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Cinema and Politics : the Creation of Postcolonial Self/Other and the Shaping of Strategic Cultures in Southeast Asia, 1945‑1967

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Cinema and Politics : the Creation of Postcolonial Self/Other and the Shaping of Strategic Cultures in Southeast Asia, 1945‑1967 This document is downloaded from DR‑NTU (https://dr.ntu.edu.sg) Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Cinema and politics : the creation of postcolonial self/other and the shaping of strategic cultures in Southeast Asia, 1945‑1967 Darlene Machell de Leon Espena 2017 Darlene Machell de Leon Espena. (2017). Cinema and politics : the creation of postcolonial self/other and the shaping of strategic cultures in Southeast Asia, 1945‑1967. Doctoral thesis, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. http://hdl.handle.net/10356/69958 https://doi.org/10.32657/10356/69958 Downloaded on 01 Oct 2021 00:52:36 SGT Cinema and Politics: The Creation of Creation Post and of Politics: The Cinema - Colonial Self/Other and the Shaping of Strategic Shaping the of and Self/Other Colonial Cinema and Politics: The Creation of Postcolonial Self/Other and the Shaping of Strategic Cultures in Southeast Asia, 1945-1967 Cultures in Southeast 1945 Asia, in Southeast Cultures DARLENE MACHELL DE LEON ESPENA - 1967 D. ESPENA 2017 1967 D. ESPENA School of Humanities and Social Sciences 2017 Cinema and Politics: The Creation of Postcolonial Self/Other and the Shaping of Strategic Cultures in Southeast Asia, 1945-1967 Darlene Machell de Leon Espena Author Prof. Liu Hong and Associate Prof. S.R. Joey Long Supervisors School of Humanities and Social Sciences A thesis submitted to the Nanyang Technological University in partial fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2017 Table of Contents Acknowledgments iii List of Abbreviations v Summary vii Introduction: Cinema and Politics 1 A. State of the Literature 6 B. Research Puzzle, Scope, and Limitation 10 C. Methodology 13 a. Strategic Culture 13 b. Why Films? 15 c. The Transnationality of the Sources 17 D. Review of Sources and Overview of Chapters 18 Part One Chapter One: Starting with the Backstory 21 A. Film and Society Under Colonialism 21 B. The Japanese Occupation and the Bleak State of Cinema 33 C. Prelude to National Cinema 36 Chapter Two: Transnational Linkages in Southeast Asian Cinema 39 A. Ties that Bind: Transnational Linkages 40 a. Strong Chinese Links 40 b. Co-Productions and Transnational Distributions 49 c. The Hollywood Factor 61 B. Screening Transnational Southeast Asia 75 Chapter Three: Post-War Film Milieu and Filmmakers 77 A. Post-war Film Milieu 77 B. Ismail, Avellana, and Ramlee: Filmmakers 94 Imag(in)ing the Nation C. The Rise of National Cinemas 116 Part Two Chapter Four: Continuing the Epithet of Revolution 118 A. Indonesia and the Protracted Revolution 121 B. Revisiting Philippine Revolution 140 C. Traces of Revolution in Malaya 156 Chapter Five: Heralding the Nation 168 A. Pancasila and the Indonesian Nation 171 B. Constructing the Filipino: In America’s Image 188 C. Building a Multiracial Society 200 Chapter Six: Unity in Diversity and the Hybrid Communist 226 A. Ideological Clash on Indonesian Screen 227 B. Filipino Communists as Heroes 249 C. Hang Tuah: Independent, Anti-Communist, Nationalist 261 Epilogue: From the Cold War to ASEAN Regionalism 273 Filmography 284 Selected Bibliography 287 Acknowledgments The journey towards finishing this dissertation has not been easy. Along the way, friends, colleagues, and loved ones have helped me tremendously. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisors, Professor Liu Hong and Associate Professor SR Joey Long. Prof. Liu supported me unconditionally during the course of my graduate studies. He has generously provided opportunities for me to grow as an academic and to take charge of my own learning. Thank you for believing in my capacity, for asking hard questions, and for giving me constructive comments when I needed to be put back on track. I first met Joey in 2011, when I was a young and untroubled MSc. Asian Studies student at RSIS. Since then, he has been a constant source of motivation, sanity, and wisdom. He introduced me to Andrew Rotter’s works, which aroused my curiosity about culture and international relations, and led me to pursue doctoral studies. He has guided me throughout the entire process of data gathering, analysis, writing, and re- writing. Padmé Amidala aptly puts it, “All mentors have a way of seeing more of our faults than we would like. It’s the only way we grow.” I am blessed to have Joey as my mentor. I am still amazed at how he was able to make sense of my labyrinthine mind – there were times, he knew where my thoughts were heading before I was even aware of the direction. His stern comments and tough editing helped me clarify half-baked ideas and weak arguments. During my numerous bouts with anxiety and disorientation, Joey exuded his Yoda-like personality and power by calming me down and helping me see things in perspective. Joey, to you, I am forever indebted. I am also deeply grateful to colleagues who have read my proposal and/or manuscript and whose insightful remarks and suggestions strengthened my work. James Guild, Scott Anthony, Keng We Koh, Els Van Dongen, and Ang Chen Guan – a million thanks to you. I wish to thank my external and internal examiners; their rigorous assessment and constructive remarks improved my dissertation immensely. Needless to say, I take full and sole responsibility of any deficiencies and errors in this work. I have also received support from various institutions. Nanyang Technological University awarded me a generous scholarship to embark on this research. Associate Professor Francesco Cavallaro, Ivy Goh, Christina Seet Mei Lin, and Carol Yap of the Graduate Student Office of the School of Humanities and Social Sciences supported my research trips, international conferences, and the projects I instigated as the chair of the Graduate Student Committee. The staff and faculty of the Graduate School of Asia- Pacific Studies at Waseda University provided me with resources and facilities to finish the first two chapters of my dissertation. In particular, a word of thanks is important for Professor Hatsue Shinohara for asking hard questions that challenged me to think more critically. The archivists and librarians at the University of the Philippines Diliman, National Archives of the Philippines, Sinematek Indonesia, National Archives of the Republic of Indonesia, National Archives of Malaysia, P. Ramlee Museum, Hoover Archives at Stanford University, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Library, and National Library of Singapore, were of great help. I would not have survived the lonely road of PhD life without my closest friends. Alex Bischert has given me the most enjoyable distractions from writing including conversations about his hair, the colour of his pee, politics, coffee, Pan-American cycling, Godsmack, and tiny-houses. I thank your rational and optimistic mindset (and cold, cold heart) for balancing out my extreme emotional outbursts. Xiaolei Qu and Marko Djapic, my xiao-long-bao buddies, made my first year at HSS absolutely fun despite the heavy coursework. For giving me unfailing support and encouragement, I thank Mary Ann Quirapas who is the Lily to my Ted; Joseph Franco, the MILF expert, and Roberto De Roock, who is not only a staunch friend but an amazing academic collaborator. Special thanks to Zachary Walker – for inspiring me to cook, run, pray, and love. From the very first time we chatted at Starbucks up until this very moment, I have no regrets – only gratitude. Finally, to my parents, for loving me unconditionally, believing in me, and for always allowing me to pursue my own passions, thank you very much. I am who I am because of you. To my siblings, their spouses, and my two cute nephews, thank you for the constant prayers and cheers. Despite our distance, I am thankful for the love and bond we share. For those I forgot to mention but helped me one way or another, thank you, thank you very much! iv List of Abbreviations ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASA Association of Southeast Asia CCP Chinese Communist Party CPP Communist Party of the Philippines FINAS National Film Development Corporation Malaysia Hukbalahap Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon/Nation’s Army against the Japanese IMP Independence of Malaya Party KMT Kuomintang LEKRA Lembaga Kebudayan Rakyat/Institute for the People’s Culture MANIKEBU Cultural Manifesto MANIPOL Political Manifesto MAPHILINDO Malaysia, Philippines and Indonesia MASYUMI Consultative Council of Indonesian Muslims MCA Malayan Chinese Association MCP Malayan Communist Party MFU Malayan Film Unit MIC Malayan Indian Congress NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization PERFINI Indonesian National Film Company PERSARI Indonesian Artists Company/Perseroan Artis Indonesia PKI Partai Komunis Indonesia/Communist Party of Indonesia PMIP Pan-Malayan Islamic Party PNI Indonesian National Party PRC People’s Republic of China SEAC Southeast Asian Command SEATO Southeast Asian Treaty Organization TNI Indonesian National Armed Forces UMNO United Malays National Organization USIS United States Information Service USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics VOC Dutch East India Company/Vereenigde Osstindische Compagnie v The only way to get rid of my fears is to make films about them. Alfred Hitchcock vi Summary This research examines the intersections among Southeast Asian strategic cultures, cinematic visualizations, and the formation of Southeast Asian foreign policies from 1945 to 1967. Veering away from realist, political, economic, and strategic frameworks on foreign policy and international studies, I apply cultural analysis to the study of the foreign policy orientations of Southeast Asian states in the early period of the Cold War–a period that coincided with the era of nation-building and decolonization in Southeast Asia. The underlying premise of this approach is that politics and foreign policy formulation are not impervious to culture–that the processes by which states relate to one another are inevitably grounded in distinct cultural spheres. Through an investigation of the strategic cultures of Southeast Asian states, I provide a provocative alternative for understanding how and why these states navigated the Cold War the way they did.
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