T H E WA L L S , GAT ES

E T F AQU D U C S O ROM E .

B! T H M A H D IN D L . O S O G ! , . C .

L O ND ON

JO HN M URR ! L BE M RL E S T RE E T A , A A .

1 899 .

PRE F ACE .

The follo w ing extracts from the fourth volume of my

! H istory of Italy and her Invaders, are made fo r the co nvenien c e of travellers w ho may desire to read on the sp o t the acco unt there given of the Walls, Gates, and Aqueducts

m w ho o n ot ea sil oo m r , of Ro e,but. c uld y find r in th ei baggage fo r a somewhat bulky volume .

The City of Ro me was evacuated by the Ostrogo ths, and entered by Belisarius, the general of J ustinian ,on the 9th of 5 3 December, 5 3 6 . Early in March, 7, the Ostrogothic h ost, u nder their King, Witigis, reappeared under its walls, and began the memorabl e siege which lasted for a year and nine days, but ended at last by their marching away, leaving the

city untaken .

The sto ry of that siege has been given u s by the histo rian

Procopius, a civil servant on the staff o f Belisarius, an d will be fo und transcribed at some length in the v olume fro m which

I to n o w o n these extracts are taken . refer it ly in o rde r to explain some allusions which migh t oth er w ise perplex the

n of reader . I have reprinted here o ly so much my boo k as des c ribes the City (in the year the Walls, an d the

Aqueducts o f Ro me .

TH OM AS H OD G! IN .

1 — CIT! R OME IN 5 3 6 TH E W L L S . THE OF , AND A

OF AU R E L IU S AND HONORIUS .

Belisarius seems not to have taken up his ab ode in any of

the imperial residences on the Palatine Hill, where the rep re sentati ve o f the Byzanti n e Caesar might naturally have been

expected to dwell, but, prescient o f the coming struggle, to

have at o nce fi xed his quarters on the Pincian Hill . This ridge

on the no rth of Rome, so well kn o wn by every visitor to the

modern city, w ho,h o wever short his stay , is sure to have seen the long train o f carriages climbi ng to or returning fro m the

fa shi onable drive, a n d w ho has probably stood up on its height in o rde r to o btain the splen did view which it affo rds of the

’ n o t one of o of do me o f St . Peter s, was the riginal seven hills

the city,nor fo rmed ,strictly speaking, a part even of imperial

e m o H ortuloru m o r Rome . Kn own in arlier ti es as the C llis ,

Hill of Gardens, it occupied too commanding a p os ition to be

safely left o utside the defences ,a nd had therefo re been included

within the circ uit of the walls of H o n o rius, so me of the great retain in g walls of the garde n s of M . Q. Acilius Glabrio having d 1 e o o r e e . t , be n inc rp ated with th new fences Here hen in the Advantag e s o f h o 2 t e p siti on . n m o Do mus Pi ciana , the i perial General to k up his abode .

- Albeit probably somewhat dismantled, it was d o ubtless still a stately a nd spacio us palace,though it has now disappeared and

n m r left o trace behind . I t was ad i ably adapted for his purpose, being in fact a watch - to wer commandi n g a view all ro und the

1 I n h e o f L anci ani w h o con s d s i s give thi s fact o t auth rity o S . , i er th t of the n th R i Its com par wall to bel o g to e epubl can age . paratively early i date s sho wn by th e large masse s of Op us reti cula tum whi ch it con tain s , this di amon d~ sh ap ed style of brickwork n ot havin g been used in R ome t th af er e earli est age of th e E mpire .

om s n n i m n i d ri Vari arum The D u Pi cia a s e tioned in Ca ss o o ,iii . ,1 0, where Theo d ori c orders Festus to tran sp ort the marble s whi ch it a ppears have been taken d own from the Pi n cian house quae de d omo Pin ciana cons tat esse deposita to Ravenna . P r e a r a t ons or M e D e ence o ome 6 p i f f f R .

1 o m om n rthern horizon, fro the Vatican to the Mons Sacer . Fr this p o int a ride of a few minutes on his swift charger would

bring him to the next great vantage-ground, the Castra

Praetoria, whose square enclosure, proj ecting beyo nd the

ordinary line o f the H onoria n walls,made a tempting obj ect of

attack ,but also a splendid watch -tower for defence,carrying on

’ the general s view to the Praenestine Gate (Porta Maggiore) on

- the so uth east of the city . Thus, from these two points,about a third of the whole circuit o f the walls,and nearly all o f that

part which was actually attacked by the Go ths, was visible .

That the city would have to be defended,and that it would

tax all his po wers to defend it successfully,was a matte r that

was perfectly clear to the mind of Belisarius, tho ugh the

’ Romans,dwelling in a fool s paradise of false security,deemed that all their tro ubles were o ver when the 4000 G oths marched

fo rth by the Flaminian Gate . They thought that the war w o uld inevitably be decided elsewhere by some great pitched m m battle . It see ed to the obvi o us that so skilful a general as Belisarius w o uld never consent to be besieged in a city so little

defen ded by nature as was the wide circuit o f imperial Ro me, no r undertake the almost su pe rhuman task of providin g fo r the

sustenance of that vast populatio n i n additi o n to his o w n army .

Such , however,was the scheme o f Belisarius,who knew that behind the walls o f Rome his little army c o uld o ffer a more

' eflectual resistance to the e n emy than in any pitched battle on

o o to the Campanian plains . Sl wly and sadly the citizens aw ke the fact that their hasty defecti on from the Gothic cause was

by no means to relieve them from the hardships of a siege .

Possibly some of them, in the year of misery that lay befo re

them,even envied the short and sharp agony of N eapolis .

The commissariat of the city was naturally o ne o f the chief Commi ssari at. ’ om obj ects o f the General s solicitude . Fr Sicily, still the

granary of the State, his ships had bro ught and were daily

bringing large supplies of grain . These were carried into the

1 he I think that this i s correct, and probably an un derstatement of t h But the o s an d ns of the l s o s extent of t e view . gr ve garde Vi la B rghe e h m c a n d Albani outside th e wall s make it difficult now to say exactly ow u h

w as vis ible from the Pincian i n the time of Beli sarius . r M e Wa s Repa i of ll .

536 . great warehouses (hor r ea p ubli ca ) ,which were under the care m m - of the Praefectus An nonae . At the sa e ti e the citizens, sorely gru mbling, were set busily to wo rk to bring into the city the corn and provisions of all kinds that were sto red in the

r sur ounding country .

Side by side with this great wo rk went on the repair of th e walls,which Belisarius found in many places somewhat ruino us . Tw o hundred and sixty years had elapsed since they were erected by Aurelian and Pro bus, on e hundred and thi rty since they were renewed by H o nori us,and in the latter inte rval they may have suffered not only from the slow foot of time, but from the destroying hands of the s oldiers of Al aric,of Gais eric,

’ f Ri im r o o i o and o c e . The d ric s steady and persever ng lab urs

n had effected so mething, but much still remained to be d o e .

Belisarius repaired the rents which still existed, dre w a deep and wide fosse ro und the outer sid e o f the wall, and supplied what he considered to be a deficiency in the battlements by adding a cross -wall to each on the left hand,so that the soldier might dispense with the use of a shield,being guarded against 1 arrows and j avelins hurled again st him from that quarter .

The walls and gates of imperial Rome, substantially the same walls which Belisarius defended, and many of th e same gates at which the Goths battered,are still visible ; and few

0 of histo rical monumen ts surpass them in interest . N survey them has yet been made suffici e ntly minute to enable us to say with certa inty to what date each p ortion of them bel on gs : b ut some gen eral c onclusi ons may be safely draw n even by the

ma s r eti cula tum superficial observer . Here you y see the op u , that cross-hatched brickwork which marks a building of the Julian or Fl avian age there the fine and r egular brickw ork of Aurelian there again the poor debased wo rk of the time of i Hon orius . A l ttle further on,you come to a place where layers of u - o bricks regularly laid cease altogether . Mere r bble w rk thrust in anyho w, bl o cks of marble, fragments of columns ; such is the mate rial with which the fatal holes in the walls

1 I sum I am n ot to pre e that this is th e mean ing of Procopius . able state whether an y traces of these cross -battlements or of th e B eli sari an os s n s f e have bee di covered . T/ze Wa s o m ll f Ro e . have been darned and patched ; and here antiquaries are

‘ ’ ge n erally disp o sed to see the tumultuary resto rations of Beli sarius w orking in hot haste to complete his repairs befo re

Witi is o r o g the later T tila should appear before the walls . In a few places the gap in the brickwork is supplied by different m m and ore assive materials . Great square blocks of the black vol canic stone called tufa ,of which the wall of Servius Tullius m was co posed , are the sign of this intrusive formati on . Are these also due to the rapid resto rations of Belisarius, or was it part o f the original plan to make the now superseded wall of the

Ki n g do duty, after nine centuries, in the rampart of the

Emperor ! We turn an angle of the walls, and we see the mighty arches of the interlacing aqueducts by which Rome was fed w ith water from the Tiburtine and the Alban hills,with k admirable s ill made available for the defence of the city .

We mo ve onward , we come to Christian mon ograms, to m ediaeval inscriptions, to the armorial bearings of Po pes . At the so uth of the city we look upon the grand Bastion,which marks the restori ng hand o f the great Farnese Pope, Paul III,

n f empl oyi g the genius o Sangallo . We pass the great gate o f

to Ostia, that gate thro ugh which St . Paul is believed have

o m o m m been led f rth to artyrd , and which now bears his na e .

The wall runs down sharply to the Tiber, at the foot o f that strange artificial hill the M onte Testaccio ; for half a mile it lines the left bank o f the stream ; then at the gate of P orto it reappears on the o pp o site side of the Tiber . Here it changes its character, and the chan ge is itself a compendium o f mediaeval

on o m history . The wall which the eastern sh re was I perial , with only some marks of Papal repair, now becomes purely

Papal ; the turrets give place to bastions ; Urban VII I, as 1 - name giver to the rampart, takes the place of Aurelian . We ‘ ’ see at once how dear the Leonine city was to the Pontifical

’ heart ; we discern that St . Peter s and the Vatican have taken the place which in I mperial Ro me was occupied by the Palatine, in Republican Rome by the Fo rum,the Capitol ,and the Temple of C oncord .

1 The cour se of th e wall of Aurelian i s in deed visible in many places i n th e Trans -tiberin e region , but it i s merely an archaeol ogical curiosity

th o fic ion . there ,q uite e cl ip sed i n importan c e by e Papal f rti at T / o m /ze H a lls f Ro e .

- 5 3 . As everywhere in Rome, so p re eminently in o u r c ir c uit of 6 the wall , the oldest and the newest ages are co n s tan tly j ostling

on e o f oo n against another . At the east the city we were l ki g at

Now the tufa blocks hew n by the masons of Servius Tullius . on the west we see the walls by the Po rta Aurelia sh ow i n g everywhere the dints of Fren ch bullets hurled against them when Oudinot in 18 4 9 crushed o ut the little life of the Ro man m Re public of Mazzini . For yet ore recent history we turn — again to our northern starting point, and there, almost under the palace of Belisari us, we see the stretch of absolutely new wall which marks the extent of the practicabl e breach through which the troops of Victor Emmanuel entered Rome in September, 18 70.

A first and even a second perambulati on of the walls o f

Rome, especially on the o utside,may hardly give the o bserver an adequate concepti on of their original completeness as a w ork of n defence . It has been well pointed out by o e of o ur 1 ’ German authorities that Aurelian s o bj e ct in constructing it canno t have been merely to furnish co ver for the comparatively

’ small numbers of the cohor tes u r ba na e,the o rdi n ary city -guard , but that he must have contemplated the necessity of a wh ole

m r f n o F or ar y gar isonin g the city and de endi g his w rk . this

’ reason we have in Aurelian s original line o f circumvallation, and to some extent, but less perfectly, in the H ono rian restoratio n of it, a complete gallery o r co vered way carried all 2 o o o n de r und the inside of the wall . N where can this rigi al i a of the wall be better studied than on the so uth- east of the city, in the portion between the Amphitheatru m Castrense and the

Porta Asinar ia , or, in ecclesiastical language, between the

o n n . Church of Santa Cro ce and that o f St . J h Latera Here,if we walk o utside, we see the kind of w o rk with which the rest of our to ur of inspection has already made us familiar, that is, a wall from 5 0 to 6 0 feet high,with square towers some 20 feet higher than the rest of the work,proj ecting from the circuit of

1 o d n m i 348 . J r a ,Topographi c der Stadt Ro , .

2 In h n t m t e works erected at Chollerf ord i N or hu berlan d (Cil urnum) , for the nc f o n fin d m defe e o the bridge o ver the N rth Ty e , we a. hu bler s cim n of pe e the same ki nd of covered way . Tee Wa s o ome ll f R .

1 5 3 6 . the wall at regular intervals of 3 3 yards . If we now pass in,

not by the Porta Asinari a , which is cl osed, but by its repre

sen tati v e the modern Porta San Gio van n i, we find o urselves looking up o n a structure greatly resembling one o f the great

Ro man aqueducts, and probably often taken for such by

of o of travellers . We can see c urse the backs the square

towers, but between every tw o of these there are seven tall

o arches about 3 3 feet high . A window thr ugh the wall near the bottom of each of these corresponds with an opening o utside

about half- way up the face o f the wall , and thus lets us see that the level of the gro und inside is from 20 to 30 feet higher

than o utside, the apparent height of the wall inside being of

co urse reduced by the same amount . In the wall behind the arches we can see the h oles marking the places where the ends

o n of two sets f rafters ,o e ab ove the other, have rested . More

o ver,the piers whi ch separate the arches are pi erced by another

set of tall thin arches at right angles to the others . The meani ng o f all these indicati ons evidently is that a corrid or or co vered way round the wh o l e inner circuit o f the wall of

Aurelian,where that was finished acco rding to the design of the

m tw o s o i perial builder . This gallery was t ries high between the t o wers ; a third sto ry w o uld be added where these gave the 2 o needful height . Besides these c vered galleries . which were used for the rapid transfer of troops from one part of the circuit

1 x 1 R m n c of o i s 24 on E actly 00 o a feet. The fa e the t wer (C D) feet l g, th e s d B E 1 2 t i es ( C,D ) fee .

B E

Many map s of modern Rome i ndicate th e pres ence of the se square

towers . The gr eater or les s regularity of their occurrence i s gen erally a s nd c on of the t r o n f h ori in l afe i i ati bet er o w rse pre servatio o t e g a wall .

‘2 In th e corrid or on the we stern side of the Porta S . Sebastiano,at the sc d an sc third tower from th e gate , Mr . Parker di overe early fre o repre ‘ s entin g th e Virgin with the in fant Christ, whi ch he believe s to be th e ’ i s n n i s kno w n as s nc om th e o f n of earl e t Mad o a that di ti t fr f eri g the Magi . Whether his infere nc e that a c hapel w a s constructed here for the soldiers ’ at the time o f The odori c s repairs be co rre ct or no t, at any rate the x st e i e nce of the fresco is an i nteresting fact (Ar chaeology of Rome ,i . Tee Wa s o ome ll f R .

5 to another, there was the regular path at the top o f the 36 . walls, partially protected by battlements, o n w hi ch the defenders were d o ubtless mustered when actual fighting was

o o g ing f rward .

F or our knowledge of the fo rtifications of the city w e are not entirely dependent on o ur present observati o n of the walls, battered as they have been by the storms o f the

M iddle Ages , and still more griev o usly as they have suffered at the hands of resto rers and modernisers in the last three

‘ ’ m f o o Th e i i centuries . The Pilgri o Einsiedeln, as he is c nventi nally P lgr m o f E i ns i edel n termed, a visitor to Rome in the eighth or ninth cen tury, reco rded the most n otewo rthy o bjects of the Etern al City in

is reserv e mo a of e i n a MS . which p d in the n stery Einsied ln

mo o m on Switzerland . A ng ther infor ati ,he gives us the precise number of the towers, the battlements, and the looph oles in each section of the wall, including even the sanitary arrange ments rendered necessary by the permanent presence o f a large body of troops . It has been generally supp osed that the Einsiedeln Pilgrim himself counted the to wers of the sacred city 1 o f St . Peter but the previ ously menti oned German authority suggests,with great probability, that he is really tran scribing some much earlier o fficial document, p ossibly that drawn up by the archite cts of H onorius at the beginning of t he fifth 2 century .

While Belisarius is repairing the mo uldering walls and assigning to the rude coho rts of his many -nation ed army their vari o us duties in the anticipate d siege, we may allo w ourselves to cast a hasty glance over the city which he has

r set hims elf to defend . A hasty glance, fo this is not the time n or the place for minute antiquarian discussi on ; yet a glance of some sad and earnest inte rest, since we know that

1 1 1 . s s s Jordan , T op ographie der Stadt R om, ii . 56 , 70 He ugge t ’ Amm on the geometer, w h o , accordi n g to Olymp i odorus (apud Photi um , onn d th m f f Home th e im B e iti on ,p . to ok e easure o the wall s o at t e ’ n th e m whe Goth s ade their attack upon th e c ity .

2 The reader may be i nterested in seei n g thi s techni cal de scription of that p ortion of th e defenc e s which w as chiefly c on spi c uous i n the Gothi c s n iege o f Rome . Th e turr es and fenes tra e (towers an d looph ole s) n eed o explanati on : the p rop ugna cula are the battlements , or to speak mo re s ect o R o me i n 6 A p f 5 3 .

5 3 6 . thi s is th e last time that Rome in her gl o ry will be seen by mortal man The thi n gs which have befallen her up to

this time have been o nly slight and tran s ito ry sh ocks, which — ’ have left n o lasti n g dint up o n her armo ur Alaric s burn i n g

’ of the palace o f Sallust, Ga is er ic s half-acco mplished spo liatio n

o f the golden r oof o f the temple o f J upiter Ca pito lin us, so me hav o c wro ught in th e insolence of their triumph by the

e t f i im no o b fo der a i o R c er . M ore destructive, d u t , was the sl o w pro cess of denudation al ready c ommenced by the

u n patri otic hands o f th e Ro man s themselves, and only

o partially checked by the decrees of Maj o r ia n and Theod ric .

Still , as a wh ole , Rome the Go lden City, the City of

’ C on suls and E mpero rs , the City o f Cicero s o rati ons, of

’ ’ H o race s idle perambulations, o f Traj a n s magnificent co n

In str uc tions, yet stood when the Gothic war began . the

s qualid , battered , d e p o pulated cl uster o f ruins, o ver whi c h

' ’ twe nty - eight years later so unded the heralds trumpets

proclaiming that the Gothi c war was ended , it wo uld have

n his m bee n hard fo r C ic ero , Ho race , o r Traj an to recog ise ho e .

Cla s si c al Rome we a re l ooking o n fo r the last time ; the Ro me

o f the Middle Age s , the city o f s acred shri n es and relics

a nd pilgrimages, is ab o ut to take her place .

ac curatel y ,the merl ons of th e emb attled wall ; necess a ri a e are beli eved to i m m 100 R om n be equiv ale nt to latrina e . It w ll be re e bered that a feet

w as the regulatio n di stan c e between to wer a n d to wer . A p orta F la mine a cum ip sa p orta usque ad p ortam Pin ci an am c lausa m : m Turres xxv u r,p rop ugnacula D c n u , n ece s sariae III ,fen estrae aj ore s

forin s e cus L xxv ,min ore s c xvn . A po rta Pinci a na c lausa c u m ip sa p o rta usque a d p o rtam S alariam

xx x nv v m a o forin s cc m no cnx . T urrs n ,ppg cc r,nec es s x u , fe ne s t. j r , i r A po rta Salaria c um ip s a p orta us que N umen tanam

x v u u n f n ma f ri n s L mi n v . Turr x . ppg c c , ec II , e j or o XXI , A porta- Num e nta na c um ipsa p orta usque Tiburti nam

ma fori ns ccxm r m no c c . Turr L V II ,ppg ,D CCCV I ,n e ce s s n , fe n j or , i r A p orta Tiburti na c um ip sa p orta usque ad Pr aenesti nam f n m o to n s Turr xv m r,pp g cum porta Prae nes ti n a cccu ,necess 1 , e aj r ri v L xxx ,mino r c m . A porta Praen es tina usque ad As in ariam

m f r in L xxx m no CL . T urr xxvr,ppg D H II,n ec v1 ,fen st aj or o s C , i r A p orta As i naria us que M e tro viam ’ m f ri ns c xxx m no CL xxx. Turr xx,ppg c ccxnrr,nec 1 m ,fene s t aj or o , i r ’ (From Jordan s T opographie der Stadt R om,ii . 578 s t o o me 6 A pec f R 53 . 13

It is imp ossible not to regret that Pro co pius has allo wed himself to say so little as to the impressio n made o n hi m by

n hi Ro me . He must have e n tered the city soo after s chief,

travelli n g by the Appian Way, the smooth a nd d urable 1 o n h hi t m c nstructi o o f whic mo ved m o great ad irati o n . But

of the citv itself, except of its gates a nd wall s i n so far as

th ese require descripti on in o rder to illustrate the siege, he

has very little to say . It is easy to understand his silence . Most auth ors shri n k fro m writi ng ab o ut the obvi o us and well

kn o wn . It w o uld perhaps be easier to meet with ten vivid descripti ons of the Island of Sky e than one of the Stran d or

n r Cheapside . But o t the l e ss is it a l o ss fo us that this quick and accurate observer, the Herod otus of the Po st - Christian

‘ age, has n ot reco rded mo re o f his impressi o ns of the streets,

o the buildings, and the people of Rome . Let us endeav ur, however,to put o urselves i n his place,and to reconstruct the

u city, at least in ge n eral ou tline, as he m st have beheld it .

J ourn eyi n g, as it is most pr o babl e that Proco pius did,by the Appian Way,he would en t e r Home by the gate then called the P o rta Appia,b ut n o w the Porta di San Se bastian o, on e of the fi n est o f the still remaini n g e n trances through the wall of

Aurelian, with tw o n oble towers, square within an d semi

' circular witho ut,the upper pa rt of which,acco rdi ng to a careful 2 En glish observer , bears traces of the restoring hand o f Theo

1 a r hi . . i 1 4 N w Thes e e s word s (De B G . ) o th e Vi a Appia i s a fiv e ’ s o n for oo s n n om R o m to day j ur ey a g d pede tria ,leadi g fr e Capua . It i s s o bro a d th at tw o waggon s c an pas s on e another al ong i ts wh ole c ourse ,an d m F r ll it i s e in ently wo rthy of ob servation . o a the ston es comp os in g it bei ng m ill - s to nes an d very h ard by n ature were brought by Appi us fro m u r s on off n n on k t m i n th e i s c i s f q ar ie a l g way ,there bei g e li e he d tri t t el . Havi n g made thes e ston e s smooth an d even an d c ut them into p o lygon s , they fitted them on e into another w ith out usin g rubble or any other N o w s to n s co s o i t n n c ement. the e s e here perfectly w h o e a other that they ook as if n ot n ific all o n but ow n o l they had bee art i y j i ed had gr t gether . N or h as their smo othn e s s been impair ed by th e daily pas sage of h orse s an d waggon s o ver them for s o great a len gth of time . They still fit as ’ c as an d a os n o in of o i n perfe tly ever h ve l t th g their r gi al beauty . ‘ ’ ’ (Obali ca, rubble or cement, i s Comp ar e tti s conjectur al emen dati on for Chalca ,

Mr . J . H . Parker . 14 s ect o ome i n 6 A p f R 53 .

1 mm do ric . I ediately after e ntering the city, Procopius w o uld

find hims elf passing under the still - preserved Arch o f Drusus ;

a nd those of Trajan and Verus, spanning the i n tra - mural

p o rtion o f the Appian Way, w ould befo re long attract his

no ti c e . This p ortion of the city,no w so desolate and e mpty of

inhabitants,was then pro bably thickly sown with the ho uses o f

the lower o rder of citizens .

on n m mo T he B aths o f High his left, whe he had proceeded so ewhat re C araca ll a. than half-a - mile, rose the mighty pile known to the ancie n ts as

the Thermae Antonin iana e,and to the moderns as the Baths of

Caracalla . Even in its ruins this building gives to the specta to r

m m f n an al ost o verwhel ing idea o vastness a d solidity . But 2 when Pro copius first saw it,the 1600 marble seats for bathers

were probably all o ccupied, the gigantic swimming-bath w as

filled with clear cold water fro m the Marcian aqueduct, the

' great circ ular Ca lda mum, 1 60 feet in diame ter , showed dimly

thro ugh the steam the fo rms o f hundreds of bathing Romans . Men were wrestling in the Palaestra and walking up and do wn

in o m the Peristyle connected with the baths . P lished arble and deftly wro ught mosaics lined the walls and covered the

n m u n m wo o f floors . At every turn o e ca e po so e priceless rk

art,li k e the Farnese Bull,the Hercules,the Flo ra,those statues

the remnants of which , dug out o f these ruins as from an

unfailing quarry , have immortalised the names of Papal Nephe w s and made the fortunes of the museums of Bo urbon Kings 3

And no w , as the traveller mo ved on, there ro se more and more pro udly above him the bill which has beco me for all later

ages synonymous with regal p o wer and magnificence, the

N o t imperial Palatine . as now,with only a villa and a convent

1 A curi ous ins cription on th e left-hand w al l inside this gate (ae com p ani ed by th e figure of a n archangel) re co rds th e invasio n of gens c and fores teria on th e last day but one before the feast of St . Mi hael , their ’ ‘ ab olition by the R oman people under the comman d of Jac obus de ' ens o es teri a oo s of ! i n o of s Pon ti a ni s . The g f r were the tr p g R bert Naple

- c c operating with th e Orsi ni ,i n the year 1 3 27 .

i m . 4 o nn . Olympiodo rus apud Pho t u ,p 69 (ed . B ) 5 The first impre s s ion of a vi s itor to th e Muse ums of S culpture at R ome and Naple s i s that every imp ortant work came either from the Bath s

of Caracalla or from the Villa of Hadrian . t n T/ze B a l es of Ca r a ca lla Tee P a la i e .

-flow ers standing erec t upon it . the rest, grass and wild , and rui n s for the most part not rising abo ve the level of the gro und .

The wh ole hill was cro wded with vast palaces, in which each successive dynasty had endeavoured to o utshi n e its prede c essor

o but o m in magnificen c e . Here, first, r se the tall perhaps s e what barbarous edifice with which Sever us had determined to — arrest the attention of his fellow pro vincials from Africa travelling along the Appian Way, in o rd e r that their first

m t question ab out Ro me might be answered by his na e . J us belo w it was the myste rio us S eptizoni um,the w ork o f the same

Empero r, the p orch of his palace and the co unterpart of his tomb,of whose seven sets of co lumns, rising tier ab ove tier, three were yet remaining on ly three centuries ago, when the remorseless Sixtus V transp orted them to the Vatican .

B ehind the palace of Severus, on the summit of the Palatine, were visible the immense banqueti n g halls o f th e Flavian

Emperors, Vesp as ian and Domitian ; behind them again th e more mod e s t h o use of Tib erius , and the la byrinth o f apart ments reared by the crazy Caligula .

In what Condition are we to supp ose that. all these i mpe rial dwellings were mainta ined when the troo ps o f the Eastern Cae sar came to reclaim them for their lord ! Certainly not with all that untarn ished magnificence which they p ossessed before the troubles of the third century co mmenced hardly even with the sh ow of affluence which they may still have w orn when

Constantius visited Rome in 3 57 . T w o centuri es had elapsed — since then tw o centuri es of more evil than good fo rtune centuries in which the struggle fo r mere existence had left the rulers of the State little money or time to spare for repairs or de corations . But n o thing, it may fairly be argued, had yet o ccurred to b ring these massive piles into an obvi o usly ruino us

o o m m e c nditi on . If the c parison ay be allo wed,thes dwellings on the Palatine probably presented in the State apartments that dingy appearance of faded greatness which on e sees in the country- ho use of a n oble family l ong resident abr oad, but externally they had l ost n othing of the stateliness with which

m n they were ea t to impress the mind of the beho lder .

If Procopius ascended to the summit o f the Palatine he may perchance have seen fro m thence, in the valley of the Circus A s eel o ome i n 16 p f R 53 6 .

Maximus ,between the Palatine and Aventine hills, a chariot rac e exhibited by the General to keep the p o pulace in good

o fii cial m t humour . Here the Byzantine would feel hi self o be

o o r at once at home . Whether he fav ured the Blue the Green faction we know not (though his animosity agai n st Theodora makes us incline to suspect him of sympathy with the

Greens) , but to whichso ever he belonged he co uld see his own

facti on striving for victory,and would hear,from at any rate a

large p orti on o f the crowd, the shouts with which they hailed

the triumph, or th e groans with which they lamented the

defeat,of their favourite colour .

Arch o f Continuing his journey, the historian passed under the C onstantine . eastern su mmit of the Palatine,and then beneath the Arch of

C onstantine,that Arch which stands at this day comparatively

undefaced,sh o wing how the first Christian emperor purloined the w ork of the holier heathen Traj an to commemorate his own

m om h less w orthy victories . E erging fr t e shadow of the Arch, he stood before the Fla vian Amphitheatre and l oo ked up to the

immense Colo ssus of Nero,that statue of the Sun -god 1 20 feet

in height,to wering almost as high as the mighty edifice itself, m to which it gave its best known na e, the Col osseum. It is generally felt that the Colosseum is one of those buildings which

o m o n ot of has gained by ruin . The t p ost st ry, consisting,

arches like the three below it, but of mere blank wall - spaces

divided by pilasters,must have had when unbroken a somewhat

heavy appearance while,on the other hand,no beh older of the still perfect building could derive that impression of massive

strength which we gain by looki ng,through the very chasms

and rents in its outer shell, at the gigantic circuit o f its

concentric ellipses, at the massive walls radiating upwards and o utwards up on which the seats of its spectators m rested . Altogether there is a pathetic aj esty in the ruined

Colosseum which can hardly have bel onged to it in its days

o f pro sperity, and, as one is almost inclined to say, of 1 - vulgar self assertion .

But if this be true of the Colosseum itsel f, i t is not true

o of the surr ounding obj ects . The great Col ssus has already

1 ’ in n s om . 7 1 . Thi s remark i s made Bur Old R e . p

18 s ect o ome i n 6 A p f R 53 .

(long but e rroneously called the Temple of Peace) sta nd on their hill o ver against the Palatine, and seem to assert a predominance over its yet remaining ruins, Procopius now with each do wnward ste p saw the glo ries of the Roman m m Foru ore fully revealed . On his left, the temple of the

Great Twin Brethren, three of whose graceful Corinthian columns still survive,a well -known obj ect to all visitors to the

Fo rum . Hard by,the fountain from which the celestial horse men gave their ho rses to drink after the battle of Lake l R egil us . Further on, the long colonnades of the Basilica of

o - o m J ulius,f ur law c urts under the sa e roof . On his right, the tall col umns of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina,perhaps already suppo rting the roo f of a Christian shrine, though n ot the unsightly edifice which at present clings to and defaces th e m ; the c hapel of the g reat Julius, the magn ificent Basili c a of Aemili us ; and , lastly, th ose tw o venerable o bj ects, centres fo r so many ages of all the political life of Rome,the Senate

n h o use and the Rostra . The Se ate was still a living body, th ough i ts limbs had l ong been shaken by the palsies of a ti mid old age ; but the days when impassioned orato rs thundered to the Roman people fro m the lofty Rostra had

! et ma m l ong passed away . we y be per itted to conjecture that

Pro co pius, with that awe - struck ad mirati o n whi c h he had fo r

‘ ’ the Ro mans of old time, gazed up on th ose w eathern - w orn tro phies o f the sea and mused on the stran ge co ntradictorines s o f Fate, which had used all the harang ues of th ose impetuo us o rato rs as instruments to fashi on the serene and silent desp otism o f J ustinian .

At the end of the Forum, with an embarrassment o f weal th which perplexes us even i n their ruins, rise the Arch o f S eptimi us Severus, the Te mple of Conco rd , the Temple o f

- f . Vespasian , the ill resto red Te mple o Saturn Between them penetrated the Clivus Capitolinus, up which once slo wly l mo unted the ca r o f many a triumphan t general . Behind a l stretched - the magnificent backgro und o f the Capitoline Hill ,on the left -hand s ummit b f which sto od the superb mass of the

Temple o f Jupiter Capitolin us, ro bbed by Gaiseric of half its go lden tiles,but still resplendent under the western sun . Then came the saddle -shaped depressi on faced by the long Tabularium : ’ — r l F r a Tee F or um Roma n um [mfie za o .

53 6 . and then the right- hand summit o f the Capitoline,cro wned by 1 the Temple of J uno Moneta .

m We have supposed o ur histo rian to deviate a little from the The I p eri al F ora . straight path in order to explore to the uttermost the buildings of the Republican F orum ; but as his business lies at the n o rthern extremity of the city, he must retrace a few o f his steps and avail hi mself of the line of c ommunication between the Via Sacra and the Via Flaminia which was opened up by

to the beneficent desp otism of the Emperors . That is say,he must leave the Fo rum of the Republic and traverse the l ong

- line of the spacious and well planned F o ra of the Caesars . In no part is the contrast between ancient and mo dern Rome more

e m m humiliating than her . In our day, a co plex of ean and 2 irregular streets , almost entirely destitute of classical interest or mediaeval picturesqueness, fills up the interval between the

n Capitoline and the Quirinal hills . The deeply cut e tablature o f the Temple of Minerva resti n g up on the tw o half-buried

‘ ’ ’ Colonn acce in front o f the baker s shop, the three pillars o f the Temple of Mars Ulto r, the great feudal fortress of the To r

’ de Conti, and that most preci o us histo rical mo nument the

Colu mn of Trajan, al o ne redeem this regio n from utter

n w weariso meness . But this space, o so crowded and so irregular, was once the finest bit o f architectural landscape

o m of the f gardening in Rome . The F ru Vespasian , F o rum o

‘ Nerva, the F or um of Augustus, the Fo rum o f Julius , the

Fo rum of Trajan , a series of magnificent squares and arcades,

' o pening one i n to the o ther, o ccupying a space some 6 00 yards long by 100 wide and terminating in the mighty granite pillars of the Temple of Trajan , pro duced on the mind of the beh older the same kind o f effect, but on a far grand e r sc al e, which is wrought by Trafalgar Square in L ondon or the Place de la

n Concorde in Paris . Let ot the modern traveller,w ho, passing fro m the C o rs o to the C ol osseum,is acco sted by his driver wit h

1 A long and bitter contro versy i s at len gth put to re st by th e attributi on of th e Temple of Jupiter Capitoli nus to the height n ow occupied by th e Palaz z o Caffarelli , and by pl ac i ng the Ar x where now s n s th e f ta d Church o Ar a Co eli .

2 Vi a on l Vi a ss n n n B el a, Ale a dri a,a d so fo rth . s ect o ome i n 6 A p f R 5 3 .

‘ ’ the glibly uttered w ords Foro Traj ano, suppo se that the little

o bl o ng space with a few pillar-bases, w hi ch he beh olds at the

foot o f the memo rable C olumn , is indeed even in ruin the

m o f m entire Foru the greatest of the E pero rs . The c o lumn

’ is Traj an s column doubtless, though

‘ Ap ostoli c statue s cli mb To crush th e imperial urn whos e ashe s slept subli me i n ir Buried a , the deep blue sky of Rome , ’ An d l ooking to th e stars .

‘ ’ But the so - called Fo ro Trajano is o nly a small transverse

o f on e m m of Tra anic section e ber the j series, the B asilica Ulpia .

The column, as is well kn ow n , mea s ure d the height of earth

whi c h had to be dug away fro m a spur of the Capito line hill

m o m w n in o rder to fo r the F ru . Bet ee it and the Basili c a Ulpia ro se the tw o celebrated libraries of Greek and Latin

auth o rs , and between these tw o buildings stood o nce, and

‘ probably yet stood in the days o f Pro co pius, that everlasti ng

’ ’ statue o f brass which by the Senate s o rders was erected in 1 o o of o o - son - in - of m o h n ur Sid nius,P et laureate and law an E per r .

Th e L i b ra ri e s In those Li braries Pro copius, in the i n tervals o f the busin ess

and p e ril o f the siege, may o fte n have wandered in o rder to ‘ i n crease his acquai n tance w ith the d oings o f the . Ro mans o f

’ W o f n o no w fo r o t o ld. hat treasures k wledge, ever l st o the

wo rld , wer e still ensh rined in tho se apartments 1 There all the

s and n w o rays o f clas ical Art Scie ce ere gathered into a f cus .

M ore imp o rta n t perhaps fo r us, all tha t the Greek s and Ro mans

knew (and it was not a little, though carele s sly reco rded)

concer n ing the Oriental civilisati o n which preceded theirs,and

concerni ng the Teuton ic barbaris m whi c h en c ompassed it, was

still co ntai ned in th ose mag nifi c ent literary collec ti o ns . There

was the Chaldaean hi s tory of Berosus,there were the a uthentic

’ Egyptian king - lists o f Mane th o, there w a s L i vy s story o f the

last days of the Republi c and the fi rst days o f the Empire ,

’ there w as Ta citus s full hi s tory o f the c onquest o f Britain, a ll

that Am mian us c o uld tell ab o ut the tro ubles o f the third

ce n tury a nd the co nversio n of C on stanti n e,all that Cas s iod o rus

had writte n abo ut the royal A mals a nd the dim o rigi nal o f the

1 2 . ii . 3 8 8 See vo l . p 390 ( ud ed ) r n F or um of T aj a .

ll 5 36 . Goths . A this perished, apparently in those twenty years of

m o desolating war which now lie before us . It ay be d ubted whether fo r us the l oss of the Bibliothecae Ulpia e is not even 1 more to be regretted than that of the Library of Alexandria

2 A mmianus tells us that when the Empero r Constantius visited Rome he ga zed with admirati on on the Capitol , the

Colosseum, the Pantheon, and the Theatre o f Pompey, but

But still with admiration which could express itself in w ords .

’ ‘ when, says the historian, he came to the Fo rum of Trajan ,

that structure unique in all the world , an d, as I cannot but

m o i n m think, arvell us the eyes of. the Divinity hi self,he beheld wi th silent amazement those gigantic i nterla cings of stones

which it is past the power of speech to describe,and which no

m o o rtal must in future hOpe to imitate . H peless of ever

attempting any such w ork himself, he would o nly look at the 3 h orse of Trajan , placed in the middle of the vestibule and

f o o m . bearing the statue the E peror That , said C nstantius .

! i m o m o m I can itate,and I will . H r isdas, a r yal refugee fro

’ the court of Persia, replied, with his nation s quickness o f

“ repartee , But first, 0 Emperor, if you can do so, order a

stable to be built as fair as that befo re u s,th at yo ur horse may have as fine an exercising gro und as the one we are now l ooking

! upon .

m m m o o now V a E erging fro the i perial F ra, Pr copius would i L ats .

enter up on the Via Lata, broad as its name den o te s,one of the

longest streets, if not the l ongest, in Rome, and very nearly

o corresp nding to the mo dern Corso . The Subura, which lay a

little to the east of the Forum of Augustus, was once at any

1 The words of Vopiscus (Vita Probi , II) , U sus sum p raeeipue libri s h ' ’ ex Bibli ot eca Ulpia,a eta te mea thermis D i ocleti a ms , have been interpreted ’ as meanin g that all th e contents of Trajan s li brarie s h a d been tran sp orted to t s f k the Ba h o Diocletian . I thin ,ho w ever ,we may fairly infer from ’ Sidon ius s verse s about hi s statue ,

Inter auctore s utriusque fixam ’ Bibliothecae , either that thi s removal h ad been onl y partial , or that a t some time betwee n 3 00 and 4 50 th e b ooks had been brought back to their origi nal home .

’ 3 x vi . 1 0 . 15 . Atrium . s ect o ome i n 6 A p f R 53 .

rate one of the most thickly peopled districts of Rome,and we shall perhaps no t be wrong in assuming t hat in the regions

east of the Via Lata,upo n the Quirinal ,Viminal, and Esquiline

Hills, where the tall buildings of the Fourth Rome, the Rome

o f Victor Emmanuel and United Italy, are n o w arising, the humbler classes o f the Second o r I mperial Rome had chiefly

fixed their abodes .

On the left side o f the Via Lata,where the Third o r Papal

om o f o r R e has spun its web streets thickest . all nearly all was

yet given U p to pleasure . This was the true West End of

Rome ,the region in which her parks and theatres were chiefly

placed . Here were the great open spaces of the Campus

M arti ns and Campus Flaminius here tw o race - courses, those o f

Flaminius and Domitian ; here the great theatres of P ompey,

o f Balbus,and of Marcellus,and the Portico es o f the Argonauts

w and o f Octavia . Altog ether it as a regi on devoted to pleasure

and idleness by the side of the tawny Tiber, and most unlike

the closely- built and so mewhat dingy quarters o f the city

which no w o ccupy it .

As Pro copius moved al ong the straight co urse o f the Via

’

a nt eon. P h Lata his eye w o uld pro bably be caught by the flat d o me o f the 1 Pantheon,h o vering over the buildi n gs o n his left . He would

thread the Arch o f Claudius , wo uld stand at the foot of the

C ol umn of Marcus Aurelius, and then pass b e n eath that

’ w o Empero r s Arch of Triumph . T o mighty sepulchres w uld 2 then arrest his attenti on : the Tomb o f Hadrian seeming by its

massive bulk almost clo se at hand,tho ugh on the other bank of the Tiber and the Mauso leu m o f Augustus rising immediately M ausoleum on his left,a rotunda of white marble belo w,a green and shady o f A ugustus pleasau n ce above, recalling, by its wonderful admixture of

- f Nature and Art, the far famed Hanging Gardens o Babylon .

And now at length his never- to - be- fo rgo tten first view of

oo - of e Rome was drawing to a close . The s n sinking sun lat

autumn warned hi m,perchance , to quicken his pac e . He bore

o ff to the right : by so me s tee p steps where the re c eivers o f the

1 ’ ’ I a nthe um v el ut regio ne m teretem s pe ci osa cels i tudin e fornicata m

mmi a n u x v 1 . (A s , i . 0 ’ N 0 \v f . the Castle o S Angel o . ' ' n — t r a n Cé r zstza u B u ildi g s L a e .

1 53 6 . public alimony were w ont to cluster, he climbed the high

- o lo w garden decked Pincian . He entered the palace, b wed

before Belisarius, l o wer yet before the imperi o us Anto nina,and

’ received the General s orders as to the share o f w o rk that he was to undertake in connection with the provisi onment of the

m not m city . Such is an acco unt,i aginary indeed,but i probable,

of the circumstances in which the soldier- secretary first entered

and first beheld Rome reunited to the Ro man Empire .

It remains for us briefly to n otice the rising imp o rtance of

the Chris tian buildings of Rome,th o ugh we will here dispense

with the i maginary companio nship o f Pro copius,whose some

‘ what sceptical temper, well acquai n ted with the subj ects i n

dispute among Christians, but determined to say as little as

’ possible abo ut them, holding it to be proof of a madman s

’ folly to enquire into the natu re of God, would make him an

' o h f unc ngenial guest at the sacred s rines . O the five great

patriarchal churches of Rome, three were beyo nd the walls of

On oo t the city . its extreme verge st d what was s ill the

o mo o r f re st in dignity o f all the five, St . John Lateran,

the Basilica of Ca nstantin e, the so-called Mother- Church of

‘ ’ m O E i r Christend o , mnium Urbis e t Orbis ccles a um Caput .

It stood near the Asinarian Gate,on the property which Fa usta,

the unhappy wife o f C onstantine, inherited from her father

Maximian, and whi ch had on ce belonged to the senato rial ‘ family of the L ateran i and it fo rmed the subj ect of that real and considerable donati o n o f the first Christian Emper or to the

Bishops of Ro me which later ages distorted into a quasi -feudal

' investiture of the Imperial City

Up on the Vatican Hill ,outside th e walls of Aurelian,looking d own up on the Tiber and the Tomb of Hadrian, rose the five long aisles, the semicircular apse, and the nearly square

- m f o . entrance Atriu the Basilica of St . Peter The region immediately surrounding it w as perhaps still called the Gardens o f Nero . It is certain that the reason for placing the Basilica on that sp ot was that there was the traditional site of the m artyrdo m of the Ap ostle, as well as of the su fleri ngs of the

1 r Pani s g adi li s . ome C/zr istia n B u ilding s of R .

nameless Christian cro wd w ho , dressed in cl oaks covered with

pitc h and set on fire, served as living torches to light that throned Satan to his revels and his chariot-races on the Vatican

mount .

' aul s e of S t. P Outside the gat Ostia,and also near the traditional scene of the martyrdom of the Apostle to wh om it was dedicated, i sto od the noble Basilica of St . Paul . This edif ce, which was

commenced by Theodosius,c omplete d by Hon orius,and received the finishing touches to its decorations at the hand of Placidia 1 under the guidance of Pope Leo , subsisted with but little

m o f change to the days o f o ur fathers . The la entable fire

18 23,by which the greater part of it was destroyed,to ok from

us the most interesting relic of Christian Imperial Rome .

Happily th e restoration, though it cannot give us back the

undiminished interest of the earlier building,has been executed

with admirable fidelity to the o riginal design .

This cannot be said of the Liberian Basilica, the great

o church now kn o wn as S . Maria Maggi re,which,standing high

on the Esquiline Hill, l ooked dow n westwards on the crowded

Subura,and northwards to wards the palatial Baths of Diocletian . The outside of the building has sustained the extremity o f

“ insult and wrong at the hands of the tasteless pseudo-classi cal

restorers of the eighteenth century ; and the inside, though not

absolutely ruined by them, though its mosaics are still visible

and much of its long col o nnade still remains,shows too plainly how unsafe were the treasures of Christian antiquity in the

hands of the conceited architects of the Renaissance .

of m . L The last of the great Basilicas, that the artyred St aw e nce . S t. r Lawrence,one mil e o utside the Tiburtine Gate,has suffered less t ravage at the hands of restorers . It was in the thir eenth

century singularly r e-arranged and transformed , its apse bei n g

pulled down and turned into a nave, and its original vestibule 2 bei ng turned into a cho ir : still we have substantially before

1 ‘ Pl acidi ae pia mens o peri s decus komn e (si c) paterni ’ n s Gaudet pontificis studi o splen dere Le o i .

i n o o o i l e . (Inscription over th e arch S . Pa l fu r Mura )

2 ’ - See Freeman s Hi stori cal an d Architectural Sketches ,2 1 3 215 ,for an

account of th e s e tran s formati on s .

B e n n n o M g i i g f e S ieg e .

Jerusalem and Bethlehem, the J o rdan and the fo ur rivers of m m Paradise, and other e ble s of the same characte r .

The fact that the columns of these c hurc hes were as a rule taken from heathen temples must o f co urse qualify to some exte n t the state ment that the sple n d o ur of the city was

n m o u di inished when Proc pius entered it . Temples ,not merely abandoned to silence and s olitude,but rudely stripped of their pillared magnificence, must in many places have o ffended the eye of a beholder mo re sensitive to beauty than to religi ou s

n e thusiasm. Still up on the whole , and with thi s abatement, we may repeat o ur pro po siti o n that it w as the stately Rome of

C onsuls and Empero rs which me n the n l o oked up on, a nd which

m of c after the iddle the sixth entury they never beheld again .

‘ Alas , for Earth , for n ever shall we s ee ’ n ss i n he w That bright e her eye s b ore when Rome as free .

Abo ut three months after the e n try of Belisarius began the

‘ First S iege of Ro me by the Ostrogo ths,the longest and one of the deadliest that the Eternal City has ever endured . It began in the early days of Marc h 5 3 7 ,and was n ot to end till a year 1 a n d o f 5 38 mo nine days later in th e M arch . When rning dawned , the Goths, w ho entertained no doubt o f a n early suc cess against so large and helpless a city, pro ceeded to in trench themselves in seven c amps, six on the eastern a n d on e o n f no t o m the weste rn side o the Tiber . They did thus acc plish a perfect bl o ckade o f the c ity, but they did obstruct, in a tolerably effectual manner,eight o ut o f its fo urteen gates . As

1 i . Lord Mah on (Earl Stan h ope) , i n h i s L ife of Beli sar us (p n e de av ours to fix the date o f the beginnin g of the siege to Marc h 12 . He do e s this by as signi n g the vernal equinox (March 2 1 ) for i ts cl os e . The

1 . onn m to me too to word s of Procopius , h owever (ii . 8 6 , ed B ) , see vague support thi s e xa ct conclusion : an d, o n th e other h and , h is s tatement that i t began at th e outset o f Marc h (p . c oupled with th e general cours e o f the n arrative whi c h desc ribe s a large number o f eve nts before ‘ th i n i a s e wi nter en ded a nd th e s econd year o f th e war (p . d c te a m very e a rly date i n M a rch fo r the begi nni ng of th e siege . It d oe s no t see oss fi p ible to de ne it more ac curately than thi s . m Tee Ga tes of Ro e .

53 7 . frequent reference in the co urse o f this history will be made to one or other of these gates,it will be well to give a list of them here,with their ancient and modern names,printi n g th ose that were obstructed by the Goths in italics .

To give some idea of the distance of o ne gate from another the number of square towers between each pair of gates is added on the autho rity of the Pilgri m of Einsiedeln . The intervals between the towers varied from 100 to 3 00 and even 4 00 feet, the wider spaces being chiefly fo und on the west side o f the

Tiber .

N . r OD E R N AM E . o o T ow ns s . ANCIE NT N AME . M N East ban k of th e Tiber s F la mi ni a r del P o olo . 1 . P orta p

ta a la i a e S a la a . 2 . P or S r r e ta menta na n to t P i a . 3 . P or N o ear s ti na ! S a n L or en zo . 4 . P or ta Ti bur

5 . P or to. P r aenestina

e M aggi o re . t n l 6 . P or a L a bi ca a

A in i n nn . 7 . P orta s ar a ear to w S an Gi ov a i

r 8 . Ports Metrovia (o Me

troni a os d ) Cl e .

9 . Ports n Lati a Clos ed.

1 0 . o t an s ano . P r a Appia P . S Seba ti

1 1 . Osti ensi s o an ao o . P rta P . S P l

West bank of th e Tiber

1 2 . P r Po rtu n i . o ts. e s s , n ear to P . Forte se 1 P ta A ur e i 1 3 . or l a (or S a ncti

P ancr ti S a n a n c azi o . a i ) P . P r

24 to th e Tiber . 1 9 4 . Porta Corneli a (or S a nc ti De stroyed (opp o

etri P ) site Pon te S .

Angel o ) .

1 There i s some li ttle confusion ab out the appli cati on of th e term Ports

r i . 1 4 Au el a It seems clear that Procopius uses i t of Gate No . ,oppos ite th e om of an as f n o and ua c a o i n T b Hadri (C tle o S . A gel ) , eq lly le r that b th d i n t an m N 1 w n n a s . oco i s kn o s earlier la er ti e s o . 3 as k ow Aurelia Pr p u w on i r the latter ly by ts ecclesia sti cal n ame ,P o rta Sancti Pa n c atii . Either t w here were t o Portae Aureli a e ,or th e memory of the hi sto rian , writi n g as di d som i t n m h he e th r ee years after hi s vi sit to R o e , a s pl ayed hi m fal se . T/ze a tes m G of Ro e .

B etween the Flaminian and the Salarian gates stoo d the

so mewhat smaller P o rta Pinciana, no w closed , which was the

c o f o m h t n o s ene s e o enco unters duri g the siege . It is p ssible that Pro co pius ma y have reckoned the Po rta Pincian a as o ne of

the fourteen gates belonging to the wh ole circuit of the walls , a n d one of the six gates o n the eastern s ide of the Tiber that m were blo cked by the ene y . In that case we must treat

the L abicana and Praenestina as o ne gate, which their close

proximity to on e another j ustifies us in d oing . I t seems mo re

probable, ho wever,that Pro copius, w ho is generally very careful

to den ote the Pincian by th e term gate -let (pulis) , and w ho i nfo rms us that there were fo urteen gates besides certain gate

’ lets, did not mean to recko n the Pincian among the great

gates o f Rome .

o o f o f a n d Total e x tent The t tal circuit the walls Aurelian Honorius o f the wall s oc o was abo ut twelve miles . The space bl kaded by the G ths

w - a mounted pro bably to abo ut t o thirds of this circumference .

m o of o m o . Th e seve n The ca ps of the barbarians were w rks s e s lidity

G othic camp s . Deep fos ses were dug aro und them : the earth d ug o ut of the

fo s se was piled o n its inner face so as to make a high rampart,

o a nd a fence o f sharp stakes was i n serted therein . Alt gether,

a s Pro copius s ays, t he s e Go thic camps lacked n o n e of the

defences o f a reg ular castle . A careful observer ( M r . Parker),

’ w ho has had the adva n tage o f s everal years residence in Ro me,

c o nsider s that the traces of all these camps are still visible . With o ut v e n turin g to pron o unce an Opini on o n a q uestio n

requiri n g such minute l o cal kn o wledge, it will no t be ami s s to

a n place befo re the reader the re s ult of his investigations . In y

event the Go thi c camps mu s t have been near the site s which he

has assig n ed to them.

‘ ’ F i rst cam m a o o w of p . The first ca p was pl ced within a st ne s th r the

Po rta Flaminia (to the n o rth - east) , i n the gro u nds which 1 ’ m formerly bel onged to the villa of the D omi tii . This ca p

was obvi o usly required in o rder to obstruct the great northern

road o f Ro me a n d to threaten the gate leading to it .

1 a k o on to . E smeade . Whi ch , when Mr . P r er wr te ,bel ged Mr ' t z a m Tlze Go é c C ps .

537 . The second ,probably the largest and most mportan t of all , n m Se co d ca p . was erected in what are n o w the gardens of the Villa Borghese .

The w o ods and shady co verts of this, w hich is one of the most beautiful of the parks surro unding the w all s of Rome, make it now very di fficult to get a clear view of the gro und and to reconstruct in imagina ti on the scene of so many te rrible

o - enco unters . Still it is p ssible to behold the quickly rising ‘ m g ro und on which the camp was placed . The raised platfor

’ for the tents to sta nd upon (one of these tents was probably ‘ ’ the royal pavilio n of Witigi s) and the cliffs around it are ‘ ’ m (says Mr . Parker) very visible . Clearly seen fro it were do ubtless the high walls of the city, the Pincian gate- let, and the Pincian gardens surrounding the palace in w hich

Beli sa ri us dwelt .

‘ ’ n m i w m The third camp, co cealed fro v e by odern walls, Thi rd camp. ‘ says Parker, lay o n the left han d of th e Via Nomentana, abo ut half- way (or rather less) to the ancient church of ‘ ’ St . Agnes outside the walls .

Ro unding the sharp proj ecting angle of the Castra Praeto ria we come to two camps, the fo urth and fifth , on e on the n orth a n d o ne o n the s outh of the Via Tiburtina . The fifth, says ‘ Parker, is very near to the great church and burial -gro und

s o m ff o f of St . Laurence o ut ide the walls, fr which the cli s

’ it are disti nctly seen . The fo urth is apparently placed by him o nly ab o ut a co uple of hundred yards away near the Villa

ma o Santo Spirito . It y perhaps be d ubted whether Parker

m o n e to on e is right in p utting these two ca ps s ar an o ther .

f i s c The sixth,and last on this side o the river, pla ed ab o ut Si xth camp half-a- mile from the south - eastern co rner of the walls along the

Via Praenestina .

o o f o m On the ther side the Tiber th e G ths built a ca p to Seventh camp . a ssure their hold up o n the Milvian Bridge and to threaten the

of . . o w gates St Peter and St Pancratius . We are t ld that it as

’ m u o no in the Ca pus N eronis . It m st have been theref re t far fro m where the Vatican palace no w sta nds : but after the vast changes which the P opes, from the fifteenth century o nwards, have made in that regi o n, it would be futile no w to ’ 7 6 6 Gof/zzc Ca m ps .

l 5 37 . fo r i look its rema ns . Marcias,who had by this time arrived

with the troops from Gaul, took the command of this trans

Tiberine camp . A Go thic officer was placed in charge o f each

o f the other camps,Witigis having a g eneral o versight of all

on the east of the Tiber and the particular o versight of on e,

which, as has been befo re said, was probably that in the

Bo rghese gardens .

On the Roman side Belisarius himself to o k the command of the p orti on o f the wall between the Pincian gate -let and the

Salarian gate ; the part which was considered least secure ,and where the Roman o ppo rtunities for a sally were the most

n o inviting . The Praenesti e Gate (Maggi re) was assigned to m o o o to t . Bessas, the F la inia (P . del P p l ) Cons antine The last named gate was bl o ck ed up with large sto nes (perhaps ta ken

from the old wall of Ki n g Servius) , so that it might n ot be

o f r o s t o to m F or on p ssible o trait r o pen it the ene y . , account

o f o m of m the cl se proxi ity the first Gothic ca p . a surprise at

e o m this gat was c nsidered ore probable than at any other .

The building o f the seven camps of the barbarians was a

temporary expedient,and when the war was over the traces o f

of c o them,except fo r the eye an ar haeol gist,soon passed away .

N ot s o, however, with the next Operati on resorted to by the

Goths,w hich may be said to have influenced the social life of

Ro me, and thro ugh Ro me the social life of the kingd oms of

Western Europe, thro ugh o ut the ten centu ries which we call

on the Middle Ages . This operati was the cutting of the

A of su ch - m o to Aqueducts . deed far reaching i p rtance requires be treated o f in a chapter by itself nor will the reader possibly

obj ect to turn for a little space fro m the tale of barbaro us ‘ battle to the story o f the wise forethought of the Romans of

’ ‘ ancient days, the builders of the mighty water-courses which

fed the Eternal City .

' 1 a k w ho c s s cam c os I ve nture to difier here from Mr . P r er , pla e thi p l e f n t i o r i n s to th e Ponte M olle an d just at the foot o M o e Mar ,whe e he th k

remain s of it are still visible .

’ z l 3 2 T/ze A yuea w s of Rome .

m o e the arches rose,higher and higher . As her do ini n ext nded, so th ose mighty filaments stretched further and further up into

o - m the hills . Like a hand upon the cl ck face of E pire was the

- - f m ever rising level of the water supply o Ro e .

F or four hundred and fo rty- two years, that is during the whole period o f the Kings and fo r the first two centuries of the

Republic, the Romans w ere satisfied with such water as they could obtain from the tawny Tiber ; from the wells, of which there was a considerable number ; from the upspringing fo untains, many of which were the obj ects of a simple religious wo rship ; and from the cisterns in which they

- collected the not very abundant rain fall .

. m At length, in the year 3 1 2 B C. , when the Second Sa nite

War was verging towards its successful conclusion, the great Censo r Appius Claudius bestowed up on Ro me her first great read and her first aqueduct, both k n o wn through all after ages 1 f r - m by his name . He went o his water supply seven iles al ong the road to Palestrina,to a spo t now called La Rustica,ab out half way between Rome and the hills,and hence,by a circuitous undergro und channel more than el even miles l ong,he brought

o t ot the o one the water to the city . N till it g to P rta Capena, o f the old gates of the city on its southern side,did it emerge into the light o f day,and then it was carried along arches only

to o ur mo for the space of sixty paces . Th us . according dern use of the term,it might be c onsidered as rather a conduit than an aqueduct . It has been remarked up on as an interesting fact that Appius Claudius, the first Roman author in verse and prose, the first considerable student of Greek literature,was also the first statesman to take th ought for the w ater-supply o f m k R ome . And further,that he whose censorship was ar ed by a singular coalition between the haughtiest of the aristocracy and the lowest of the commons, and who was susp e cted of

1 Th ough Appius Claudius re ceived th e wh ole honour of the work , H i in the F rontinus hi nts that he w a s n ot s olely entitled to i t. s colleague s n of hi Censors hi p , C . Plantius , obtain ed th e surname Vene x by rea o s t n e n s w as not persi s e t s earch after v ins of water . Findi g that Appiu taking hi s fair sh a re of thi s work he resign ed office , after he h ad held it f Venox and eighteen month s . Appius avail ed himself of the di sco verie s o , by f air me an s or foul clung to office till th e aqueduct w as finished. — a 1 4 Vei n s App i . 3 3

aiming at the tyranny by the aid o f the latter class,carried the water to that which w as not only physically but socially one of the l owest quarters of Ro me,the humble dwellings between the Aventine and the Caelian hills 1

s V F o rty years later, a much bolder ente rprise in hydraulics A ro e r us,

B . C. 272 . was successfully attempted,when the stream afterwards known

' as the Am o Vetus was bro ught into the city by a co urse o f 4 3 miles,at a level of 1 4 7 feet ab o ve the sea, o r nearly 100 feet 2 higher than the Aqua Appia . The last public act of the blind

o f 280 old Appius Claudius (the builder the firs t aqueduct) had been . to adj ure the Roman Senate to listen to no prop osals of peace from King Pyrrhus so l ong as a single Epirote soldier remained on the soil of Italy . Eight years later, when the war with

Pyrrh us had been triumphantly concluded, Manius Curi ns ,the hero of that war, signalised his censorship by beginnin g to build the seco nd aq ueduct, the sp oils won in battle fro m the King of Epir us fu rnishing the pay of the w orkmen engaged in

o the o perati on . He died bef re the work was finished ,and the gl ory of completing it belo nged to F ul vius Flacons,created with ‘ 3 him duumvir for bri nging the water to Rome

This time the hydraulic engineers went further afield for the

o so urce of their supply . They looked acr ss the Campagna to the dim hills of Tiv oli

‘ To th e green steep s when ce Ani o leaps ’ In sheets of sn o w - white foam, and daringly dete rmined to bring the ri ver Ani o himself,or at

b o to m least a considera le p rtion of his waters, Ro e . At a p oint

n o m i about te miles ab ve Tivoli,near the ountain of S . Cos mato,

1 m m ’ f Ar n o d st. o m 11 . When we re e ber , says Dr . l (Hi Ro e , that f thi s part of R ome v as parti cul arly inh abited by th e p oorest c iti z ens , we may suspect th at Appius wi shed to repay th e support which he had already received from them,or to pur chase its c ontinuan c e for the time to c ome : but w e shall feel unmix ed pleasur e in ob servi ng that th e fir st R oman aqueduct w a s constructe d for the benefit of th e p oor an d of thos e ’ w ho mos n i t eeded t.

2 L ei ani 4 an (p . 9) gives to th e Ani o Vetus at its entry into Rome 45 4 0 m di a t z z ’ s sso . To th e . 40 1 5 m etre , l e a a luta Appia (p ) etres . It i s true s i s the mouth f ’ that thi at o th e Appia .

3 ’ mvi erd c d Duu r aquae p u en ae . ’ T/ze u d ucts me 3 4 A q e of Ro .

the river was tapped . The water which was drawn from it was carried thro ugh tunnels i n the rock , and by a generally sub terranean co urse,till,after a j o urn ey as befo re stated of forty three miles, it entered Rome j ust at the level o f the gro und , but at a po int (the Porta Maggiore) where that level was considerably higher than the place where the Appian water

o crept int the city .

F o ur generations passed before any further additi o n was m - om h of ade to the water supply of R e . T en ,after the lapse

128 years,the Marcian water,best o f all the potable waters o f

Rome ,was intro duced into the city by the first aqueduct,i n the commo n acc e ptation of the term, the first channel carried f visibly abo ve ground on arches o ver long reaches o country .

Its s ource was at thirty - eight miles fro m Ro me in the upper

of o v valley the Ani , between Ti oli and Subiaco . Here lay a tranquil pool of water emerging fro m a natural gro tto and o f a deep green col our , whence came the liquid treasure of the

i n o o m o o f m Marcia . The changes the c nf r ati n the valley ake it difficult to identify the spo t with certainty,but it is th o ught that the furthest east of three springs kno wn as the Acque

n f s m o Sere e is probably the amo u Marcia . Fro a sp t close to this, the Marcia-Pia aqueduct,constructed by a c ompany i n our o w n days,and named after Pope Pius the Ninth, no w brings

o water to the ci ty . The riginal Marcian aqueduct was built

14 4 tw o f o B . C. , years a ter the cl se of the Third Punic War,and the w ork was e ntrusted by the Senate , no t this time to a

Cen s o r,but to the Praeto r Urbanus,the highest j udicial o fficer

w . in Rome, ho b o re the name of Q. Marcius Rex The aqueduct had a co urse o f sixty -one miles, for seven of which it was carried up o n arches,and it entered the city at 17 6 fee t a bo ve

- o o f o o 18 0 m on the sea level . The c st its c nstructi n was illi 1 sesterces , or nearly sterling,and it carried water i n to the l o fty Capito l itself, not without some o pp ositio n on the part o f the Augurs,w ho, after an ins pecti o n o f the Sibylline books,averred that only the water of the Ani o ,no t that o f any spring adjacent to it, might be bro ught in to the temple of

Jupiter .

1 ‘ i L egimus apud F enestellam , i n hae c opera M arc e decretum ’ se stertium milies octingenti es (F rontinus de Aquaeductibus, ' r e a T ul a — ul l M a z ep f fi .

Only nineteen years had elapsed, but years of co ntinued

in B 25 C . 1 conquest,especially the Spanish peninsula,when in . another aqueduct, smaller,but at a slightly higher level,was

- added to the water bringers of Rome . This was the Aqua

Tep ula, thirteen miles in length, of which only six were sub terraneo us,and entering Rome at a height of 18 4 feet abo ve the

- S r v ilius io o B e sea level . e Caep and L nginus avilla w re the

Censors to whom the executi on of this w ork was entrusted .

They reso rted to a new so urce of supply,not utilising this time either springs o r streams in the Anio valley,but j ourneying to the foot o f the conical Alban Mo unt (Mon te Cavo) , which rises to the so uth - east of Ro me, and there w ooing the waters of the tepid 1 springs which bubbled up near the site of the modern village of Gre tta Ferrata .

Another century passed,the century which saw the rise of

o o Marius, Sulla,and the mighty Julius . Abs rbed in f reign war and the facti ons o f the Fo rum, Ro me had no l eisure for great works of industry,and did no t even preserve in go od conditi on those whi c h she already p ossessed . At length in the year V f m . i C. 3 3 o sani us B . ,three years before the battle Actiu ,M p

Agrippa, the ablest of the ministers of Augustus, bestirred himself on behalf of the water- supply of the vastly expanded

e o city . He r stored the Appia, the Ani Vetus , and the Marcia, which had fallen into ruins,but he was not satisfied with mere reconstructio n . The same hand which gave the P antheo n and its adjoining baths to the citizens of R ome gave them also tw o mo 3 3 re aqueducts, the J ulia (s o . ) and the Aqua Virgo

The Juli a bore the frame of its builde r,who,himself of the plebeian Vipsania n gens, had been adopted, by reason of his marriage with the da ughter of Augustus, into the high

t ratic mi of 2 a ris oc fa ly the Caesars . Its so urc e was near that

1 ° Thi s s prin g still sh ows a temperature of 6 1 (Fahrenheit) when th e atmo sphere i s only The n eighb ourin g Julia i s o nly 5 0 at th e s ame ci n i a s to c h time . S . L an a ppear ac ept t e suggesti on that the n ame Tep ul a s c c ms an c i s derived from thi ir u t e .

h e n m f By a somewhat s in gular fate , t a e o Agrippa thus a d opted into th e Julian fami ly i s probably k nown most widely through hi s clien ts and complim entary name sakes , th e tw o Agrippa - Herod s of the Acts of th e

Ap ostle s . ’ 3 6 T/ze A ued ucts o ome q f R .

o f Te ula om m the p ,but a little further fr Ro e . Apparently,in

o rder that it might i mpart some of its fresh coo lness to that tepid stream, its waters were first blended with it and then

again divided into another channel, which flowed into Ro me

! at an elevation fo ur feet above the Tepula ( 18 8 feet above the

- sea level ) . These two aqueducts, the Tepula and the Julia, are carried th ro ugh the greater part o f their cou rse upon the m sa e arcade with the Marcia .

‘ Like friend s on ce parte d, Grown single -hearted, i d ’ They pl e their watery task s .

And, as a rule, wherever in the neighb o urhood of Rome the sp ew s (so the mason -wrought channel is termed) of the Marcia

is descried, on e sees also fi rst the Tepula and then the Julia

rising abo ve it .

A IR G v O ’ Th i s work,however,di d n ot end Agri pp a s lab o urs for the

- sanitary well being of Rome . The Julia,though twice as large

as the Te pula , was still on e of the smaller contributors of

o water to the city . F urteen years after its introduction

A ua i r o o m Agrippa brought the q V g int Ro e . This splendid

stream,three times as large as the J ulia,was exceeded in size

only by the Anio Vetus and the Marcia,among the then existing

o m Aqueducts . To btain it he went eight iles eastward of

Rome, almost to the same spot where the great Censor had

o gathered the Aqua Appia . The Aqua Virg derived its name from the sto ry that when the soldiers of Agrippa were peering

ab o ut to discover some new spring,a little maid p ointed out to

them a streamlet,which they fo llow e d up with the spade ,thus soon finding themselves in presence of an immense volume of mm m water . This story was co e orated by a picture in a little

chapel built over the fo untain .

The Virgo was n ot, like all the more recent aqueducts,

w brought into Rome at a high level . In fact it as o nly fifteen

feet higher than the Appia ,as might have been expected from

the nearness of o rigin o f the two streams . Its co urse is

perfectly well kno wn,as it is still bringing water to R ome,and is in truth that o ne of all the aqueducts which shows the most continuo us record of useful service from ancient to modern ’ ’ ua V25 o— A ls zetzn a A q 33 .

o m o s times . It c es by a pretty straight c ur e, chiefly under

gro und , till within about tw o miles of Rome ; the n it circles

round the eastern wall of the c ity, w mds through the B o rghes e

P c gar dens, creeps by a deep cutting thro ugh the in ian hill, and

w old enters Rome under what is no the Villa Medici . In days it was carried on to the Campus Ma r ti ns and filled the baths of its fo under Agrippa, It still supplies many of the chief

fo untains o f the city, esp e cially the most famo us of all , the

o o of Fountain of Trevi . When the stranger steps d wn in fr nt the blowing Tritons and takes his cup of water from the ample marble basin,drinking to his return to the Eternal City, he is in truth drinking to the memory of the wise Agrippa and of the little maid who pointed out the fo untain to his legionari es .

The contribution made by Augustus himself to the water supply of Rome was a less worthy one than th ose of his son -in

’ ‘ o F r n inu law . What p ssible reason, says o t s, could have induced Augustus,that most far- sighted prince, to bring the water of the Alsietin e Lake,which i s also called Aqua Augusta, to om l R e,I cannot tel . It has nothing to recommend it . It is hardly even wholesome,and it does n o t supply any considerable part of the populati on [because of the low level at which it

can enters the city!. I only sup pose that when he was con 1 structing his Naumachia he did not like to use the bette r class of water to fill his lake, and therefore brought this stream, granting all of it that he did not want hims elf to private persons for m watering their gardens and si ilar purposes . However,as o ften as the bridges are under repair and there is a co nsequent

’ interruption of the regular supply,this water is used for drinking

’ - pur poses by the inhabitants of the Trans Tiberine region . So

F in s ront u . of o far The work was altogether an inglori us kind .

The quantity supplied was small,less even than that in the little l Aqua Tepu a . The quality,as has been stated, was poor, the source of supply being the turbid Lago di Martignan o among

o - f the Etrurian hills on the n rth west o Rome . And though it started at a pretty high level (6 80 fee t abo ve the sea) ,afte r a

1 - A lake i n the Tran s Tibe ri ne region for the exhibiti on of sea -fights x n s o f a w a and other sh o ws for whi ch a large e pa e w ter s required . T/ze ueducts o ome 3 3 A q f R . course of a little more than twenty -two miles it entered Rome o n a lower plane than all the o ther aqueducts , lower even than the modest Appia,only about twenty-one feet above the level of the sea .

The frenzied great-grandson of Augustus, the terrible

Caligula,side by side with all his mad prodigality did accomplish

- f great wo rks for the water supply o Rome . He began , and his uncle Claudius finished , the tw o great aqueducts which cl osed

’ the ascending series of Rome s artificial rivers, the Claudia and

o the Ani Novus . Thus by a singular coincidence the work which had been begun by a Claudius, the blind Censor o f the

fift h century of Ro me, was cro wned by another Claudius, not indeed a direct descendant,but a far distant scio n, o f the same haughty family,when the city was j ust entering upo n her ninth century .

The two works, the Claudia and the Ani o No vus,seem to have been pr oceeded with c ontemp oraneo usly,and they travelled

o m on m acr ss the Ca pagna the sa e stately series of arches,highest , o f all the arcades with wh ose ruins th e traveller is familiar . f f f m They were,ho wever, w o rks o very dif erent degrees o erit .

The Claudia drew its waters fro m tw o fountains, the Caer ulus and the Curti us,among the hills overhanging the Upper Ani o, 1 n ot many hundred yards away fro m the source o f the Marcia . And the water which it bro ught to the c itizens of Rome was always considered se co nd only in ex c ellen c e to the Marcia itself .

The c onstru c ti on o f the Anio N ov us,on the other hand,was another of those unwise attempts of which one would have th o ught the hydraulic engineers of the city had had enough,to make the river Anio, that turbid and turbulent stream,minister

o ut of meekly to the thirst o f Ro me . The water was taken the river itself from a higher p oint than the Ani o Vetus,indeed four miles higher than the fo untains o f the Claudia,but that did not

of Al sietina remedy the evil . The bad qualities the Aqua did little harm, beyon d so me occasi onal inconvenience to the

1 f c a L anci ani ,w h o ,as we have seen , ide ntifies the source o the Mar i with the third of th e A c que Seren e , considers that the first an d se con d

Sere ne were th e sourc es of the Claudia.

’ T/ze A uea ucts o ome 38 g f R . course of a little more than twenty-two mi les it entered Rome on a lower plane than all the other aqueducts, lower even than the modest Appia,o nly about tw enty-one feet above the level of the sea .

The frenzied great-grandson of Augustus, the terrible Caligula,side by side with all his mad prodigality did accomplish

for - great works the water supply of Rome . He began, and his uncle Claudius finished , the tw o great aqueducts which cl osed

’ the ascending series of Rome s artificial rivers, the Claudia and

o n o the Ani Novus . Thus by a si gular c incidence the work which had been begun by a Claudius, the blind Censor of the

fifth century of Rome, was cro wned by another Claudius, not i n deed a direct descendant,but a far distant scion, of the same haughty family,when the city was j ust entering upon her ninth century .

The tw o works, the Claudia and the Anio Novus,seem to have been pro ceeded with contemp oraneo usly,and they travelled ro t m n on t m t ac ss he Ca pag a he sa e stately series of arches,highes ,

f t o o all the arcades wi h wh se ruins the traveller is familiar .

o o f f f m They were,however, w rks very dif erent degrees o erit .

The Claudia drew its waters fro m two fountains, the Caer ulus and the Curtius,among the hills o verhanging the Upper Ani o, 1 om o f not many hundred yards away fr the source the Marcia . And the water which it bro ught to the c itizens o f Rome was al w ays co nsidered second on ly in excellen ce to the Marcia itself .

The c onstruction of the Anio Nov us,on the o ther hand,was an other of those unwise attempts of which one would have thought the hydraulic engineers o f the city had had enough,to make the river Anio,that turbid a nd turbulen t stream,minister meekly to the thirst o f Rome . The water was taken o ut of the river itself from a higher p o int than the Anio Vetus,i ndeed four miles higher than the fo untai n s of the Claudia,but that did no t

o f Als ietina remedy the evil . The bad qualities the Aqua did little harm, beyon d so me o ccasi onal inco nvenience to the

1 he c a L anci an i ,w h o ,as we have seen , ide ntifies the source of t Mar i with th e third of th e A cque Seren e , considers that the first an d se cond n Sere e were the source s of the Cl audia . ' — u Tr a a n Cla udia A mo N ov s j a . 3 9 inhabitants of the Tras te vere, because it lay below all the o ther

Bu of m n o o aqueducts . t the thick and uddy A i Novus, fl wing above the other streams and mix ing its contributions with theirs,like some tedious and loud~ v oiced talker, whenever they

were leas t desired,of this provoking aqueduct a wearied Imperial ‘ wate r-director could only say, It ruins all the others The length o f its j o urney to the city was more than fifty- eight miles, — that of the Claudia more than forty six, and the arcade up on which they crossed the plain was six miles and fo ur hundred

- o and ninety one paces in length . The Ani Novus entered the city tw o hundred and fo urteen feet ab o ve the level o f the sea, the Claudia nine feet lower .

Thus were completed the nin e great aqueducts of Rome ; the aqueducts wh ose resources and machinery are copi o usly

to inu o o explained us by the curator, F ro nt s . With ut tr ubling

Tiu Ju A the reader with the names of some doubtful or obscure additions , - A . D . 1 09 1 10 . l m tothe ist, it must nevertheless be menti oned that the E peror Traj an, in the year 109- 1 10, inte rcepted some o f the streams which fed the Sabatine Lake (Lago di Braccian o) and bro ught their water to Rome His obj ect was to pro vide p otable water for the inhabita nts of the Trastevere,w ho w o uld only drink that supplied to them from the Alsietin e Lake in case o f extreme

n necessity . Traj an, h o wever,did ot fritter away the advantage of his high fo untain - head as August us had done,but brought his

o aqueduct right ver the hill o f the J anicul um. H e re in the days of Procopius i ts stream mi ght be seen (till Witigis inte rcepted i t) m turning the wheels of a hundred ills . Here now its restored waters may be seen gushing in magnificent abundance thro ugh f the three arches of Fontana on the high hill o S . Pietro in

o i . Mont r o A ns x a xv a ma,

Ci rca A . D . 226.

In the follo wing century the excellent young Empero r Alexander Severus obtained a fresh supply from the neighbour 2 hood oi the old city of Gabii ,abo ut fo ur miles so uth - east of the

o of o o n or s urce the Aqua Virg . Little is kn w of the size the co urse of the Aqua Alexandrina,whose chief interest for us is

1 Al ias omne s perdit (F rontin us ,xi ii ) .

“ 2 n m a U der L a Colonn a, th e ancient L abi cu (P rker) . TABLE OF THE AQUEDUCTS OF F R ONTINU S .

. s e r t em 5 6

The height at whi ch the aqueducts entered R ome is given in metres the distance traversed by them from their source in Roman mile s z 16 18 will be seen that no attempt is made to repre s ent the gradient o f the aque i i n i i i prop orti on of th e course ab ove groun d s d cated by a thi ck lin e . (Th s s in th e case of th e Alsi eti n a . ) ' ua F e A lex a n dr zna (A q lice) . 4 1

' i s w f derived from the fact that it is practically the same aqueduct

. which was restored by the imperious old Pope, Sixtus V,and ‘ ’ which is now called,after the name which be her e in religi on ,

ua F i m m o q e ce . Aqua Felice . A ore co plete c ntrast is hardly presented to A l us by history than between the first founder and the resto rer of this aqueduct,between the young,fresh,warm-hearted Emperor, only too gentle a ruler and too dutiful a son for the fierce times in whi ch he lived,and the proud and lonely old Pope,who bent low as if in decrepitude till he had picked up the Papal Tiara, and then sto o d erect, j ust and inflexible,a terro r to the world and to Rome .

f With Alexander Severu s the history o the aqueducts closes . In the te rrible convulsi ons which marked the middle of the third century there was no time or money to spare for the

o embellishment o f the city . When peace was restored Di cletian and his attendant gro up of Emperors were to be found at Milan,

i i o n at N comede a, anywhere rather than at Rome . C nstanti e was too much engrossed with his new capital and his new creed to have leisure for the improvement of the still Pagan city by f the Tiber . And two generations after the death o Cons tantine the barbarians were on the sacred soil of Italy,and it was no longer a question of constru cting great works, but of feebly and fearfully defending them.

The amo unt of careful thought and contrivance which was involved in the constru ction and maintenance of these mighty works can be but imperfectly estimated by us . Ventilating ‘ ’ shafts, or respirato rs as they are s ometimes called , were introduced at proper intervals into the subterraneous aqueducts

m or so in order to let out the imprisoned air . At every half ile the channel formed an angle, to break the force of the water, 1 and a reservoir was generally placed at every such corner .

The land for fifteen feet on each s ide of the water- cours e was purchased from the neighbo uring owners and devo ted to the use of the aqueduct . Inj ury from other buildings and from the roots of trees was thu s av oided,and the crops raised on these narro w strips of land contributed to the sustenance of the little

1 a d 1 . P rker ,Aque ucts. p . 7 ’ T/ze A uea ucts o m g f Ro e .

rm of m - a y slaves e ployed in th e maintenance o f the water way .

Of these at the end of the fi rst century there were 7 00,

co a mi o f 240 men nstituting two f li a e. One fa mili a , c onsisting ,

had been fo rmed by that indefati gable water -refo rmer, the

Sir Hugh Myddelto n of Ro me, Vipsan ius Agrippa, by him

bequeathed to Augustus,and by Augustus to the State . The o ther and larger body (4 60 men ) had been fo rmed by Claudius when he w as engaged i n the constructio n of the tw o highest

aqueducts, and by him were likewise presented to the S tate . The command of this little band o f men was vested in the 1 Cur a tor Agua r a m,an high officer , who in the imperial age was generally designated for the wo rk o f superintending the water

supply . In earlier ti mes this work had not b ee n assigned to

any special o fli c e r,but had fo rmed part o f the fu n ctions o f an

Aedile or a Censo r .

R s vo i w n m o f e er rs . Outside the walls there ere a certain u ber reservoirs

(p i scina e) ,i n which so me o f the aqueducts had the o pportunity o f clearing their waters by dep o siting the mud or sand swept

into them by a sudden sto rm .

‘ ’ Inside the city there were 24 7 castles o f w ater, heads o r

reservoirs constructed o f masonry , i n which the water was

sto red, a nd o ut o f which the supply - pipes for the vari o us

r n regi o ns o f Rome were taken . F o ,i theo ry at least,no pipe

might tap the channels of c ommuni c ati on , but all must draw

f rom so me ca stellu m a qua e. This pro visi on,ho wever,was o ften

evaded by the dish onesty o f the servile watermen, w ho made a pro fit o ut o f s ellin g the water of the state to priva te

o o f i n individuals . A vast undergr und labyrinth leaden pipes,

Old Rome as in a moder n city , conveyed the water to the

fo r c isterns of the different ho uses . The lead this purp ose was

probably bro ught to a large exte n t from o u r o w n island, since

we find traces o f the Roman s at w o rk in the lead - mines o f the 2 Mendip Hills within six years o f their c o nquest o f Britain .

As Claudi us was the then reign i ng Emperor,the cargo es o f lead

1 He ha d a right to the atte ndan ce of tw o lictors ,be sides a n unnamed ’ m . number of apparitors , when he walked through the streets of R o e

’ ‘ ’ 2 See H ubner s article Ein e R omische Ann exi on in the Deutsche

Rund sch au,M ay 8 ,18 78 . ’ — t n us M a znl ena m e of M e A quari u m F r an i . 43 so shipped from Britain to Rome would be usefully employed in distributing the new water -supply bro ught to the higher levels

o n o by the Ani o Novus and Aqua Claudia . One th usa d kil grammes of these leaden pipes w ere sent, unchronicled , to the 1 - melting pot five years ago by on e pro prietor al one . But by carefully watching his opp o rtunities, the eminen t archaeol ogist

L a nciani has succeeded in re s cuing six hundred inscribed pipes fro m the havo c necessarily caused by all building o perati ons in the soil intersected by them 5 and these six hundre d inscripti ons , classed and analysed by him, thro w a val uable light on th e aquarian laws and customs of Imperial Ro me . It has been said that fraud was extensively practised by the

r ma slaves in the employment o f the Cu r a tor Agua a m . I t y have been s ome suspici o n o f these fraudulent p racti c es which caused the Empero r Nerva to n ominate to that high plac e

man o o Se xt us J ulius F r ontinus . This ,energetic,fearless,th r ugh, and equally ready to grapple with the difficulties o f peaceful a n d of warlike administrati on, remi n ds us o f the best type o f o u r H i s previous w n - 5 - o n r A . D 8 o o . F o r 7 7 care e Angl India g vernors th ee years ( ) he r. successfully administered the affairs o f the province o f Britai n , as the worthy successor o f Cerealis, as the n ot un w o rthy

of i e o m predecessor Agr cola . The chi f expl it that arked his tenure of ofli ce was the subj ugati on of the Sil ures,the warlike and powerful tribe who held the hills of Breckno ck and m Gla organ . Twenty years later, and when he was probably past middle life,Nerva,as has been said , delegated to him the diffi cult task o f investigati n g and refo rming the abuses connected

- with the water supply of the capital . The treatise which he c omp osed during his curato rship is o ur chief auth o rity on the t m subj ect of the Roman aqueducts . Con aining any careful scientific calculati ons and many useful hints as to the best mean s of uph olding those mighty structures, it is an admirable specimen of the strong, clear co mmo n - sense and faithful attention to min ute detail which were the characte ristics of the m best speci ens of Roman officials .

The attenti on of F ron tinus was at once arrested by the fact

' that in the commenta r i z or registers of the water-office there was

1 n c ssand T rl n ia L an i ani Pri e Ale ro o o (see c ,p . ’ T/ze A uea ucts o ome g f R . actually a larger quantity o f water accounted for than the wh ole

m o a ount which, acc rding to the same books, ap peared to be

om he t received fr t vario us aqueducts . This slip on he part of the fraudulent a qua r i i caused the new Curato r to take careful measurements o f the w ater at the so urce o f each aqueduct : and these measurements led him to the as to unding result that the quantity of water entering the aqueducts was greater than the 1 quantity a lleged to be distributed through the m by nearly one 2 f half . Some part o this difference might be due to unavo idable leakage along the line o f the aqueducts but far the larger part of it was due to the depredati ons of private persons,assisted by

o the corrupt connivance of the a qua r ii . When a private pers n had received a grant of w ater from the State,the pro per co urse w as fo r him to deposit a model of the pipe which had been con ceded to him in the o ffice o f the Curato r, wh ose servants were then directed to make an orifice of the same dimensi ons in the side o f the reservo ir,and permit the consumer to attach to it a

m m m o for pipe of the sa e size . So eti es, h wever, a bribe, the a qua r i us would make a hol e of larger diameter than the con

om t m o o f s cession . S e i es,while keeping the h le the right ize, he w o uld atta ch a larger pipe which wo uld soon be filled by the

w f pressure of the ater oo zing through the wall o the reservo ir . S ometimes a pipe for which there was absolutely no authority at all w o uld be introduced into the reservoir,or yet worse into the

c m m aquedu t before it reached the reservoir . So eti es the grant of water, which w as by its express terms limited to the individual for life, w ould by corrupt co nnivance, witho ut any

t o fresh grant, be continued o his heirs . At every p int the precious liquid treasure o f the State was being wasted,that the

o of a mi li m p ckets the f a who served the aqueduct ight be filled . It was probably some ru mo ur o f this infidelity of the a qua r i i to their trust,as well as a kno wledge of the lavish grants o f some of the Empero rs,which caused Pliny to say,a generation before ‘ the refo rms o f Fron tin us, The Aqua Virgo excels all other waters to the to uch,and the Aqua Marcia to the taste but the

1 E roga ti o i s the tech nical term for the di stributio n of the water .

’ Amount measured at the s ource s , quina riae : amount i n th e ‘ ’ commen tarii , amount of admitted erogation , See T able th end f A at e o thi s ch apter .

’ T/ze A uea ucts o ome g f R .

In o ur o w n co untry at the present day the consumption of water in o ur large to wns varies between twenty and thirty gallo ns per head daily,and in o ne o r tw o to w n s d o es not rise 1 l above ten gallons . What the supp y may have been in the

Lond on o f the Plantagene ts and Tudors ,before the great water refo rm o f Sir Hugh Myddelton , we have perhaps n o means o f estimating but it is state d,apparently on good autho rity,that

‘ in 15 50 the inhabita nts o f Paris received a supply of only one qua r t p er da y, and nine-tenths of the pe ople were co mpelled to obtain their supply direct from the Seine 2

The estimate of the c ontents of the aqueducts given above is that which has hitherto o btained most accepta nce . It is 3 right,however,to mentio n that a recent enquirer thro ws some

’ om o m o do ubt on Rondelet s calculati ons . Fr s e bservations made by him on the diamete r and the gradient o f the channel of the Aqua Marcia he reduces the average vel ocity of the streams, and c onseque n tly the v olume of water delivered by

r them, by more than one half. The value of the quina ia on this co mputati on descends to ab o ut 6000 gall ons a day, the total supply o f the nine aqueducts i n the time of F ronti nus to

gallo ns,and the allo wance per head per day to o n e

so o m hundred gallons . Even , h wever, the Ro an citizen had more than three times the amo unt provided for the i h habitants of our English cities by the most liberal of o ur ow n municipalities .

A reference to the tables at th e end of this chapter may, however, seem to c all fo r a yet further modification of o ur statement as to the aquarian privileges of the Roman . It will there be seen that of the qui na r i a e: distributed , only

6 18 2 went to private pers ons, while 444 3 were bestowed on

1 ’ See Table i n H umber s Wate r Supply of Citie s a nd T o wn s (L on don , a for m n o an o ns s ms to o p . 86 . The verage a y Eur pe t w ee be ab ut the same a s ours : for Berlin an d L yon s 20 gall ons daily , Par i s 28 om of the m c (L ond on Leghorn 30, Ham burg 3 3 . S e A eri an to wn s n n B ufialo sh ow much larger averages : T oro to 7 7 gall o s , 8 7 ,New ! ork 100 , Chi cago 1 19, an d Washington the extrao rdin arily high average of 1 55 gallon s daily for eac h i nhabitant .

9 Humber,p . 3 .

‘ ’ ’ 3 Auth or of Brevi notiz ie sull acqua pia , quoted by L anciani (w h o

d him . 36 1 . seems more th an h alf convi nce by ) ,p M d i m r t ut n 4 7 e of dis r ib io .

‘ ’ ted public wo rks, and no fewer than 3 3 93 were e roga in th e

- name of Caesar, the ubiquito us all grasping Empero r . The needful q ualificatio n is appare nt rathe r than real D o ubtless

te of there wo uld be pro f use expenditure , eve n lavish was water, in the vast halls of the Palatine, especially when a Vitellius o r f a Heliogabalus dwelt in them, squandering the wealth o the

But o o ut L an ciani wo rld up on his banq uets . it is p inted by that the sple ndid edifices raised by the Empero rs for the delight o f thei r subj ects, the Flavian Amphitheatre, the

Antonine Baths, the Fo rum o f Traj an , and all that class of institutio ns with which the city was embellished at the expense of the F i scus,w o uld receive their c onstant supplies of wa te r

‘ ’ f C o m in the name o aesar . Perhaps theref re it ight be asserted that there was no part o f the distributi on by which the p oor citizen benefited more largely than these 3 393 quinari a e: of which the Empero r was apparently the receiver .

T his last con siderati o n brings us to the question what co uld have been d one with all this wealth of water so lavishly p o ured

The o into the Ete rnal City . sparkling f untains with which every open space w a s ado rned and refreshed,the great artificial lakes,on which at the o ccasi on o f public festi vals mimic navies fo ught and in which marine monsters spo rted, are in part an

h T r answer to o ur questio n . But t e he ma e, th ose magnifi cent ran ges o f balls i n which the po orest c itiz e n of Rome co uld

' enj oy, free o f exp ense,al l and more than all the luxuries that we associate with o ur mis-named T urkish Bath , the Ther ma e, thos e splendid temples o f health , cleanliness, a nd civilisation, must undoubtedly take the responsibility o f the largest share in

- w the water consumpti on o f Rome . We glanced a little hile ago at the mighty Baths of Caracalla, able to accommodate 16 00 1 m o o n bathers at once . Twice that nu ber, we are t ld ,c uld e joy the Baths o f Diocletian,those vast baths in wh ose central hall 2 a large church is no w erected, la rge, but o ccupy i ng a com

a rati vel p y small part o f the ancient building . It is true that this was the most extensive o f all the Ro man Ther ma e but the

Baths of C onstantine on the Quirinal, of Agri ppa by the

1 m i . l 4 . O y p odorus,p . 69 (ed B onn ) 3‘ i n i . 8 . Mari a degl A gel 7 7a: zeducts me 48 q of Ro .

Panthe on , of Titus and Traj an ab ove the ruins of the Golden

Hou se of Nero,were also superb buildings,fit to be the chosen

o o f o res rt the sovereign people of the w rld ; , and all (with the possible excepti o n of the Baths of Titus) were still in use,still receiving the crys tal treasures of the aqueducts,when Belisarius m recovered Rome for the Roman E pire .

Now, in these first weeks o f March 5 37, all this splendid ‘ heritage of civilisation perished as in a moment . The Goths having thus arranged their army destroyed all the aqueducts,so l ’ that no water might enter from them into the city . The

’ historian s statement is very clear and positive : otherwise we might be disposed to do ubt whether the barbarians burrowed beneath the ground to discover and destroy the Aqua Appia, which is subterraneous till after it has entered the circuit of the w to n o m alls . One would like be i f r ed also how they succeeded in arresting these copious streams of water with out turning the f m Campagna itself into a morass . The waters which came ro the Anio valley may perhaps have been diverted back again into that stream,but some of the others which had no river bed near them must surely have been difficult to deal with . Possibly the sickness which at a later period assailed the Gothic host may have sprung in part from the unwholesome accumulation of these stagnant waters .

But our chief interest in the Operation,an interest of regret, arises from the change which it must have wrought in the

of m m habits the Ro an people . So e faint and feeble attempts to restore the aqueducts were possibly made when the war was ended : in fact one such, accomplished by Belisarius for the

1 oco . . i . 1 Pr pius De B G 9 . He goe s on to state that th e aqueducts ’ were fourteen i n number,built of baked brick s by the men of old, and of s c i m ns ns t man s u h d e io hat a on h orseback could ride through them . Thi s s t m n i s an x n of the n o No he la t ta e e t e aggeratio . The specus A i vus, t f ll u highe st o a the aq educts , i s only 2 70 metre s,or 8 feet 9 inches high , an d mos of m o 4 r n m f n i s t the are ab ut o 5 feet high . The u ber o fourtee ma cco din L n n of F r n n he de up , a r g to anciani (p . by the i e o ti us, t Traj ana ,the Alexandri na,an d three supplemental channel s,the Augusta, the Specus Octavi anus, and th e Specus Antonian us , whi ch though not independent aqueducts might s eem so to Procopius , as they touched the l ff n a d n i . 4 n w l at di ere t p oints from the main chann el s . J or a ( 79) thi ks that Procopius mentioned the number fourteen from some remembrance of o n ns f the f urtee regio o the city . 4 9 E f fect of M e i r destr uction .

1 Aqua Traj ana,is recorded in an inscription . But as a whole, we may confidently sta te that the imperial system o f aqueducts

i n was never resto red . Three the course of ages were recovered ' 2 for the City by the public spirit of her pon tifis , and one (the Marcia) has been added to her reso urces in our own days by the enterprise o f a joint-stock company ; but the Home of the

Middle Ages was practically, like the Rome of the Kings, dependent for her water on a few wells and cisterns and on the

- t all i mud burdened Tiber . The Ba h with its sinful luxur ous ness, which brought it under the ban of philosophers and churchmen,but also with all its favouring influen ces on health, on refinement, even on clear and logical thought, the Bath which the eleven aqueducts of R ome had once replenished for a whole pe ople, now became a fo rgotten dream of the past . As we l ook onward from the sixth century the Romans of the centuries before us will be in some respects a better people than their ancesto rs, more devout, less arrogant, perhaps less

- licentio us,but they will not be so w ell washed a peo ple . And the sight of Rome, holy but dirty, will exert a very different and far less civilising infl uence on the nati ons beyond the Alps w ho c ome to worship at her shrines than would have been exerted by a Rome,Christian indeed, but also rej oicing in the

m o undi inished treasures of her artificial streams . Sh uld an author ever arise who shall condescend to tak e the History of Personal Cleanliness for his theme (and histo rians have s ome

m o n of for m ti es ch se subj ects less interest hu anity than this) . he will find that one of the darkest days in his story is the day when the Go thic warriors of Witigis ruined the aqueducts of m Ro e .

1 On a n arch of th e Traj ana at Vi carell o

BE L IS AB IV S a con srvxr' m os

alis simo co ato s a s L an ci an i M pi y (p . to whom I ow e this inscripti on . 3‘ o s on r an s n l st The Aqua Virg (perhap ly t ie t y lo ) ,Aqua Pao la (Traj ana ) , i A and Aqua Fel ce ( lexandrina) . N OTE A . BL L TA E I . THE SCHEDU ES OF F R ONTINU S , SHOWING THE I WASTE OF WATER N THE AQUEDUCTS .

2 , 5 .

1 6 310 3! mount as A 23126 25 mount measured D ifference D i stri bu A co unte d for. on th e at th e be tw ee n ti on D iff ere nce R . i te s ount i No o . e s a n s . E r atio g r f ( g ) betw ee n

ead. h Nos . 2 and 4 .

8 4 1 1 8 25 98 4 704 1 54 1 4398 28 57 16 10 2 1 62 4 690 2528 2 1 91 2 400 445 45 4 45 649 1206 557 993 3 652 2504 1 1 8 52 2504 3 92 392 392 28 55 4607 1752 1 750 3 263 4 738 1 475 4 200

14789 1 0016 —4 46 2 3 —446 2 3

12755 24805 12050 1 4343 10462

1 M n mi l e s n . eas ured near the city ,at seve th to e 2 3 1 e N . n 256 giv n to Ani o ovus and Tep ula 90 give to Topula .

R N E ROGATIO . TABLE II . ACCOUNT OF DIST IBUTIO ( )

O i Insi e th e i t . uts de th e City. d C y

3 . 4 . 5 .

r ivate ubli c C P P Total . aesar. . r Persons Pu poses .

) 779 1 8 39 1 206

17 18 2345 1 675 38 37 4443 14018

4 This does not corresp ond w ith th e fig ures given above

’ e ratio ns o f th e te x t i n D e derich n f In th e li ne s thus marked, the co nj ectural al t

mak the numbe s fit. edition (L eips i c,186 5) have been adopte d i n order to e r ’ u Tfie S c/zea u/es of F r onti n s . 5 1 — Summary z Cae sar

Private Persons

Publi c Works

14 01 8

I i a c t All the ab ove measurements are in qui na ri a e. t s c l ulated hat - eac h qui na ri a repres en ts a dail y supply of 63 18 cubi c metres , or gallons .

I ! N R TABLE III . DETA LED ACCOUNT OF E PE DITU E OF

WATER FOR PUBLIC PUR POSES (COLUMN 5 IN TAB LE II) .

m Tota . Ca ps . l

I 3 m 1 23 I 2 xcn r 50 x x 1 95 1x 8 8 xcrv

rv 4 1 xv 4 1 x11 1 04 ar m I 1 2 m 7 m 6 x 1 8 2 m ! VI 138 0 11

IX 1 04 xvm 522 xxx 99 ccxxvr 4 8 1 1206

! I! 279 13 28 44 4 3

The Roman numerals in th e inner column s show th e number of publi c in sti tuti ons on whi ch th e qui na r iae of wate r deta iled in the other col umn s d n were bestowed . Ad i g the se together we get 19 Castra,95 Opera Publi ca, i 39 Mun era, an d 5 91 L acus . It s certain,h owever ,that we ought n ot thus t d o ad them except to get a mere approximate e sti mate of their n umber , as the same camp or f ountain w as ,perhap s in variably , fed by tw o or even three aqueducts ,that it mi ght n ot be dependent on one single source of s upply . m The ca p s are probably chi efly the great Cas tra P rae tori a ,but al so the

’ smal ler camp s of th e cohortes r zgi lum and other tr oops quarte red i n the i C ty .

The Op era P ubli ca are , p artly at least, th e great sheets of water on i c moc se a -fi hts and o t hi n wh h k g ther spectacle s were exhi bited . We ge a t f i c a ac m th o the r h r ter fro e wo rds of F rontinus,w ho says that of the 1 3 8 0 i a ae ntr qu n ri co ibute d by th e Aqua Vir go to publi c w orks 460 went to the ’ s on , to i c it its o w n n m of n m Euripu al e wh h gave a e Vir go . The a e m h e c nn i Eur ipus ,fr o t ha el wh ch sep ar ate s E ub oea fr om the mainl an d of w n to an ificial Greece , as give y great art ch annel , parti cular ly (as it see ms) to a large trench whi ch w as dug a l on g the oute r cir cumference of the

Circus M a ximus ,an d fil led w ith wate r . n ti us 5 2 T/ze S c/i edu/es of F r o n .

The tran slation of M une ra a nd L oc us i s by no me ans certa i n . It is — clear fr om the Table that the former were much larger than the latte r an average of 9 q ui na r ia e goi ng to each munus and little more than 2 to each

- n . 4 60 scuss s Iacus . Jorda (Topographic der Stadt Ro m, ii 9 ) di e the i meaning of lac us at great len gth , and seems upon the wh ole to incl ne to h t e meani ng whic h I have adopted above ,a nd whi ch is al so that favoured L an i n by c a i (p .

Evidently at the time of F rontin us the term mun us w as a late ly intro duced piece of fashion able slang , whatever w a s the thin g whi ch it w as ‘ iii l st e an um ublicis meant to de scribe . He say s ( ) that he wi l at qu t p — — ope ribus, quantum muneribus i ta enim culti ores app ella nt quantum ’ lacibus detur .

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