts document the existence of east Pacific islands and, possibly, the Galapagos Archipelago at least since the Middle Eocene. The morphological evolution of the early south Central America volcanic arc could have also been influenced by the break-up of the Farallon Plate and large scale changes of plate tectonics in the Pacific, as increasingly supported by on-going investigation. Preceding observations show that tectono-magmatic, intra-oceanic processes played a first order control on the paleogeographic evolution of the inter-American and eastern Pacific regions, and that collision of the south Central America volcanic arc with South America was only one of many tectonic processes resulting in the formation of the Panama Isthmus.

Keywords: Subduction Zone; Plate Tectonics; Volcanism; Collision; Seamounts

Buckman, Rebecca; Giribet, G Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Museum of Comparative Biology, Harvard University

Caribbean Biogeography of Velvet worms (Phylum Onychophora)

Onychophora is an enigmatic, yet very charismatic invertebrate phylum commonly known as velvet worms. Velvet worms all around the world are morphologically homogeneous with their long cylindrical bodies, high number of legs and velvety appearance of their skin. Their low vagility, susceptibility to desiccation and habitat specificity make velvet worms a prime candidate for biogeographic studies. One of the two onychophoran families, Peripatidae, is distributed throughout the neotropics and encompasses 75 species. Only seven of those species are known from about side of the New World tropics. Preliminary phylogenetic analysis of 38 peripatid species for 4 genetic loci (COI, 12S, 16S, and 18S) shows that New World species are a monophyletic group. Within the New World clade, Caribbean species are paraphyletic suggesting multiple colonizations to the islands. Across continental species there also are no geographically associated clades. Much work is still needed to adequately test biogeographic hypotheses and work is ongoing to discover patterns of Caribbean species and the implications for biogeography.

Keywords: Caribbean; phylogenetics; invertebrates

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Cano, Ángela; Stauffer F; Bernal R; Galeano G; Perret M University of Geneva and Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève; Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia; Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia; University of Geneva and Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève

Calibrated phylogeny of the Neotropical Thatch Palms reveals Eocene dispersal from North into South America

The sister palm tribes Cryosophileae and Sabaleae (Arecaceae: Coryphoideae), known as the Neotropical Thatch Palms (NTP), are currently endemic to the Neotropics, although fossil records indicate their presence in Europe until late Miocene. These two tribes apparently share common biogeographic histories. However, Cryosophileae comprises 11 genera and 42 species occurring from Southern North America to subtropical Argentina, with a diversity centre in the West Indies, whereas Sabaleae is composed by a single genus (Sabal) and 16 species restricted to Southern North America, Central America and the West Indies. To understand the causes of differences in geographic distribution and species richness between these two lineages, we reconstructed their phylogenetic tree including 83% of their species, and calibrated it using fossilized palm leaves and seeds. We applied maximum likelihood analyses of geographic range evolution, which showed a Laurasian origin for the NTP a nd an early divergence between Sabaleae and Cryosophileae during the late Cretaceous, in agreement with the boreotropical hypotheses for the group. Presence of Cryosophileae in South America is best explained by an ancient (Eocene) dispersal from North-Central America prior colonization of the West Indies. Diversification of these South American lineages in tropical rainforest was limited, associated with East-West Andean vicariances during the late Miocene, which created disjunct distributions on both sides of the Andes in Amazonia (Chelyocarpus, Itaya), Chocó (Sabinaria) and southern Chaco (Trithrinax). On the other hand, diversification of Cryosophileae occurred at a higher rate in the West Indies resulting in four genera, including the species-rich genus Coccothrinax, which co-occur with Sabal in dry and rocky coastal habitats. These results suggest that a better dispersal capacity of Cryosophileae, together with Andean orogeny, have favored the wider geographic and ecol ogical ranges of this clade compared to Sabaleae.

Keywords: Arecaceae; West Indies; South America; Calibrated phylogeny

Carlsen, Móncia University of Missouri - St. Louis, USA

Anthurium (Araceae) through time and space: when?, where? and how fast?

Anthurium is the richest genus in Araceae, with ca. 1000 species distributed throughout the Neotropics from southern Mexico to northern Argentina. Results of a molecular phylogeny, including 102 Anthurium species, generated with combined chloroplast (trnG intron, trnH-psbA and trnC-ycf6 intergenic spacers) and nuclear (CHS first intron) DNA sequences were used to understand the timing and patterns of diversification within the genus. Molecular evidence reveals that the initial divergence between Anthurium and its sister genus Pothos is quite old, approx. 80- 90 Mya, but it was much later in time that Anthurium itself diversified explosively. A molecular signature of very low DNA sequence differentiation among extant species and increased diversification rate when compared to its sister genus, revealed a pattern consistent with a rapid and recent species radiation, originating approximately 5-8 Mya following the uplift of the Andes.

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And, in general, diversification ra tes in Anthurium are comparable with those of other endemic Andean taxa. Ancestral area reconstructions indicate that the genus Anthurium was probably quite widespread in Central America, west Andes and the Amazonia before it started to diversify. Throughout the evolutionary history of the genus several major species diversification events have occurred in the Andes, Brazilian Mata Atlantica, Central America, and the Caribbean in the Lesser Antilles, along with dispersals to and from these areas, creating a very complex distribution pattern for the genus Anthurium.

Keywords: Anthurium; rapid radiation; diversification; Neotropics

Flantua, Suzette G.A.; Hooghiemstra H Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands

A message from the past for Neotropical biogeography: Updated site compilation of the Latin American Pollen Database (LAPD) calls for interdisciplinary synergy

The integration of paleoecology and biogeography is a valuable combination to bring perspective to space and time. Available paleoecological evidence from fossil pollen allows reconstruction of principal trends in the historical biogeography and evolution of vegetation assemblages.

Until now, the spatial extend of fossil pollen research was uncertain in the Neotropics. Here we present a systematic compilation of palynological research, assessing both spatial and temporal availability. The inventory includes 1379 cores and sections with paleoecological data and more than 4800 modern samples from throughout the continent. Through the years, pollen datasets extend over increasing spans of time and show improved taxonomic and temporal resolution. Currently, these datasets are from 12 modern biomes and 30 countries, covering an altitudinal range of 0 to 6300 m asl. The most densely sampled regions are the Colombian Andes, the southeast coast of Brazil, and Patagonia. Und errepresented biomes are the warm temperate mixed forest (3%), dry forests (3%), and warm temperate rainforest (1%); whereas steppe, tropical rainforest, and cool grass shrublands, such as the páramos, are generally well represented (all >17%). There are 126 records that span the late Pleistocene to the Last Glacial Maximum transition (21 ka), and >20% of the records cover the Younger Dryas interval and the Pleistocene/Holocene transition. The sites with the longest continuous records are located at higher altitudes in Colombia (284 ka in Lake Fúquene: core Fq- 9C; 2225 ka in Paleolake Bogotá: core Funza09) and Bolivia (151 ka in Lake Titicaca: core LT01). The record of lake La Cocha stands out for its high resolution (25yr of the last 14ka). From lower elevation, El Valle in Panama stands out with a record extending to ~150 ka, as well as Colônia CO3-1in Brazil and Lake Petén-Itza in Guatemala, 100 ka and 85 ka respectively. The Cariaco record as an example of an exce ptional regional reference for the palaeoeclimatology of the! area (68 ka). This current inventory identifies a large quantity of data that potentially could be integrated with biogeographical datasets for innovative insights.

Keywords: Pollen analysis; Latin America; site distribution overview; Literature Database

Frost, Laura; Olmstead RG University of Washington

Niche conservatism vs. niche evolution in Citharexylum (Verbenaceae)

The Neotropics are the most species-rich region in the world, but little is known about the evolutionary processes and geo-temporal patterns that are associated with such diverse species assemblages. Phylogenetic niche conservatism has been championed by recent studies as a prevalent biogeographical pattern and a catalyst for diversification. 15

The opposite pattern, niche evolution, has received less attention. Little is known about the frequency and direction of niche evolution or its contribution to the diversification of plant lineages and composition of species assemblages in the Neotropics. Citharexylum L. is a genus of about 130 species of trees and shrubs distributed from northern Mexico and the Caribbean to southern Brazil. Species inhabit an array of climatic biomes from low-elevation, humid forests to montane biomes to arid regions of Mexico. Preliminary data suggest that niche evolution may be a more prevalent pattern than expected under the niche conservatism hypothesis.

Keywords: Citharexylum; Niche evolution; Niche conservatism

Girón-Duque, Jennifer Universidad Santo Tomás, Sede Villavicencio, Facultad de Ingeniería Ambiental

The genus Lachnopus and its species L. curvipes (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Entiminae: Geonemini): cases of study on Caribbean endemism and radiation

The genus Lachnopus Schoenherr, 1840 (Entiminae: Geonemini) can be considered as the largest and more widespread entimine weevil genus on the Caribbean region, with 66 described species and certainly several more waiting to be described.

According to a phylogenetic analysis including 31 Lachnopus species, there is a high correspondence between the monophyletic groups obtained and the islands where the species are reported. Despite of the fact that its geographical origins remain unclear, evidence from other entimine genera from the Caribbean (e.g. Apodrosus Marshall), suggest close relationships with South American and Central American fauna. In turn, Lachnopus curvipes (Fabricius, 1787) is currently the most widespread species of the genus, distributed from Jamaica to Grenada in the Lesser Antilles. There is morphological evidence of specimens from 11 different islands, in addition to eight different localities in Puerto Rico that suggest that L. curvipes as currently known, is actually composed of a complex of several species with more restricted geographical ranges. For the genus Lachnopus and its species, a thorough revision is essential in order to understand their diversification patterns associated to the complex geological history of the Caribbean region.

Keywords: Phylogeny; Biodiversity; Caribbean; Weevils

Gómez-Gutierrez, María C; Pennington RT; Milne RI; Madriñan S; Richardson JE Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, United Kingdom; School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Departamento de Ciencias Biologicas, Universidad de los Andes, Colombia; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Evolution in the high-altitude Paramo ecosystem

Paramo is a unique Neotropical high altitude ecosystem with an island-like distribution along the mountaintops of the northern Andes. Its likely young geological age and extremely high plant diversity makes it a good model for studying plant biogeography so as to elucidate the patterns and processes behind diversification. An investigation on the effect of the Andean orogeny on the distribution and diversification of plants through the molecular phylogenetics and historical biogeography of the Andean species of the genus Oreobolus R. Br. (Schoeneae, Cyperaceae) was performed. A dated phylogeny of the tribe based on the combined analysis of the nuclear ribosomal region ITS, the chloroplast intron trnL and the intergenic spacer trnL-trnF is proposed. Additionally, ancestral areas are reconstructed and a comparison of diversification rates is made. The effect of the Andean uplift on an endemic paramo genus, Castratella Naudin (Melastomeae, Melastomataceae) was also assessed. 16

With only two species, C. piloselloides and C. rosea, the genus is one of the less diverse within the paramo ecosystem raising the question of why this genus failed to diversify in the way that many other páramo lineages have. To help answer this question, a dated phylogeny based on the combined analysis of the nuclear ribosomal ITS and the chloroplast intergenic spacers accD-psaI and psbK-psbL was produced. Furthermore, ancestral areas reconstruction and diversification rates calculations are undertaken. Moreover, we present the first phylogeographic study of a paramo plant group. Species diversification patterns and processes are investigated between and within the five Andean species of Oreobolus: O. cleefii, O. ecuadorensis, O. goeppingeri, O. obtusangulus and O. venezuelensis. Sequences from three plastid markers (rpl32-trnL, trnH-psbA and trnL-trnL-trnF) and nuclear ribosomal ITS were obtained from samples covering the full extent of the geographical distributio n for each species. Measures of genetic diversity, geographic structure and demographic history are presented.

Keywords: Andes; biogeography; Neotropical; phylogeography

Guevara, Juan; Ackerly D; Fine P.V.A.; Pitman N.C.A; ter Steege H University of California, Department of Integrative Biology, USA; University of California, Department of Integrative Biology, USA; The Field Museum, USA; 1Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands

Phylogenetic community structure and phylobeta diversity across space and environmental gradients in a hyper-dominant Amazon tree clade

Keywords: Amazon; phylogenetic community structure; phylogenetic clustering; regional

Haupt, Ryan; Hastings, A. K. University of Wyoming, USA.; Geiseltalsammlung, Zentralmagazin Naturwissenschaftlicher Sammlungen, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Germany

Potential record of a Panamanian Miocene fossil crocodylian nesting ground at Hodge's Hill Microsite

Due to the abundance of small crocodylian teeth at the Panamanian Miocene fossil locality “Hodge’s Hill Microsite”, it has been proposed that the area may have served as a hatchery.

However, this qualitative supposition had not been quantitatively tested. Contrary to popular belief, crocodylian dentition is not homodont. There is variation within the jaw and throughout the growth of an individual. Furthermore, tooth shape is related to diet. For example, durophagous crocodylians have more blunted teeth than psicivorous taxa. Thus, by examining the size and shape of modern and fossil crocodylians, we can attempt to answer the question: was Hodge’s Hill a crocodylian nesting ground in the Miocene? We measured crown height and total body length from a group of modern yearlings (Alligator mississippiensis; n=49), as well as crown height, basal width, fore-aft basal width, and tooth shape category for fossil crocodylians from Panama. Fossils were collected from three si tes in the Cucaracha Fm. (Centenario #2, n=86; Centenario #6, n=17; Hodge’s Hill, n=279), and two sites in the Cascadas Fm. (Las Cascadas, n=6; Lirio Norte, n=27). Shape was qualitatively assigned to one of six categories (blunt, button, conical, recurved, spade, or broken). Our results show that conical teeth dominate all fossil localities (Centenario #2 = 57%, Centenario #6 = 29%, Hodge’s Hill = 44%, Las Cascadas = 58%, and Lirio Norte = 52%), suggesting low durophagy at all sites.

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Hodge’s Hill is comprised of smaller teeth than other sites sampled (smaller base width than Centenario #6, p<0.001 and Lirio Norte, p<0.001; smaller crown height than Centenario #2, p=0.038, Centenario #6, p<0.001, and Lirio Norte, p<0.001; smaller fore-aft base width than Centenario #6, p<0.001 and Lirio Norte, p=0.005). These results indicate that Hodge’s Hill likely did represent a community of younger individuals than other localities. However, when compared to the modern yea rlings, we find that crown height of teeth from Hodge’s Hill are larger (p<0.001). While taphonomic filtering may explain these results, the depositional environment of sites within the Cucaracha Fm. is similar. Sampling bias is also not a probable factor as the size of teeth found at various sites did not change over time (e.g. Hodge’s Hill, date collected vs. crown height: R2 = 0.017). The inclusion of screen-washed teeth, which would better represent smaller teeth on the order of our yearling dataset, could help refine our results. Thus, we argue that while Hodge’s Hill may not represent a hatchery, it may represent a safe haven for sub-adult crocodylians in a way similar to sites observed for modern crocodylians. We further contend that this analysis represents a robust and quantitative method to determine the crocodylian demography of a site in the fossil record, and that by applying this method elsewhere we will garner a better evolutionary understanding of crocodylian reproductive and developmental behavior throughout geologic time.

Keywords: Caiman; community structure; heterodont; paleontology; teeth

Hinojosa, Luis F.; Gaxiola A; Carvajal F; Campano F; Pérez F Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad; Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile; Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile

Into the tropics Hypothesis: from Temperate Gondwana to Tropical Latitudes

We tested the hypothesis that lineages that originated at high latitudes in Gondwanaland are an example of Early Eocene adaptation to tropical conditions and they later expanded their distributional ranges by tracking favourable mesothermal climates; this is the into-the-tropics hypothesis. We reconstructed the palaeoclimate associated with the exceptional Early Eocene flora in southern South America and incorporated the presence of the iconic Gondwanaland genus Nothofagus. Palaeoclimatic reconstructions were performed by combining ecological niche modelling with coexistence approach analyses based on pollen fossil records and leaf physiognomic analysis. Additionally, we compared our palaeoclimatic estimates with the climatic history of Nothofagus, which was reconstructed from modern realised climatic niches. Finally, a phylogenetic signal was evaluated using a morphological disparity index and the log-likelihood of a phylogenetic generalised least squares fitting on three models of evolution for 19 bioclimatic variables. Akaike weights derived from model likelihoods were used to evaluate the best-fitting model. Our results show that Nothofagus was capable of growing under the warm global conditions of the Eocene and could occupy a much broader realised climatic niche in the past than the one constructed from modern distributions. Climatic evolution in the genus followed a Brownian motion model. However, the precipitation values during the colde st quarter followed an Ornstein- Uhlenbeck model of evolution. Our fossil analyses and palaeoestimates revealed that Nothofagus grew in a wet, frost-free mesothermal climate and, by tracking favourable climates, reached its current tropical latitudes in Australasia; Nothofagus later adapted to microthermal conditions. However, the long-standing aridity in the transition zone from temperate to tropical latitudes in South America represented a barrier to the northward expansion of Nothofagus into the tropical latitudes of America. Acknowledgements: FONDECYT 1120215; Millenium Institute od Ecology and Biodiversity (IEB) grant P05-002 from Mideplan, PFB-023 from CONICYT.

Keywords: Eocene; Gondwanaland; Nothofagaceae; Paleoclimate; Niche Modelling; Phylogenetic signal

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Hoyos, Natalia; Escobar J; Jaramillo C Corporación Geológica ARES, Colombia; Universidad del Norte, Colombia; Universidad del Norte, Colombia; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama

Satellite imagery and fossil hunting in the Cocinetas Basin, northern Colombia: Improving the odds through remote sensing prediction models

Paleontologists have traditionally relied on their experience and luck to find fossil-rich localities. The odds of finding these sites in vast areas are usually low, unless considerable time and money are spent in the field. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of satellite imagery to predict fossil bearing localities, an approach referred to as “Fossil GPS”. The Cocinetas Basin sits at the northeastern edge of the Guajira peninsula in northern Colombia. It provides a rare and excellent opportunity to test the potential of satellite imagery for fossil site prediction due to its scarce vegetation cover. In addition, extensive fieldwork has produced detailed stratigraphic and paleontological data needed for model training and validation. We selected a Landsat 8 scene from January 2014 for this analysis. Multispectral bands were calibrated to yield reflectance values. The panchromatic band was used to generate 15m pan-sharpened multispectral da ta. NDVI and tasseled cap transformation products were calculated. Training sites were created from field data and Google Earth high resolution imagery. Six classes were considered, and included fossil sites, mangroves, inland vegetation, alluvial floodplains, coastal dunes and water. A variety of classification models, including unsupervised and neural network models, were used to predict fossil localities using different combinations of reflectance bands and indices. Preliminary model results will be presented in this poster and will be validated in the field season of 2015.

Keywords: remote sensing; geographic information systems; paleontology; image classification; Cocinetas basin

Jones, Douglas S.; Wood, A. R.; MacFadden, B. J Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, USA; Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, USA; Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, USA

Fossil invertebrates and Sr-isotope age estimate for the Alajuela Formation, central Panama

In 2014 participants in the University of Florida-Panama PIRE project were able to make collections of vertebrate and invertebrates fossils and describe a 36 m stratigraphic section within the upper Alajuela Fm during episodes of lowered lake levels at Lago Alajuela (formerly Lake Madden). The composite section contains a mixed fauna of terrestrial and marine vertebrates, as well as shallow- marine invertebrates, preserved in conglomeratic lenses within the predominately siltstones and sandstones that characterize the unit. The invertebrate fauna is dominated by bivalve mollusks indicative of a near-shore to marginal marine paleoenvironment. Aragonitic taxa are represented as molds and casts but calcitic shells of pectinids and oysters are often well preserved. The occurrence of original shell material from marine fossils provides an opportunity to determine the age of the unit using 87Sr/86Sr geochronology. Shells were collected from a ~2.5 m thick interval that includes the thickest fossiliferous conglomerate in the section. The 87Sr/86Sr ratios in seven shells were analyzed via TIMS in the Dept. of Geological Sciences at UF. Ratios were tightly clustered between 0.708850 and 0.708920. Comparison of the mean ratio with the global seawater 87Sr/86Sr curve for the Neogene suggests a late Miocene age of ~9.8 Ma for this portion of the Alajuela Fm which was previously considered to have formed during the early Miocene. The strontium dates also confirm a late Miocene age for the associated vertebrate fossils including mammals (horses, Gomphotherium sp.), bony fishes and sharks, and reptiles (turtles and crocodilians).

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The abundance of marine fossils from the upper Alajuela Fm demonstrates seaway connections existed through central Panama during the late Miocene. Strontium ratios also suggest the Alajuela Fm overlaps in time with the richly fossiliferous late Miocene Gatun Fm to the north with which it shares many invertebrate faunal elements. Preliminary interpretations suggest the Alajuela Fm represents a higher energy, near-shore marine setting that episodically received riverine/terrestrial input and was perhaps shallower and more proximal to a coastline than the Gatun Fm. Future work will help to elucidate these important relationships.

Keywords: Miocene, Panama, Geochronology, Alajuela

Jud, Nathan; Nelson C.; Herrera FA Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, USA; Plant Science Center, Chicago Botanic Garden, USA

Paleobiogeographic implications of Parinari (Chrysobalanaceae) fossils from the early Miocene of Panamá

Chrysobalanaceae is a pantropical family of woody plants (mostly trees) with over 500 species in 19 genera. Much of the diversity of the family is Neotropical, but the relationships among the genera suggest an Old World origin. Although a sparse fossil record limits our ability to test biogeographic hypotheses, new fossil endocarps from ~19Ma (early Miocene) deposits in the Cucaracha Formation along the Panama Canal provide novel evidence of the evolutionary history of the family. A review of the endocarp anatomy and germination modes of all Chrysobalanaceae reveal that the Panamanian fossils conform to Parinari, a pantropical genus that is most species- rich in the Neotropics. This is the earliest record of the genus. A recent molecular phylogenetic analysis of the family found that the best estimate for the age of crown-group Parinari is 8-17Ma; the same study found that the most recent common ancestor had an Old World distribution. These results present a conflict . If the new fossils belong to crown-group Parinari, then either the dispersal to the Neotropics happened earlier than 19Ma, or additional sampling of extant Parinari will support an older Neotropical origin for the genus. Alternatively, if the fossils belong to the Parinari stem lineage, then they represent an early colonization of the Neotropics that left no living descendants in Central or South America. Under the latter scenario the modern Neotropical diversity of Parinari represents a more recent colonization event and subsequent diversification.

Keywords: Neotropical; Chrysobalanaceae; fruit; Parinari; Miocene

Lagomarsino, Laura; Condamine, FL; Antonelli, A; Davis, CC Harvard University, USA; University of Gothenburg, Sweden; University of Gothenburg, Sweden; Harvard University, USA

Both abiotic and biotic factors drive explosive plant diversification in the Andes

Abstract: The rise of the Andes has been invoked as a main driver of the rapid diversification for numerous plant clades that inhabit this region. However, with the exception of divergence time estimates that correlate with prolific phases of orogeny and species diversification, the combined influence of ecological traits and historical events that shaped this diversity remains largely untested.

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We apply diversification models that explicitly accommodate the influence of the rising Andes and climatic changes during the last 20 Myr to assess corresponding patterns of the species accumulation in a species-rich Andean plant clade, the Neotropical bellflowers (Campanulaceae: Lobelioideae). Here, we show that speciation rates in this clade rose sharply with the increase in altitude of the Andes, and that extinction rates are positively correlated with changing climates. In addition, our assessment of ecological traits indicates that pollinators and fruit type played an extra role in enhancing this diversity. We further unveil one of the fastest and richest radiations known in the Andes: the centropogonids, a subclade of bellflowers in which diversification rates are elevated against the background, resulting in 550 species in the last 5 Myr. We document that this radiation constitutes remarkable phenotypic diversity related to pollination syndrome, habit, and fruit type. Our results suggest that a complex interplay of geology, climate, and ecology has greatly facilitated diversification in the tree of life.

Keywords: Andes; Campanulaceae; Diversification; Lobelioideae; Rapid radiation

Luna, Javier A. 1,2; Möller M.1; Clark J.L.3; Kidner C.1,2 and Richardson J.E.1 1-Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH3 5LR, Scotland, UK. 2-Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK 3- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0345, USA

The biogeographic and floral evolution of Gesneriaceae (Lamiales)

Angiosperm explosive radiation has been linked with floral diversification and ecological shifts amongst others factors.

Aiming to get an insight of the impact of these phenomena on the angiosperms we are working with Gesneriaceae, a family with incredibly high floral diversity with many pollination syndromes. Gesneriaceae is a family of approximately 160 genera and more than 3200 species. The mechanisms responsible for the generation of this diverse group are still unclear. In this study we: (1) are producing a temporal and phylogenetic framework to understand and clarify diversification and taxonomy of the family, (2) will provide insights into the biogeography of Gesneriaceae and (3) will look for candidates genes that are regulating changes in pollination syndromes of the family using the transcriptome of two species and a hybrid of Streptocarpus and next generation sequencing.

Keywords: Gesneriaceae; molecular dating; floral evolution

MacFadden, Bruce J.; Wood AR; Jones DS; Rincon AF; Morgan GS Florida Museum of Natural History, USA; Florida Museum of Natural History, USA; Florida Museum of Natural History, USA; Florida Museum of Natural History/University of Florida, USA; New Mexico Museum of Natural History, USA

Late Miocene vertebrates from Lake Alajuela, Panama

In 1959 fossil vertebrates were collected from sediments that crop out along the shores of Lake Alajuela (then called Lake Madden). In 2013 these fossils were brought to the attention of the senior author. In 2014 we relocated the approximate site(s) of the 1959 collections and made additional collections representing a mixed fauna of terrestrial and marine taxa from adjacent Alajuela localities. The relevant fossil-bearing exposures comprise a 36 m-thick stratigraphic section previously assigned to the Alajuela Formation, with the majority of vertebrate fossils preserved in lenses of matrix-supported conglomerate.

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The vertebrate fossil assemblage so far includes a diversity of chondrichthyan taxa, large-bodied bony fish, turtles, crocodylians, and extinct mammals, including a proboscidean (Gomphotherium sp.) and horses. The Alajuela Formation was previously considered to be early Miocene, although our work indicates that the age should likely be revised to the late Miocene. We expect to add more taxa and better constrain the stratigraphic relationships of the Alajuela Formation as field work continues at these productive localities. Our faunule is similar to that recovered from the late Miocene (Hemphillian) Curré Formation of Costa Rica, with the major exception that no xenarthran remains have yet been found at Alajuela. The (re-) discovery of the Alajuela faunule provides an extraordinary opportunity to advance understanding of the ancient New World tropics, as follows: (1) As the first late Miocene terrestrial fauna from Panama, it partially fills in a huge gap between the end of the Miocene sequence from the Panama Canal (~18 million years ago) and the late Pleistocene. (2) It provides the potential for paleoecological proxy studies to clarify the regional paleoclimate and paleovegetation (e.g., origin of C4 tropical grasses). In summary, with the new late Miocene faunule and associated data from Alajuela, we will clarify the complex evolutionary dynamics and biogeography in the southern-most Central America prior to the Great American Biotic Interchange.

Keywords: Miocene; Alajuela Formation; vertebrates; Panama

Martínez, Camila Department of Plant Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

A Late Cretaceous Piper (Piperaceae) from Colombia and diversification patterns for the genus

Documented fossil floras in the Neotropics are sparse, yet their records provide evidence on the spatial and temporal occurrence of taxa, allowing for testing of biogeographical and diversification scenarios on individual lineages. A new fossil Piper from the Late Cretaceous of Colombia is here described and its importance as requisite for assessing diversification patterns in the genus is addressed. Leaf architecture of thirty-two fossil leaf compressions from the Guaduas Formation was compared with 294 extant angiosperm species. The phylogenetic position of the fossil named Piper margaritae sp. nov. was established based on leaf traits and a molecular scaffold of Piper. The age of the fossil was independently used as a calibration point for divergence time estimations. Natural affinities of P. margaritae to the Schilleria clade of Piper indicate that the genus occurred in tropical America by the Late Cretaceous. Estimates of age divergence and lineage accumulation reveal that most of the extant diversity of the genus came to be during the last ~30 Ma. The recent radiation of Piper is coeval with both the Andean uplift and the emergence of Central America, which have been proposed as important drivers responsible for enhancing diversity. This pattern could exemplify a recurrent theme among many Neotropical plant lineages.

Martínez, Camila; Crepet W; Jaramillo C Department of Plant Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancon, Panama

A new flora from the Esmeraldas Formation of Colombia, a window to the Eocene climate and biogeography in the Neotropics

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The late Paleocene–early Eocene (~60–47 Ma) interval was characterized by a long period of global warming that culminated with the highest temperatures of the Tertiary. Subsequently, during the middle Eocene to early Oligocene (~40–30 Ma), the global temperature cooled, and the first Antarctica ice sheet appeared. This time period has been associated with significant turnovers in marine and terrestrial biotas. Nevertheless, documented fossil floras from this interval in the Neotropics are sparse. Here, we present preliminary results from a new fossil flora from the Late Eocene (~45–34 Ma) Esmeraldas Formation of Colombia. The Flora is composed by well-preserved compressions and impressions of leaves, including abundant cuticles, also seeds, fruits and flowers. The Esmeraldas Formation presents deposits of fluvial and estuarine environments with tidal influence. The macroflora from the Esmeraldas Formation will provide the first insights toward understanding climatic estimations and biogeographical patterns based on leaf physignomical characters and taxonomical associations. The analysis of leaf architecture characters of fossil leaves from the Esmeraldas Flora, when compared to Paleocene Floras from Colombia with similar environmental deposition, indicates lower precipitation, in addition to remarkable taxonomic differences. The Esmeraldas macroflora represents a unique opportunity to elucidate the consequences of climate change and past biogeographical patterns in the Neotropics.

Keywords: Fossil macroflora; Colombia; Eocene; Climate; Biogeography

Monje, Camila; Escapa I; Martínez C; Madriñán S Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancon, Panama; Department of Plant Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA; CONICET, Museo Paleontologico Egidio Feruglio, Trelew, Chubut, Argentina; Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

New Records of Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms from the Lower Cretaceous (Aptian) of Colombia

The Mesozoic era was an essential time for plants evolution. Since, Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms, the dominant groups by then, were considerably reduced due to the expansion of Angiosperms by the end of that time. This way, the fossil record is the most important tool for us to study those changes in diversity. Besides, knowing that the tropics are the most diverse ecosystems on earth today, it is necessary to explore their almost unknown fossil record, to understand the paleofloristic changes that have took place in those specific groups until today. By means of systematic descriptions, this study presents new records from the Lower Cretaceous (Aptian ca. 125-113 My) flora of Colombia. The studied material was collected from the Upper Magdalena Valley in four localities from the Tolima department at the Yaví and Alpujarra formations. The fossil remains are from Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms specimens. Among ferns, the one we should point out is a species from the morphogenus Cladophlebis sp. that includes sterile bipinnate fronds with lanceolate pinnule and pecopteride venation. On the other hand, cf. Marsileaceae sp. includes sterile remains of one leaflet with dichotomous, anastomosis venation and absence of middle and marginal veins. The studied Gymnosperms, present vegetative structures associated with reproductive organs. The most abundant sterile fragments were included in Brachyphyllum sp. due to morphologic characteristics and leaf phyllotaxy. Additionally, other specimen was assigned to Podozamites vel Lindleycladus sp. due to characteristics such as dorsiventral flattened and elongated opposed leaves. Another outlined presence is the one of isolated female strobilus and ovuliferous scales of Araucarites (Araucariaceae) type. The new findings represent a key aspect to understand the biogeography of the mentioned groups and, simultaneously, they extend the almost unknown diversity of the Colombian cretaceous.

Keywords: Cretaceous; Aptian; Colombia; Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms

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Montes, Camilo; Cardona, A; Jaramillo, C; Moreno, F Departamento de Geociencias, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia; Departamento de Procesos y Energias Universidad Nacional, Medellín, Colombia; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancon, Panamá; Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA

New paleogeographic model for the closure of the Isthmus of Panama

A new paleogeographic model for the closure of the Isthmus of Panama allows for land connection between eastern Panama and northern South America by middle Miocene times (~13 to 15 million years ago). At this time, the eastern Panama ranges were above sea-level, were being eroded, and some of this sediment was reaching the northern South American fluvial and shallow-marine basins. Thus, all deep water connections between Caribbean and Pacific waters would have been permanently severed starting in middle Miocene times. This model, however, also allows for a simultaneous, transient, shallow-water connection immediately west of the Canal Basin. Eastern Panama had a land connection with North America at least until early Miocene times (thus the affinities of Canal faunas). Deformation of the Isthmus in early to middle Miocene times fractured the Isthmus and allowed a shallow-water passage to form. This shallow-water passage was later plugged by the construction of the late Miocene El Valle Volcano. Therefore, the history of the Isthmus land mass is one of 1) a peninsula connected to North America; 2) segmentation of eastern Panama with a shallow-water passage west of the Canal Basin; 3) connection to South America by 13-15 Ma; and 4) plugging of the last remaining shallow-water passage by late Miocene times by the El Valle Volcano.

Montes, Camilo; Cardona, A Departamento de Geociencias, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia; Departamento de Procesos y Energias, Universidad Nacional, Medellín, Colombia

Provenance analysis and the middle Miocene closure of the Central American Seaway

The final closure of the Panama Isthmus and permanent separation of Caribbean and Pacific waters is thought to have modified their salinity, faunistic assemblages, and ultimately, ocean circulation patterns and global climate. The Great American Biotic Interchange (GABI) is thought to have been the result of Plio-Pleistocene closure of the Isthmus that allowed land animals to massively cross the Isthmus. Similarly, the separation of Caribbean and Pacific waters by a rising Isthmus is thougth to be a prime example of vicariance. The role of Isthmus closure on global changes, however, remains controversial due in part to the difficulty of establishing a precise chronology of seaway closure.While timing of glaciation is well established, new data on the chronology of Isthmus emergence suggests that the process of closure is more complex, long, and old than previously thought. We sampled fluvial and shallow marine strata in northwesternmost South America to recover zircon grains for provenance analyses in the immediate vicinity of the docking site. Because the ages of magmatic provinces in northwestern South America and the Panama Isthmus are mutually exclusive, detrital zircon analyses provides a tool to evaluate land connections. We found that an uniquely Panamanian, 40-45 Ma (early Lutetian) detrital zircon fingerprint is abundant in middle Miocene strata, but absent in underlying lower Miocene and Oligocene strata of the northern Andes. This fingerprint represents the beginning of fluvial detrital exchange between the Panama arc and South America, and therefore marks the time of docking and the end of deep-water, and probably shallow-water connections by middle Miocene times

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Monteza, Claudio Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancon, Panama

Biogeographical aspects in the cryptic species of the snake genus Porthidium

The snake genus Porthidium is conformed by 9 species, who share cryptic patterns of morphological characters. All of which are terrestrial, relative small zize and normally occuring in lowland. The genus is distributed from México through Central America until the north of South America (Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela). The species Porthidium ophryomegas, P. lansbergii and P. nasutum are broadly distribution; P. dunni, P. yucatanicum and P. arcosae have a relative broadly distribution while P. hespere, volcanicum and P. porrasi show a restricted distribution. Their relationship has been analyzed in previous research with morphological and molecular techniques, nevertheless due to the massive overlap and genetic complexity, their relationship still not clear. Mainly because the amount of specimens utilized is not considerable enough due their overlap. The aim of this project is to analyze the zoogeographical aspects and phylogenetic relationship in the species of Po rthidium by using a higher number of characters as well as higher amount of specimens. The specimens used for this project are part of the collection in different museums mainly in US as well as some collections available in the University of Panama, Univ. of Costa Rica and the “Círculo Herpetológico de Panamá.” Data is still in analysis.

Keywords: Snakes; Porthidium; Zoobiogeography; Morphometry; Distribution.

Morgan, Gary; Czaplewski NJ; Rincon, AF; Wood AR; MacFadden BJ; Bloch JI New Mexico Museum of Natural History, USA; Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, University of Oklahoma, USA; Rincon, Wood, MacFadden and Bloch are all Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Floria, USA

Oligocene And Miocene Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) from Florida and Panama, and the Origins of the Neotropical Chiropteran Fauna

During the past 20 years, new discoveries of Oligocene and early Miocene bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) from Florida and early Miocene bats from Panama have added significantly to our knowledge of the origins of the Neotropical chiropteran fauna. The earliest New World fossil records for the nine living Neotropical bat families are: Emballonuridae (early Oligocene, I-75 Local Fauna–LF, Florida), Furipteridae (late Pleistocene, Brazil and Peru); Mormoopidae (early Oligocene, I-75 LF, Florida); Noctilionidae (medial Miocene, La Venta Fauna, Colombia); Phyllostomidae (early Miocene, Lirio Norte LF, Panama); Thyropteridae (medial Miocene, La Venta Fauna, Colombia); Natalidae (early Miocene, Thomas Farm LF, Florida); Vespertilionidae (early Oligocene, I-75 LF, Florida); Molossidae (late Oligocene, Brooksville 2 LF, Florida and Tremembé Fauna, Brazil). The Natalidae and five families in the Noctilionoidea (Furipteridae, Mormoopidae, Noctilionidae, Phyllostomidae, Thyropteridae) are endemic to the Neotropical region. Among the other New World bat families, Vespertilionidae occur worldwide and Emballonuridae and Molossidae are pantropical. The six endemic Neotropical bat families, as well as New World Emballonuridae and Molossidae, were long thought to have evolved in South America and then immigrated northward to tropical North America during the Great American Biotic Interchange. More recently, an African or Gondwanan origin for the Neotropical Emballonuridae and Noctilionoidea was proposed based on molecular data, and the earliest noctilionoids (Myzopodidae) were described from the late Eocene and early Oligocene of Egypt. Oligocene and Miocene bats with Neotropical affinities from Florida and Panama challenge the South American and/or African origin for several groups of New World bats. 25

The oldest Mormoopidae, New World Emballonuridae, and the extinct noctilionoid family †Speonycteridae are known from the Oligocene I-75 and Brooksville 2 LFs in Florida. The earliest member of the Phyllostomidae is from the early Miocene Lirio Norte LF in Panama, which has a primarily North American mammal fauna. The oldest representatives of the Natalidae (†Primonatalus) and Diclidurini (endemic tribe of Neotropical Emballonuridae) occur in the early Miocene Thomas Farm LF in Florida. The fossil record indicates that Diclidurini, at least two families of noctilionoids (Mormoopidae, Phyllostomidae), and the Natalidae may have had their origins in North America.

Keywords: Bats; fossils; biogeography; Florida; Panama

Mothe, Dimila; Avilla LS Post-graduation Program in Zoology, National Museum/UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratório de Mastozoologia, Department of Zoology, Federal University of the Rio de Janeiro State, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Phylogeny and Historical Biogeography of trilophodont gomphotheres (Mammalia: Proboscidea: Gomphotheriidae)

The phylogeny and biogeography of trilophodont gomphotheres are highly debated issues. Thus, it is proposed a phylogenetic hypothesis for this group and biogeographic inferences based on a Dispersion-Vicariance analysis. A new data matrix including eighteen dental, mandible and cranial characters was performed with TNT software (exact search). The outgroup was Gomphotherium and ingroup included Eubelodon, Gnathabelodon, Rhynchotherium, Cuvieronius, Stegomastodon (North American species), Notiomastodon and Sinomastodon. Phylogenetic analysis resulted in three most parsimonious trees (38 steps), and the strict consensus is: (Gomphotherium (Eubelodon, Gnathabelodon, (Sinomastodon (Stegomastodon (Notiomastodon (Rhynchotherium, Cuvieronius)))))). According to current literature, nine biogeographic areas were considered: Southwest, Great Plains, Gulf Coast, Southeast, Mexican transition zone, in North America; Neotropical, in Americas; South American transition zone, Ande an region, in South America; and Asia. We used the software DIVA 1.1 to reconstruct the biogeographic history of trilophodont gomphotheres. Since this software analyses only dichotomic trees (without polytomies), we choose one of the most parsimonious trees from our results. Thus, we found three vicariant events, 14 dispersions and one sympatric speciation, between Rhynchotherium and Cuvieronius in the Great Plains, during late Hemphillian. Surprisingly, the recognized vicariant events are not related to geological events (Beringia-split, Panama Isthmus uplift, among others), but possibly to climatic-environmental changes. The diversification of trilophodont gomphotheres is probably related to cooling (Barstovian-early Clarendonian) and warmth (late Hemphillian) climatic events; which led to the transition from Woodland (C3 dominance) to Savanna to Prairie (C4 dominance) in the Great Plains. Only two trilophodont gomphotheres reached South America: Notiomastodon and Cuvieron ius. Paleodiet reconstructions (stable isotopes, enamel microwear and dental calculi analyses) indicated that both were generalist/opportunist in opposition to a more restricted mixed-feeder, mainly C4 grazing, diet of Rhynchotherium and Stegomastodon. Probably, the emergence of Central American Pliocene tropical forests imposed an ecological barrier to their dispersion to South America. Concluding, the great diversification of trilophodont gomphotheres took place at central North America, during late Miocene.

Keywords: Systematics; Diversification; Gomphotheriidae; Miocene

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Nieto, María E.; Roncal J; Antonelli A Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada; University of Gothenburg, Sweden

Meta-analysis of plant phylogenies of the Caribbean region

The Caribbean region is one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots and represents the most important insular system in the Neotropics. Despite the relatively small land area of all the islands combined, they host about 11,000 species of vascular plants, representing 2% of all plants on Earth. The Caribbean region has a remarkably complex geological history that has been shaped by a combination of events including climate change, volcanism, tectonic plates interactions, major sea- level changes and intervals of emergence and submergence. The GAARlandia (Greater Antilles + Aves Ridge) land-bridge, a hypothesized quasi-continuous connection of land occurring close to the Eo-Oligocene boundary, between 33-35 Ma., could have favoured colonization of the Antilles from South America. In 2007, a comprehensive review of molecular phylogenetic studies for Caribbean plants showed that DNA phylogenies were available for only 35% of the Antillean flora, from which 84% aim to elucidate t axonomic relationships rather than biogeographic histories. The goal of this project is to gain a better understanding of the historical assembly and evolution of endemic plant species in the Caribbean region using molecular phylogenies. We will test the following hypotheses: 1) plant species colonized the Caribbean through water dispersal from continental America, thus GAARlandia played no role as a land-bridge on the colonization history of the Antilles. 2) plant species diversification in the Lesser Antilles occurred posterior to the Greater Antilles, reflecting their different geological histories. 3) the Lesser Antilles was likely to be colonized from South American taxa while the Greater Antilles were colonized from Central American taxa. To test these hypotheses we will estimate the diversification times of endemic genera and species using the latest angiosperm dated phylogeny of Zanne et al. (2013), and reconstruct the ancestral areas of these endemic lineages. This study will provide novel insights into the effects geological events had on plant species diversification, and a better understanding of the biotic interchange amongst island and island-continent.

Keywords: Caribbean; Evolution; Biogeography; molecular phylogenies

Ortiz, John Institute for Geoinformatics, University of Münster, Germany, and Corporación Geológica Ares, Bogotá, Colombia

Open Source tools for Geographical Analyses

Allowing others researchers to reproduce the results (maps, figures, models) is an important component of a scientific research. However, despite the vast advances to store, plot, and quantitatively analyze data, published paleogeographic and biogeographic maps are typically difficult to replicate, modify or integrate with numerical simulations. I present several methods where the spatial and temporal distribution of the araucariacean pollen genus Cyclusphaera was examined. This taxon originated in mid latitudes in the southern hemisphere (Gondwana) and subsequently expanded its distribution to higher and lower latitudes reaching a maximum latitudinal and longitudinal distribution by the middle Cretaceous. We compiled published and unpublished records of Cyclusphaera, count data from 2664 samples and 55 sites were used to produce maps of the geographical abundance distribution of Cyclusphaera through time.

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We calculate paleolatitude and paleolongitude of each locality using the software GPlates. The GPlates model provides plate boundaries and rotation poles for each tectonic plate on earth that can be used to produce paleotectonic reconstructions for the past 140 Ma. The plate was then translated back in time using the rotation poles until the youngest and oldest age reported for each locality was reached, as well comparisons of paleolatitude versus time and paleolongitude versus time were produced, only using presence-absence data and the enhanced Palynodata information. The entire analysis was done using scripting tools. The main advantage of using scripting tools (GRASS GIS [http://grass.osgeo.org/], R software environment [http://www.r-project.org/], GPlates plate-reconstruction tool [http://www.gplates.org/], and SAGA GIS [http://www.saga- gis.org]), is that the entire analysis can be replicated, and augmented as more geographical data is acquired.

Pérez, Victor J.; Pimiento C; Hendy A; Hubbell, G; MacFadden BJ Geology Department, University of Florida, United States; Biology Department, University of Florida, United States; Jaws International, United States; Florida Museum of Natural History, United States

Sharks (Chondrichthyes) of the Chucunaque Formation of Lake Bayano and their Biogeographic Implications

Lake Bayano is a flooded river valley on the western margin of the Chucunaque Basin. The shoreline and islands of Lake Bayano expose a diverse chondrichthyan fauna from the Chucunaque Formation. Herein, 1170 shark teeth and 2 vertebral centra were studied from nine localities within Lake Bayano, of which more than 90% were carcharhiniform sharks. 967 of the teeth (83%) were identified to genus, of which nearly 70% were assigned to Carcharhinus. In the modern oceans, shallow, nearshore environments are dominated by sharks of the genus Carcharhinus. The predominance of near-shore mollusk assemblages and comparable chondrichthyan biota to the contemporaneous, shallow-water Gatun Formation indicate that Lake Bayano was deposited in a neritic environment. Nevertheless, deep-water shark teeth (~15%) such as Isurus oxyrinchus and Alopias superciliosus, among others, were also found in Lake Bayano. The primary difference between Gatun and Bayano is their paleography, with G atun being oriented between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean; and Bayano being Pacific Ocean-oriented. It is postulated that the occurrence of these pelagic sharks in Lake Bayano can be attributed to its Pacific influence, which could have resulted in the transport and deposition of deep-water shark teeth. To test this hypothesis, biogeographic affinities of the chondrichthyan fauna from Lake Bayano (including skates and rays) will be established and quantitatively compared to other assemblages from the Neotropics. The results of this research will provide insight into the communities that inhabited the ancient oceans of the Neotropics and their ecological interactions.

Keywords: Chondricthyes; Biogeography; Neotropics; Chucunaque; Bayano

Rincón, Aldo F.; Wood AR; Bloch JI; Morgan GS; MacFadden, BJ Florida Museum of Natural History/University of Florida, USA; Florida Museum of Natural History, USA; Florida Museum of Natural History, USA; New Mexico Museum of Natural History, USA; Florida Museum of Natural History, USA.

Miocene Terrestrial Mammalian Biogeography of Southern Central America

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Recently recovered Miocene terrestrial vertebrates from Panama offer a unique opportunity to understand the evolution of paleobiogeographic patterns in southern Central America prior to the Great American Biotic Interchange (GABI) and the final closure of the Isthmus of Panama (c.a. 3.5 Ma). These fossil assemblages represent the southernmost mammalian communities in North America that were separated from South American continental terrains by the Central American Seaway (CAS). The fossil vertebrates from Panama occur in four different stratigraphic intervals and include as many as 33 species classified in eight mammalian orders and a variety of reptiles, anurans, and fresh water fishes. Despite a geographical proximity to South America during the Miocene, ungulate and rodent faunas support a Neogene faunal province connected to the Gulf Coast and Mexico at least since the early Miocene (ca. 21 Ma). These mammalian assemblages are dominated by taxa with Eurasian aff inities with an unexpected early Miocene (21 Ma) occurrence of platyrrhine monkeys, otherwise only known from fossil assemblages in South America. This biogeographic pattern, also evident among other mammalian clades (c.a. phyllostomid bats) and reptiles (caimanines, turtles, and snakes), supports an earlier and unrecognized stage of biotic interchange during the early Miocene, approximately 12 Ma earlier than the onset of the GABI (ca. 8.5-9 Ma). An earlier phase of interchange, primarily from South to North America, is consistent with recent tectonic reconstructions proposing a relatively narrow (~200 km) CAS during the early Neogene (23-21 Ma). The older first appearances of allochthonous mammals with Eurasian origins (e.g. procyonids) in the early Miocene Panamanian tropics imply a distinctive paleobiogeographic pattern. Biochronological correlations facilitated by comprehensive taxonomic work and geochronology show earlier occurrences (~2 Ma older) of mammalian taxa in Panama than in more temperate sequences of North America (e.g. Gulf Coast and the Great Plains). Thus, the early Miocene Neotropics of Panama may have acted as a cradle of biodiversity from which numerous taxa dispersed northward, resulting in their better-known distribution in North America. Ongoing intensive fieldwork and rigorous taxonomic and paleobiogeographic studies will be critical to reconstruct the origin and early evolution of mammalian clades in southern Central America.

Keywords: Miocene; Mammals; Panama; Biogeography; Biochronology

Robins, Cristina; Freierman, A; O'Neill, HK; Pearson, LK; Luque, J.; Portell, RWFlorida Museum of Natural History/University of Florida, USA; Florida Museum of Natural History/University of Florida, USA; Florida Museum of Natural History/University of Florida, USA; Florida Museum of Natural History/University of Florida, USA; University of Alberta, Canada; Florida Museum of Natural History/University of Florida, USA. Population study of Palaeopinnixa sp. (Decapoda: Hexapodidae) from the Culebra Formation of the Early Miocene Panama Canal Basin Fossil decapods from Panama have been recorded within the scientific literature for over a century, with the early descriptive publications closely aligned with the excavation of the Panama Canal. Most recently, Todd and Collins (2005) studied specimens mainly gathered as Œby-catch‚ for malacological collections of the Panama Paleontology Project. Their study yielded a total of 30 fossil decapod species. Todd and Collins (2005) postulated that there is a much higher level of diversity present within the geologic formations of Panama and Costa Rica. With focused collecting, the true decapod diversity should be much greater. Although many additional decapod species are undoubtedly hidden within the sediments of Panama, some formations along the canal basin have been extensively collected. The Culebra Formation, broadly exposed in the Panama Canal expansion, is interpreted as a shallow marine environment. Within the Culebra Formation, hundreds of specimens of Palaeopinnixa sp. have been discovered.

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With few exceptions, most fossil decapod faunas found world-wide produce a few dozen individuals of any given species, so the large number of specimens is noteworthy. This abundance of specimens allows for a population study to determine intraspecific variation, sexual dimorphism, and possible ontogenetic changes within this taxon. Many of these characteristics have been theorized about in the paleontological literature, but opportunities to study them are rare. Preliminary results of this population study are presented here.

Keywords: Decapoda; Miocene; Panama; Hexapodidae

Romero, Ingrid; Jaramillo C.; Zavada M. Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama; College of Arts and Sciences, Seton Hall University, USA

Dispersed pollen of Spirosyncolpites spiralis: Modern affinity, biogeography and ecological implications

The pollen grain of Spirosyncolpites spiralis was first described from the lower to the middle Eocene of Colombia by Gonzalez (1967). The pollen is spheroidal to subspheroidal, isopolar and the tectum is coarsely reticulate and semitectate. The aperture, rarely seen, has been described as syncolpate and tricolpate. S. spiralis has been registered from the Paleocene to the Pliocene (68-2 Ma), indicating that it was originated in the tropical latitudes of Africa (~65 Ma) and after it was expanded to the Neotropics (~56 Ma). This palynomorph has been associated with warm temperatures not only for its tropical distribution; also because the fossil record indicates that it highest abundance was during the Late Paleocene Thermal Maximum and during the Eocene. The most related extant taxa associated with S. spiralis are species of the genera Pithecoctenium and Distictella, family Bignoniaceae, species of the genus Jacqueshuberia, family Fabaceae, which are distributed only in the Neotropics. The possible extinction of Spirosyncolpites spiralis in the tropical latitudes of Africa after the Pliocene could be related to the increase of savannah and deserts in Africa during the last global cooling.

Keywords: Biogeography; palynology; Neotropics; Colombia; Spirosyncolpites spiralis; Paleogene

R-Alarcon, Viviana; Miranda-Esquivel, DR. Laboratorio de Sistemática y Biogeografía, Universidad Industrial de Santander. Laboratorio de Sistemática y Biogeografía, Universidad Industrial de Santander.

GeoCAMT: Cleaning Gegraphical Data

Distributional mega-databases in electronic format are an important source of data for understanding global biodiversity. The most used is the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), that could be a data source to many analyses, usually, at continental scale. Despite the advantage that the free databases have, it has been very difficult to control the error inherent in handling the data, therefore the aim of this work was to develop a set of functions in R platform, to deploy a cleaning tool for the systematic debugging of occurrences by reducing the noise or eliminating the "junk" data downloaded from GBIF. As an example, species of Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia classes were downloaded for lowlands (less than 1000 m) from Costa Rica to Perú.

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We filtered the data in the following sequence: 1) we kept occurrences of species present in lowlands that are nor widely distributed nor migratory, 2) the occurrences were separated into two categories: georeferenced or not georeferenced, using a minimum cut of three occurrences per species, as this is the minimum number of points to plot a line or a polygon, 3) Sea points and duplicates were removed and 4) species names were homogenized. Finally, some statistical values were calculated for every species, to evaluate the bias on the data. The package contains tools that allow further operations as: Convert data to Martitracks and VNDM, convert DivaGis files to .shp polygons, assign the height to a coordinate, convert between polar and planar coordinates, compare species between polygons and perform a "Parsimony analysis of endemism". For the data used, the cleaned occurrences ranges from 12% in reptiles to a maximum of 35% in birds, with 21% average for the 4 taxa used. This figure is important because it is considered that most of the GBIF data are unreliable, but with a systematic debugging is possible to minimize cleaning time and reduce the error or bias when a distributional analysis is performed.

Keywords: GBIF; R project; Martitracks; VNDM; PAE.

Salas-Gismondi, Rodolfo; Tejada-Lara JV; Antoine PO Institut des Sciences de l’Évolution, Université Montpellier 2, France; Florida Museum of Natural History/University of Florida, USA; Institut des Sciences de l’Évolution, Université Montpellier 2, France

Potential role of the northern proto-Amazonian drainage for biotic dispersals from South America to the Caribbean

When and how non-volant vertebrates of South American origin became established in the Caribbean Archipelago is a matter of arduous debate. This phylogenetic disparate assembly includes extinct and/or extant caviomorph rodents, megalonychid sloths, platyrrhine primates, bufonid toads, cichlid fishes, and a gharial crocodylian that might have reached the Caribbean islands sometime during the Cenozoic. Although geological evidence reveals sea barriers isolating this Archipelago from South America since the Paleocene, the occurrence of short-term terrestrial paths has not been fully falsified. Unfortunately, the pre- Quaternary fossil record is scarce and it does not provide significant data about early Cenozoic life within the Caribbean Archipelago. Given the complexity of this scenario, biogeographical hypotheses range from Cretaceous vicariance models to Cenozoic dispersals by land bridges (e.g., GAARlandia) or rafting. Here, we would like to highlight the overlooked existence of an ancient South American drainage discharging into the Caribbean Sea by the eastern modern coast of Venezuela. This trunk river of northern flow was deeply rooted in western proto-Amazonia, between the growing Andes and the Guyana Craton, from the Paleocene until the Middle-Late Miocene transition. Large rivers in tropical coastal areas have been acknowledged as key elements for the biotic dispersal (i.e., by rafting) through sea barriers, interestingly involving Caribbean clades such as caviomorph rodents and platyrrhine primates as models. In fact, the restricted higher-order taxonomic composition of the Caribbean fauna implies a selective pattern of dispersal within the biotic entities at the source, comprising also secondarily freshwater clades (gharials and cichlid fishes) and taxa with marine relatives (megalonychid sloths). In western Amazonia, most Caribbean groups have been recorded as fossils during the time interval this northern flow drainage might have acted as a dispersal catalyst.

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Relative to GAARlandia hypothesis, this model fits better with distinct and diachronous events of colonization throughout the Cenozoic, as has been suggested by molecular data analyses. Caribbean Sea currents running northwestward provide further support for the riverine model discussed herein and originally proposed by Hedges in 1996. Although this model is not new, there is now evidence of the South American river that would have promoted dispersals to the Caribbean Archipelago.

Keywords: proto-Amazonia; Caribbean Archipelago; Biogeography; fossil vertebrates

Sedio, Brian E. Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute

Fine-scale niche structure of Neotropical forests reflects a legacy of the Great American Biotic Interchange

I present a dramatic example of the influence of geographic history at a continental scale on the assembly of plant communities sampled in 3 m radius census plots. At such a small spatial scale, species co-occurrence has been thought to reflect the outcome of temporally rapid competitive interactions that would preclude the coexistence of close relatives or select for their phenotypic divergence through character displacement. Contrary to those expectations, I demonstrate that the species composition in the forest understory on Barro Colorado Island is to a large degree determined by the geographic region in which the species originated prior to arriving in central Panama.

Sepulchre, Pierre LSCE / CNRS, France

Links between tectonics, climate and evolution throughout the Cenozoic

The late Cenozoic was a period of profound changes in Neotropical environments, with the rise of the Andes, the restriction of the Central American Seaway (CAS) and major modifications over the continent, with changing Amazon river-routing and long-standing inland seaways. Understanding how these perturbations have altered climate and in turn neotropical biodiversity require several steps. In the recent years, several studies have focused on quantifying the impact of the Andes and Panama seaway closure on global and regional climate, using numerical tools such as General Circulation Models. These studies help understanding how the Andes affects surface winds and in turn, freshwater balances over the ocean and associated sea surface temperatures. The continental effect of the Andean uplift, i.e. the changes in river routing within the Amazon basin and the modified location of its freshwater outflow to the ocean, can be modeled as well. Results show that mechanical an d hydrological effects of the uplift are not acting in the same direction.

Still, if such experiments provide first-order quantifications of how these geological events shaped large-scale climate, they fail to document precisely how environments changed through time at the regional scale. New thoughts of techniques to simulate paleoclimate at a fine scale will be discussed.

Keywords: Paleoclimate; Cenozoic; Panama; Andes; climate modelling; uplift; seaways

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Steege, Hans ter Naturalis Biodiversity Center

Are all species necessary to reveal ecologically important patterns?

While studying ecological patterns at large scales, ecologists are often unable to identify all collections, forcing them to either omit these unidentified records entirely, without knowing the effect of this, or pursue very costly and time-consuming efforts of identifying them. These "indets" may be of critical importance but as of yet their impact on the reliability of ecological analyses is poorly known. In addition, scientists often rely heavily on incomplete datasets, for instance in meta-analyses in evolution or ecology. We investigated the consequence of omitting the unidentified records and provide an explanation for the results. We used three large-scale independent datasets from Guyana/Suriname, French Guiana and Ecuador, respectively. Each dataset consisted of records having been identified to a valid species name (Identified Morpho-Species - IMS) and a number of unidentified records (Unidentified Morpho-Species - UMS). A subset was created for each dataset containing only the IMS, which was compared with the complete dataset containing All Morpho-Species (AMS: = IMS + UMS) for the following analyses: species diversity (Fishers alpha), similarity of species composition, Mantel test and ordination (NMDS). In addition we also simulated an even larger number of unidentified records for all three datasets and analysed the agreement between similarities again with these simulated datasets. For all analyses the results were extremely similar when using the complete datasets or the truncated subsets. IMS predicted 91% of the variation of AMS in all tests/analyses. Even when simulating a larger fraction of UMS, IMS predicted the results for AMS rather well (R2>83%). Using only IMS also out-performed using higher taxon data (genus level identification) for similarity analyses. Finding a high congruence for all analyses when using IMS rather than AMS suggests that patterns of similarity and composition are very robust. In other words, having a large number of unidentified species in a dataset may not affect our conclusions as much as is often thought.

Tejada, Julia; Salas-Gismondi R; Antoine P-O Florida Museum of Natural History/University of Florida, USA; Institut des Sciences de l’Évolution, Université Montpellier 2, France; Institut des Sciences de l’Évolution, Université Montpellier 2, France

Pebas, Acre, and Parana systems: connecting the dots to elucidate mammalian biogeographic patterns in the Miocene of South America

The faunistic disconnection between Tertiary mammal assemblages of northern and southern South America (SA) has generally be explained in terms of latitudinal differences. Although this might be accurate in some cases, in others it is an oversimplification of the causes underlying some biogeographic patterns; perhaps by the divorce of what we know about the prevailing environmental conditions and the existing faunas across the continent. This is true when considering equatorial Tertiary faunas whose evolutionary and biogeographic traits are sometimes explained as subordinate functions of faunas in the southern cone. The Middle Miocene Fitzcarrald fauna (Laventan SALMA, Peruvian Amazonia) provides new faunal data and some insights about patterns of temporal and biogeographic mammal distribution during the Miocene.

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The faunistic composition of Fitzcarrald was compared with other six Miocene faunas throughout the continent to test the effect of time and latitude on mammal distribution. Results showed expected faunistic resemblances between Fitzcarrald and La Venta. Contrarily, Fitzcarrald is faunistically closer to late Miocene low-latitude Acre than with coeval mid-latitude Qda Honda. Previous analysis on similarity between Miocene mammal faunas showed contradictory patterns. On the one hand, differences between low and mid/high latitude Middle Miocene localities were observed. Contrarily, low-latitude Late Miocene localities were found faunistically closer with faunas in Argentina and Uruguay. It is proposed herein that these apparent opposite scenarios are partially the result of the dominance and disappearance of the Pebas system. In the Early and Middle Miocene, western tropical SA was dominated by the Pebas megawetland, a huge lacustrine complex most likely a vicariant barrier for areas in northern SA. Although the Paranaense continental sea located in eastern central SA suffered some retreat by that time, this still large inland aquatic system might have stressed isolating conditions particularly for terrestrial Patagonian faunas. By the Middle-Late Miocene, a peak in the uplift of central and northern Andes triggered the disappearance of the Pebas system together with the aquatic barriers that were disrupting latitudinal biotic fluxes. The subsequent Acre system, the predecessor fluvial system of modern Amazonia, might have played a minimal role as a vicariant barrier considering faunal similarities in low and middle latitudes during the Late Miocene.

Keywords: Pebas system; biogeography; Miocene

Tello, Juan S.; Jiménez I; Loza MI; Myers JA; Macía MJ; Fuentes AF; Cayola L; Arellano G; Cornejo M; Torrez VW; Jørgensen PM Center for Conservation and Sustainable Development, Missouri Botanical Garden, USA; Department of Biology, University of Missouri, USA; Department of Biology and Tyson Research Center, Washington University, USA; Departamento de Biología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain; Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Bolivia; Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Bolivia; Real Jardín Botánico and Departamento de Biología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain; Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Bolivia; Division of Plant Conservation and Population Biology, Department of Biology, University of Leuven, Belgium; Missouri Botanical Garden, USA

The evolutionary and ecological assembly of a tropical flora along an elevational gradient in the Andes

Elevational gradients in biological diversity represent one of the most striking and consistent patterns of life on Earth, but the underlying mechanisms remain contentious and a major focus of macroecological research. Using data from the Madidi Project – an extensive study of plant distributions along a 4,000 m elevational gradient in the Bolivian Andes – we examine how evolutionary and ecological processes have shaped the distribution of species at multiple spatial scales, ultimately giving rise to elevational patters of biodiversity. First, we tested the hypothesis that the historical assembly along elevational gradients in the Andes was dominated by the immigration of clades pre-adapted to environments that emerged during mountain uplift. This hypothesis predicts that differences in species composition along the elevational gradient primarily reflect replacement of clades that diverged from each other before the Andean orogeny. Consistent with this hypothesis, w e found that the assembly of modern floras along the elevational gradient is explained by sorting of pre-Andean clades, rather than by adaptive diversification.

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Second, we tested a more recent and controversial hypothesis that the strength of processes leading to spatial aggregation of species, and thus determining the structure of local assemblages, is invariant along elevational gradients. Contrary to recent studies, we found that these processes are not only important in structuring communities, but that their strength varies systematically with elevation. Our results illustrate how evolutionary and ecological mechanisms interactively shape some of the most iconic gradients in global biodiversity.

Keywords: Andes; community assembly; elevational gradient; forest; null model

Torchin, Mark Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancon, Panama

Asymmetry of marine invasions across latitude and oceans: exploring the mechanisms

Biological invasions are a significant force of global change. Introduced species pose a major threat to the world’s biodiversity and can impact food supplies, industry, infrastructure, ecosystem services, and human health. Biological invasions also can serve as natural experiments that provide insight into ecology and evolution. In modern time, there appears to be significant differences in the extent of invasions across latitudes, continents, and habitats. In marine ecosystems, most invasions are reported near human population centers in coastal bays and estuaries, resulting from ship-mediated species transfers. However, relatively few introduced species have been documented in the tropics. It has been hypothesized that tropical regions are more resistant to invasion compared to temperate zones because of biotic resistance due to high native biodiversity. Similarly, historical biotic interchange across tropical oceans is considered to be asymmetrical with some regions serving as centers, or origins of biodiversity. Those centers of diversity are also thought to be less susceptible to invasion. Our research suggests two broad patterns, consistent with these predictions, for tropical marine invasions. First, in contrast native species diversity, introduced species richness declines with latitude, with fewer invasions in the tropics. Second, in Panama, introduced species are more numerous (total species and proportion of species) in the Pacific compared to the Atlantic indicating an asymmetrical pattern of invasion. Panama Canal provides an especially important model system for testing predictions about tropical marine invasions and affords the ability to experimentally examine processes facilitating invasions in two oceans separated by only 80 km. To begin to experimentally examine factors that drive differences in patterns of invasions across oceans and to specifically test for differences in biotic resistance from predators, we asked whether introduced invertebrates that are established in both regions were more effectively excluded by predation. Using a predator exclusion experiment, conducted across oceans on both sides of the Panama Canal we show that predation on sessile invertebrates is stronger in the Pacific compared to the Atlantic and this differentially alters community composition and the abundance of introduced species.

Turner, Benjamin L. Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancon, Panama

Soil phosphorus and the ecology of lowland tropical forests

In this presentation I will explore the extent to which phosphorus influences the productivity, diversity, and distribution of plant species in tropical forests. I will highlight the range of soils that occur in tropical forests and will argue that pedogenesis and associated phosphorus depletion is a primary driver of forest diversity over long timescales. 35

I will draw on data from a regional-scale network of forest dynamics plots in Panama to show that tree species distributions are determined predominantly as a function of dry season intensity and soil phosphorus availability, and will suggest potential mechanistic explanations for this pattern in relation to phosphorus acquisition. I will present evidence from a long-term field experiment in Panama that demonstrates how multiple nutrients, including phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium, limit plant productivity and microbial communities on strongly-weathered soils in the lowland tropics. Finally, I will discuss the implications of these results for attempts to model the response of tropical plant communities and soil carbon stocks to climate change and increasing carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere.

Valderrama, Eugenio; Kidner CA; Stone GN; Richardson JE Tropical Diversity, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, UK; University of Edinburgh, Institute of Evolutionary Biology, UK; Tropical Diversity, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, UK

Transcriptome mining for phylogenetic markers in Renealmia L.f. (Zingiberaceae)

Species-level phylogenies are required to test several hypotheses addressing the origin of the outstanding diversity of Neotropical plants and are unavailable for a high proportion of the lineages inhabiting this region. Estimating species-level phylogenies for recently diversified groups is challenging because of the lack of signal in traditional molecular markers and the amount of fieldwork required to sample widespread and species-rich groups. We generated transcriptomes for three species of the genus Renealmia L.f. (c. 80 spp.; Zingiberaceae) and designed primers to amplify introns within conserved and potentially orthologous proteins scattered throughout the genome, using data available in public repositories for model angiosperms. We obtained 12 short and genus-specific markers that are more variable than the traditionally sequenced regions and can be applied to DNA extracted from herbarium specimens. We discuss the potential of this cost-effective approach to obtain more robust species-level phylogenies with increased taxon sampling for Renealmia and other diverse and widespread groups of Neotropical plants.

Keywords: Phylogenetic markers; Transcriptomes; Species-level phylogeny; Renealmia

Vásquez, Sebastian; Pineda O Universidad del Quindío, Quindío, Colombia

Geographical distribution Heterophrynus boterorum Giupponi & Kury, 2013 (Amblypygi: Phrynidae) in the Central Andes of Colombia

Geographic distribution information in situ and ex situ samples collected in the central Andes of Colombia was constructed data. 17 locations were used, distributed in 3 departments of Colombia. Altitudinal zones of the Central Cordillera were taken from 1000-1850 meters. They collected a total of 47 individuals and deposited in the collections of MAUQ (Arthropod Museum at the University of Quindio, Armenia) and CIUQ (Collection of Insects, University of Quindio, Armenia). Habitat type data were available, the climatic variables most related to the distribution of this species. The test species is endemic Heterophrynus boterorum of the Andes, besides, it is the only species present in the area amblipigido study. Currently little is known about its biology, it is vital to study this species.

Keywords: Geographica; distribution; Amblypygi; habitat; Quindio

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Ward, Philip Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis CA 95616, USA

The acacia-ants revisited: the evolutionary history of a classic ant-plant mutualism

The acacia-ants in the Pseudomyrmex ferrugineus group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and their associated swollen-thorn acacia hostplants in the genus Vachellia (formerly in Acacia) are a textbook example of a closely integrated ant-plant mutualism. The ants receive shelter and food from the host, and in return they aggressively defend the plant against herbivores and competing plants. While considerable attention has focused on the ecology and behavior of these ants, our knowledge of the evolutionary history of the group remains fragmentary. This study examines the phylogeny and biogeography of the P. ferrugineus-group, employing 10 nuclear genes and comprehensive sampling of taxa. The results reveal the P. ferrugineus group to be a well-supported Mesoamerican clade, comprising ten species of obligate acacia-ants. Two species of generalist (dead twig-inhabiting) ants are nested within the clade, however, indicating that the association with swollen-thorn acacias has ari sen twice within the group. Closely related taxa tend to be distributed allopatrically or show only slight overlap in their ranges. Geographical barriers conducive to speciation are inferred to have occurred in western Mexico, northern Nicaragua/southern Honduras, southern Costa Rica, and central Panama. The sister taxon of the P. ferrugineus group is P. perboscii, a species widespread in Central and South America, that inhabits live stems of other plant genera but apparently provides little protection to the plants. This suggests that ant-plant associations in the P. ferrugineus group evolved in the context of a predisposition towards nesting in live plant cavities.

Keywords: phylogeny; biogeography; Mesoamerica; ant-plants; Formicidae

Wolfe, Brett Department of Biology, University of Utah, USA

Does deciduousness protect tropical trees from drought stress?

Among tropical forests, the richness and abundance of deciduous tree species increase as dry season length and severity increase. This pattern suggests that deciduousness is an adaptive response to drought and has led to predictions of deciduous-forest expansion under climate change. Shedding leaves slows water loss from trees, which may protect their stems from drought stress at the expense of lost leaf material. From this simple, yet largely untested hypothesis several predictions emerge: 1) trees shed leaves when their water status approaches thresholds that would cause stem damage, 2) during normal dry seasons, trees experience minimal stem damage from water stress, and 3) after shedding leaves, tree water status stabilizes. To test these predictions, I tracked leaf area and plant water status over two dry seasons in saplings of six tree species distributed across two seasonally dry forests in Panama. The water status at with trees shed 50 % of their leaf area correlated with critical points of water status, specifically the loss of 50 % and 80 % of their hydraulic conductivity. Trees generally did not experience stem damage (in terms of loss of hydraulic conductivity) during the dry season. After shedding leaves, the water status of most species stabilized; however, in one species, Genipa americana, water status continued to decline even after all leaves had been shed. These results suggest that leaf shedding is coordinated with other drought responses that protect trees from desiccation such as stomatal closure.

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However, drought deciduousness is not universally effective at maintaining plant water status. It probably must be coordinated with belowground responses that that prevent water loss from roots. Thus, although deciduousness appears to be an adaptive response to drought, it does not always protect stems from drought stress. Therefore, deciduousness may not predict how species will respond to climate change.

Keywords: dry forest; drought; leaf phenology; plant water transport; tree physiology

Zalamea P. Camilo; Turner BL; Winter K; Jones FA; Sarmiento C; Dalling JW Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama; Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, USA; Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois, USA

Seedling responses to phosphorus predict regional distributions of tropical trees

The determinants of local and regional species composition in tropical forests remains poorly understood. Across the Isthmus of Panama, the distributions of many tree species are correlated with soil phosphorus, but the traits that underlie this association have not been determined. Here we evaluate whether the strength of regional-scale species associations with soil phosphorus predicts 1) seedling growth responses to phosphorus addition, 2) allocation to below-ground biomass, and 3) investment in the production of phosphatase enzymes to acquire organic phosphorus. We also explore the phylogenetic structure of phosphorus associations by determining the extent to which the strength of phosphorus affinities of 550 Panamanian tree species is phylogenetically clustered or over-dispersed relative to random expectations. We found that species with affinity for high phosphorus soils grew slower and synthesized less phosphatase when grown in low phosphorus conditions, but grew faster and synthesized more phosphatase when given additional phosphorus. Overall, 16% of species that occur on the Isthmus of Panama belong to clades in which the phylogenetic structure of phosphorus associations is overdispersed, suggesting that species responses to phosphorus limitation, which is common in tropical lowland forests, has contributed to lineage diversification within common clades of tropical trees. We conclude that variation in soil-phosphorus dependent growth rates and organic phosphorus acquisition abilities provide a mechanism that explains the observed regional distribution of a large fraction of tree species in Panamanian lowland tropical forests, and likely elsewhere in phosphorus-limited tropical systems worldwide.

Keywords: Phosphatase activity; phosphorus; pioneer trees; soil resource partitioning; tree distributions

Zizka, Alexander; Antonelli A; Bacon CD; Silvestro D; Scharn R et al. University of Gothenburg, Sweden; University of Gothenburg, Sweden; University of Gothenburg, Sweden; University of Gothenburg, Sweden

Contrasting African vs South American biodiversity: An eco-evolutionary approach

Biodiversity in plants and animals is not equally distributed on the globe. The vast majority of species occurs in the tropic regions of the world. Within these species rich regions the Neotropics are perceived as particularly divers with high species richness in many taxonomic groups. This pattern is especially evident in comparison to Africa, which is often considered as the “odd man” of the tropical regions due to the relatively low species richness in many groups.

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South America comprises about three times as many vascular plant species as Africa, with similar patterns observed for amphibians, birds, reptiles and other groups. These differences are surprising given these landmasses’ similar areas, latitudinal position, Gondwanan geology, ancestral biota and current ecosystems. Potential explanations for this discrepancy in biodiversity could come from the different geo-tectonic histories or differences in present climate conditions. While it is generally accepted that present patterns of biodiversity have been shaped by a combination of current conditions and evolutionary history, the underlying causes and the importance of each individual factor remain unclear. In this project we are conducting a cross-taxonomic comparison of biodiversity patterns between the two continents, as well as the underlying processes underlying them (speciation, extinction and migration). We aim at quantifying and separating the influence of current and past environmental conditions on species richness. Here I present first results from continent –scale analyses of species diversity patterns in plants and different animal groups. Additionally I outline integrative approaches to combine species diversity data with phylogenetic information in order to assess when and how the biodiversity dichotomy between Africa and South America evolved.

Keywords: Biodiversity; Neotropics; Africa; Plant evolution

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