In North America Edited by John Algeo Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-26479-2 - The Cambridge History of The English Language: Volume VI: English in North America Edited by John Algeo Index More information

INDEX

NOTE: African-American English and African-American Vernacular English are abbreviated to AAE and AAVE respectively.

a: broad, eastern seaboard, 79, 123, 141, Adams, John, US President, 61–2, 67, 346, 143; flat, in fast, calf, bath, can’t, 23, 79, 412 140–1; in mercy, 99, 139; in off, soft, drop, Adams, John Quincy, US President, 347 crop, 99, 141; London influence after adaptability and language change, 2 Revolution, 123, 141, 143; in twice (Cape Ade, George, 231, 250 Fear Valley), 135. See also barn words; adios, 176 cot/caught merger; wash words adjectives, AAE copula deletion before, a-,prefix with present participle, 132, 133, 299 145, 148; Gullah progressive marker, adobe, 176, 201, 207 302 adverbs: disjuncts, 413; flat, 369, 396, 411 aa, 181 advertising, 209. See also trade names abbreviations, 18th-century, 343 advocate, 372 ABC broadcasting network, 492 æ, 77, 140–1, 143, 340, 355 -able, silent e before, 340, 355 Africa: Carter’s diplomacy, 47; English as Aboriginal peoples of Canada, 425; lingua franca, 16th century, 180. See also Canadianisms relating to, 434–5; African languages; slaves and slavery; contacts with Newfoundland English, South Africa 442, 443, 451–2; pidgins and jargons, African-American English (AAE), 156, 162. See also individual names xxiv–xxv, 291–324; African influences abortion, 49 and African substrate hypothesis, 151, abstraction, language as, xix–xx 180, 214, 312–13, 318; age of speaker, abuse, verbal, 229–30 and usage, 323; Americanisms, xxii–xxiii, academy, language: American proposals 213–15; and Amerindian languages, 160; for, 35, 61–2, 346–7, 392, 412; British animal tales, 311; article, indefinite, 296, failure to establish, 62, 186; French, 62 320; aspectual system, 135, 147, 302–5; Acadia (Nova Scotia), 17 autonomy, 323; auxiliary verbs, 149, 301, accountability, principle of, 322 302, 306, 323; basilects, 291, 292–3, 314, acquisition. See children (language 318; benefits of study of, 321–2; British acquisition) and Irish influences, xxiv, 118–19, 132, Adam, Lucien, 312 214, 303, 312; calques, 180; camouflaged

568

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-26479-2 - The Cambridge History of The English Language: Volume VI: English in North America Edited by John Algeo Index More information

Index

constructions, 309; child acquisition terms for, 293, 310; variability of studies, 324; church language, 308, 311; structural features, 292, 295; verbal complex sentences, 306–7; consonant concord, 147, 296, 298–9; vulgarity, 324; cluster simplification, 296, 298; copula, and white vernaculars, 128–9, 131, 214, 295, 299–300, 303–4; counterlanguage, 296, 297, 303, 319–21; whites, terms for, 309; creole-like features, 132, 296; creole 214; women and, 311, 323, 324; young stage, xxiv, 214; definitions, 291–4; people, 215, 291–2, 293, 320–1, 323, development, 147, 214, 311–21; 324, See also African-American discourse genres, 309–11, 324; done, 302, Vernacular English; Gullah 303, 323; double meanings, negative and African-Americans: attitudes towards, positive, 309, 311; Elizabethan 311–12, 319; civil rights programs, 48–9, hypothesis, 108, 132; enclave 211, 319; education, 48–9, 319, 322; communities, 118; features, 294–311; emigration, 29, 118, 317–18; epithets future markers, 299–300, 301, 305; for, 208, 246; and jazz, 43; Jim Crow future studies of, 322–4; grammar, xxiv, laws, 319; linguists, 323–4; literary stock 131, 132, 297–308; habitual verbs, 135, characters, 100, 101; migration to North, 147, 303–4, 306; hypercorrections, 295; 30, 204, 314; social diversity, 215; social imperatives, 300, 306; indirect speech, segregation and integration, 48–9, 319, 306–7; influence on American English, 320; street culture, 291–2, 293; 15–16, 128–9, 131, 147, 149, 309; underclass, 13, 30; vocabulary, xxii–xxiii, interactions with participants from xxiv, 180–1, 213–15; in World War II, 48. outside community, 298; internal See also African-American English; diversity, 292; jive literature, 231; literary African-American Vernacular English; character types, 100, 101; mesolects, 291, Gullah 293, 314; modals, 148, 300, 301, 305, African-American Vernacular English 308; negation, 303, 305–6, 314, 320; (AAVE); African substrate influence, Nova Scotia, 118, 317, 318; origin, early 314, 318; aspectual system, 302, 315, studies of, 322; past time reference, 300, 316, 329; basilectalization, 292–3, 319; 301, 305, 323; perfect, 301, 302, 314, be, invariant, 320, 329–30; and Caribbean 323; phonology, 279, 295–7, 298, 312; English creoles, 299–300, 313, 315, 319; pidgin stage, 214; play talk, playing the complex sentence formation, 306–7; dozens, 310–11, 324; plural zero copula distribution, 299–300, 316, 318, marking, 296, 298–9; possessives, 295, 320; creole model, 294, 301–2, 313, 296, 298–9; pragmatics, 309–11; 314–18; definition, 291–2; done, 302, 314, predication, 299–300; 330; future tense, 301; genres, 307; and prepositional/locative phrases, 299; Gullah, 292, 293, 294, 297, 301, 313, progressives, 297, 299, 302, 303, 305, 316–17; historical data, 314; modals, 320; quantitative sociolinguistic studies, 308; names used for, 293; negation, 306, 317, 319, 322–3; quotations, 306–7; 314, 320; past tense, 301–2; phonology, relative clauses, 306, 307; repetition, 303, 299, 320; possessives, 299, 302, 320; 304; rural, 292; Samaná Peninsula, prosody, 297; quantitative sociolinguistic Dominican Republic, 118, 317, 318; studies, 317; questions, indirect, 308; semantics, 298–9, 308–9; slang, 222, 230, relative clauses, 307; remoteness, 302; 309, 310; social context and nonstandard stress, 297; subject-verb agreement, 320; features, 295, 323, 324; sources, 121; urban use, 231, 292; and white speech styles, 309–11, 324; talk-singing, nonstandard English, 297, 315, 316, 311; tenses, 296, 299–300, 301–5, 323; 320

569

Index

African languages, xxii, 180–1; AAE 217; as source on Americanisms, 187 influenced by, 312–13; AAVE influenced Algonquian languages, xxi, 155; Beothuk, by, 314, 318; Arabic words in, 180; 443, 451–2; first slangy borrowing from, calques on, 180; copula distribution, 318; 240; loanwords in Mobilian Jargon, contact with, 15–16, 18–19, 60, 93, 163, 156–7; pidgin results from contacts with, 180–1; Gullah influenced by, 180, 313; 164–5; of Roanoke, 159; 16th-century invariant be, 329; loanwords from, visitors to England, 467 180–1, 214, 248, 470; and slang, 248 alibi, 494 Afro-Seminole Creole, 157, 160 Allen, Edward A., 389 after + present participle, Canadian, 432 Allen, Grant, 489 again, 492–3 alligator, 176 against, agin ‘next to,’ 268 allow ‘suppose,’ 109 age and language use in AAE, 323 all the far ‘as far as,’ 151, 272 agriculture: climate, and zones, 255; dry almanacs, 19, 243, 341 farming, 255, 283; in South, 204–5; aloha, 181 technology, 27, 205–6, 283; terminology, alphabets: initial teaching, 351; phonetic, 123–4 xxx–xxxii, 140, 159, 351, 405 /ai/ diphthong, 269, 273, 276, 277; Altamaha River, 164 Canadian raising, xxvi, 426–7 aluminum, 356 ain(t), 275, 409, 410, 411, 460; AAE, 303, American, compound words with, 491–2 305–6, 314 American Academy of Arts and Letters, air conditioning, 53–4 347, 392 airplanes, 53 American Academy of Language and airport (in slave trade), 470 Belles Lettres, 347 Aitken, Robert, of Philadelphia, 341 American Bar Association Journal, 407 Akan, 180 American Colonization Society, 29 Akron, Ohio, 305 American Comic Annual (1831), 487–8 Alabama, state of, 30, 31; -Georgia border American Dialect Society, xxiv, 388 region, language of, 110, 130; slang American Federation of Labor, 33 borrowing from Choctaw, 240 American Heritage Dictionary, 411–13, 414, Alabama tribe, 156 415–16 Alaska: place names, 349, 488; Russian American Indian English, 157 presence, 169, 179 Americanism: coining and defining of term, Alaska Purchase (1867), 4, 26, 32 xxii, 61, 66, 68, 69, 185–6, 459; use and Albany, Dutch influence in, 12, 170 misuse abroad, 458–60, 474 albatross, 467 Americanisms, xxii–xxiii, 184–218; AAE, Albee, Edward, 57 xxii–xxiii, 213–15; alleged, actually in Alberta, 422, 433 previous British usage, 460, 473, 482, alcohol: fire water, 166; Prohibition, 41, 43, 483; and American identity, 19; from 246, 251; slang connected with, xxiii, Amerindian languages, see separate entry; 241–2, 245, 251 Bartlett and, 200–1; British attitudes to, Aldrin, Buzz, 53 18th/19th-century, 19, 68, 168, 185, Aleutian Islands, 169 226–7, 478, 480, 481–2; —, 19th- Alexander, Caleb, 344 century, xxvii, 385, 456–8, 482–6, Alexandria, Louisiana, 76 486–91; —, 20th-century, xxvii, 459–60, Alford, Henry, Dean of Canterbury, 384–5 474–5, 492–3, 493–5; —, adoption, 219, Algeo, John, 184, 187; and Algeo, Adele S., 489, 490, 494; British variants retained

570

Index

as, 191–2, 195; in Civil War and 188–9, 195–6, 206; —, cultural terms, Reconstruction, 201–5; from Civil War 15, 164, 166, 167, 195, 196; —, on fauna to World War II, 209–10; databases, 218; and flora, 15, 137, 164–6, 167, 188–9, definitions, 185–8; diachronic, xxii, 187; 195–6, 464; —, on foods, 189 (see also earliest, 19, 187–8, 188–9, 189–91; on maize); —, loan translations, 166, 464; environment, 18, 19, 20, 67–8, 69, 93, —, localized, 163; —, 16th-century, 155, 137, 195–6 (see also fauna; flora; 188, 460–5, 466–7; —, topographical topography); ethnic epithets, 208; on terms, 15, 195; —, transmitted through foods, 208, 216; foreign loanwords, other European languages, 154, 167, 192–3, 193–4, 194–5, 208 (see also 171, 175, 188, 460–3, 466–7, 470–1; Amerindian languages, loanwords); number of languages, 154–5; pidgins, frontier, xxii, 198–9, 205–9; 156–7, 157–62; place names, 166, 349; governmental terms, 485; initialisms, pre-contact languages, 154–7; semantic 196–7, 210–11; inventiveness, 137, 201, shift in borrowings, 167; stereotypes of 209, 456–8; and isolation from British speech, 166; west, words from, 167, 188, English, 184, 186; literati and, 341, 385; 195–6; word lists, 92–3, 468, 469 on music, 214–15; overseas adoption, Amerindians: boarding schools, 159–60; 490–2; rapid dissemination of recent, early contacts, 15, 18–19, 20, 60, 154, 213; regional differences, xxii, 112, 467, 468; forced removal: 155, 255; 193–5; on religion, 215–16; Revolution inquiry into origins, 468, 469; stimulates, 196; semantic shifts, 187, 192; interpreters, 158–9; literary character slang, 219, 226–7, 240, 243; spelling, types, 100; migration from Asia, 4; 340–1; on sports, 216; synchronic, xxii, relations with colonists, 190; slang 187; and technology, xxii, 209, 211, 213; epithet, 246; underclass, 13. See also urbanization and, 208–10; Webster and, Aboriginal peoples of Canada xxii, 67–8, 199–200; from westwards Amish, Old Order, 174 expansion, 195–9, 205–8; Witherspoon amongst you, 149 and, xxii, 61, 66, 68, 69, 185–6, 459; Amorous Gallant’s Tongue, The (1740), 227 World War II to present, 210–13 analogical formations, 328, 332, 339, 368, American Magazine, 78–9 381 American Mercury,43 and: introducing elliptical clause without American Philological Association, 388 verb, 150; written as &, 343 American Phonetic Alphabet, 351 Anglican Church, 7, 8, 10, 177, 190, 264 American Scholar, 406 Anglo-Irish English. See Irish English; American Speech, 240, 248 Scotch-Irish American Telephone and Telegraph Angolan language, 180 (AT&T), 42 animal tales, 311 Amerindian languages, xxi, 93, 164–8; and ant-bear, 464 AAE, 160; Algonquian languages, see anterior tense, AAE, 301 separate entry; British belief that all Antillean Creole, 215 Americans spoke, 481; calquing, 166; antiphrasis in slang and poetry, 224 creolization, 157; families, xxi, 155 (see antitrust acts, 34 also Algonquian family); French contact, antonomasia in slang and poetry, 225 157, 167, 171, 188; Indian, compounds anymore ‘nowadays,’ 150, 331–2, 432 with first element, 167–8; koinéization A-OK, 244 hypothesis, 115; lingua francas, 155–7; Appalachian. See South Midland dialects loanwords, 92–3, 155, 163–4, 164–8, apple pie, 216–17

571

Index

appositional naming, 492 aspiration, initial: of French words, 73; loss, appropriateness, situational, 371, 377, 391, 143, 447, 454. See also w ([hw]/[w] 392, 393–4, 397, 399; slang, 220, 221 variation) Arabic language, 180 assiento, 470 Aramaic, Biblical, 379 astronomy, 463, 466 Arapaho, 155 as well, Canadian sentence-initial, 432 arbitrariness of language, 383, 417 AT&T (American Telephone and archaisms, 106, 191; Canadian English, Telegraph), 42, 51 422, 434; Pennsylvania German, 134; Atchafalaya delta dialect, 274, 278, 279, 283 Scotch-Irish, 191; South Midland area, Athabaskan languages, xxi, 155 126, 127, 128, 195, 273; Virginia, 106, Atlanta, Georgia, 55, 255 108, 129–30, 132. See also conservatism Atlantic Charter, 44 architecture: effect of air-conditioning, 54; Atlantic coast, xxiv, 79, 84, 254–5. See also English style in Virginia, 265; Greek individual areas and states Revival, 28; International Style, 55; Atlantic Monthly, 28, 346, 405, 414, 419 skyscrapers, 54, 55; Spanish loanwords atlases, linguistic, xxiii, 112–15, 144 connected with, 176 atomic bomb, 45 Arctic North, 423 attitudes to American English. See response Argentina, 47 Atwood, E. Bagby, 145 argot, underworld, 238 audience in sense of readers, 480 arithmetic books, 104 /au/ diphthong, 269, 273, 276, 27; Arizona: English Only laws, 177; enters Canadian raising, xxvi, 426–7 Union, 32; Gadsden Purchase of aunt, 141 southern, 3–4, 26; Spanish influence, 50, Australia, 170, 334, 490–1 175, 286 Austria, immigration from, 49–50 Arkansas, 14, 31; dialects, 273, 274, 282, authority, linguistic, 364; British written 283 language, 66–7, 341; and spelling, 341, Arkansas River basin, 274, 284 344–50; —, of academies, 346–7; —, of arms race, 47 dictionaries, 344–6; —, of government, Armstrong, Neil, 53, 54 347–50; —, of social obligation, 350; ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Webster as, 35, 344, 347, 403. See also Agency Network), 52 standard, linguistic arrive with auxiliary be/have, 483 automobiles, 42, 52–3, 54, 209 arroyo, 176, 192–3 autumn, 191 articles: definite, with nonconcrete nouns, auxiliaries: for arrive, 483; bin (AAE), 301; 133, 337; deletion, in appositional contraction of negative, 306, 448; naming, 492; —, in prepositional phrases, deletion in Southern dialects, 275; done, 432; indefinite, in AAE, 296, 320 149, 275, 302, 303, 314, 323; double Articles of Confederation, 24 modal, 275; duh, da (Gullah), 302; -ary words, Canadian, 430 expanded, in mandative constructions, Ash, John; Grammatical Institutes, 365–6 337–8; was, were, patterning of past-tense Asia and Asians, 55; immigrants from, 208; copula and, 146–7 linguistic influence, 60, 179, 478; slang Avalon Peninsula, Newfoundland, 424, epithets, 246. See also individual countries 446 aspect: AAE, 135, 147, 302–5; AAVE, 302, aviation, 53 315, 316, 329; Newfoundland English, avocado, 176 450 /aw/: AAVE monophthongization, 297

572

Index

/ay/: AAVE monophthongization, 297, basilects, African-American, 291, 292–3, 320; Gullah pronunciation, 297 314, 318, 319 basketball, 216 Babbitt, E. H., 248 Basque, 158 Babel, language variety as descended from, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 274, 276 364, 471 bayou, 156, 172, 188, 207, 278 babelicious, 245 Bay Roberts area, Newfoundland, 446 baby boomers, 49 BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation), Bache, Richard Meade, 234 460, 492 back-formations, lexical, 392 be: AAVE invariant, 303–4, 320, 329–30; + back-to-the-land movement, 212 after - ing, Newfoundland, 450; creole or backwoodsman, 483 African substrate influence, 318; bad, badder, baddest, AAE, 297, 309, 311 deletion, 160, 275, 295, 299–300, 316, Badcock, John (pseud. Jon Bee), 232 318, 320; finite, 105, 131, 145, 147; in bad eye, bad mouth, 180, 214 Gullah, 300; habitual, in AAE, 135, 147, Bahamas: and Gullah prosody, 297; Taino 303; —, Irish English influence, 135–6, language, 175, 176 450; —, Newfoundland, 450; patterning Bailey, Guy, 116, 320 of past-tense copula and auxiliary was, Bailey, Nathan; Dictionarium Britannicum were, 131, 146–7; were with singular (1730), 478 subjects, Lower South, 131 Baissac, Charles, 312 bear: Gullah pronunciation, 297 Baker, Sheridan, 407–8, 411, 414 Beatles, 180 Baldwin, James, 57 Bee, Jon (pseud. of John Badcock), 232 Balkans, 46, 48 bees: lynching, 203; spelling, 199, 344 Baltimore, 1st Baron (George Calvert), belittle, 484 441 Bell, Alexander Graham, 33 Baltimore, Maryland, 9, 28, 369 Belle Isle, Strait of, 443 banana, 176, 180 Bellow, Saul, 57 Banffshire, Scotland, 118–19 Bennett, John, 312 banjo, 180, 470 Bentham, Jeremy, 232, 487 banking accounts, 210 Beothuk people, 443, 451–2 bantam, 451 Berrey, Lester, 110, 239 Baptist Church, 65, 215 between you and I, 411 Barbados, 129, 314, 470 Bible: finite be in King James Version, 105; barbecue, 175, 478 printing of, 341 barefoot doctor, 179 Bible societies, 29 Barlow, Joel; The Columbiad, 484 big-band era, 222 Barnhart, D. K., 217–18 Bilalian, 293 barn words, 268, 273, 278, 279, 280, 282, Bill of Rights, 24 283, 286 bin (AAE), 301, 302 Barth, John, 57 Birth of a Nation (film), 42 Bartlett, John Russell; Dictionary of black Americans. See African-Americans Americanisms, xxii, 200–1, 217, 457–8; Black English, 293. See also African- and slang, 232–3, 234–5 American English; African-American Barzun, Jacques, 362, 400–1, 405, 406, 411, Vernacular English 412, 419 Blackfoot, 155 baseball, 34, 216, 239, 493 Black Hills, South Dakota, 33, 281

573

Index

Black Power movement, 181, 211 redemptioners; servants, indentured; black slang, 222 slaves and slavery Black Tuesday, 43 bowery, 170 Blair, Hugh; Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Boyle, Kay, 247 Lettres, 63–4, 65–6, 374 Bracketville, Texas, 160 blizzard, 223 Bradford, William; History of Plymouth bloody, 241; bloody shirt, 203–4 Plantation, 158 Bloomfield, Leonard, 387–8, 395, Bradley, Henry, 473 419–20 brain, language as abstract system in, Bloomfield, Morton, 420 xix–xx blue-collar, 211 brainwash, 179 Blue Ridge mountains, 270–1, 274–5 branch ‘stream,’ 192, 283 bluff, 68, 476, 480 Brandywine people, 160 boarding school English, 159–60 brave, 171 bobbasheely, 240 Brazos valley, Texas, 320 Bob Ruly, Bob Low, 172 Breton pidgins, 158 bogus, 172, 180, 488 bring, past forms of, 328 boil, 139 Bristol emigrants’ heterogeneity, 87 Boise, Idaho, 286 Britain: attitudes to American English, bones ‘dice,’ 241 xxvi–xxvii, 185, 460, 476–93; —, cultural Bonnefoy, Antoine, 156 coherence with colonies, 476–82; —, boogie(-woogie), 180 first American word in British English, books: children’s, 18th-century, 350–1; 460–3; —, response to vitality of, 456–8; Continental, on Americas, 463; —, rising British anxiety and Newfoundland, 444, 445, 446; trade, antagonism, 385, 482–6, 105; —, US 341, 364–5, 414 reaction and British counter reaction, Boone, Daniel, 195 486–93 (see also Americanisms, British booster talk, 35 attitudes); attitudes to Canadian English, booze, 241, 250 426; colonial wars, 16–18; conservatism, -borough abbreviated to -boro, 349 3; cultural rivalry with, 104; education, boss, 12, 170, 193, 201, 214, 488 63, 64, 65, 80–1, 188, 342; Empire, 6; Boston, Massachusetts: as cultural center, epithets for immigrants from, 90, 208, 255; dialect, 76, 77, 267, 490; Irish 246; exploration, 463; Loyalist exodus to, Catholic settlers, 92; literati, and fixing of 23; manorial system, 80, 81; language, 62; and London speech, 123; Massachusetts colonists’ independence Massacre (1770), 21, 241; from, 264, 265; migration patterns, 49, Newfoundlanders move to, 445; 50; —, to America, 7–14, 59–61, 79–84, nonrhotacism, 76, 77; OK coined in, 490; 113–14, 189–91; —, to Canada, 425; —, population in 1790, 244; protests over internal, 87, 121; nostalgia for culture of, tea shipments, 21–2; Scotch-Irish 59, 65; Parliament, 14, 21, 495; regional immigration through, 13 stereotypes, 188; Royal Family, 493, 495; Boswell, James, 72, 481 separation, and development of both applied to three things, 386 American English, 69, 117, 184, 186; and bottle, 143 slang, 219, 226–7, 231, 240; special bottoms; semantic shifting, 476 relationship, 25; spelling, 341–2; urban Boucher, Revd Jonathan, 97–8 areas, 76, 80 (see also London); Virginian bound workers. See convicts; adherence to traditions, 10, 74–5, 79,

574

Index

80–1, 122, 264–5, 342, 477. See also social connections with American British English; dialects, British and Irish English, 120–36; redevelopments in English; England; Gaelic, Irish; Gaelic, American English, 150–1; research Scottish; Ireland; Scotch-Irish; Scotland; needs, 94–6, 151–3; separation affects Welsh language and people American English, xvi–xvii, 4, 7, 18, 69, British-American Spelling Board (1906), 62 93, 117, 184, 186; style, 35–6, 70–1; British Columbia, 422, 433 synchronic comparison with American British English, 59–85, 86–153; abortive English, xvii; vocabulary, 67–70, 92, 93, attempts to form academy, 62, 186; 105, 106, 193 (see also under loanwords); American influence, 219, 334, 489, 490, Webster and, 62–3, 199, 367; written 494; American influence on Australian language, and American English, 66–7, English mediated through, 491; 70, 341. See also dialects, British and Irish American super-regional linguistic English; Received Pronunciation; features derived from, 136–51; standard British English; and under archaisms retained in America, 101, literature; phonology; spelling 105–9, 116, 191 (see also Elizabethan British Grammar probably by James hypothesis); and Canadian English, 422, Buchanan, 365 429, 430–1, 433, 439; Chancery English, bro (AAE abbreviated form of brother), 309 66–7, 84; comparisons with American broadcasting: international influence of English, 104–19; —, comprehensive, American, 43, 334, 439, 492; news, 51. 111–15, 116; —, regional, 109–11, 116; See also radio; television composition, models of, 63–4, 65–6, bronco, 176, 206, 283 341; continuity with American English, brook, 192 xx–xxi, 111; convergence with American Brook Farm, Massachusetts; English, xix–xx, xxv, 334, 494–5; core of Transcendentalist community, 29 common standard language, 58, 93; Brooklyn Bridge, New York, 33 current influence on American English, Brooks, Cleanth, 110, 130 xxvii, 92; defined by rise of American broom words, 268, 276, 279, 282, 283 English, xvii–xviii, 184; diachronic Brown, Goold, 375, 382; The Grammar of comparison with American English, English Grammars, 377–8 xvii–xix; divergence from American Brown, John (anti-slavery activist), 30 English, xvi–xviii, xviii–xix, 18, 34, 73, Browne, Charles F. (pseud. Artemus Ward), 79, 93, 482–3; early relations with 36, 230 American English, 92–4; European Brown versus Board of Education of Topeka,48 loanwords, 172–3, 466; fluidity of Bruce, David, 125 language, 34, 99, 102, 116, 256, 343; —, Bryan, William Jennings, 42 and fixing, 61–2, 99, 116, 256, 390; —, Bryant, William Cullen, 36, 67, 69, 346 fixing through written language, xxv, 34, Buchanan, James, US President 365, 366 84, 186, 342, 352–6; folk speech, 147, buckaroo, 176, 206, 248 148; grammar, and American English, Buckhurst, Helen, 495 xxv, 93, 144–50, 326–8; historical Buckley, Lord (beat comedian), 231 development of studies, 104–19; buckra, 214 innovation after settlement of America, Buffalo, New York, 174 71, 79, 84–5, 92, 93, 326–7 (see also bulldoze, 203 Received Pronunciation); intonation, Burchfield, Robert, xxvii, 495 74–5, 84; parallel developments in bureau, 172 America and, 483, 492; regional and -burger suffix, 174, 216

575

Index

-burg(h), 349 entry; bilingual policy, 423, 428, 439; early Burke, Edmund, 61, 67 history, xxvi, 9, 16, 17, 22, 23, 25; Fraser Burke, W.J., 239 River Gold Rush, 491; French language, burlesque, 100, 225 423, 425, 432, 434, 438–9; immigrant Burley, Dan, 230–1 population, 423, 425–6, 439; Loyalist Burroughs, William Seward, 33, 57 immigration, xxvi, 23, 429, 432; media, Burt, N. C., 125 426, 431, 439; Métis, 162, 425; migration Burton, L.; Editing Canadian English, 424, to US, 49, 50; multiculturalism, 425–6, 433 439; nationalism, Canadian, 429, 430–1, bush, bushwhacker, 170, 201 433; —, Quebec, 439; pidgins and Bush, George, Sr, US President, 47 jargons, 156, 162; print media, 426, 439; business, xx, 33–4, 343 settlement history, 9, 208, 424–6, 432, bust ‘burst,’ 75, 140 439; urbanization, 208, 425, 426. See also but, 138 Canadian English; French, Canadian; Byerley, Thomas, 366 Newfoundland; Quebec Byrd, William II, 342 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 431 Canadian English, xxvi, 422–40; adverbials, cache, 172 432; American influence, 334, 422, 429, cacique, 464 439, 491; archaisms, 422, 434; British cade, 113 attitudes to, 426; British English cafeteria, 177 influence, 422, 429, 430–1, 433, 439; calabash, 467 Celtic influences, 432; diachronic calaboose, 248, 286 evidence, 426; dictionaries, 424; eh?, xxvi, California, 286–8; Chinese Pidgin English, 432–3; French influence, xxvi, 432, 434, 161; in Civil War, 31; dialects, 266, 281, 438–9; governmental language, 432, 286, 287; English Only laws, 177; gold 435–6; homogeneity, 422, 424, 425; rush, 25, 33, 286; Hawaiians, 161; morphosyntax and usage, xxvi, 334, immigration, 49, 50, 161, 175; Spanish 431–3; and Newfoundland English, 423, rule, 16; US acquisition, 25 424, 444–5; and Northern US dialects, California Trail, 286 422, 439; noun + attribute order, 432; callibogus, 451 prepositional idioms, 432; Quebec calques: on African words, 180; on English, xxvi, 422, 425, 438–9; rural Amerindian languages, 166; Canadian speech, 434; settlement history and, English, on French, xxvi; on Yiddish 424–6; slang, 438; sociolinguistic studies, words and phrases, 178 426; speakers, 423; spelling, 423, 431, calumet, 478 433; spelling pronunciations, 431; Calvert, George (1st Baron Baltimore), 441 standard (or general), 422; study of, 424; Calvert, Leonard, 9 usage guides, 424, 432, 433; variability as Calvin, John, and Calvinism, 107, 173 feature, 431, 433; verbal forms and Cambridge, England; University, 240, 342, idioms, 334, 431–2; young people, 430, 481–2 431 Cambridge, Massachusetts, 341 , xxvi, 426–31; Canadian Cambridge, Richard Owen, 165, 478 raising, xxvi; 426–7; cot/caught merger, camouflaged constructions, AAE, 309 427–8; [hw]/[w] variation, 430; Campbell, George, 372, 374, 390 individual lexical items, 430–1; Camp David accord, 47 Maritimes accents, 423; Canada: Aboriginal peoples, see separate marry/merry/Mary, 429–30; rhotacism,

576

Index

429, 447; secondary stress), 430; Carrol, James, 78 variability, 431; voiced intervocalic [t], Carroll, Lewis (pseud. of C. L. Dodgson), 428; yod dropping, 428–9 484 , , carry-all, 172 434–9; Aboriginal peoples, 434–5; cars. See automobiles education, 437; finance, 436; food and Carter, Jimmy, US President, 47 drink, 438; French-English relations, Carver, C. M., 114, 115, 123–4, 141 434; government, law, and politics, 432, Casper, Wyoming, 286 434, 435–6; social structures and cassava, 464 programs, 436–7; sports, 437; weather, Cassidy, F. G., and J. H. Hall; Dictionary of 437 See also dialects, Canadian English American Regional English, xxiii, 92 Canadian Survey of English, 426, 431 cassonade, 470 canals, 26 catalpa, 165, 167, 188 cane, sugar, 274, 470 catamaran, 451, 454 can/may use, 472–3, 475 catawba. See catalpa cannibal, 176 Catholicism, 9, 89, 92 canoe, 92, 175, 464, 468 Cat’s-eye, 464 cant, 69, 228, 229, 238, 243; criminal, cattle raising, 33, 176, 206–7, 255. See also 242–3 cowboys canyon, 176, 201, 207, 284 caucus, 167, 188, 483, 484 Cape Breton Gaelic speakers, 425 caught/cot merger. See cot/caught merger Cape Fear Valley, North Carolina, 91, Cavaliers and servants, 7, 9–11, 60, 80–1, 134–5 109, 110, 113, 129, 190, 264 capitalization, late 18th-century, 343 cayman, 471 Capote, Truman, 57 cayuse, 167, 188, 206, 288 Capp, Al, 36 CBS broadcasting company, 492 Carbonear, Newfoundland, 444 CB slanguage, 219 card games, 247 CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps), 44 cardinal flower, 475 -ce, variation with -se, 345, 354 Carey, Henry; The Honest Yorkshire-Man Celtic languages, 90, 92, 178, 432. See also (comic opera), 228 Gaelic, Irish; Gaelic, Scottish Caribbean: African slaves, 15; British Cely Letters, 147 colonization, 470; compound words, censorship, 43, 341 475; English creoles, and AAVE, census, first US (1790), 244 299–300, 313, 315, 319; —, intensifier cent (monetary term), 172 done, 330; —, mesolects, 293, 319; center, 62; around, 408 French creoles, 173; loanwords in Central Pacific Railroad, 33, 205 American English, 470–1, 475; Century Dictionary, 236–7, 379 relationship of language varieties to Chaldee (Biblical Aramaic), Webster on, North American, 299–300, 313, 314–15, 379 319 Chancery English, 66–7, 84 caribou, 165, 171, 188 change, language, xv–xvi; and democracy, Carlisle Indian School, 160 3, 70; and grammar, 116; inevitable and Carlyle, Thomas, 231, 487 accidental, 382–3; Johnson on, 186; Carolinas. See North Carolina; South Marsh’s view, 381, 382–3, 408; as natural Carolina and constant process, 379, 380, 390, 392, carpetbagger, 203 395, 399

577

Index

Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Christy, David; Cotton Is King,30 at, 248 Church. See religion and individual Chapman, Robert L., 238 denominations chaps, 176, 206 Churchill, Sir Winston, 44, 45–6 Charles I, King of Great Britain, 8 Cincinnati, Ohio, xxiv, 28, 52, 255, 271 Charles II, King of Great Britain, 10, Cincinnati, Society of the, 28 11–12 Cinema. See films Charleston, South Carolina, 10, 21, 129, cities. See urban areas 255; dialect, 76, 106 Civilian Conservation Corps, 44 Chaucerian English, 105, 108 civil rights, 48–9, 211, 319 Cheever, George B.; Journal of the Pilgrims Civil Service Commission, US, 34 (1620), 342 Civil War, American, 31–2; Alford on, 385; Cherokee, 155 Americanisms, xxii, 201–5; Chesapeake Bay area; colonization, 60, contemporary names for, 204; marks 80–1, 470; islands, 108, 132, 472 change to rhotacism in prestige varieties, Chesterfield, 4th Earl of (Philip Dormer 77; slavery issue, 31, 255; soldiers’ Stanhope), 478 swearing, 245; westward expansion after, Cheyenne, 155 283; Yankee used for Northerners, 194 chi, 179 Civil War, British, 8, 256 Chicago, Illinois: AAE sta past-habit -ck, deletion of -k in, 199, 343, 344, 345, marker, 304; as cultural center, 255; 346, 372 immigration, 174, 179, 265; jazz, 43; Clark, Thomas L., 239 phonology, 269; World’s Fair (1893), 177 Clark, William, 25, 166, 195 Chicago Tribune,57 class, social, 3; and Canadian English, 422, Chickahominy Indians, 188 428, 433; of early settlers, 10, 12, 78, 80, Chickasaw, 155, 156 81, 82, 86; lower-class European Chickasaw as name for Indian pony, 206 immigrants, 179, 383, 408; 19th-century chi-kung, qigong, 179 prejudices, 384, 408; and phonology, children: books for, 350–1; language 71–2, 73, 76, 81, 428; social salience of acquisition, 324, 328, 387 forms, 99, 144–5, 148; and usage Chileno, 159 debates, 397–8, 400, 402, 406, 407–8, China, foreign policy towards, 39, 47 420 Chinese language, xxii, 179 classical languages and culture, 28, 63, 188, Chinese Pidgin English, 160–1, 179 355, 365–6 chinook, 167, 288 clean, AAE double meaning of, 309 Chinook Jargon, 156, 157, 165, 167, 434 clearing, 476 chinquapin, 188 cleft sentences, 339 chipmunk, 188 Clemens, Samuel Langhorne. See Twain, Chippewa, 155 Mark chocolate, 175, 478 clergymen, 97, 342 Choctaw, 155, 156, 165, 240 Cleveland, Ohio, 174 chop suey, 179 climate, 3, 53–4, 255 chovy, chuffy (Newfoundland English), 451 Clinton, DeWitt, 26 chow, chow mein, 179 Clinton, William Jefferson, US President, chowder, 172 48, 419 Christian Science, 215 clipped forms, 392; Canadian English, 438 Christmas customs, Newfoundland, 451 CNN (Cable News Network), 51

578

Index

Coast Salish loanwords in Canadian 364–5, 414; terminology and trade English, 434 names, 50, 209, 340, 356, 404, 492 Cobb, Lyman, 199 Commonwealth period, English, 9–10, 91 Coca-Cola, 55, 216 communications: with Britain, and cockpit ‘steep-sided valley,’ 471 linguistic divergence/convergence, cockroach, 176 xvi–xvii, xix, 4, 7, 18, 69, 117, 184, 186; Coddington, William, 9 internal, 19, 26–7; mass, 244, 257; and code-switching, 177 spread of slang, 219, 244. See also Cohen, Gerard L., 240 individual modes and isolation; mobility, Colby, Col. Elbridge, 239 physical Cold War, 41, 45–7 communism, 41, 45–7, 210 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 231 commute, 494 coleslaw, 12, 170, 193, 216 comparative and superlative forms: of all collectable, 494 the far, 151; badder, baddest (AAE, in collective nouns, singular/plural verbs positive sense), 309, 311 with, 336–7 comparative linguistics research, 152 colleges. See universities and colleges complected, 396, 409 Collier’s, 244, 245 composition, literary, 63–4, 65, 341, 352 Collinson, W.E., 493 compound subjects, singular/plural verb “collisions” in Quebec English, 439 with, 327 colloquial language: Franklin’s avoidance, compound words and phrases, 464, 480, 341; as functional variety or cultural 494–5; American, 491–2; Caribbean, 475; level, 399, 410; relationship to slang, Hoover, 210; Indian, 167–8; prepositional, 220–1, 222–3, 234; rhotacism in New 495; sugar, 470; tobacco, 469–70 York City, 76; Southern retention of computers, 51–2, 213. See also corpora, Colonial pronunciations, 81; Webster’s computerized Third discards label, 405, 410 Conception Bay, Newfoundland, 442, 445, colonial cringe, 479 446, 447 colonial lag, 74, 106–7, 120, 141, 471–2, Concord, New Hampshire, 22, 23 475 conditionals, Canadian English, 433 Colonial period, xx, 4, 6–20; contacts with Confederate States of America, 31. See also non-English populations, 15–16, 18–19, Civil War, American 87; development of English, 18–20; four conﬂagrative, 483, 484 major migrations, 7–14, 59–61, 79–84, conglaciate, 483, 484 113–14, 189–91; late migration, 14–15; Congregationalist Church, 65, 156, 190 sources of Colonial American English, Congress, Continental, 22, 59, 341 96–104, 121; wars, 16–18. See also Congress, US: and language regulation, individual aspects throughout index 346–7; Library of, 28 colonize, 479, 480 : Civil Rights (1964), 49; Colorado, 33, 175, 176, 177, 281, 284 Immigration, 49, 177; Lend-Lease Columbus, Christopher, 461 (1941), 44; Pure Food and Drug, 40; Combs, Josiah, 110, 126 Social Security (1935), 44; Voting Rights, Combs, Mona, 126 49 come; AAE modal use, 305 Connecticut, 31, 103, 194, 267; settlement, comedy; literary use of dialects, 72, 100 9, 193, 265 comic strips, 244 conservatism, linguistic, 3, 23, 326–7, 472. commerce: interest in debates on usage, See also archaisms

579

Index

consonants: clusters, AAE simplification copula. See be of, 296, 298; doubled, lost by late 17th Cordwainers, Federal Society of century, 342; final, optional doubling Journeymen, 27 before suffixes, 340, 345, 353–4; silent, corn, 167, 189 73, 81 Cornhill Magazine, 489 Constitution of United States, 8–9, 23–4, Cornish dialect, 135, 192 59, 82; amendments, 12, 24, 32, 40, 41, corpora, computerized: Americanisms, 42 218; and British/Irish antecedents, consumerism, 209, 211 116–19; emphasis on speech, 116; Kytö’s contact with other languages, xxi–xxii, Early American English, 103; usage, 154–83; African-American English as 420–1 product of, 151; in Canada, 423, 425–6, corpus of government correspondence, 439; colonial languages other than Fries’s, 397 English, 163, 168–77; Colonial period, corral, 176, 206, 283, 288 15–16, 18–19, 87; and grammar of correctness: circular definition, 376, 380, nonstandard American English dialects, 397; and class differences, 407; concern 330; immigrant languages, 163, 177–81; for grammatical propriety, 366, 368, 375, —, in Canada, 423, 425–6; International 376; and democracy, 392, 395; inherent, period, 5, 6, 56; koinéization hypothesis, 381, 382, 388, 473; linguists’ 60–1, 83–4, 115, 116, 153; in acknowledgment of public concern Newfoundland, 451–3; and over, 418; morality associated with, 364, redevelopments after Colonial period, 374, 375, 378, 400, 402, 417, 418–19; —, 151; regional variation in impact, 181. See by Marsh, 382–3, 384, 408; relativistic also African languages; Amerindian views, 395, 406, 418; of social varieties, languages; Chinese; Czech; Danish; 397; usage as measure of, 397, 399, 405 Dutch; French; German; Italian; correlational approach, 153 Norwegian; pidgins; Polish; Russian; corruption of language: of British English Slavic languages; Spanish; Swedish; by American, xxvii, 495; by change, 382, Yiddish 408; by immigrant languages, 368; by context, appropriateness to, 377, 391, slang, 227 393–4, 399; slang, 220, 221 Cortés, Martin; The Arte of Navigation, Continental Congress, 22, 59, 341 Eden’s translation of, 466 control, 343 cot/caught merger, 77, 78, 99, 138, 141–2; controversy, 460 Canadian English, 427–8, 449; eastern conventionality of language, 376, 380, 381, New England, 141, 428; Midwest, 428; 383, 395, 417; rejected by naturalists, Newfoundland English, 449; in off, soft, 378, 383, 384, 388, 408 drop, crop, 99, 141; Pennsylvania, 125, convict immigrants, 14, 86 428, 141, 142; West, 125, 141, 286, 428 Conway, Jack, 248 cotton: Americanisms concerned with, Cook County (Chicago), 287 204–5; climate and region used for, 255; cookie,12 exports to China, 39; plantations, 16, cool, 309 29–30, 274 coon, 164 cotton gin, Whitney’s, 29 Cooper, James Fenimore, 36; on American coulee, 193, 207, 283 and British speech, 66, 73, 78; counterlanguage, AAE, 309 vocabulary, 166, 170, 229 countryside: AAE used in, 292; attitudes to Copland, Robert, 228 speech of, 36, 232; automobiles end

580

Index

isolation, 53; conservatism in language, critical time-depth principle, 320 130; population balance with urban criticism, importance of linguistic, 415–17, areas, 244 417–18 courts, records of judicial, 103, 104; courts- Crockett, Congressman David, 36, 229; martial, 245 Crockett almanacs (1833–60), 230 court speech, English, 188 crocodile, 471 Covertside, Naunton, 212 crony, 240 cowboys, xxii, 33, 55–6, 206–7, 283–4 crossword puzzles, 181 cow fish, 465 cruller, 170, 193 coyote, 167 Crum, M., 312 cozy, 356 Crumpacker, Edgar D., 350 cracker-barrel philosophers, 35–6 -ction/-xion variation, 354 cracker ‘white Southerner,’ 127 Cuba, 5, 38, 47, 50, 175 cradle (mining term), 491 culture: Amerindian influence and terms, Cragg, Dan, 239 15, 164, 166, 167, 195, 196; British Craigie, W.A.,69–70, 395, 460; and J. R. regional, in America, 7–8, 19, (see also Hulbert; Dictionary of American English, migration, four waves); decentralization, 186–7, 217, 460 xx, 3; globalization, 56; independence of cranberries, 475–6 American, 4; language as part of total, Crane, Hart; The Bridge,33 1–2; New England way, 265; Crane, Stephen, 36 preservation in America of features Cree Indians, 155, 162, 165, 425, 434 defunct in Britain, 107; Quaker Creek Indians, 157, 165 influence, 11; Virginian, English style of, creek ‘stream,’ 192, 273, 282, 476, 492 10, 74–5, 79, 80–1, 122, 264–5, 342, 477; creole, 176 urban centers, 255 creoles: AAE, creole-like features, 132, 296; Cumberland, England; dialect, 84 —, possible creole stage, xxiv, 214, 313; Cumberland Basin, 273, 277, 280 AAVE as, 294, 301–2, 313, 314–18; Cumberland Gap, 195, 271, 277, 282 Africanisms in, 180; Afro-Seminole, 160; Curtis, Abel; A Compend of English Amerindian languages as, 157; British Grammar, 366 and Irish antecedents, 94; creolization cushaw, 467 process, 150, 151; decreolization, 135, cuss, 75, 140 316; grammatical influence of lexifiers, Custer, Elizabeth, 201 314; habitual markers, 135; Haitian, 175, customs service, 20 313; Hawaiian Creole English, xxii, 162, cute ‘pretty sharp,’ 194 181–2; jazz derived from term in, 43; cynicism and use of slang, 249–51 Louisiana French, 173, 180. See also Afro- Czech language, 179 Seminole Creole; Antillean Creole; Czech Republic, 48, 55 Caribbean (English creoles); Gullah; Guyanaese Creole; and under Haiti; [d], Newfoundland use of, 449, 454–5 Hawaii; Jamaica ’d, in spelling of past tense, 343 Cresswell, Nicholas, 97, 98 Dakota, North and South; dialects, 266, crevasse, 172 267, 281, 284–5 criminals’ slang, xxiii, 221, 227, 228, 239, Dalby, David, 248 242–3 Dallas, Texas, 255 cringe: colonial, 479; cultural, 486 Dana, Richard Henry, Jr., 161–2, 227 Cripple Creek, Colorado, 33 dancing; the Charleston, 210

581

Index

Daniel, Samuel, 468 destiny, sense of national, 5, 26, 37–8, 185, Danish language contacts, xxii, 164, 168, 257 169 detective fiction, 489–90 Darrow, Clarence, 42 Detroit, Michigan, 174 Darwin, Charles, 487 Dewey, John, 397, 399–400, 401 data with singular verb, 396 -dge; final e before, 354–5 daughter, 139 diachronic approach, xvii–xix, xxii Deal, Ernest, 239 Dial, Wylene, 110 Debs, Eugene V., 33 dialects, American English, xxiii–xxiv, decentralization, xx, 3 253–90; air conditioning affects patterns, declamatory style of oratory, 35, 70 54; British dialectal influence, xxii, Declaration of Independence, 4, 22, 67 109–11, 116, 120–36, 189–91; comic decreolization, 135, 316 stereotypes, 72, 100; common core, 254; Defense, Department of; ARPANET, 52 dialectology, 257–9; educational policies, Delaware: Americanisms, 194; in Civil War, 363; grammar, xxiv, xxv, 254, 327, 31; Colonial period settlement, 7, 11–13, 328–33, 378; historical background, 60, 81–2, 91, 113–14, 124, 190; French, 259–64; history and geography, xxiii, 60, 82, 190; mobility of population, 87, 144, 254–7; homonyms, 113; intonation, 91; Swedish settlers, 12–13, 16, 124, 253, 254; leveling theories, 79, 98; literary 168–9 use, 72, 100; mixing, 138; 19th-century Delaware (Indians), 15, 155, 157, 159 formation, 36; origins and historical Delaware Jargon, 157 development of major groups, 264–6; De La Warr, 3rd or 12th Baron (Sir phonology, xxiv, 253, 254; regional Thomas West), 13 divisions, 111, 112, 253, 255, 264–6; delicatessen, 174, 494 regional and social, xviii, xxiii, 120–36; dem, Gullah marking of nominal number research needs, 255–6; social variation, by, 299 254, 288; urban and rural, 36, 288; democracy, xx; and language change, 3, 70; vocabulary, xxiv, 253–4. See also Midland, and usage debate, 392, 395, 401, 402, Northern, Southern and Western dialects 406, 407–8 and under individual states and areas demography: and development of slang, dialects, British and Irish English, xxi, 74, 243–4; issue in dialect research, xxi, 78–84, 86–153, 477; and AAE, 214; and 94–5, 109, 114, 117, 119, 153 American English, 78, 86–153, 191; —, denims, 55–6 archaisms retained in American English, Denmark, 40; language contacts, xxii, 164, xxii, 105, 106–7; —, comprehensive 168, 169 comparisons, 111–15, 116; —, dialects Denver, Colorado, 255, 286 and, xxii, 109–11, 116, 120–36, 189–91; department stores,54 —, grammar, 136, 327–8, 329, 333–5; depot, 172, 173 —, mixing of influences, 14–15, 79, 87, Depression, Great, 37, 43–4, 210 90, 126, 127, 128, 138, 255–6; —, De Quincey, Thomas, 168, 231–2, 490 nonstandard, 322; —, regional and social descriptivism, 367, 380, 403–4, 414; attacks connections, 79, 120–36; comic on, 360–1, 364, 406; covert stereotypes, 100; colonial migrations prescriptivism in, 358–60, 361–3, 364, bring to America, 7–14, 59–61, 79–84, 369 113–14, 189–91; literary use, 72; Deseret, State of, 284 recognized as distinct in America, Des Plaines, Illinois, 55 477–8; research issues, xxi, 94–5, 255–6;

582

Index

—, Data, xxi, 95, 115, 116; —, done: AAE/AAVE, intensifier, 330; —, Demography, xxi, 94–5, 109, 114, 117, perfect marker, 302, 314, 323; —, verb 119, 153; —, Generalization, xxi, 95 (see meaning ‘finish,’ 303; as auxiliary verb, also Reconstruction Issue) 149; British I may have done, 326–7; dialects, Canadian English, 422–3, 433; Gullah, denoting more than perfectivity, Arctic North, 423; Maritimes, 422, 423; 302; intensifier, 330; perfective, 302, 314, Ottawa Valley, 422; Prairies, 422–3; 323, 330; white nonstandard vernaculars, Quebec English, xxvi, 422, 425, 438–9; 303; white Southern dialects, 149, 275, West (British Columbia), 422, 433 330 dialects, immigrant languages, 177 Dorgan, T. A. “TAD,” 244 diaries, corpus-based studies of, 117 Dos Passos, John, 57 Dickens, Charles, 72, 227, 487, 488 double-bank, 309 Dickinson, Emily, 36 Doubleday, Abner, 34 Dickson, Paul, 239 doughboy, doughface, 201–2 dictionaries, 344–6, 364–5; authority, 35, dove/dived, 335, 368, 396, 431 344; Canadian English, 424; on Doyle, Arthur Conan, 489–90 grammar, 144; pronouncing, 98, 101, dozens, playing the, 310–11, 324 102, 141; of usage, 360–1, 413–14. See dr-; Newfoundland voicing, 447 also individual dictionaries drawl, 9, 80, 98, 123, 138, 286, 368 Dictionary of American History, 201 Drayton, Michael; “To the Virginian different to/than/from, 334–5, 408, 432 Voyage,” 467–8 Dillard, J. L., 313, 314; koinéization drink, 372, 431 hypothesis, 60–1, 115, 116 drop, 99, 141 Dilworth, Thomas; New Guide to the English drought/drouth, 124, 125, 139, 142, 191–2 Tongue, 365, 366 drug ‘dragged,’ 275 dime (monetary term), 172 drugs, slang associated with, 245, 246 direction, prepositional phrases of, 330 drugstores, 55 directions, Hawaiian topographical, 182 due. See glides dirty language, 310 duh, da (Gullah auxiliary verb/copula), 300, dis, dissin (AAE), 309 302 discontinuity with past, sense of, xx, 2–3 duke,78 Discovery, Age of, 187–8 Duke, David, 203 diseases, definite article with names of, 133 Dunne, Finley Peter, 36, 250 disjuncts, 413 durative markers, 302, 303, 450 Disney, Walt, 492 Dust Bowl, 210 dived/dove, 335, 368, 396, 431 Dutch language and people: and American do: conjunction, 135; doesn’t/don’t Revolution, 22; compounds with Dutch, alternatives, 396, 398; don(t), AAE 170–1; contact with English, xxii, 168, negation of imperatives by, 306; Gullah 169–71; —, Colonial period, xxii, 16, habitual marker does/duhz, 304; 18–19, 77, 97; in Hudson Valley, 77, 170, periphrastic, 117; in tag and yes/no 269; in New Jersey, 12; and New Sweden questions with have, 336. See also done Company, 168–9; in New York, 12, 16, dogie, 207, 283 97, 170, 177, 193–4; in Pennsylvania and dollar diplomacy, 40 Delaware Valley, 60, 82, 124, 157, 190; domestic ‘servant,’ 483 rhotacism, 77; slang as possibly derived Dominican Republic, 39–40, 46; African- from, 228; slave traders, 15; and Americans in, 50, 317, 318 vocabulary, 12, 93

583

Index

Dutch Reformed Church, 170, 177 420; —, traditional methods of, 370, Dutch West India Company, 169 374–5, 376, 377, 385, 395; —, value judgments in, 420; letters by those with e: in Newfoundland English, 447–8, 449; little formal, 118; levels, 10, 78, 84, 197; pen/pin merger, 131, 139–40, 276, 296–7; —, and usage, 118, 130, 145, 397–8, 443; silent, 340, 342, 345, 354–5 literary, 63–4, 65, 443; in Lower South, each, plural, 409 130; National period development, 28, early Modern English, fluidity of, 34, 99, 29, 65–6, 365–6; in Newfoundland, 443; 102, 116, 256, 343 Quaker principles on, 11; reforms and East Anglia: do as conjunction, 135; New experimentation, 350, 377, 394, 397, England speech influenced by, 79–80, 399–400, 401; in spelling, 34, 35, 345, 109–10, 113, 123; nonrhotacism, 75, 76; 350, 351; textbooks, 63–4, 65–6, 373–8, and North Carolina dialect, 135; Puritan 381 (see also Webster, Noah: American migration, 8, 60, 79–80, 109–10, 113, Spelling Book; school dictionary; school 122, 123; RP adopts characteristics of, reader); of underprivileged, 322; of 80; subject-verb concord, 147 Virginian elites, 80–1, 265, 342. See also eastern townships of Quebec, 422, 425 National Council of Teachers of East India Company, 21 English; universities and colleges Eble, Connie, 248 EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Ebonics, 293 Commission), 49 e-commerce, 52 effectiveness as measure of good English, economic migration, 11, 13, 14, 82, 129 393 economy, 6, 37, 43–4, 50–1 Egan, Pierce, 229 -ed/’d alternatives, 343 eh?, Canadian narrative, xxvi, 432–3 Eddis, William, 93–4, 97 Eisenhower, Dwight D., US President, 49 Eden, Richard, 463–5, 466 El Dorado, 467 Edinburgh, Scotland; University, 63 elections, 40 Edison, Thomas Alva, 33 electricity, discovery of, 257 Education, 389 electronic technology, 51–2, 356 education, xxi, 63–6; African-American, elevators, 54–5, 205–6 48–9, 319, 322; American models, 65; Eliot, George, 487 Amerindian boarding schools, 159–60; Eliot, T. S., 57 British, and British models, 63, 64, 65, elites: competition with British, 92; New 80–1, 188, 342; Canadianisms relating to, England use of RP, 80; Newfoundland, 437; child language acquisition, 387; 424, 443–4, 445; nonrhotacism, 76; and church academies, 65, 80–1; classical, 63, usage debate, 385, 402, 407–8. See also 188, 365–6; 18th/19th-century under Virginia development, 63–6; in composition, Elizabethan hypothesis, 88, 108, 126, 127, 63–4, 65, 365; and dialects, 363; Dewey’s 132, 472 progressivism, 397, 399–400, 401; Elliott, Rev. John, 344 Dutch, 342; —, in New York, 170, 177; elliptical clauses introduced by and, 150 federal funding, 1960s, 49; on frontier, Ellis, A. J., 106 197; German schools, 174; initial Ellis, Michael, 127 teaching alphabets, 351; language and Ellison, Ralph, 57 grammar teaching, xxi, 63–6, 199, 363, elocutionists, 80 365, 367, 380, 381; —, and scientific Elting, John R., 239 linguistics, 350, 363, 380, 381, 394, 395, e-mail, 52

584

Index

emancipation, 202 121, 122, 123, 190; pronouns, 150; Emancipation Proclamation (1863), 32 and Southern dialects of American Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 23, 29, 36, 67, 70 English, 109, 110, 111, 130; and -ence/-ense variation, 345, 354 Upper South speech, 127, 128; verbs, enclave communities: African-American 113, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149; and English, 118; Canadian immigrant, 425 Virginian speech, 79, 109, 110, 113, Encyclopaedia Britannica (1801), 229 129, 131; vowel system, 111, 138. See engages (French guides), 171 also London England: colonial migrations to America, southwestern: Cavaliers and servants 7–14, 59–61, 79–84, 89, 113–14, 189–91; from, 7, 9–11, 60, 80–1, 109, 110, 113, distinct national identity in America, 89; 129, 190, 264; grammar, 113, 135, educational system, 63, 64; New 147, 448; and Newfoundland English, England connections, 122; xxvi, 119, 441, 442, 445–8, 454–5; nonconformism, 64; official language, phonology, 76, 98, 139, 141; and 256; Scottish and Irish immigration, 425; Virginian speech, 10, 129, 131, 190 and Ulster Plantation, 121; Virginian English, number of nonnative varieties of, connections, 10, 74–5, 79, 80–1, 122, 56 264–5, 342, 477 English Language Arts, The. See under National eastern. See East Anglia Council of Teachers of English Midlands, 90; a- with present English Only laws, 177 participles, 148; Delaware Valley and Enlightenment, 256, 257 Pennsylvania Quakers from, 12, 60, -ense/-ence variation, 345, 354 113–14, 124, 190; drouth, 192; and environment: environmentalism, 212; and Lower South dialect, 129, 130–1; New language change, xv, 3–4; settlers’ England settlers from, 190; possessive response, xx, 15; —, to vocabulary, 18, pronouns in -n, 150; recognition of 19, 20, 67–8, 69, 93, 137, 195–6. See also dialect as distinctive, 477–8; and climate; fauna; flora; topography Upper South, 127; verbs, 113, 146, Episcopalian Church, 80 147, 148, 149; Virginian speech epithets: ethnic, 208, 235–6, 245–6; vulgar, influenced by east, 129, 190 241 northern, xviii, 90; and African- equal rights, 202; for women, 29, 42, 49 American speech, 118–19; Borderers’ -er: pronounced as -ar-, 99, 139; /-re migration to Appalachia, 8, 13–14, 60, variation, 62, 199, 343, 344, 345, 346, 63, 82, 113, 127, 190; Canadian settlers 349, 353, 372; —, Canadian cultural from, 427; and General American, 82, choice of -re 433 111; intonation, 111; and Midland Erie, Lake, 271 dialects, 79, 111, 127; migration to Erie Canal, 26 Pennsylvania and Delaware Valley, 12, error correction method of teaching, 370, 190; modals, 148; and New England 374–5, 377, 385, 395 dialect, 76, 122, 123, 125; present- -ery words, secondary stress in, 430 tense rule, 146; recognition of dialect -es, plurals ending in, 342 as distinctive, 477–8; rhotacism, 76, escalator, 494 111; and Western dialects, 79 Eskimo, 442, 443, 452; Eskimo Jargon, southern/southeastern, xviii, 90, 133, 157. See also Inuit 145; colonial migration from, 7, 9–11, Essex dialect, 80, 109–10, 122, 147 14, 90, 122, 129, 334; and New ethnic groups: epithets, 208, 235–6, 245–6; England speech, 79, 80, 109–10, 111, literary character types, 100–1; revival of

585

Index

ethnic groups (cont.) fauna, terms for, xxii; African-American languages of immigration, 178; urban English, 214; Amerindian words, xxii; neighborhoods, 208; usage debate on —, Colonial period adoptions, 15, 18, expressions of, 415–16. See also enclave 93, 137, 164–5, 188, 468; —, mediated communities and individual groups through European languages, 167, 188, euchalon, 165 464; —, transferred and metaphorical Europe and European languages: meanings, 189; —, from westward Amerindian loanwords introduced to expansion, 166, 195; Newfoundland English through, 154, 167, 171, 175, 188, terms, 450, 452, 453; Rocky Mountains 460–3, 466–7, 470–1; Colonial period dialect terms, 285; Spanish, in borrowings, 93; immigration, 60, 162–3, Southwest, 208 208; —, to Canada, 425; language fax communications, 52, 211, 356 contacts, xxii, 93; loanwords on Fayetteville, North Carolina, 202 navigation, 466; Neoclassicism, 61–2; Federal Communications Commission rhotacism, 77; terms for degrees of race (FCC), 42 mixture derived from, 470. See also feisty, 108 individual countries, peoples, and languages feminist movement, 29, 42, 49 European Recovery Program (Marshall fernent ‘opposite, next to,’ 150 Plan), 46 -fest suffix, 174, 223 evangelical academies, 80–1 feuds, blood, 107 everybody as referent of they, their, 396 fiction, styles of, 243, 244, 250–1 evolution, theory of, 42 Fielding, Henry, 72 ewe, 139 figurative usage, slang, 223, 234, 235 Exodusters, 204 filet, 173 expansion, National period: technological films: and American influence abroad, 70, and social, early 19th-century, 26–9; —, 493; development, 42–3, 51, 210, 493; later 19th-century, 32–4, 204; territorial, immigrant language, in Canada, 426; 3–4, 24–6, 204. See also Western states tough style, 250–1; US army, in exploration, 6, 97, 463–8; Lewis and Clark Newfoundland, 445 expedition, 166, 195; vocabulary fi’na (AAE imminent future marker), 305 concerning, 171–2, 188, 463–5 financial affairs, 44, 436 Ex-Slave Recordings, Work Projects Finnish immigrants in Pennsylvania, Administration, Nova Scotia, 317 164 finta (AAE future marker), 305 /f/, voicing of initial, 139, 446 fire water ‘alcohol,’ 166 factory system, 27, 33 Fischer, David Hackett; Albion’s Seed,on fall, 23, 191 four waves of migration, 7–8, 59–61, family: changing patterns, 49, 211; mafia 79–84, 113–14, 189–91 unit, 178; settlers’ groups, 8, 13, 190 fisheries: French, 162, 171; international fan, sports, 494 Bank, 452; Labrador coast, 442; naming fantasy, 343 of fish species, 464–5; New England Farmer, John Stephen, 238, 488–9 terminology, 123–4, 163; Nova Scotian farming. See agriculture; cattle raising French-based jargon, 162; pre-colonial, Farrell, James Thomas, 250 158. See also under Newfoundland Fasold, Ralph, 315 Fiske, John, 122 fast-food restaurants, 55 Fitzgerald, F. Scott, 57 Father Tammany’s Almanac for ... 1792, 243 fixing of English language, 18th-century, Faulkner, William, 57 61–2, 99, 116, 256, 390; written language

586

Index

and, xxv, 34, 84, 186, 342, 352–6. See also Fort Sumter, South Carolina, 31 under Webster, Noah “four-letter words,” 245, 409 fixin’ to ‘preparing to,’ 151, 305 Fowler, H. W.,475 flap, medial, in matter, metal, 139 Fox, 155 flash language (criminals’ cant), 242, 243 Fracastoro, Girolamo, 462–3 Flexner, Stuart, 238, 245, 252 Frampton, John, 466–7 flora, terms for: African-American English, franchise, extension of, 28, 42 214; Amerindian words, xxii, 167; —, Francis, W.Nelson, 112–13 Colonial period, xxii, 15, 18, 93, 137, frankfurter, 174, 208, 216 164–5, 166, 188–9; —, mediated Franklin, Benjamin: capitalization of through European languages, 167, 188, nouns, 343; correspondence with Hume 460–3, 464; —, pre-colonial, 460–3, 464; on usage, 479–80; and English Academy, —, from westward expansion, 166, Philadelphia, 65; on Germans in 195–6; medicinal plants, 460–3, 466–7; Pennsylvania, 174, 177; Poor Richard, Newfoundland terms, 450, 452; Rocky 35–6; and postal service, 19; and slang, Mountains dialect terms, 285; Spanish, 241–2, 243; spelling, 341–2, 343; —, in Southwest, 208 proposals for reform, 62, 140, 347, 351; Florida: history, 3, 16, 17, 23, 25, 31; and transmission of French language, immigration patterns, 50, 54; Spanish 173; vocabulary, 341, 487 language, 175; Spanish pidgins, 159 Fraser River Gold Rush, Canada, 491 fluidity, Colonial period: of English Fredericksburg, Virginia, 106 language, 34, 99, 102, 116, 256, 343; of free-love movement, 232 society, 87 French, Canadian, xxvi, 16, 423, 425, 439; flummery,92 influence on Canadian English, 425, 432, Fogg, Peter Walkden, 474 434, 438–9 Folb, Edith, 239 French and Indian War (1754–63), 14, folk ballads, 107 17–18, 20 folk etymologies, 165, 172, 174 French Caribbean creoles, 173 folk speech: Midland, 272, 277; French language and people, 168, 171–3, Newfoundland, 443, 444; Northern, 177; absorption of colonies by US, 164; 267, 268; Southern, 276, 278; variant Académie Française, 62; African words principal parts, 148; Western, 284 introduced to American English Follett, Wilson, 405, 408–9, 411 through, 180; and American Revolution, Fon, 180 22; Amerindian words introduced food and drink, terms for: African through, to American English, 157, 167, language loanwords in AAE, 214; 171, 188; —, to Mobilian Jargon, 157; in Americanisms, xxiii, 216; Canadianisms, Canada, see French, Canadian; contact 438; colonial and immigrant language with American English, xxii, xxvi, loanwords, 171–2, 176, 178, 179 18–19, 93, 168, 171–3, 177; creoles, 173, Foote, Samuel, 229 180; exploration, 171–2; Huguenots, 16, for: for to, 396; pronounced fur, 109 60, 129, 169, 171, 190; influence on Ford, Henry, and Ford automobiles, 42, 53, English up to 16th century, 188; -isme 209 words, 458–9; literary character types, foreign policy, later 20th-century, 45–8 100; loanwords, in American English, Fort Casimir, 169 93, 164, 171–3, 193, 207, 470; —, in Fort Christina, 169 British English, 172–3; —, in Fort Duquesne, 17 Newfoundland English, 452; —, Fort Orange (Albany), 12 semantic drift, 172–3; —, spelling

587

Index

French language and people (cont.) Gadsden Purchase, 3–4, 26 pronunciation, 73; in Louisiana, 171, Gaelic, Irish: cant possibly derived from, 173, 180, 193, 279; Louisiana Purchase, 228; in colonial situation in Ulster, 121, 3, 24–5, 166, 172, 195, 264; missionaries, 145; habitual be, 135; influence on 171; in New England, 169, 171, 173, American English, 60, 133, 178; 177; New France colonization plan, 173; influence on Irish English, 121, 133, 145; in Newfoundland, 171, 452; and Panama in Newfoundland, 449; phonological Canal, 39; in Pennsylvania and Delaware influence, 133; pronoun, second person Valley, 60, 82; pidgins and jargons based plural, 149; verbal noun construction, on, 156, 157, 158, 162; place name 148 spellings, 348; prestige in America, 173; Gaelic, Scottish: cant possibly derived from, slang epithet, 246; in South Carolina, 10, 228; Cape Breton settlement, 425; in 16, 129, 171, 177; spellings influenced Cape Fear Valley, 91, 134–5; influence on by, 73, 171, 348; traders, 154, 162, 171; American English, 90–1, 134–5, 178; wars, 14, 17–18, 20, 25, 476 influence on Scotch-Irish speech, 90–1, French pox ‘syphilis,’ 461, 462–3 145 fret ‘strait,’ 467 Galaxy, 385 fricatives: AAE variable absence of Galsworthy, John, 168 interdental, 295; length of vowels gambling slang, 239, 241, 247 before, 138, 268; Scotch-Irish, 139; gaol/jail, 340 voicing of initial, 139, 446–7. See also Garner, Bryan A., 360–1, 362–3 individual fricatives gender: expressions of, 415, 416; and slang Fries, Charles Carpenter, 399, 400, 401, use, 222, 238. See also women 402, 406, 418; survey of letters to federal general American, 79, 82, 111, 255, 265 government, 396–8 generic reference in Gullah, 299 Fromkin, Victoria, 359, 360 geographical terms. See topography frontier: Americanisms, xxii, 195–9; geography, linguistic, xxiii, 88, 112–15, 144 German migrants, 173; education and Georgia: AAE, 110, 130, 305, 314; —, Sea literacy, 197; expansion, 2, 5, 32, 37, Islands Gullah speakers, 292, 310–11, 195–9, 264; Kentucky spirit, 70; koiné, 324; Alabama border speech, 110, 130; 18th-century, 84; psychological in Civil War, 31; cotton plantations, 16; importance, 5, 37; Scotch-Irish migrants, creation, 11, 193; in-migration increased 14; tall talk, 198–9 by air conditioning, 54; phonology, 140, Frost, Robert, 57 142, 276; piedmont, 273, 280; Frost, William Goodell, 108 settlement, 11, 164; —, Scotch-Irish, 91, fuh ‘in order to’ (Gullah), 307 104, 126; upland interior, 91, 125 -ful, -l and -p before, 353–4 German Flats, 174 Fulbright, J. William, 212 German language and people, 173–4, 177; Fulton, Robert, 26 attitudes to, 174, 177, 246; in Canada, functional shift between parts of speech, 425; in Carolina piedmont, 270; Colonial 495 period immigration, 14, 16, 18–19, 60, functional varieties/cultural levels 84, 173–4; epithets for, 208, 246; distinction, 399 evangelical settlers from, 12, 60; and fur ‘for,’ 109 Inland Northern dialect, 269; language fur trade, 20, 175, 442, 453, 454 contact, xxii, 18–19, 168, 173–4, 177; future, 144 literary character types, 100; loan future tense, AAE, 299–300, 301, 305 translations, 271–2; loanwords, 174,

588

Index

194–5, 208, 214; and Midland dialects, gopher, 172, 201 173, 174, 265, 266, 270, 284; 19th/20th- gossip columnists, 244, 245 century immigration, 27, 49, 50, 163, got/gotten, 23, 326, 431 174, 177; from Palatinate, 16, 174; in Gove, Philip, 403, 404, 417 Pennsylvania and Delaware Valley, xxii, government: and authority of written 60, 82, 164, 174, 190, 194–5, 271–2; —, word, 66–7, 347–50; correspondence Pennsylvania Dutch, xxii, 124, 134, 174, from citizens, 397; decentralization, xx, 190, 194–5, 214, 271–2; in upstate New 3; foundation of institutions, 7, 8–9, 24, York, 12 265; initialisms, 210–11; later 19th- Germantown, Pennsylvania, 174 century expansion, 34; Newfoundland, gerunds, possessive nouns and pronouns 443, 444; noun + attributive names of before, 398 organizations, 432; orthographic “Get Along Little Dogie” (song), 207 authority, 341, 347–50; vocabulary get/git merger, 131, 139–40, 276, 296–7 related to, 203, 432, 434, 435–6, 485 Ghostbusters (film), 245 Government Printing Office, 347, 355 GI, 211, 247; GI Bill of Rights, 49; GI Gowers, Ernest, 473, 475 jargon, 219; GI Joe, 211, 225 grade, 483, 484 Gideon Bible, 494 grammar, xxv, 325–39; British and Irish Gilbert, Humphrey, 467 antecedents, xxv, 333–5; —, British Gill, Alexander, 468 dialect features in American English, Gilman, E. W.,414 xxv, 135, 136, 327–8, 334–5; —, girdle, 372 Chancery English, 84; —, common core, give me five ‘slap my hand(s) in greeting,’ 309 93; —, differences between American give (someone) some sugar ‘kiss,’ 309 and British English, xxv, 326–8, 330–1, Gladstone, William Ewart, 484 335–9; —, Scotch-Irish, 145, 150, 327; glides: absence in AAE of linking, 296; in —, standard features shared by British Tuesday/due/new, 120, 128; —, glide and American English, 333–4; —, super- deletion 269, 273, 428–9, 449; in New regional features, 144–50; categories, England drawl, 123. See also individual 325–6; Colonial period use of standard, sounds 78; creole, 132, 314; dialects, xxiv, xxv, globalization of culture, 56 254, 327, 328–33, 378; general Globe Mail, Toronto, 433 colloquial, Mencken’s “Vulgate,” 144; glottalization of /t/, 143, 270, 428 grammarians’ feuds, 375–8, 384–8; Gloucestershire dialect, 10, 81, 192 immigrant language influence, 330; go, quotative, 333–4 independent developments, xxv, going to (Canadian), 431 327–8, 330–1, 335–9; and language Gold, Robert S., 239 change, 116; and morality, see gold deposits, 25, 33, 284, 286 correctness (and morality); morphology, Goldin, Hyman, 239 inflectional and derivational, 325–6; Goldsmith, Oliver, 72 National period, 23; new grammarians, gon (AAE future marker), 299–300 402–3; nonstandard features, 327, Gone with the Wind (film), 251 328–33; origins of study, 365–88; Gonzales, Ambrose, 311–12, 316 propriety, 366, 368, 375, 376; socially goober, 180 marked features, 144–5, 148; standard Good Neighbor Policy, 41 features, 327, 333–5, 335–9; syntax, good/standard language, distinction 325, 326; and usage, xxv, 395. See between, 391, 393–4, 395 also individual features, correctness;

589

Index

grammar (cont.) auxiliary verb, 302; durative marker -ing, education (language and grammar -in, 302; fuh ‘in order to,’ 307; future teaching); grammar books; usage; and tense, 301; generic reference, bare noun under individual language varieties phrase for, 299; habitual marker grammar books: authoritarian approach, does/duhz , 304; juke, 248; mesolects, 293; 381; commercial interests and, 364–5; modals, 308; negation, 306; nominal 19th-century school, 373–8. See also under number marker dem, 299; perfectivity and Webster, Noah more marked by done, 302; phonology, grandiloquent style of oratory, 35, 70 297; possessive marking, 298, 299, 308; grease/greasy, 112, 123, 268, 272, 275, 283, predicate clefting, 308; progressive 286 marker, 302; pronouns, 299, 308; Great Society programs, 49 prosody, 297; relationship to AAVE, Great Vowel Shift, 102, 139, 427 292, 293, 294, 297, 301, 313, 316–17; Greece: British classical education, 63, 188, relative clauses, 307; remoteness, 302; 365–6; navigational and astronomical serial verb constructions, 307; speakers terms, 466; US involvement in modern, do not talk before strangers, 295; tense 46 system, 304; users, 292 Green, B. W.,129–30 gumbo, 180, 214, 216 greenbacks, 202 guy, 219 Greenland, 169 Guyanese Creole, 298 Greenough, James Bradstreet, 237 gwine ‘going,’ 130 Greenwood, James, 365 Grenada, 46, 47 h, dropping of, 143, 447, 454. See also w Grenfell, Dr. Wilfred, 445 ([hw]/[w] variation) Griffiths, D. W.; Birth of a Nation (film), 42 habitual expressions: African-American Grimm, Jacob, 379 English, 135, 147, 303–4, 306; in gris-gris, 180 Appalachia, 135; decreolization as stage grits, 189, 216 in development, 135; Gullah, 304; Irish Grose, Francis, 228–9, 231, 243 English influence, 135–6, 450; grounded, 247 Newfoundland English, 450 groundhog, 189 had awoken, 396 growed, 113 hadn’t ought, 487 guaiacum, 175, 460–3, 467 hair; vowel in Gullah, 297 guava, 464 Haiti, 40; Haitian Creole, 175, 313 guess ‘estimate,’ 483, 484 Hakluyt, Richard, 464 guides, French, 171 Haliburton, Thomas, 230 Guinea-man, 470 Hall, Benjamin H., 248 Gulf Coast dialect, xxiv, 79, 254, 277 Hall, Fitzedward, 387 Gulf plains dialects, 274, 289 Hall, J. H., and F. G. Cassidy, Dictionary of Gulf War (1991), 47, 51 American Regional English, xxiii, 92 Gullah, 132, 291; African language Hall, J. Lesslie, 391 influence, 180, 313; animal tales, 311; hamburger, 174, 208, 216 aspectual system, 302; attitudes towards, Hamilton, Alexander, 67, 487 295, 311–12; basilect, 293, 299; complex Hammer, Mike, 251 sentence formation, 306–7; copula Hammett, Dashiell, 250 deletion, 300; and Cornish language, Hampshire dialect, 10, 81 135; as creole, 294, 316, 319; duh, da hand, 297

590

Index

handicapped people, 29 hickory, 165, 189 hapa haole, 161 hip, 309 hap ‘quilt,’ 124, 134 hip-hop music, 222 Harbour Grace, 444 hippie counter-culture, 212, 222 Harding, Ben (pseud.); Almanac of 1839, 230 Hiram, Ohio, 79 Harding, Warren, 41 Hiroshima, bombing of, 45 Hardy, Thomas, 484, 487 Hispanic population. See Spanish language Harlem slang, 230 and speakers Harper’s, 28, 234 Hispanola, 461, 462 Harriot, Thomas; Briefe and True Report of hisself, 150, 410 the New Founde Land of Virginia (1588), historical prose; corpus-based studies, 117 159, 467, 468 history, external, xx, 1–58; Colonial period, Harris, George Washington, 230 xx, 4, 6–20; National period, xx, 4–5, Harris, James; Hermes, 365 20–37; International period, xx, 5–6, Harris, Joel Chandler; Uncle Remus stories, 37–58; significance for language study, 101 1–4 Harrison, Benjamin, US President, 348 hit ‘it,’ 108, 195 harrow, spring-tooth, 283 Hitler, Adolf, 44 Harvard University, Massachusetts, 342, hoarse/horse merger, 77, 260, 270, 273, 276 365, 379, 387–8 Hobbes, Thomas, 61, 67 Hausa, 180 hogan, 167, 188 have: AAE perfect marker, 323; Canadian hog words, 269, 272, 276, 282, 283, 285, 286 Have you (got)? /Do you have? variation, hole; semantic shifting, 476 432; Newfoundland inflection, 448; in holidays, Canadian names for, 434 past tense, 369, 371; in tag and yes/no Holland, 7, 342. See also Dutch language questions, 336 and people Hawaii: Creole English, xxii, 162, 181–2; Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Sr., 36, 237, 243 hapa haole contact language, 161; history, homogeneity: of early New England 4, 38–9, 44; Pidgin English, 161–2; communities, 79–80, 122. See also topographical directions, 182 uniformity Hawkins, John, 467 homonyms, dialectal, for same referent, Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 36 113 Hays Office, 43 Honey, John, 494 he, Gullah use with both genders, 308 honing (AAE), 310 he-man, 250 hoochinoo, 188 Hemingway, Ernest, 57, 70, 250 hoodoo, 180, 214 Hempl, George, 112 Hooker, Thomas, 265 Henley, William Ernest, 238 Hoover, Herbert, US President, 209, 210 Henry, O. (pseud. of W.S. Porter), 250 hopefully, 413, 415, 416 Herefordshire dialect, 192 Horace, 386, 390 Heriot, Thomas. See Harriot, Thomas hot dogs, 216 heritage language (Canadian term), xxvi hotel,73 Herkimer county, New York, 174 Hotten, John Camden; A Dictionary of heterogeneity of settler communities, 87, Modern Slang, Cant and Vulgar Words 90, 114, 120, 129, 334 (1859), 219, 232, 233–4; 4th ed, Tylor’s hex, 214 discussion of “The Philology of Slang,” Hiberno-English. See Irish English 235

591

Index

Houghton Mifflin, 412 189–91; to Canada, 423, 425–6, 439; house, 138 changing patterns, 49–50; ethnic culture, Household Words, 233 178, 426; European, three waves of, 32, housing, 49, 54 162–3; involuntary, 14, 86, 91 (see also Houston, Texas, as cultural center, 255 slaves); language contact, 163, 177–81, Howells, William Dean, 36 254, 330, 439; later 19th-century, 27, 32; Hudson Bay, 17 mobility of new settlers, 87; provenance Hudson Valley, 77, 170, 267, 269–70, 289 and languages, 89–92; regulation, 41, 49, Hughes, Langston, 230 50, 177; social class, 86, 383, 408; Huguenots, 16, 60, 129, 169, 171, 190 surname research, 89; to urban areas, Hulbert, James R., 186–7, 217, 460 208, 425–6. See also individual peoples, humble,73 languages, and regions Humbug, Henry (pseud.), 228 imperatives, AAE, 300, 306 Hume, David, 479–80 imperialism, 38–40 humor, 182, 310, 489; comic use of impressment of Americans by Royal Navy, dialects, 72, 108 25, 240 Humphreys, David, 69 income tax, 40 Hungary: immigration from, 48, 49–50; indentured workers. See servants McDonald’s restaurants in, 55 Independence, Missouri, 286 hurricane, 176 independence, political and cultural, 4–5 Hurston, Zora Neale, 230 independent language development, xxv, Hutchinson, Anne, 9 93, 321, 327–8, 330–1, 335–9 Hutten, Ulrich von, 461–2, 463 Indess, 475 [hw], initial. See under w India, McDonald’s restaurants in, 55 /hy/, reflexes of, 268, 282 Indian, compounds with first element, hyperbole in slang and poetry, 225 167–8 hypercorrection, 295, 429 Indiana, xxiv, 31, 49, 246, 271 Indian Interpreter, 157 i: Canadian doubling before suffix, 433; Indianism, 475 j interchangeability, 342, 345; Indians. See Amerindians Newfoundland lateral, 447; pen/pin Indians, Red, Beothuks known as, 443 merger, 131, 139–40, 276, 296–7 indignation, come construction to denote, ice diphthong in Newfoundland, 448 305 -ick reduced to -ic, 199, 343, 344, 345, 346, indigo, 190, 274 372 indirect speech in AAE, 306–7 Idaho dialect, 284–5, 286 Indo-European linguistics, 379 idealization, linguistic, 322 Industrial Workers of the World (wobblies), identity, social; slang and, 221–2, 244, 251 209 idiolects, xviii, 292, 322 industry, 40, 44, 287; Americanisms -ie changed to -y, 342 connected with, 209; 19th-century iguana, 464 development, 27, 31, 33, 204, 257 -ile, 78, 430 -ine in Canadian English, 430 Illinois: in Civil War, 31; settlement, 49, 50, infinitival clauses with to, AAE, 300 54, 271; spelling of state name, 171 infinitives, split, 398 immigration and immigrants, 3, 4, 49–50, inflation, 202 89–92, 177–81; British colonial informal language/slang distinction, migrations, 7–8, 59–61, 79–84, 113–14, 220–1

592

Index

-ing, pronunciation of, 73, 81, 139, 297, 302, 89; colonial situation, 91, 117, 121, 145; 431 English language development in, 91, 92, initialisms, 196–7, 210–11. See also OK. 106, 117, 121, 145, 256, 449; epithets for inkhorn terms, 465 immigrants from, 208, 246; Gaelic innovation, American, xx, 2; linguistic, 2, monolingual migration, 90, 91, 92, 449; 152, 209, 393, 490–1 immigrants’ distinct national identity, 89, Innu (Naskapi) people, 443 477–8; immigration, 18th-century to intensifiers: cotton-picking, 204; done, 330; backcountry, 13–14, 27, 60, 82, 89, 90, Irish English influence, 133; right, 275 91, 190–1, 265, 266; —, post-Revolution, interference, language, 177 27, 49, 50, 90, 92, 163; —, to Interior, Department of the, 349 Newfoundland, 119, 441, 442, 446, 449; international language, English as, xix, 6; literary character types, 100; migration to American English used as, xx, xxvii, England, 425; military transportees, 86, 56–7, 213, 334, 491–3; Webster’s notion 91; potato famine, 90, 91, 177; Scots of, 62–3 migration to Ulster, 91, 121, 134; International Monetary Fund, 45 southern Irish, 89, 90, 91, 92; —, in International period, xx, 5–6, 37–58; Newfoundland, 119, 441, 442, 449; America’s political role, 5–6, 37–8; surnames in America, 133; trader in development of English, 56–8; foreign Pennsylvania, 125, 140; underclass in US, political engagement, 45–8; Great 13, 30. See also Gaelic, Irish; Irish English; Depression, 37, 43–4, 210; imperialism, Scotch-Irish language and people pre-World War I, 38–40; progressivism, Irish English, xxi; a-prefixing, 145, 148; 40; social development, 48–50; anymore, positive, 331; be, generic/ technology, 42–3, 50–6. See also Spanish- habitual, 135–6, 145, 147, 303, 450; as American War; World War I; colonial variety of English, 91, 117, 121, World War II 145; connections with American dialects, International Style, 55 109, 110, 113, 117–18, 119, 120, 125, Internet, 52, 213 127, 133–4, 135–6; development in interpreters, Indian, 158–9 Ireland, 91, 92, 106, 117, 121, 145, 256, interrogatives, will/shall in, 368, 369, 370–1 449; dialects of immigrants, 90, 255–6; Interstate Commerce Commission, 34 Gaelic influence, 121, 133, 145; habitual intervals; semantic shifting, 476 markers, 135; historical development of intonation: backcountry settlers’, 85; studies on influence, 104–19; British influence, 74–5, 84, 111, 123; intensifying expressions, 133; modals, Middle states, 111; New England, 9, 80, 148, 331; need and past participle, 149; 97, 98, 123; Southern dialects, 74–5, 276. and Newfoundland English, xxvi, 119, See also drawl; juncture; pitch; stress 424, 446, 449–50, 452–3, 454–5; introspective data; question of validity, 322 phonology, 76, 77, 138, 139, 140, 141–2, Inuit, 443, 452. See also Eskimo 427; poetry, 125; pronouns, 149, 332, Inuktitut, 434 450; recognized as distinctive, 89, 477–8; invective, 229 Scottish influence, 121, 134, 256; inventiveness of American English, 2, 152, subject-verb concord, 146, 327; sources 209, 393, 490–1 on, 96–104, 125, 135, 140, 148; Iowa: in Civil War, 31; dialects, 266, 267, vocabulary, 92, 133–4, 452–3; will/shall, 281, 282; name of state, 165 120, 133, 450, 474. See also Scotch-Irish -ire, 77–8 language and people Ireland and the Irish: Act of Union (1801), iron and steel industry, 33

593

Index

Iron Curtain, 5–6, 45–6 jazz, 43, 70; etymology of term, 43, Iroquois and Iroquoian languages, xxi, 155, 214–15, 248; slang, 219, 239 159, 171 Jazz Age, 42, 43, 210 irregardless, 409, 410, 415 Jazz Singer, The (film), 42 irrigation, 206 jeans, 55–6 Irving, Washington, 12, 36, 66, 229, 346 Jefferson, Thomas, US President, 22, 24–5, is, reduplicative, 338–9 67, 166, 173, 487 -ise. See –ize/-ise variation jeopardize ‘threaten,’ 483, 484 Isleños, Louisiana; Hispanic community, jerk ‘to preserve meat,’ 470–1 176 Jespersen, Otto, 418, 474 ism words, 458–9 Jews: Colonial period settlers, 16, 129; isolation: from Britain, and development of epithets for, 208, 246; Jewish English, American English, xvi–xvii, 4, 7, 18, 69, 178–9; Sephardic, in New Amsterdam, 93, 117, 184, 186; and immigrant 169. See also Yiddish language influence on English, 330; Jim Crow laws (1877), 319 Lower South, 130; and nonstandard jive, jive literature, 230–1 language, 328; Upper South, 126 Johnson, G., 312 isolationism, US foreign policy of, 41, 44, Johnson, Lyndon B., US President, 49, 211 45 Johnson, Samuel, 61, 72; American editions Israel, 47, 48 of Dictionary, 344; and Americanisms, Italians and Italian language, xxii, 178; 168, 478; on assiento, 470; on dialects, attitudes to, 246, 383; epithets for, 208, 381; and Gilbert Stuart’s speech, 481; 246; immigration, 50, 177; rhotacism, 76 influence in Canada, 433; on language Ithaca, New York, 106 change, 186, 390; on linguistic propriety, it is me, 381, 396 371; and -or/-our contrast, 353; on past IWW (Industrial Workers of the World), tense, 372; on phonology, 72, 73 209 Johnson, Samuel, Jr.: First Easy Rudiments of -ize/-ise variation: in Canada, 433; in US, Grammar, 366; A School Dictionary (1796), 344, 345, 372, 408, 409, 411 344 Johnson, Todd, 344 j, interchangeability with i, 342, 345 joint, 139 jackatar (Newfoundland), 451 Jones, Hugh, 346, 365, 476–7 Jackson, Andrew, US President, 189, 196, Jones, Sir William, 379 197, 243 joss, 179 Jagger, Mick, 494 journalism: appositional naming, 492; jail/gaol, 340 British, on American English, 97, Jamaica, 470; Jamaican Creole, 300 459–60, 483–4; developments, 1920s, jambalaya, 172 43; London derision of Scots English, James, Henry, 36 479; muckraking, 40; slang use, 244–5, James II, King of Great Britain, 12 247–8; sports, 247; television news Jamestown, Virginia, 4, 7, 15, 129, 162–3, reporting, 51; yellow, 40 190, 264 juba, 180 janny (Newfoundland), 451 juke, 248 Japan, 44, 45, 50, 57 juncture, 253, 254 jargons: French, 156, 162. See also Chinook, Delaware, Eskimo, Mobilian and -k: deletion in -ick words, 199, 343, 344, Montagnais jargons 345, 346, 372; -que converted to, 345

594

Index

Kames, Lord (Henry Home); Elements of 141–2, 143; on post-Colonial British Criticism,63 influence, 144; segmental approach, 138; kanakas (Pacific Islanders), 161 on slang as urban phenomenon, 232; Kanawha Valley, 271 and usage debate, 392–4, 395, 398, 401, Kansas: Exodusters, 204; in Civil War, 31; 406; on Webster’s etymologies, 379 dialects, xxiv, 266, 280, 282 Ku Klux Klan, 41, 202–3 Kansas City, xxiv, 280, 282 Kurath, Hans, 112, 115; on AAE, 312, 314; keg, 139 on Colonial period phonology, 137; kemo sabe, 157 Linguistic Atlas of New England, 71; on Kennedy, John Fitzgerald, US President, Lower South, 130; on Midland dialects, 46 114, 124–5, 145, 270–1; on Northern Kentucky, 31, 193; dialect, 126, 274; dialects, 266–7; The Pronunciation of Kentucky spirit, 70; settlement, 82, 91, English in the Atlantic States (with 271, 282, 283 McDavid), 137–8, 138–9; Word Geography Kenyon, John, 79, 399 of the Eastern United States,88 Kerouac, Jack, 57 Kytö, Merja, 116, 117, 123; Early American ker- prefix, 174 English corpus, 103 ketchup as red lead, 224 key ‘islet,’ 176 /l/: AAE omission of lateral in kibitzer, 178, 249 preconsonantal and word-final position, kid, kidnap, 240 296; final, doubled or single before kielbasa, 179 suffixes, 340, 345, 353–4; Newfoundland killick (Newfoundland), 451 English, 448, 449; postvocalic, in Kimbundu, 180 Southern dialects, 276, 278, 279 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 49 labor: cheap Slavic, 179; organized, 27, 33, King Cotton, 30 41 King George’s War, 17 Labov, William, 321; on AAVE, 291–2, King William’s War, 17 298, 315, 319–20; observer’s paradox, Kinsey, Alfred Charles, 401, 402 361–2 Kirkham, Samuel, 375–7, 378, 382, 398, Labrador, coastal, 441, 442, 446, 452 418 lacrosse, 216 Kittredge, George Lyman, 237 Lafayette, Louisiana, 279 kneel, 335 lag, linguistic: colonial, 74, 106–7, 120, 141, Knights of Labor, 33 471–2, 475; metropolitan, 474, 475; and koiné, hypothesis of colonial, 60–1, 83–4, rhotacism, 76 115, 116, 153 lager, 174, 208 kombucha, 179 Lait, Jack, 248 Korean War, 46, 179, 211 lamantin, 465 Krapp, George Philip, 85, 115; on AAE, Lambert, John, 483 312–13, 314; on British and Irish landscape. See topography antecedents of American English, 102, languages, definite article with names of, 103, 104, 111, 130, 131, 133; 133 comprehensive transatlantic Lardner, Ring, 250, 251 comparisons, 111; Dewey’s influence on, lariat, 176, 206, 283, 287 400; emphasis on spoken language, 399; Lass, R., 138 as new grammarian, 402; on phonology, lasso, 287 123, 130, 131, 133, 137–8, 139–40, Latham, Robert, 382

595

Index

Latin: in British education, 63, 188, 365–6; like (conjunction), 408, 419 influence on English, 188, 396, 465, 466; liketa ‘nearly,’ 128 Webster and grammar based on, 366, Lincoln, Abraham, US President, 31, 32, 370, 371; Webster’s Third and, 404 38, 197, 456 Latin America: immigration from, 50; 20th- Lincolnshire dialect, 127 century US relations, 39–40, 41, 47; Lindbergh, Charles A., 53 “Yankee Go Home,” 194. See also lingua francas: Amerindian languages, Spanish language and speakers 155–7; English in Africa, 180; Russian in law. See legal documents; legislation Aleutian Islands and Alaska, 169 law and order, linking /r/ in, 123, 268 linguisters, linguists (Indian interpreters), 158 lay for lie, 408, 410 Linguistic Society of America, 388, 395, leap, 335 397, 418; “Guidelines for Nonsexist leave ‘let,’ 124 Usage,” 359, 360, 364, 416–17 lecturing, public, 392 linguistics, scientific, 378–84, 398, 402, 410 Leeds, Paul, 156 linguoa (Indian interpreters), 158 legal documents, 66–7, 104, 117 linotype, 33 legislation: immigration, 177; Jim Crow lions, 468, 469 laws (1877), 319; on spelling, 346, 350. Lippmann, Walter, 45 See also Congress () Lipsius, Morris, 239 lei, 181 literacy: letters of marginally literate as Leigh, Edwin, 351 source, 103, 118, 122; level by 1894, 84; Le Jeune, Paul, 156 New England settlers’, 80, 122; lend/loan (Canadian English), 431 Newfoundland, 444; in Virginia, lengthy, 486, 487 Colonial period, 81; in Welsh language, Lengthy, Lemuel (pseud.), 486–7 90, 92 Leonard, Sterling, 398, 399, 400, 402, 405, literae humaniores,63 406; survey of usage, 396, 414 literature, xxi; British, dialects in, 72; —, Lerner, Max, 57–8, 249–50, 251 influence on American, 63–4, 66–7, 70, letters: abbreviations in, 343; evidence on 97, 100–1; —, influenced by American, pronunciation, 104, 142; of marginally 70; —, popular vernacular, 491; dialects literate, 103, 118, 122; official, 117; in, 72, 100; education in, 63–4, 65, 443; plantation overseers’, 131; source on international English influenced by, 57; British and Irish antecedents, 103, National period authors, 36; popular 117–18, 135, 148 vernacular, 491; as standard, 66–7, 391; levee, 172, 207 stock characters, 100; variant forms in, levels/varieties differentiation, 399, 409, 391 410 little emperor/empress, 179 Levi’s (jeans), 55 Liverpool; emigrants’ heterogeneity, 87 Lewin, E. and A. E., 239 Living Age, 233 Lewis, Meriwether, 25, 166, 195, 487 Livingston, Robert, 26 Lewis, Sinclair, 57, 70, 493 loan translations: from Amerindian Lexicon Balatronicum (1811), 221 languages, 166, 464; brainwash, from Liberia, 29; Liberian Settler English, Chinese, 179; Pennsylvania German, 317–18 271–2 liberty, Quakers’ reciprocal ideal of, 82 loanwords: Algonquian, in Mobilian Liberty Bonds, 209 Jargon, 156–7; Americanisms, 192–3, Life, 406, 407, 409 193–4, 194–5, 208; assimilation of

596

Index

French, in American and British English, Grammar, 64, 365, 366, 370, 371, 372, 172–3; in 18th-century British English, 374 478; in English before colonization, Loyalist emigration after Revolution, 23, 464–5, 466, 468; frequent topics, 182; 425, 429, 432 semantic drift, 134, 189. See also calques; LSA. See Linguistic Society of America vocabulary; and under individual languages Luce, Henry R., 43 lobby ‘to influence politically,’ 488 Lucke, Jessie R., 130–1 locality and language, xviii Lunenburg County, Canada, 425 location, prepositional phrases of, 330 lynch, lynching, lynch mob, lynching bee, 203 Locke, John, 61, 67, 350, 376, 381, 386 Lockhart, John Gibson, 484 Macdonald, Dwight, 406–7, 411, 414 lodge, 171 machete, 470 logbooks, ships’, 104 Mackay, Charles, 488 log cabin, 169, 196 mackinaw, 167 London: attitudes to American English, MacNeice, Louis, 251 481, 483; class accents, 73; emigrants’ macrolinguistics and microlinguistics, 2 heterogeneity, 87; grammar, 144; late mafia, mafiosa, 178 migration (1760–75), 14; New England magazines, 28, 43, 52, 244. See also individual connections, 80, 111, 122, 123, 190; names paupers and orphans sent to America, Maine, 9, 30, 31, 103, 193; dialect, 76, 142, 86; phonology, 76, 111, 143; prestige of 267; French-speaking communities, 173 dialect, 72, 73, 84, 188, 191, 472; Maine, USS, 38 Southern connections, 10, 80–1, 111, maize, 92, 167, 189, 464, 468 129, 130, 190, 477 Malamud, Bernard, 57 London, Jack (pseud. of John Griffith manatee, 464–5, 478 Chaney), 250 mandative constructions, 337–8 London Company, 129 Mandingo, 180, 248 Lone Ranger (television character), 157 Manitoba, 162, 423, 433 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 36, 67 Mann, Horace, 28 Los Angeles, California, 53, 209, 255, 288; manoeuvre, 390 immigrant languages, 175, 181; street man on the horse, 203 vocabulary, 239 manorial system reproduced in Tidewater, Louisbourg, Nova Scotia, 17 80, 81 Louisiana: Cajun French, 171, 173, 180, Manteo (Croatoan Indian brought to 193, 279; in Civil War, 31; cotton England), 159, 467 plantations, 30; French Creole, 173, 180; manuscripts: colonial, xxi, 104; Hispanic community, 176; history, 3, 20, Newfoundland, 444, 445, 446 24–5; Indians in southwest, 156; Ku maps; place name spelling, 348 Klux Klan, 203; Southern dialects, 276, marais, 207 283; US purchase from France, 3, 24–5, Marblehead, Maine, 76 166, 172, 195, 264. See also New Marckwardt, Albert, xix, 106–7, 402, 406; Orleans survey of usage, with Walcott, 396, 398, Louisville, Kentucky, 271 414 Lounsbury, Thomas, 389–91, 395, 398 Marcy, William L., 347 Lowell, James Russell, 36, 107–8 Marggraf, Georg, 471 Lower South. See Southern dialects maritime pidgins, 60–1, 115, 161 Lowth, Robert; Short Introduction to English Maritimes, Canada, 422, 423, 424–5

597

Index

marry/merry/Mary, 131, 270, 272, 280, 285, me; it is me, 381, 396 429–30 means as singular or plural noun, 367 Marsh, George Perkins, 381–4, 385, 408, meat-mate merger, 142 417, 418 media, mass, 42–3, 77; and international Marshall Plan, 46 influence of America, 43, 334, 439, 492, Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts, 427 493. See also broadcasting; journalism; Mary. See marry/merry/Mary press; radio; television Maryatt, Frederick, 487 medicine, 31, 49; plants used in, 460–3, Maryland: Brandywine people, 160; 466–7 creation, 193; in Civil War, 31; megilla, 249 Chesapeake Bay islands speech, 108, Meillet, Antoine, 2, 321 132, 472; pronouns, 149; religious meiosis in slang and poetry, 225 tolerance, 9; run ‘stream,’ 192; settlers, 9, Melville, Herman, 36, 487 11, 13; tobacco farming, 9, 16; memory, construction of American, 109, uncompleted vowel shift, 142 111 mask, 345 Memphis, Tennessee, 156 Massachuset(t) Indians and language, 15, Mencken, H. L., 85; American Mercury, 43; 157, 158 claims for distinctive American Massachusetts: and Britain, 109, 122, language, 105–6, 111, 185; on general 255–6, 264, 265; cultural center, 470; colloquial grammar or “Vulgate,” 144; dialect, 191, 255–6, 264, 265, 267; on Irish influence, 133; and Scopes Trial, French-speaking communities, 173; in 42; and slang, 219, 237–8, 252 Civil War, 31; immigration patterns, 49, Mendenhall, Thomas C., 348 50, 189, 190; Indian name, 166; Mennonites, 174 migration westward from, 265; Puritan Menomini Indians, 419 settlement, 7, 8–9, 109, 122, 190; town -ment, 353–4, 354–5 records, 103. See also individual towns and mercy, 99, 139 New England Mergenthaler, Ottmar, 33 Massachusetts Bay Colony, 7, 8, 9, 109, Merriam-Webster Company, Springfield, 122, 190 Mass., 403, 418; Merriam-Webster’s Massasoit Indians, 158 Collegiate Dictionary, 413–14. See also Mather, Cotton, 342–3 Webster’s Third New International Dictionary Mathews, Mitford M., 96, 187, 217 merry. See marry/merry/Mary matter, medial flap in, 139 Merseyside, immigrants from, 82 Matthews, Brander, 391–2, 395, 399 mesa, 176, 208, 286, 288 Maurer, David, 239 mesolects: AAE, 291, 293, 314; Caribbean maverick, 207 English creoles, 293, 319; Gullah, 293 may/can, 472–3, 475 mesquite, 176 McCarthy, Senator Joseph R., and metal, 139, 143 McCarthyism, 45, 211 metals, precious, 33, 465–6, 475. See also McCartney, Paul; “Rocky Raccoon” (song), gold 494 metaphor in slang and poetry, 225 McCullers, Carson, 57 Metcalf, A. A., 217–18 McDavid, R. I., Jr., 137–8, 138–9 Methodist Church, 30, 65, 215 McDonald’s fast-food restaurants, 55 methodology; observer’s paradox, 361–2 McGuffey Readers,28 Métis (people of mixed French and McKnight, George H., 105–6 Amerindian ancestry), 162, 425

598

Index

metonymy in slang and poetry, 225 loanwords, 193; General American Mexico: cession of Southwest to US speech, 79, 111; German influence, 174; (1848), 3, 25; Colonial period contacts, Inland Northern dialect derivatives, 267, 16; Gadsden Purchase (1853), 3–4, 26; 269, 289; Mormon influence, 255; New immigration from, 50, 175, 208; England migration to, 265; and northern Mexican-American War (1846–48), 3, British dialects, 79, 134; rhotacism, 77; 25, 286 settlement, 26, 92, 134, 179, 265; Mezzrow, Milton, 231 Western dialects, 280, 282, 289; yuz, youse, Miami, Florida, 175 332 Michif (French-based pidgin), 162 migration: four waves of British colonial, Michigan, 31, 49, 50 7–14, 59–61, 79–84, 113–14, 189–91; Micmac, 155, 162, 443, 452 geographical constraints, 54, 255; microlinguistics and macrolinguistics, 2 internal, in America, 14–15, 54, 208, 265; Middle American ethos, 82 —, in Britain, 87, 121. See also Middle East, 47, 48 immigration and individual regions Middle English: a- with present participles, military: ARPANET, 52; British Redcoats, 148; Lower South relics, 132; multiple 17, 18, 241; in Civil War, 31, 245; modals, 331; reflexes of vowels in Cromwellian transportees from Ireland, American English, 142–3, 269, 282; 86, 91; English garrison in Upper South relics, 126; zero marking of Newfoundland, 443; initialisms, 210–11; third person singular, 147 slang, xxiii, 219, 224, 239, 246, 251; Midland dialects, xxiv, 262, 265–6, 270–3, swearing, 245 289; AAE influence, 266; area, 112, mill ‘a tenth of a cent,’ 172 270–1, 273; Colonial period settlement, Miller, Arthur, 57 7, 11–13; German influence, 265, 266, Miller, Philip; Gardener’s Dictionary (1731–9), 270, 272; intonation, 111; 478 morphology/grammar, 146, 149, 150, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 174, 269 272, 273 (see also verbs below); mines, land and water, 31 North/South division, xxiv, 12, 14, mining and mineral deposits, 33, 465–6; 81–2, 114, 270–1, 272–3, 289; northern terminology, 491. See also gold; silver British links, 82, 111; Northern dialect Minneapolis, Minnesota, 255, 269, 281 features in, 264, 272; origins and Minnesota: in Civil War, 31; dialect, 266, historical development, 264, 265–6; 267, 269, 281, 284–5; immigration Pennsylvania influence, 124–5, 264, 265, patterns, 49, 50 270–1, 272, 273, 274, 282; phonology, Minuit, Peter, 168–9 99, 111, 141, 271, 272–3, 277; pronouns, mishuggah, 178 149, 150; Scotch-Irish influence, 14, 134, missionaries, 29, 171, 177, 351, 442, 145, 150, 265, 266, 270; and Southern 445 dialects, 264, 270–1, 277, 285–6; Spanish Mississippi, pronunciation of, 276, 383 influence, 266; verbs, 113, 146, 148, 173, Mississippi, state of, 31, 166 330–1; vocabulary, 271–2, 273; vowels, Mississippi Valley, xxiv; British 141, 272, 273, 277; Welsh influence, 265; administrative control, 22; cotton and Western dialects, 264, 280, 281, 282, plantations, 30, 274; delta, 274; French 284, 285–6, 287, 288. See also South control, 171; settlement, 255; Southern Midland dialects dialects, 278; subregions, northern and Midlands, English. See under England southern, 281–2; Western dialects, Midwest: cot/caught merger, 428; French 280–3, 289

599

Index

Missouri, 30, 31; dialects, 266, 273, 274, morphemes, 325; function and content, 283; immigration, 14, 49; source of 326 Western dialect, 266, 280, 282, 286 morphology, xxiv, xxv; MLA. See Modern Language Association inflectional/derivational distinction, mob, 242 325–6. See also under individual language Mobilian Jargon, xxi, 155, 156–7, 166 varieties mobility, physical, xx, 2; international, 493; Morris, William, 411, 412, 414–15 within America, 19, 26–7, 42, 68, 87, Morrison, Toni, 57 122, 288. See also communications; Morse, Samuel, and Morse Code, 27 isolation moscovado, 470 mobility, social, xx, 2, 3, 319 mosey ‘to move slowly,’ 176 moccasin, 156, 166, 188, 468 motels, 53 modals: AAE, 148, 300, 301, 305, 308; Mount, Thomas, 242–3 divergence from British, 117, 472–5; mountain speech, Upper South, xxiv, hadn’t ought, 487; multiple, 131, 148, 151, 108–9, 110, 126–7, 128, 140, 289, 332–3. 275, 308, 330–1 See also Ozark Mountains Modern Language Association (MLA), mourning/morning, 131, 268, 270, 273, 276 388–9, 391, 397, 417 movies. See films modes of language, Lowth’s distinction, muckamuck, 165 370 muckraking, journalistic, 40 Mohegan Indians, 15 mugwump, 166, 188 Molloy, Gerald, 474 Müller, Max, 379, 385 Monardes, Nicolás, 466–7 Mulligan, Mick, 494 monetary terminology, 172, 202; slang, multiculturalism, Canadian, 426, 439 223, 242 multinational corporations and spelling mongst-ye, 149 leveling, 356 Monongahela River, 166 Munro, P., 248 Monroe, James, US President, 25 Murray, James, 355, 395 Monroe Doctrine, 25; Roosevelt Corollary, Murray, Lindley, 65, 66, 72, 373–5, 377, 39 382, 385 Montagnais language, 443; jargonized, music, 43, 494; Africanisms, 180; 156 Americanisms, 214–15; slang, 219, 222, Montana, 162, 284–5 229, 239, 248 Montgomery, Alabama, 31, 49 Muskhogean languages, 165 Montgomery, Michael, 104, 116, 117 muskrat, 164–5, 478 Monthly Anthology,67 musquash, 478 Montreal, 171, 422, 425, 426 mustache, 356 Moon, George Washington, 384–5 mustang, 176, 206 Moon landings, 2, 51, 53, 54 Myers, Mike, 245 Moore, Francis, 68, 476, 480 moose, 155, 165, 478 n:AAVE nasalization of vowels before morality: linguistics associated with word-final, 320; effect when syllabic on a wayward, 402. See also under correctness preceding [t], 428; Newfoundland Moravian missionaries in Labrador, 442 lowering of high vowel before, 448 Morgan, J. P., 34 Nabokov, Vladimir, 57 Mormon Church, 26, 215–16, 255, 284 Naciemento, Mexico, 160 morning/mourning, 131, 268, 270, 273, 276 Nahuatl loanwords, 167, 176

600

Index

names. See place names; surnames Navajo, 167; pidgin, Trader Navajo, 156, naming, appositional, 492 157 Nanticoke Indians, 15 navies: British Royal, 25, 240, 443; US, 37, Nantucket, Massachusetts, 161 40 Naples, 461 navigation, terms concerning, 463–5, 466 Napoleonic Wars, 25 Navoo, Illinois; Mormon settlement, 26 Narraganset(t), 15, 155, 157 NBC (National Broadcasting Company), nasals and nasality: AAVE vowels before -n, 42, 51 320; New England drawl, 123; NCTE. See National Council of Teachers Newfoundland lowering of high vowel of English before, 448; Norfolk, 9, 80, 123; Nebraska, 266, 282 Southern stressed vowels, 279. See also n need and past participle, 149 Nashville-Cumberland basin, 280 negation: AAE, 303, 305–6, 314, 320; Naskapi (Innu), 443 double and multiple, 144, 306, 371, 374 Natchez, Mississippi, 26, 274, 278 Negro (nonstandard) English, 293 Nation, 385 Neoclassicism, 61–2 National Broadcasting Company (NBC), -ness, 325 42, 51 Netherlands. See Dutch language and National Council of Teachers of English people; Holland (NCTE), xxvi, 388, 397; The English netop, 240 Language Arts and usage debate, 297, 298, Nevada, 33, 176, 197, 284, 286–8 395, 396, 399–403, 406, 418; on new, 120, 128, 269, 273, 428–9, 449 nonsexist language, 417 New Age, 212 National Geographic Society, 348 New Amsterdam (later New York City), 12, nationalism: American, 34–5, 61–3, 199, 169, 171 367, 368, 382; Canadian, 429, 430–1, Newberry, William (fl. 1751, indentured 439; scientific linguistics run counter to, laborer), 477 384 Newbery, John; printing of early children’s National period, xx, 4–5, 20–37; Classical books, 350–1 ideals, 28; Constitution, 23–4; New Brunswick, 422, 424–5 development of English, 23, 34–7; New Deal, 210 literature, 36; slavery and abolition, New England, xxiv; Amerindians, 190; 29–30; technological and social British and Irish antecedents, xxi, 90, expansion, 26–9, 31, 32–4. See also Civil 122–4; —, continuing influence after War, American; Revolution, American; settlement, 79, 80, 84; —, corpus-based Western states (settlement) studies, 116–17; —, East Anglian, national varieties of language, xviii, 254 79–80, 109–10, 113, 123; —, and native peoples. See Aboriginal peoples of grammar, 147; —, and intonation, 9, 80, Canada; Amerindian languages; 98, 123; —, northern British, 76, 122, Amerindians; and individual peoples 123, 125; —, and phonology, 80, 123; NATO (North Atlantic Treaty —, Scotch-Irish, 60; —, southeastern Organization), 46, 48 English, 79, 80, 109–10, 111, 121, 122, naturalism. See conventionality 123, 190; Canada settled from, 425; natural order, Enlightenment belief in, culture, New England Way, 265; —, 256 renaissance, 487; dialect group, xxiv, 111; natural speech data, 322 dialects influenced by, 266, 286, 425; nature, 144 fisheries, 123–4, 163; French population,

601

Index

New England (cont.) and, 443; seal hunting, 442, 453–4; 169, 171, 173, 177; governmental servants (indentured fisheries workers), institutions, 265; Hawaiians in, 161; 442, 453; settlement history, 424, 441, homogeneity of colonial communities, 442, 443–5, 446; settlers (people of mixed 79–80, 122; intonation, 9, 80, 97, 98, race), 453; spelling, 433; towns, 424, 123; literacy, 80; Loyalist exodus, 425; 442–3, 443–4; US social ties, 445; verb phonology, 75, 76, 80, 84, 111, 123, 141, forms, 448, 450; vocabulary, xxvi, 450–4; 428; possessive pronouns in -n, 150; West Country English influence, xxvi, Puritans, 7, 8–9, 60, 190, 255, 265; 119, 424, 441, 442, 445–8, 454–5; World settlement, 7, 8–9, 60, 80, 190, 254, 470; War II, external contacts in, 444–5; sources on, 103, 116–17, 121, 122; young people, 424, 454 Tidewater speech becomes differentiated New France, 173, 175 from, 78; uniformity and elegance of New Hampshire: Americanisms, 193; in speech, 93–4; verbs, 105, 146, 147, Civil War, 31; creation, 9, 193; dialect 380–1; vocabulary, xxii, 122, 123–4, 163, area, 267; French-speaking communities, 476; —, Americanisms, xxii, 193, 246; 173; Scots poetic idiom, 134; “Yankee” epithet, 246. See also individual uncompleted vowel shift, 142 states New Harmony, Indiana, 29 Newfoundland and Newfoundland New Jersey: history, 12, 30, 31; immigration English, xxvi, 441–55; Aboriginal patterns, 9, 49, 50; Indian pidgin, 157; peoples, 442, 443, 451–2; American mobility of population, 87; phonology, contacts, 445; books and manuscripts, 140, 269; public records, 103 444, 445, 446; and Canadian English, Newman, Edwin, 414, 417, 419 423, 424, 444–5; as Canadian province, New Mexico, 3–4, 26, 32; Hispanic 441, 444; church, 443, 445; early population, 50, 175, 176, 286 Newfoundland, 17, 441–3; economic New Netherland, 12, 16, 169, 170, 171, 193 bases, 442, 444, 453–4; education, 443; New Orleans, Louisiana: Antillean Creole, elites, 424, 443–4, 445; fisheries, xxvi, 215; as cultural center, 171, 172, 255, 442; —, decline of, 443; —, French 274, 275; dialect, 277–8; French culture, fishermen in, 171, 452; —, international 171, 172; jazz, 43, 215; steamboat Bank, 452; —, Irish servants in, 442, service, 26; slave markets, 274 446; —, seasonal and transient workers New Republic, 419 in, 441, 442, 443, 453; —, terminology, news, with singular or plural verb, 369 450, 451, 453; folk speech, 443, 444; news broadcasting, 51 French influence, 171, 452; fur trapping, New South Company, 168–9 442, 453, 454; government, 443, 444; newspapers, 52; American influence on grammar, 448, 450; Irish English British, 489; advertisements for runaway influences, xxvi, 119, 424, 446, 449–50, bound workers, 99, 477; Civil War 452–3, 454–5; Irish Gaelic speakers, 449; reportage, 31; Colonial period, 341; Irish settlers, 424, 441, 442, 446, 449; German, 174; National period literacy levels, 444; local identity, 445; development, 23–4, 28, 243, 244; local stereotypes, 454–5; middle classes, Newfoundland, 443; penny press, 28, 52; 442, 443–4, 445; newspapers, 443; oral and slang, 243; unifying factor, 19, 23–4; culture, 444; out-migration from, 424; White’s articles on philology, 385 phonology, 446–8, 449–50, 454; prestige New Sweden (Delaware), 12–13, 168–9 varieties of English, 443, 444, 445, 446; Newtown (now Cambridge), pronouns, 448, 450, 455; Royal Navy Massachusetts, 265

602

Index

New York Amsterdam News, 231 nonrhotacism, xxi, 75–7; AAE, 295–6; New York City: American Academy of before alveolars (hoss, cuss, bust), 75, 140; Language and Belles Lettres, 347; British British and Irish influence, 75–7, 123, influence after 1650, 79; Brooklyn 140, 143; and class, 76; Lower South, Bridge, 33; class accent, 76, 77; cultural 131; New England, 80, 84, 123; center, 255; dialect, 267, 269, 270, 289; Newfoundland, 447, 454; prestige, 140; Dutch foundation, 12, 169, 171; early seaboard dialects, 79; Tidewater, 81, 84; 19th-century immigration, 27; Erie Upper South mountain speech, 140. See Canal, 26; European immigration also rhotacism through, 76, 77; first elevator, 54; Irish “nonstandard” stylistic label, 409–10 Catholic settlers, 77, 92; Italian Norfolk whine, 9, 80, 123 bilinguals, 76; rhotacism and North Carolina: branch ‘stream,’ 192; British nonrhotacism, 75, 76, 77; Spanish influence, 108, 135, 255–6; —, Scotch- speakers, 175; Philological Society, 61; Irish, 13–14, 82, 91, 124; —, Scottish United Nations Secretariat building, 54; Gaelic speakers, 91, 134–5; in Civil War, Yiddish bilinguals, 76 31; coastal dialect, 276; creation, 193; New Yorker, 43, 249 Elizabethan hypothesis, 108; first New York State: in Civil War, 31; class colonists, 10–11; French settlers, 16, accent, 76, 77; colonial lag, 106; creation, 171; Germans in piedmont, 124; 193; dialects, xxiv, 267, 269–70; and grammar, 135, 147; Midland/Southern Dictionary war, 346; Dutch influence, dialect boundary, 125, 270–1; Ocracoke 12, 16, 97, 169, 170, 171, 177, 193–4; Island dialect, 132, 327, 332; Outer French population, 177; German Banks speech, 108, 132, 141; influence, 174; immigration patterns, 9, Pennsylvania migration to, 270, 274, 49, 50; Indian pidgin, 157; Loyalist 282; phonology, 104, 142, 276; emigration, 425; mobility of population, piedmont, 270–1, 274; rice cultivation, 87; population in 1790, 244; Presbyterian 16; sources, 121 schools, 65; printing and publishing, 365; North Dakota, 162, 281 protests over East India Company tea Northern dialects, xxiv, 266–70, 289; area, shipments, 21; rhotacism and 266–7, 289; AAE influences, 266; and nonrhotacism, 75, 76, 77; town records, Canadian English, 422, 439; coastal, 103; uncompleted vowel shift, 142; 268–9; Eastern and Western areas, Upstate region and dialect, 9, 254, 265, 266–7; and folk usage, 268; Inland, 265, 267, 269–70; Welsh immigration, 92; 267, 269–70, 281, 289; and Midland words peculiar to, 69, 193–4; Yiddish dialects, 264, 272; morphology/ influence, 181. See also Hudson Valley grammar, 149, 267–8, 269–70; origins New York Times, 52, 247, 385, 406, 407, 409 and historical development, 9, 264, 265, New Zealand English, 491–2 266; phonology, 268–9, 270; —, r- -ng final in singing, 139 pronouncing, 268, 269, 270; Spanish Nicaragua, 40, 47 influence, 266; subdivisions, 266–7, nickelodeons, 42 289; urban, 149, 266; vocabulary, Nieuw Nederlandt, 12, 16, 169, 170, 171, 134, 267, 268, 269; and Western 193 dialects, 264, 280, 281, 284, 285, 286, -nik suffix, 182 287, 288 nonconformism, religious, and teaching of Northern states: African-Americans, 30, English language, 64 266, 314; settlement, 254. See also none with plural verb, 396 individual states

603

Index

Northumbria, 127, 146, 192 settlement, 49, 50, 271; Indian name, Northwest: Amerindians, 155, 165; 166, 383; run ‘stream,’ 192 Hawaiians in the, 161 Ohio River Valley: migration along, 265, Norwegian language and people, 50, 163, 270, 271, 282; New Orleans influence 177, 208 channeled by, 277; Northern/Midland nosh, 494 dialect boundary, 273; pronouns, 150 no-siree, 133 /oi/, pronunciation of, 269, 276, 297 nothing/nothink variation, 481 Ojibwa, 155, 166, 434 notions, 194 OK, xxii, 180–1, 196–7, 219, 244, 490 nouns: attributive following, 432; Oklahoma, 32, 274, 282 capitalization, 343; collective, okra, 180, 214 singular/plural verbs with, 336–7; plural, Old Dominion (nickname of Virginia), 10 with singular verbs, 367, 396; used as Old Hickory (nickname of Andrew verbs, 372 Jackson, US President), 189, 197 Nova Scotia, 422, 424–5; African- Old Spanish Trail, 286 American English, 118, 317, 318; Old Welsh, 146 French-based jargon, 162; history, 9, 17 O’Leary, Frank, 239 nuclear weapons, 47 Oliver plow, 283 Nunberg, Geoffrey, 412, 415, 417–18, 420 once, 369 Nutmeg State, Connecticut, 194 Oneida, New York, 29 nyam ‘to eat,’ 470 O’Neill, Eugene, 57 onomatopoeia in slang and poetry, 225 o, 269, 282. See also broom words; cot/caught Ontario, 433 merger; horse/hoarse merger; hog words; -oor/-our merger, AAE, 297 -oor/-our; -or; -or/-our; /ow/; -ower; /oy/ opening, 476 Oates, Joyce Carol, 57 opossum, 165, 188, 468 oaths, 241, 245 ‘O¯ pu¯kaha‘ia, Henry, 161 objects, 330, 337 -or-; Newfoundland lowering before obladee-oblada, 180 consonants, 447 observations of language: linguistics -or, variation with -our, 62, 199, 343, 344, students’, 394, 401; popular, in Colonial 346, 353; Canadian English, 433; co- period, xxi, 97–8 existence in 17th-century English, 356; observer’s paradox, 361–2 -or gains ascendancy in America, 345, 372 O’Connor, Flannery, 57 oral culture: Newfoundland, 444; Lower Ocracoke Island, North Carolina, 132, 327, South, 130 332 oratory, grandiloquent style of, 35, 70 œ as oe or e, 355 Orbeck, Anders, 103, 104, 110, 123 of in phrases of time, 279 Oregon, 286–8; dialects, 266, 286–8; off-glides of long mid vowels, Lower history, 3, 26, 31, 286, 287 South, 130 -ore/-ure merger, AAE, 297 official language: Canadian English/French orphans transported from London, 86 bilingualism, 423, 438, 439; in England, orthoepists, 72–3, 98, 343 256; in United States, 59, 177, 363 Orton, H. and E. Dieth; Survey of English official names; Canadian noun + attributive Dialects, 71, 112 order, 432 Orwell, George, 45 Oglethorpe, James, 11 -ory words, secondary stress in, 430 Ohio: in Civil War, 31; immigration and O’Sullivan, John L., 26

604

Index

Otis, Elisha, 54 participles, past: analogical formation, 328; Ottawa area, 422, 426, 427, 430 British dialect influence on standard Ou-, variation with W in American, 335; Canadian English, 431, Ouisconsin/Wisconsin etc, 348–9 432; got/gotten, 23, 326, 431; Midland Ouachita River, 279 dialects, 273; need with, 149; our, AAVE pronunciation of, 299 Newfoundland English, 450; resembling Outer Banks, North Carolina, 108, 132, preterit, 369, 371–2; Southern dialects, 141 275, 277, 278 outlaws, 246 participles, present, with a- prefix, 132, 133, outports, Newfoundland, 442–3, 445 145, 148, 302 over-correction, 295, 429 Partridge, Eric, 219, 238, 243 /ow/, 297 passive progressive, 333, 386 -ower, 77–8 past-habit marker, AAE useta, 304 Oxford English Dictionary, xxv, 394–5, 396, past tense: AAE, 300, 301; AAVE 494 alternation with unmarked verb forms, Oxfordshire dialect, 10, 81 301–2; Canadian English, 431–2; ’d Oxford University, 342, 379 spelling, 342, 343; -ed/-t variation, 335; /oy/, 297, 449 Newfoundland English, 450; have plus Ozark Mountains, xxiv, 108, 275, 282, 283, preterit form, 369, 371; strong, in 316 mountain speech, 108–9 past time reference, AAE unmarked, -p, doubled or single before suffixes, 354 301–2, 305, 323 Pacific Coast, xxiv; dialects, 266, 280, 281, path,23 290; settlement, 9, 26 patio, 176, 208, 288 Paine, Thomas; Common Sense,22 Patuxet Indians, 158 pajamas, 356 paupers transported from London, 86 palatals and palatalization: /d-/, pawpaw, 165 Newfoundland, 449; initial in car, garden, Paynell, Thomas; Of the VVood Called 131; loss of palatal vocalic element in Guaiacum That Healeth the French Pockes duke, tube, 78; /t-/, 77, 144, 449 (1533), 461–2 Palatinate, 16, 174 peace-making and -keeping, 39, 46, 47, 48 paleface, 166, 201 peanuts, terms for, 214, 216 Pall Mall Gazette, 484 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, 44 PALWH (Pan-African Language in the pecan, 156 Western Hemisphere), 293 pedlar’s French, 228, 229 Pamlico Indians, 15 Pei, Mario, 405, 407, 408, 411 Panama, 39, 47 pejorate, 479, 480 panels, lexicographical, 411–13, 414–15 penguin, 450 papoose, 157, 166, 201 Penn, William, 11–12, 13, 190 “parachuting,” settlement by, 281, 286 Pennacook Indians, 15 Paris, Peace of (1783), 3, 23 Pennsylvania: Americanisms, 194, 195; Parker, George; Life’s Painter of Variegated Amerindians, 190; British and Irish Characters, 227–8 antecedents, xxi, 124–5, 255–6 (see also Parliament, British, 14, 21, 495. See also Scotch-Irish below); central Canada Union, Acts of settled from, 425; in Civil War, 31; parody; literary use of dialect, 100 dialect areas, 267; Dutch settlers, 60, 82, parsing, 370, 376, 377 124, 157, 190; French Huguenots, 60, 82,

605

Index

Pennsylvania (cont.) Catholics, 92; literati, 62, 65; Midland 190; Germans, Pennsylvania Dutch, xxii, dialect influenced by, 270–1, 273; 124, 174, 190, 194–5, 271–2; —, phonology, 76, 369; Presbyterian schools, loanwords and loan translations 65; publishing, 365; Quakers, 92, 124; introduced by, xxii, 194–5, 214, 271–2; and Revolution, 21, 22, 24; Scotch-Irish, —, Ulster Scots archaisms used by, 134; 13, 82; settlement, 13, 82, 92, 124, 190, grammar, 125, 148; immigration 244; Welsh settlement near, 92 patterns, 49, 50, 54; Indian pidgin, 157; Philippines, 5, 38, 39, 50 Irish-born Indian trader, 125, 140; land philologians’ confrontation with linguists, granted to Penn, 190; Midland/ 378–84 Northern dialect boundary, 112, 124, Philological Society, New York, 61 267; migrations to Midland areas, 124–5, Philological Society of London, 395 264, 265, 270–1, 272, 273, 274, 282; philosophy, 29; cracker-barrel, 35–6 mobility of population, 87; phonology, Phoenix, Arizona, 255, 286 77, 125, 141, 428; Quaker settlers, phonemes, 254 11–12, 60, 81–2, 124, 190, 194, 255; —, phonetic notation, xxx–xxxii, 140, 159, Welsh, 92, 164; Scotch-Irish and 351, 405 northern Borderers’ migration to, xxii, phonograph, 33 13, 60, 82, 91, 124, 125, 134, 189, 190, phonology: American influence on British, 194, 265, 266; Scots poetic idiom, 134; 492–3; British and Irish antecedents, and Southern dialects, 274; Swedes, 124; 71–8, 79, 84, 90, 93; —, and drawl, 9, 80, Swiss immigrants, 195; vocabulary, 192, 123; —, post-settlement influence, xxi, 271–2; —, British and Irish antecedents, 79, 85, 143–4; —, super-regional 124, 125, 134, 139 (see also under features, 137–44; conservatism, 23; Germans above); Welsh immigration, 92, dialects, xxiv, 253, 254 (see also under 124; and Western dialects, 282, 283. See individual dialects); Johnson on, 72, 73; also individual cities National period, 23; orthoepists, penny press, 28, 52 lexicographers and elocutionists, 72–4; Penobscot, 155, 164 pronouncing dictionaries, 98, 101, 102, pen/pin merger, 131, 139–40, 276, 296–7 141; segmental contrasts, Penutian languages, xxi, 155 American/British, 74, 75–6, 77–8; Pequot, 15 sources on 18th-century, 142; spelling Percy, Walker, 57 pronunciation, 73, 78, 80, 143, 431; Perelman, S. J., 249 standard as nonexistent in America, xxiv, perfect: AAE, 301, 302, 314, 323; Southern 71; uniformity in Colonial period, 93–4, dialects, 275 97; Webster on, 74–5, 368–9. See also Perry, William; Royal Standard English Received Pronunciation, individual words Dictionary (1788, 1801), 344, 345 and sounds and under individual language persimmon, 155, 164, 188, 468 varieties and class, social persistence; AAE steady marker, 304–5 photography, 31 personification in slang and poetry, 225 picaresque writing, 243 Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, 350 picayune, 172 petitions, 103 Pickering, John; Vocabulary of Words and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Americanisms, Phrases Which Have Been Supposed Peculiar 194; as cultural center, 255; dialect, xxiv; to the United States (1816), 35, 66, 69, 105, English Academy, 65; Federal Society of 229, 482–3, 484–5 Journeymen Cordwainers, 27; Irish pidgins and jargons, 157–62; African-

606

Index

American English as, in 17th century, plate fleet, 475 214; Amerindian languages, 156–7; Plath, Sylvia, 57 Basque-based, 158; boarding school Plato, 384, 388 English, 159–60; Breton, 158; English- play talk, playing the dozens, AAE, 310–11, based, xxi, 156, 157–62; French-based, 324 156, 157, 158, 162; and koinéization plaza, 176, 288 hypothesis, 60–1, 115; maritime, 60–1, plead, 335, 480 115, 161; Portuguese-based, 158; plural: syllabic, after [st], in mountain Spanish-based, 159. See also individual speech, 108, 109; zero marking in AAE, pidgins 296, 298–9 Pierce administration, 347 Plymouth Colony, 7, 122, 158, 190, 264 Pietists, Swiss, 164 Poe, Edgar Allan, 36, 67 Pike, Zebulon, 175, 487 poetry: rhymes as linguistic evidence, 97, Pike’s Peak Gold Rush, 284 101–2; Scots, 125, 134; slang compared, Pilgrims, 7, 122 224–6, 236 pimp, 309 Poland: immigrants from, xxii, 44, 48, 50, piney woods, dialects of, xxiv, 274, 276–7, 177, 179; McDonald’s restaurants in, 55 281, 283, 289 politics: America’s role in international, pioneers, xx, xxii; ethos, 169; speech 5–6; Canadianisms relating to, 435–6; communities, 281, 286. See also frontier franchise, extension of, 28; institutions, pitch, 253, 254 7, 8–9, 24, 265; linguistic, 392, 395, 400, Pitman, Benn, 351 401, 402, 406, 407–8, 419, 439; 19th- Pitt, William (1st Earl of Chatham), 17 century oratory, 35 Pittsburgh, Pennyslvania: dialect, xxiv, 150; pop culture, 43, 55–6, 57, 243 name, 17, 340, 349; Scotch-Irish, 125; Popik, Barry, 240 Midland dialects influenced by, 270, 271; Poplack, Shana, 118–19, 315, 317 Slavs, 179 population, 4; 18th-century, 244; 19th- Pittsylvania County; lynch law, 203 century levels, 27, 30, 31, 32 place names: Amerindian borrowings, 349; portage, 171, 172 classical influence, 28; Dutch, 170; Porter, William Sydney (pseud. O. Henry), French influence on spelling, 348; 250 government regulation, 347–50; New Porter, W.T.; Spirit of the Times newspaper, England, 122; Scots-influenced, 135; 243 Spanish loanwords connected with, Portland, Maine, 287 176–7; spelling, 346, 349, 352; and Portsmouth, New Hampshire; Treaty of transatlantic regional comparisons, 109; (1904–5), 39 use in directions in Hawaii, 182 Portuguese language and people, 50, 158, Placentia, Newfoundland, 446 176, 452 plains, 207 possessives: AAE, 295, 296, 298–9; AAVE, Plains, xxiv, 205–7, 280, 282, 287, 289–90, 299, 302, 320; Gullah, 298, 299, 308; 289 nouns and pronouns before gerunds, Plains Indians languages, 167; Plains Sign 398 Language, 155 possum, opossum, 165, 188, 468 plantations, 15–16, 29–30, 129, 274; postal service, 19 overseers’ letters, 131; French Caribbean potato, 175, 188 Islands, 173; Hawaii Creole English potlatch, 165 spoken on, 162. See also individual crops Pottawatomi, 155

607

Index

Pound, Ezra, 57 standard American English, 335; power, arrogance of, 211, 212 resembling past participles, 369, 371–2; Powhatan, 15, 155, 157, 165 see for saw, 113; -t, British antecedents of, powwow, 155, 166, 188, 469 149; Webster on, 368, 372; variant forms pragmatics, AAE, 309–11 in regional dialects, 267, 268, 269, 273, pragmatism, American, 19 275, 277, 278, 279 prairie, 172, 207, 283, 483; compounds pretzel, 174, 208 beginning with, 207 Priestley, Joseph, 64, 371, 372, 374 Prairie dialects of Canadian English, 422–3 Primer, Sylvester, 129 praline, 172 Prince Edward Island, 422, 424–5 preaching, 35, 117, 311, 392 Princeton University, 68, 125 predication: AAE, 299–300; Gullah printing and print media: Colonial period, predicate clefting, 308 341, 365; development, 43, 52; prepositional/locative phrases: AAE, dictionaries, 344–6; in immigrant copula deletion before, 299; definite languages, Canada, 426; and influence of article in, 337, 432; sick at/in/on/to the American English abroad, 439; mass- stomach, 267, 269, 275, 277, 278, 287 circulation, 244–5; penny press, 28, 52; prepositions: compound words with, 495; and spelling, 343, 345. See also books; in time phrases, 272, 277, 279, 287, 432; journalism; magazines; newspapers and relative pronouns, 371; verbs with Progress, ideal of, 256, 257 direct objects which formerly required progress as verb, 483, 484, 486–7 prepositions, 337 progressives: AAE, 297, 299, 302, 303, 305, Presbyterian Church, 30, 65, 190 320; invariant be, 320; passive, 333, prescriptivism: Goold Brown, 377; 386 competition with descriptivism, 361–3, Progressivism, 40 364, 414; covert, in ostensibly Prohibition, 41, 43, 246, 251 descriptive work, xxv, 358–60, 369; new, Pronouncing Orthography, 351 late 20th-century, socially sensitive, pronouns, xxi; British and Irish 416–17; traditional, 360–1 antecedents, 149–50, 332, 448, 450, 455; present tense: AAE copula deletion, 300; indefinite, 338; masculine/feminine AAVE absence of agreement marker, coalescence, 160; personal, he and she 320; consuetudinal, Newfoundland with inanimate referents, 448; —, -n for English, 450 him, 455; —, Newfoundland English, presidency, 24, 28 448, 450, 455; —, opposition between press. See printing and print media strongly and weakly stressed, 448; —, press gangs, naval, 25, 240 possessive coalescence, 160; —, second press guides, 352 person plural, 125, 131, 149–50, 151, prestige forms: importance for 275, 286, 332–3 (see also y’all; yous); —, development of language, xxi; in second person singular, 333; possessive, Newfoundland, 443, 444, 445, 446; 131, 150, 160, 299, 308; reflexive hisself, nonrhotacism, 140. See also Received 150; relative, 371; repetition of nominal Pronunciation; standard British English subject, 160; in stable pidgins, 160; them preterits: analogical formation, 368, 296; for those, 410; word order of direct and archaism, South Midland, 273; of bring, indirect objects, 337. See also everybody; 328; Canadian strong, 431–2; censure of hit Scotticisms, 480; of dive, 368, 396; propriety, linguistic, 19–20, 477. See also nonstandard British dialect influence on correctness

608

Index

prosody, AAVE and Gullah, 297 settlement history, 425. See also French, Protectorate, English, 9–10, 91 Canadian prove, 335, 480 Quechua, 470–1 psycholinguistics, 358–9 Queen Anne’s War, 17 psychological function of slang, 220, questions: indirect, AAVE, 308; tag and 221–2, 238, 249–52 yes/no, with have, 336; will/shall public life, language in, 35, 70, 363, 365 variation, 368, 369, 370–1 public works programs, 44, 49 quilts: hap (Scotch-Irish term), 124, 134; publishing. See printing and print media patchwork, 107 puccoon, 188, 468 quintal, 452 pueblo, 176 Quintilian, 390 Puerto Rico, 5, 38, 39, 50, 175 quotations introduced by say, AAE, 306–7 Pullman, George, 26 Pullman Strike (1893), 33 /r/: /a/ before. See barn words; intrusive, Puritans: areas of origin in Britain, 109, 123, 268, 272, 296; lengthening of 122; inﬂuence on governmental vowels before, 138. See also mercy; institutions, 265; motives for migration, nonrhotacism; rhotacism 5, 8; New England settlement, 7, 8–9, raccoon, 93, 155, 164, 165, 188, 468, 494; 60, 109, 122, 190, 255, 265; northern spelling, 340 colonies settlement, 7, 8–9; Quakers’ racial issues: civil rights programs, 48–9, contrasting principles, 11; and Royalists, 211, 319; segregation, 48–9, 319, 320; 264 and slang, 416; terms for degrees of race purity, linguistic: 17th-century mixture, 470; Upper South claims for preoccupation in England, 468; 18th- purity, 126; unrest, 1920s, 41; and usage century praise for American, 476–7, 479; debate, 364. See also African-Americans; Webster and, 367, 373 Amerindians; ethnic groups; immigrants Pyles, Thomas, 35 radio, 42, 77, 244, 492, 493 Pynchon, Thomas, 57 railroads: Americanisms concerning, 205; Canadian, 425; 19th-century, 26, 31; and qigong, 179 settlement/dialect pattern in West, 280, Quakers: and abolition of slavery, 82; 281, 287; transcontinental, 26, 33, 205 artisans, 82; from British Midlands, 124; raise/rise, Canadian, 431 cultural inﬂuence, 11, 82; in Delaware Raleigh, Sir Walter, 163, 467 Valley, 60, 81–2, 190; ideals of liberty ranching, 176, 206–7, 255. See also cowboys and justice, 82; literary character types, Rand, Asa, 370 100; in Pennsylvania, 11–12, 60, 81–2, Random House dictionaries, 414 124, 190, 194, 255; —, Welsh 92, 164; rap lyrics, 219, 222, 251, 310, 311 Puritans’ contrasting principles, 11; and rational thought: Enlightenment belief in, Reconstruction, 82; settlement in Middle 256, 257; slang as corrupting capacity states, 7, 11–13; social class, 82; Welsh, for, 227 92, 164 re-, 325–6 quantitative (socio)linguistics, 116, 315, -re, variation with -er. See under -er 317, 319, 321–3 reactionism, social, between wars, 41 Quarterly Review, 483–4 Read, Allen Walker, xxii, 181, 495 -que, conversion to -k, 345 Reagan, Ronald, US President, 47, 50 Quebec: dialects of Canadian English, real, 139, 142 xxvi, 422, 425, 438–9; nationalism, 439; Reason, Age of, 256, 257

609

Index

Received Pronunciation, British, xxiv, 71, resemblance, standard of, 119 72, 73; American dialects influenced by, resentment, expression of, 305 73–4, 75, 80, 84–5; characteristics, 75, reservations, Native American, 155 76, 80, 84; use of Americanisms as response to American English abroad, revolt against, 493–4 xxvi–xxvii, 456–96; Americanism, use and Reconstruction, post-Civil War, xxii, 32, 82, misuse of term, 458–60; awareness of 203, 204 American English as distinct variety, Reconstruction Issue in dialect research, 471–6; early impact of Americas, 460–5; xxi, 104, 111, 115, 116, 118; AAE, 119; exploration and resources, words and British and Irish dialects, 94 connected with, 465–71; influence of recording, audio, 117 American English on other varieties, Redcoats (British soldiers), 17, 18, 241 491–3; to novelty, 490–1; triumph of redemptioners (bound workers), 14 American English, 493–5. See also under redevelopments, linguistic, 150–1 Britain Red Indians, Beothuks known as, 443 Revere, Paul, 16 red lead ‘ketchup,’ 224 reviews of American publications, British, Red River basin, 279, 283 483–4 Red Scares, 41, 45 Revised Scientific Alphabet, 351 redskin, 475 Revolution, American, 3, 20–3; American redundancy, semantic, in AAE, 298–9 English becomes national variety, xviii; reduplications, Yiddish, 178 Americanisms coined after, 196; British relation of forms, hypothesis to test scorn for colonial forces, 18; Canadian historical, 119 English develops after, xxvi, 425; relative clauses: AAE contact, 306, 307. See conservatism of consequences, 23; also who, whom interruption of contacts with British relic forms. See archaisms English, 73, 93; Loyalist exodus after, religion: AAE in church, 308, 311; xxvi, 23, 425 Americanisms, xxiii, 215–16; Christian rhetoric, study of, 65 fundamentalism, 41, 42; church records, Rhode Island, 9, 31, 103, 193 103, 104, 117; denominational rhotacism, xxi, 23, 75–7; British and Irish academies, 65, 80–1; and etymology, influence, 75–7, 111, 135, 138, 140, 449; 379; Newfoundland English in church, and class, 76; European immigrants 443; preaching, 35, 117, 311, 392; and bring, 77; Middle states, 111; slavery, 30; societies, National period, 29; Newfoundland, 447, 449, 454; prestige, toleration, 9, 264; and usage, 374 77. See also under Canadian English and remote phrase bin, AAE, 301 Northern, Southern and Western dialects Remus, Uncle (Joel Chandler Harris rhymes, poetic, xxi, 97, 101–2, 111 character), 101, 110 rice cultivation, 16, 274 rep (AAE, from reputation), 309, 310 Richmond, Virginia, 129 repeated action: AAE, 303, 304; right (intensifier), 275; right away, 488 Newfoundland English do + be, 450 rile, 139 research needs: on British and Irish ring, 372 antecedents, 94–6, 151–3; comparative risk, 345 linguistics, 152; demographics, 153; on Rissanen, Matti, 103, 116, 117, 123 dialects, 255–6; on 18th century, 152; roads, 19, 26–7, 49, 53, 287 and koinéization hypothesis, 153; on Roanoke, Virginia, 159, 163, 467 regionalization of forms, 152 Robinson, Edward G., 251

610

Index

Rockefeller, John D., 33 SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), 47 rocket propulsion, 53 Salt Lake City, Utah, 79, 206, 255, 286–7 rock music, 43, 219, 494 Samaná Peninsula, Dominican Republic; Rockport, Maine, 76 African-American English, 118, 317 Rocky Mountains dialects, xxiv, 280, 285, Samoset (Indian interpreter), 158 286–7, 289–90; Inland Northern San Antonio, Texas, 54 enclaves, 281; of lower extension, 282; San Bernardino, California, 55 rural, 266, 284 Sanctius (grammarian), 378 “Rocky Raccoon” (song), 494 San Diego, California, 161–2, 288 rodeo, 176, 206, 287 Sandwich Islanders (Hawaiians), 161 Rodman, R., 359, 360 San Francisco, California, 255, 286, 288 Roe versus Wade,49 Sanskritists, 379, 381, 387 Rogers, Louis W.,33 Santa Claus, 12, 170, 193 Rogers, Will, 36 Santa Fe Trail, 286 romanization standards, 350 Sapir, Edward, 395 Romantics, 392 Saskatchewan, 162, 422, 433 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, US President, sassafras, 176, 467, 491 41, 44 satellites, artificial, 51, 53 Roosevelt, Theodore, US President, 38, Saturday Evening Post, 244 39–40, 350, 351 sauerkraut, 174, 208, 272 Roosevelt family, 12 Savannah, Georgia, 11, 68, 76, 476 Rosie the Riveter (fictional character), 49 Saxonists, 465, 466, 468 Ross, Gary, 116 say, AAE complex sentences with, 306–7 Ross, Harold, 43 Scandinavia, 16, 106, 284. See also individual Ross, Robert; American Grammar,61 countries Roth, Philip, 57 scatological language, 238 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 350 Schele de Vere, M., 105, 123 Royalists. See Cavaliers schickse, 178 RP. See Received Pronunciation schlemiel, 178, 249 runaway slaves and bound workers, 14, 25, schlep(p), 178, 249 99, 160, 477 Schneider, Edgar, 314, 317 run ‘stream,’ 192 science: development in Enlightenment, Runyon, Damon, 230, 245 256; prose, 117 Rush, Benjamin, 61, 343 Scientific Alphabet, 351 Russian language and people: Alaska Scopes, John T., 42 Purchase (1867), 4, 26, 32; immigration, Scotch-Irish language and people: xxii, 50, 179; language contact, 168, 169, absorption of dialect in America, 83–4, 179, 349 89; anymore, positive, 150, 331–2; in Russo-Japanese War (1904–5), 39 Carolinas, 129, 270; colonial situation in Ireland, 91, 117, 121, 145; Gaelic /s/, voicing of: grease/greasy, 112, 123, 268, influences, 90–1, 121, 133, 145; 272, 275, 283, 286; initial, 139, 447 grammar, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 327, sachem, 478 331–2; literary stock character, 100; and Sacramento, California, 286, 288 Lower South dialect, 128, 131; major sagamore, 469 contribution to American English, 89, Sala, George Augustus, 233 90–1; and Midland dialects, 14, 91, 97–8, Salinger, J. D., 57 109, 110, 117, 126–7, 128, 131, 134, 145,

611

Index

Scotch-Irish language and people (cont.) 491; vocabulary, 92, 134, 135, 191; 150, 265, 266, 270; migration to will/shall, 120, 474 backcountry, 8, 13–14, 27, 60, 82, 89, scout, 169 90–1, 113, 126, 190–1, 265, 266, 270; -se, variation with -ce, 345, 354 modals, 148, 331; and mountain speech, sea cow, 465 110, 126–7, 128; need and past participle, seafaring, 104, 123–4, 286, 463–5, 466 149; in Pennsylvania, xxii, 13, 60, 82, 91, Sea Islands, Georgia, 292, 310–11, 324 124, 125, 134, 189, 190, 194, 265, 266; Sea Islands Creole. See Gullah phonology, 133, 134, 138, 139, 141–2; seal hunting, Newfoundland, 442, 453–4 poetry, 125; Quakers, 12; social class of seasoning (in slave trade), 470 immigrants, 78; subject-verb concord, Seattle, Washington, 255, 286, 287 146, 149, 327; underclass, 13; vocabulary, Selden (surveyor, captive of Osage 92, 133–4; vowels, 138, 141–2; will/shall, Indians), 156 120, 474. See also Ireland; Irish English; self-consciousness, linguistic, 478–80 Scotland; Scottish English self-made man,27 Scotland: Act of Union (1707), xviii, 61, self-service establishments; -teria suffix, 177 63, 89; education system, 63, 64; semantics: AAE, 298–9, 308–9; Highlanders, 89, 90–1, 135 (see also independent developments in America, Gaelic, Scottish); immigrants’ distinct 93; redundancy, 298–9; shifts, 93; —, in national identity, 89, 90–1, 477–8; Amerindian words, 167, 189, 464; —, in literary character types, 100; migration, British words, 134, 187, 192, 471, 476; to backcountry, 13–14, 27, 60, 63, 82, 86, —, in French words, 172–3; slang 89, 90–1, 190, 265, 266; —, to Canada, associated with particular domains, 427; —, to England, 425; —, to Ulster, 245–8 121, 256; proportion of British semi- in Canadian English, 430 emigrants from, 89; slang epithet, 246; Seminole, 16, 25. See also Afro-Seminole surnames in America, 133; syphilis, Creole 461 sequoia, 188 Scott, Fred Newton, 70–1, 400 sergeant, 139 Scotticism, Witherspoon’s coining of term, sermons, 117, 311, 392 xxii, 69, 185–6, 458, 459 servants, indentured, 9, 14, 86; in Scottish English, xviii; and African- Newfoundland fisheries, 442, 453; American speech, 118–19; and runaways, 99, 477; in Virginia, 10, 60, 81 American dialects, xxi, 117, 127, 133, service, 139 134–5; copula, 146; dialects of settlers (Newfoundlanders of mixed race), immigrants, 86, 90, 255–6; English 453 censure of usage, 458, 478–9, 480, 481; Seven Years War (1756–63), 17, 20 Gaelic influence, 90–1, 145; Highland Seward, William, 26 English, 135; influence on Irish English, sex: orientation, expressions of, 415, 416; 121, 134, 256; loanwords in American revolution in mores, 49; slang connected English, 134; modals, 148, 331; and with, xxiii, 238, 245 mountain speech, 110; phonology, 76, sexist language, 358–60, 364, 416–17 427; place names influenced by, 135; Shakespeare, William, 188, 353, 356 poetic idiom, 125, 134; pronouns, Shakespearean (Elizabethan) hypothesis, 149–50, 332; recognized as distinctive, 88, 126, 127, 132, 472 89, 90–1, 99, 477–8; self-consciousness, shall. See will, variation with shall linguistic, 478–9; vernacular literature, sharecropping, 204

612

Index

Shaw, Henry Wheeler, 36 attitudes towards, 226–37, 493; —, shebang, 178 British, 226–7, 231, 240; —, in Webster’s sheep production, large-scale, 255 Third, 405, 409; in Britain, 219, 226–7, Sheldon, E. S., 389 231, 240; burlesque metaphor, 225; Shenandoah Valley, 166, 254, 265, 270, 282 Canadian English, 438; and colloquial shenanigan, 178 language, 220–1, 222–3, 234; as Shepard, Commander Alan B., 244 corrupting language, 227; criminal, see Sheridan, Thomas, 72, 73, 74, 141, 143, 344 underworld below; declining mention of Sherman, Roger, 59 word slang, 219; definition, 220–4; —, Sherman, Stuart, 70 radiations of, 226–37; demography and, Sherman Antitrust Act (1890), 34 243–4; and drugs, 245, 246; 18th- Sherwood, J. C., 401–2, 419 century, 240–3; emotive associations, Ship English, 104 220, 222–4, 240; epithets, ethnic, 235–6, shipping terms, New England, 123–4 245–6; —, vulgar, 241; figurative usage, Sholes, Christopher Latham, 33 223, 234, 235; gender and use, 222, 238; shopping malls, 54, 211 historical development, 240–9; show business slang, 247–8 hyperbole, 225; and identity, 221–2, 244, Shulman, David, 240 251; informal and colloquial language Shuswap, 434 distinct from, 220–1; invective as, 229; shyster, 240 meiosis, 225; Mencken and, 219, 237–8, sick at/in/on/to the stomach, 267, 269, 275, 252; metaphor, 225; metonymy, 225; 277, 278, 287 military, xxiii, 219, 224, 239, 246, 251; sidekick, 240 and music, 219, 222, 229, 239, 248; signifyin(g), AAE, 310, 311 Nevada, 197; novelty, 223; Sign Language, Plains, 155 onomatopoeia, 225; pedlar’s French, 228, signs, German/English bilingual, 174 229; personification, 225; poetry silent letters, dropping of, 349 compared, 224–6, 236; psychological silk production, 11 function, 220, 221–2, 238, 249–52; Silliman, Benjamin, 481–2 racist, 416; semantic domains, 245–8; silver; Comstock Lode, Nevada, 33 sexual and scatological, 238, 245; social simplicity of life, Quaker principles on, 11 function, 220, 221–2, 238, 244, 249–52; Simplified Spelling Board, 351, 391 sockdolager, 456–8; Spanish influence, xiii, Sinclair, Upton; The Jungle,40 248; street language, 219, 239; studies, Singer, Isaac Bashevis, 57, 179 219, 237–40; style, 220–1; synecdoche, Singler, John Victor, 317–18 225; underworld, 221, 227, 228, 233, Siouan languages, xxi, 155 238, 239, 245; as urban phenomenon, Sioux; French spelling, 171 232; Webster’s Third and, 405, 409, 410; skeptic, 356 Whitman’s defence of, 35, 236; in written skepticism, social, and use of slang, 249–51 language, 220, 224; Yiddish, 249; young skunk, 165, 189 people’s, 220, 221, 222, 224, 226, 240, skyscrapers, 54, 55 248. See also cant slang, xxiii, 219–52; AAE, 222, 230, 309, slaves and slavery, 29–30, 163; abolition, 310; abusive, 229–30; African languages 11, 29, 30, 31–2, 82, 202, 213, 319; and and, 248; and alcohol, xxiii, 241–2, 245, African influence on American English, 251; Americanisms, 219, 240, 243; 10, 15–16; Civil War issue, 31, 255; antiphrasis, 224; anti-rational function, conditions, 14; double entendre, 309; 226, 227, 237; antonomasia, 225; Dutch traders, 15; importation and

613

Index

slaves and slavery (cont.) Somerset (NJ) Messenger, 232 location, 7, 9, 10, 14, 129, 274, 313, 314; Sorokin, Pitirim A., 3 language use, 10, 160, 213–14, 309, 314; Soukhanov, Anne, 412 migration and emigration of freed, 29, sounding, AAE, 310–11 317–18; occupations, 16, 29–30; peculiar sources: on African-American English, institution, 204; runaways, 14, 25, 99, 160; 121; Colonial period, xxi, 96–104, 121; vocabulary connected with trade, 470 —, commentary of grammarians and Slavic languages and peoples, 163, 179, 246 lexicographers, xxi, 97, 98–9; —, literary Sledd, James, 409 attestations, xxi, 97, 100–1; —, poetic Slovakia, 55 rhymes, xxi, 97, 101–2; —, popular sluice, 491 observations by outsiders, xxi, 97–8; —, smart talk, AAE, 310 texts (original records and manuscripts), smearcase, 170, 208, 272 xxi, 97, 102–4; on Lower South, 121, smell, 335 131; on New England, 121, 122 Smith, James (Col.), 159 South Africa, 222, 226, 490, 491 Smith, John (Capt.), 93, 164–5, 188, 468 South Carolina: AAE, 292, 310–11, 314, Smith, Joseph, 26 324; backcountry settlement, 82, 124, Smith, Seba, 230 125 (see also Scotch-Irish below); black Smith, William; The Confession of Thomas population, 30, 129, 274, 314; British Mount (1791), 242–3 dialect inﬂuence, 129, 255–6; Cavalier Smitherman, Geneva, 308–9 settlers, 10–11, 129; in Civil War, 31; smog, 209 coastal, 129, 276, 292; colonial lag, 106; smorgasbord, 169 colonization, 10–11, 313; creation, 193; snafu, 211, 223, 247 French settlers, 10, 16, 129, 171, 177; sneaked, snuck, 309, 431–2 German settlers, 124; Gullah speakers, snobbery and usage, 402, 420 292, 310–11, 324; heterogeneity of social contract theory of language, 378, settlers, 129; indigo plantations, 274; 386 Jewish settlers, 129; Midland dialect, social development, 19th/20th-century, 270–1; mountain speech, Elizabethan 26–9, 32–4, 42–3, 48–50 hypothesis, 108–9; past tense, 146; Social Gospel, 40 Pennsylvania migration to, 270, 274, 282; social issues: context, and usage, 295, 380; phonology, 79, 142, 427; piedmont, correctness as, 350; reform, and dialects, 270–1, 274; rice cultivation, 16; Scotch- 288; sensitivity to, and usage, 415–17; Irish in, 13–14, 82, 91, 104, 124; Scots in, and slang, 220, 221–2, 238, 244, 249–52; 129; Upper/Lower South division, 125, and usage, 364, 397–8, 400, 402, 406, 129, 270–1; Virginian settlement of, 407–8, 420 10–11 social varieties of language, xviii, xxiii, 136, South Dakota, 33, 281 254, 397 Southern dialects, 262–3, 264–5, 274–80, sociohistorical approach, 116–19 289; AAE in relation to white dialects, sociolinguistics, xxiii, xxiv, 315, 426 divergence, 319–21; —, early African sockdolager, 456–8 inﬂuence, 128–9; —, similarities, 131, soda fountains, 55 214, 296, 297, 303, 322; AAVE in soft, 99, 141 relation to white dialects, 297, 315, 316, softball, 216 320; air conditioning and settlement Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 59 pattern, 54; archaism, 129–30, 132; area, Somerset, England; dialect, 10, 81, 105, 192 274–5; be, invariant, 147, 329; British and

614

Index

Irish antecedents, xxi, 90, 109, 110, 111, 113, 125–8, 189, 190–1; —, grammar, 128–32, 134, 147; —, London 127, 128, 131, 135, 146, 149 (see also connections, 10, 80–1, 111, 129, 130, settlement below); Elizabethan 190, 477; coastal, 274, 276–7, 289; hypothesis, 108, 126, 127, 472; grammar, colonial settlement, 7, 9–11, 128–9 (see 127, 128, 131, 135, 146, 148, 149, 195; also under Virginia); conservatism, 130; highlands region, xxiv, 274–5, 277, 289 delta, 274, 275, 277–9, 283, 289; dialect (see also mountain speech below); region, xxiv, 111, 128; done, 149, 303, intonation, 85; isolation, 126; literacy, 84; 330; general regional features, 275–6; and Lower South, 128, 131; migration to individual dialects within, 276–80, 289, west, 20, 82, 163; mountain speech, 292; interior, 274–5, 279–80, 281, 289, rural, xxiv, 108–9, 110, 126–7, 128, 140, 332–3; internal diversity of Southern 289, 332–3 (see also Ozark Mountains); English, 292; intonation, 138, 276; and phonology, 80, 85, 110, 127, 128, 131; Midland dialects, 264, 270–1, 277, 286; piney woods region, xxiv, 274, 276–7, modals, 148, 330–1; morphology/ 281, 283, 289; racial purity, claims of, grammar, 275, 277, 278, 279, 280; New 126; settlement, 82, 87, 91, 113, 189, Orleans speech, 277–8; oral tradition, 190–1; settlement by Scotch-Irish, 8, 130; origins and historical development, 13–14, 60, 91, 97–8, 113, 117, 126–7, 10, 129, 264–5, 276; past participles, 275, 128, 131, 190–1; Southern dialect 277, 278; Pennsylvania influence, 274; influence, 271; vocabulary, xxii, 107, 120, phonology, 81, 111, 275–6, 276–7, 278, 127–8, 134, 195 279–80, 296, 297; —, British Southwest, 288; a- with present participles, antecedents, 128, 130–1, 132, 138, 140; 148; Amerindians, 155; drawl, 286; —, relaxed, 73, 138; —, rhotic and English Only laws, 177; history, 3, 175; nonrhotic, 131, 132, 135, 276, 277, 278, pidgins, 159; Scotch-Irish settlers, 14; 279, 280; piedmont region, 274, 289; Southern dialect influence, 285, 286; piney woods dialects, 277, 281, 289; Spanish loanwords, 192–3, 207–8. See preterits, 275, 277, 278, 279; pronouns, also individual states 149, 150, 151; prosody, 297; racial space exploration, 53, 54, 244 segregation, 48–9, 319, 320; rhotic and Spain and Spaniards: and American nonrhotic pronunciation, 131, 132, 135, Revolution, 22; on Carolina coast, pre- 276, 277, 278, 279, 280; Scottish lexical 1650s, 10; colonies absorbed by US, 164; items, 134; sick at/on/in the stomach, 275, Cuban revolution against (1895), 38; and 277, 278; sources, 121, 131; subject-verb Florida, 3, 16, 23, 171, 175; forced sale concord, 146, 147; Upper South, see of Philippines to US, 5, 38; and South Midland dialects; urban, 266; Louisiana, 20, 25; and precious metals, vocabulary, xxii, 204–5, 275–6, 277, 278, 466; wars against, of Jenkin’s Ear, 17; —, 279; —, British antecedents, 128, 131, Spanish-American, 1898, 5, 6, 37–8, 476 132, 134; week, days of, 276; and Spanglish, 176–7 Western dialects, 264, 280, 281, 283, 285, Spanish-American War, 5, 6, 37–8, 476 286, 287, 288. See also individual states, Spanish language and speakers, xxii, 168, areas, and dialects 174–7; African loanwords enter English South Midland dialects (also referred to as through, 180; Amerindian loanwords Appalachian and Upper South), xxiv, enter English through, 167, 175, 188, 120, 125, 128, 273, 274–5, 289; and 466–7, 470–1; attitudes to immigrants, AAVE, 316; archaisms, 126, 127, 128, 177; contact with English, 16, 18–19, 195; British and Irish antecedents, xxi, 168, 174–7; English influence on

615

Index

Spanish language and speakers (cont.) emphasizes, 116; on frontier, 197; and immigrants, 175; epithets for, 208, 246; written language, in usage debate, 371–2, influence on spelling of place names in 385, 398, 410; —, valued less than Alaska, 349; loanwords, 192–3, 207–8, written, 66–7, 369–70, 377–8, 390–1, 452, 470; maize, 189; nonstandard 395; —, valued more than written, varieties spoken by immigrants, 175; 372–3, 379–80, 391, 392, 395, 399, 405 pidgins, 159; in St Augustine, 171, 175; spontaneous speech data, collection of, 322 and slang, xxiii, 248; in Southwest, 159, spook, 272 175, 192–3, 285, 286; and urban dialects, sports, 34; Americanisms, xxiii, 216; 266; Western dialects influenced by, 280, Canadianisms, 437; slang, xxiii, 247. See 285, 286, 288 also baseball speakeasies, 43 spring, 335, 372 speech. See spoken language Squanto (or Tisquantum, Patuxet Indian spell, spelt, 335 interpreter), 158 spellers, spell-downs, spelling bees, 199, 344 squash, 164, 166, 478 spelling, xxv, 340–57; Americanisms, squaw, 166, 188, 483 340–1; authorities, 341, 344–50; —, sta (Chicago AAE past-habit marker), 304 academies, 346–7; —, dictionaries and Stamp Act, British (1765), 21 spellers, 34, 98, 344–6, 405; —, standard, linguistic: definitions in usage government, 347–50; —, social debate, 376, 380, 392, 397–8, 400, 420; obligation, 350; British English, colonial good language distinct from, 391, 393–4, models, 341–2; —, fluidity and fixing, 395; slang distinct from, 221, 223 xxv, 34, 61–3, 343; —, relation to standard American English: British dialect American, xxv, 34, 352–6; British- influence on, 334–5; calls for American Spelling Board (1906), 62; development, 367, 459; existence denied, Canadian English, 423, 431, 433; 71, 255; grammatical changes, 327, 333–9; Colonial period, 341–3; commercial written language, 36, 66–7, 84, 122, 344, nonstandard, 55, 340, 356; eccentric 352, 391 18th-century, 343; French-influenced, standard British English, 34, 99, 116; 73, 171, 348; legislation, 346; place London dialect becomes, 188, 191, 472; names, 346, 352; printers and phonology, see Received Pronunciation; regularization, 343; reform movements, as standard in America, 367, 459 xxv, 96–7, 340, 345–6, 350–2, 356; —, standard Canadian English, 422 political initiatives, 346, 347, 350, 351, Standard Oil Trust, 33 372; —, Webster and, 34, 62, 345–6, 347, station, 173 372; rhymes, 102; romanization status: dictionary labels, 409–10; social, of standards, 350; social significance of linguistic forms, 99 correct, 350; spelling pronunciation, 73, St Augustine, Florida, 171, 175 78, 80, 143, 431; textbooks, 98, 344, 345; steady (AAE aspectual marker), 304–5 —, Webster’s “Blue-Backed Speller,” 34, Steele, Richard, 241, 480 35, 61, 62, 199, 344, 345, 366; Webster’s Steinbeck, John, 57 Third on, 405. See also Webster, Noah Steiner, George, 419 (and spelling) Stephenson, Edward A., 104 spill, 335 stereotypes: American, in Britain, 487–8, Spirit of the Times, 243 489–90; of Amerindian languages, 166; spit, 335 British regional, 188; Newfoundland, spoken language: corpus-based research 454–5

616

Index

stetson, 207 Suffolk dialect; pronouns, 149 Stevenson, Andrew, 485 suffrage, 28, 42 Stevenson, Sarah Coles, 485–6 sugar industry, 470 Stewart, William, 313, 314 sulfur, 356 Stiles, Ezra, 156, 343 Sun (British newspaper), 492 St John’s, Newfoundland, 424, 426, 443–4, Sun Belt, 54 446 Sunday School Union, 29 St Lawrence River, 171 sunk, 431 St Louis, Missouri, xxiv, 174, 255, 280, 281, superscript abbreviations, 343 282 surfer talk, 219 stock characters in literature, 100 surnames, 89, 109, 133, 171 stock market crash (1929), 43, 210, 248 Surrey dialect, 10, 81 Stockwell, Elisha, 229–30 Sussex dialect, 10, 81 stoop, 170, 193 Sutter’s Mill gold strike, 25 Stowe, Harriet Beecher; Uncle Tom’s Cabin, swearing, 241, 245 456 sweat it out, 247 St Paul, Minnesota, 281 Swedish language and people: contact with stream, words for, 113, 137, 192–3, 283 English, xxii, 16, 168–9; immigration, street language, 219, 239, 291–2, 293, 310 12–13, 16, 50, 124, 163; New Sweden, street names; Spanish loanwords, 176–7 168–9; use pidginized form of Unami stress: AAVE, 297; British influence on variety of Delaware, 157 American English, 74–5, 80; Canadian Swift, Gustavus Franklin, 33 secondary, 430; controversy, 460; dialects, swing (music), 43 253, 254, 287; Received Pronunciation, Swiss immigrants, 14, 164, 169, 195 74–5, 77, 80 Sylvain, Suzanne, 313 Strickland, Joe, 230 synecdoche in slang and poetry, 225 strive, preterits of, 368 synonyms and near-synonyms, slang, 220 structural linguistics, 405, 406–7 syntax, xxiv, xxv, 325, 326; false syntax Strunk, William, Jr., 360, 363 exercises, 374–5, 376, 377, 385 Stuart, Gilbert, 481 syphilis (French pox), 461, 462–3 Stuart, Lady Louisa, 231 Sturtevant, Edgar H., 395 [t]: Canadian voicing of intervocalic, 428; Stuyvesant, Peter, 12, 169 glottalization, 143, 270, 428; medial flap, style: AAE, 309–11, 324; appropriateness 139; in Newfoundland English, 449; of language to, 371, 377, 392; manuals, palatalization, 77, 144, 449; for th, 449; 347, 355, 424; relationship of American voicing of initial, 139 and British, 35–6, 70–1; slang, 220–1; /t/, /d/ for, 295, 447, 449, 454–5 Webster’s aim for elegance, 367; Webster’s tache, 470 Third criticized for labeling, 409–10 taco, 176, 208, 288 Styron, William, 57 Taft, William Howard, US President, 40 subject-verb agreement. See verbs Tagalog, 247 (concord) Tagliamonte, S., 118–19, 317 subjunctive: be, invariant, 329; conditionals, Taino, 175, 176, 189 Canadian, 433; mandative constructions, talking shit, AAE, 310 337–8; Webster on, 369; Whitney on, talk-singing, AAE, 311 380 tall talk, 198–9, 230, 311 “substandard” stylistic label, 409, 410 tamarack, 188

617

Index

Tamil; catamaran in Newfoundland, 451, prescriptivism in descriptivist, 359, 360, 454 362. See also under Webster, Noah Tammany, 166 texts, nonliterary; British and Irish Tamony, Peter, 239 antecedents in 18th-century, 97, 102–4, Tangier Island, Virginia, 132 111; corpus-based studies, 116–17; need tapioca, 175, 468 for more analysis, 152; as source on Tate, Nahum, 462–3 grammar, 144; standardization of taxation, 18, 20–2, 40 language, 122 Taylor, Edward, 102 theater, 53, 62, 247–8, 456–8 Taylor, Tom; Our American Cousin, 456–8, them for those, 410 487 Thomas, J. P., 227 tea, Colonial trade in, 21–2 Thoreau, Henry David, 36, 487 Technicolor, 42–3 Thornton, Richard H.; An American technology, xx, xxii; 19th-century, 26–9, 31, Glossary (1912), 217 32–4; 20th-century, 42–3, 50–6, 211, Thornton, William, 61 213; agricultural, 27, 205–6, 283; thought patterns and language, 1 Americanisms, xxii, 209, 211, 213; thou/you in British English, 149 communications, 27, 31, 33, 42, 219, throw as tow in AAE, 295 244; and spread of English language, 6 thusly, 411 telecommunications, 27, 31, 33, 42, 219, tiburon, 464–5 244 Tidewater Pidgin, 157 television, 51; and American influence Tidewater region: colonial settlement, abroad, 439, 492, 493; pronunciation 80–1; elite dialect, 76, 81, 84; and New norms, 77, 79; and nuclear family, 211; England, 78; nonrhotacism, 75, 76, 81, space exploration coverage, 244 84; phonology, 276; RP influence, 81, 84; temperance, 29, 241 Southern dialect, 129, 276; southern Tennessee: Blue Ridge, 274–5; Christian English dialects similar, 79; vowels, 141, fundamentalism, 42; creation, 193; in 142 Civil War, 31; Elizabethan hypothesis, till: ‘in order that, so that,’ 150; ‘to’ in 101, 108–9; middle, 273, 280; expressions of time, 150, 272, 277, 287 Pennsylvania migration to, 254, 271, 282; timber cutting, Newfoundland, 453, 454 Scotch-Irish migration to, 35, 82, 91; Time,43 Tennessee Valley Authority, 44; time, phrases of, 272, 277, 279, 287, 432 vocabulary in east, 127, 128 time payment, 210 Tensas River basin, 274 time reference in AAE, 301–5 tepee, 167 Times (London); appositional naming, -teria suffix, 177 492 terrapin, 155, 188 Times Literary Supplement, 226–7 test, 372 tin lizzie (Model T Ford), 53 Texas: AAVE, 320; be, invariant, 329; Tisquantum (Squanto, Patuxet Indian cowboy culture, 284; dialects, xxiv, 273, interpreter), 158 274, 276, 279, 283; history, 3, 14, 25, 30, to, in phrases of time, 287 31, 54, 286; immigration, 14, 50, 54, 129, toasts (AAE speech style), 307, 311, 324 175; Spanish pidgins, 159 tobacco, 154, 175, 467, 478 textbooks: American-written, later 19th- tobacco cultivation, 7, 9, 16, 190, 274; century, 66; Blair, 63–4, 65–6; McGuffey vocabulary connected with, 163, 205, Readers, 28; Murray’s grammar, 65, 66; 469–70

618

Index

Tocqueville, Alexis de; Democracy in America, King Arthur’s Court, 194; frontier 27 language, 197–9; Life on the Mississippi, tomahawk, 93, 166, 188, 468 198–9; Roughing It, 197–8, 230; and slang, Tonto (television character), 157 247, 250 Tooke, Horne, 371 Twenties, Roaring, 42 topography, terms for, xx, 3, 18, 284; twice, 131, 135, 369 Amerindian words, 15, 18, 93, 195; Tylor, E. B., 235 British words with extended meanings, typewriters, 33 68, 476; European words, 171–2, 207–8, tyranny, rejection of, 59 463–5 Toronto: dialect, 427, 430; ESL enclaves, u: in but, 138; in drouth, 139; in duke, tube, 78; 426; Globe Mail, 433; sociolinguistic in house, 138; v interchangeability, 342, studies, 426 345 tortilla, 176, 208, 288 UCLA (University of California, Los tough-guy style in films and fiction, 250–1 Angeles), 248 Tourgee, Albion, 202 uh-huh, 180 trade names, 55, 340, 356 Ukrainians in Canada, 425 Trader Navajo, 156 Ulster. See Ireland and the Irish; Irish traders: French, 154, 162, 171; Ulster-born English; Scotch-Irish language and in Pennsylvania, 125, 140; Yankee, 194 people trails, overland, 280, 281, 286, 287 um (Gullah third person objective train ‘group rape,’ 309 pronoun), 308 Transcendentalism, 29, 70 Unami variety of Delaware language, transportation, 209, 257. See also 157 automobiles; railroads; roads; seafaring uncomeatable, 480 trappers, fur, 28, 175, 442, 453, 454 underclass, 13, 30 travel, French loanwords on, 171–2 underworld: argot, Mencken’s definition of, traveled, 340, 345 238; slang, 221, 227, 228, 233, 239; —, tread, 432 Damon Runyon’s use of, 245 tree metaphor for English language, 184–5 unification of colonies, cultural, 19–20 Trench, Richard Chenevix, 383, 484 uniformity of American English: in Trinity, Newfoundland, 444 Colonial period, 19–20, 36, 58, 60, 68, Trollope, Anthony, 27 78, 93–4, 97, 115; grammarians’ attitudes Trollope, Frances, 487–8 to notion, 62–3, 99, 367–9, 382, 393 Truman, Harry, US President, 45, 46 uniformity of Canadian English, 422, 424, tube,78 425 tuckamore, 451 Union, British Acts of: Irish (1801), 89; Tuesday/due/new, 120, 128, 269, 273, 428–9, Scots (1706–7), 61, 63, 89 449 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 47 Tufts, Henry, 243 Union Pacific Railroad, 33, 205 Tupelo, 166 unions, labor, 27 -ture, 77, 144 unique, qualified, 411 Turner, Frederick Jackson, 125, 256–7 United Nations Organization, 45, 46, 54 Turner, Lorenzo Dow, 313 United States Board on Geographic twack, 451 Names, 347–50, 352 Twain, Mark (pseud. of Samuel Langhorne United States Government Printing Office Clemens), 36, 70; A Connecticut Yankee at Style Manual, 347, 355

619

Index

UNIVAC (Universal Automatic and intellectual standards, 419; literature Computer), 51 as standard, 391; and morality, see universities and colleges: British, 63, 80, correctness (and morality); NCTE The 240, 342, 379, 481–2; and dictionary war English Language Arts controversy, 297, (1850s-60s), 346; foundations, 28, 65, 66, 298, 395, 396, 399–403, 403, 418; 19th- 342; graduates in Peace Corps, 46; 20th-century scholarly response, student slang, 224, 240, 248. See also 388–418; OED and debate, 394–5; individual names origins of study of grammar in America, Updike, John, 57 xxv, 365–88; panels of lexicographers, Upper South dialect. See South Midland 411–13, 414–15; philologians vs dialects linguists, 19th-century, 378–84; political urban areas and urbanization, 208–10; issues, 392, 395, 400, 401, 402, 406, AAE influence on dialects of, 266; 407–8, 419, 439; prescriptivism, see AAVE, 231, 292; and Americanisms, separate entry; psycholinguistic approach, 208–10; British, 76, 80 (see also London); 358–9; and religion, 374; social issues, Canada, 208, 425, 426; caught/cot merger, 380, 397–8, 400, 402, 407–8, 415–17, 141; commercial ties with Britain, 144; 420; standard, definition of, 376, 380, cultural centers, 255; ethnic 391, 392, 393–4, 397–8, 400, 420; neighborhoods, 208; growth, 32–3, 40, surveys, 1930s-40s, 396–8; Webster’s 55, 208–10, 244; impact on dialects, 266, approach, 366–73, 382; Webster’s Third 288; mobility of settlers in, 87; New controversy, 400, 403–15, 418. See also England settlers’ origins in, 80; pronoun, appropriateness, situational; correctness; second person plural, in northern, 149; grammar; Webster’s Third New International rural dialects distinct from urban, 36, Dictionary, controversy over 232; slang, 232; Slavic populations, 179; useta (AAE past-habit marker), 304 Spanish influence on dialects, 266; Utah, 26, 281, 284 vocabulary, xxii, 36 Utica region, New York, 174 -ure/-ore merger, AAE, 297 Uto-Aztecan languages, xxi, 155 usage, xxv–xxvi, 358–421; alternative utopian communities, 29 forms, 368–9, 378, 386; cultural Utrecht, Treaty of (1713), 17 levels/functional varieties distinction, 399, 409, 410; American Heritage v: for f- in Newfoundland, 446; Dictionary and, 410–15; appropriateness, u interchangeability, 342, 345 371, 377, 391, 392, 393–4, 397, 399; of values, American, 43, 58 “best” speakers and writers, 376, 380, vamoose, 176, 206, 248 398; Canadian English guides, 424, 433; Van Buren, Martin, 181, 196, 197 circular definitions of good, 376, 380, Vancouver, 161, 426, 427, 431 397; commercial interests in, 364–5, 414; Van den Bark, Melvin, 239 corpora, 420–1; correctness as based on, variation, 58; of AAE structural features, 397, 399, 405; critical linguistics applied 295; inter- and intra-speaker, structured, to, 415–18; descriptivism, see separate 116 entry; dictionaries of, 360–1, 413–14; variation analysis, 292, 321–2 education in, 363, 373–8, 420; varieties of language, functional, 395, 409, educational levels and individual’s, 118, 410 130, 145, 397–8, 443; elitism issue, 402, Variety, 247–8 407–8; handbooks, 488; history of vaudeville theater, 247–8 approaches, 363–5; idealism and, 364; venereal disease, 461, 462–3

620

Index

verbal idioms, Canadian, 432 270–1; Pennsylvania influence, 273; verbs: British/American comparison, 113, phonology, 74–5, 77, 79, 141, 142, 427; 117; British and Irish antecedents, pronouns, 149; religious toleration, 264; 145–7, 149, 327, 335, 448; Canadian Scotch-Irish, 13, 82, 91, 124; slavery, morphosyntax, 431–2; colonial 274, 313; Southern dialect originates in, inflection, xxi; concord, 145–7, 149, 327, 129, 264–5, 276; tobacco cultivation, 7, 333, 336–7, 396, 448; —, proximity 16, 163, 190, 274; University of, 67; constraint on, 146; —, type of subject vocabulary, 163, 191, 193. See also constraint, 146, 333; —, zero marking, Tidewater region 131, 146, 147, 296, 298–9, 320; direct Virginia Gazette,83 objects in place of prepositions, 337; Virginian (Algonquian language), 155 Newfoundland English, 448, 450; Virginia Quarterly,69 Northern dialect forms, 267; nouns Virgin Islands; US purchase from accepted as, 372; -s suffixal marking, 146, Denmark, 40 333; serial verb constructions, Gullah, Vista, street names with, 176–7 307; variant principal parts, 144, 148–9 Vitruvius, 54 (see also under preterits). See also individual vocabulary: American Heritage Dictionary and tenses, auxiliaries; habitual verbs; modal new, 411; back-formations, 392; and verbs; preterits; subjunctives; participles; British English, 67–70, 92, 193; —, and under individual dialects archaisms, 105, 106; —, common core, Vermont, 31, 193, 267 93; —, semantic shifts, 93, 105, 134; veterans’ slang, 224 calquing, xxvi, 166, 178, 180; colonial Victoria, Canada, 427 innovation, 93, 97, (response to Victoria, Queen of Great Britain, 486 environment), 18, 93, 137 (see also fauna; Vietnam, immigration from, 50 flora; topography); conservatism, Vietnam War, 47, 211, 212 National period, 23; dialectal, xxiv, Vinson, Julien, 312 253–4; early American impact abroad, Virginia: Amerindians, 190; Anglicanism, 460–5; expansion during age of 10, 264; archaism, 106, 108, 129–30, 132; exploration, 463, 465–71; indigenous backcountry settlers, 13, 82, 91, 124, element dominant, 151; internal 125, 129; British and Irish antecedents, developments, 93; National period, 23; xxi, 90, 108, 128–32; —, RP influence in occupational and professional, 238; rural east, 75, 79; —, southern/southwestern and urban, 36; unification, 36, 136–7; English, 79, 109, 110, 113, 129, 131; Webster on, xii, 67–8, 199–200, 367, Cavaliers’ and servants’ migration to, 7, 372. See also Americanisms; loan 9–11, 60, 80–1, 109, 110, 129, 189, 190; translations; loanwords; semantics Chesapeake Bay Islands speech, 108, volleyball, 216 132, 472; in Civil War, 31; colonial lag, von Jagemann, H. C. G., 388–9 106; computerized corpus, 103; and voodoo, 180 Constitution, 24; elites, education, 80–1, Voting Rights Act, 49 265, 342; —, intonation, 74–5, 81; vowels: British antecedents, 138–9, 141–2; English culture, 10, 74–5, 79, 80–1, 122, checked, 276, 286; fluidity, 17th/18th- 264–5, 342, 477; German settlers, 124; century Britain, 102; mergers, xxi, 138 indentured servants, 81; indigo (see also cot/caught; hoarse/horse; cultivation, 190; Irish military meat/mate; pen/pin; -oor/-our; -ure/-ore); transportees, 91; literacy rates, 81; shifts, xxi, 142–3; —, Great Vowel Midland/Southern dialect boundary, Shift, 102, 139, 427. See also

621

Index

vowels (cont.) Warrington Academy, England, 64 individual vowels and under individual wars, colonial, 16–18 dialects warships, iron-clad, 31 vulgarisms, 68, 69, 75, 409, 410 Warwickshire dialect, 10, 192 vulgarity, AAE attitudes to, 324 Washington, George, US President, 17, 24, 28, 37, 347; language use, 484, 487 w: Gullah in well, 297; [hw]/[w] variation, Washington State, 266, 281, 286–8 xxi, 143, 282, 283, 285, 287, 430, 481; —, wash words, 272, 276, 279, 280 in dialect groups, 268, 269, 270, 276, Waterford, Ireland, 449 277, 278, 282, 283, 285; linking glide Watergate, 419 absent in AAE, 296 waterhorse, 451 w, formerly silent, 73 water supplies, 206 W-, variation with Ou- (in Waxhaw settlement, South Carolina, 277 Wisconsin/Ouisconsin), 348–9 Wayne, John, 206 waffle, 170, 193 weather, Canadianisms relating to, 437 wag(g)on, 345 Webster, Noah, xxi, 34–5; abbreviations, Wakelin, Martyn Francis, 110 343; and alternative forms, 368–9; and Walcott, Fred, 396, 398, 414 Americanisms, xxii, 67–8, 199–200; on Wales. See Welsh language and people archaism in American English, 105; Wales, Charles, Prince of, xxvii, 495 authority, 35, 344, 347; boosterism for Walker, Alice, 57 American usage, xxvii; and British Walker, John, 72, 75, 138, 344 English, 62–3, 74, 105, 199, 367; Wallace, Henry, US Vice President, 45 capitalization, 343; descriptivism, 367; Wallis, John, 365, 473 on dialects, 111; on Dutch in Albany, Walloon settlers in Hudson River valley, 170; error correction method, 370; and 170 fixing of American English, xxi, 34, Wall Street crash, 43, 210, 248 62–3, 199, 353, 367, 368; on immigrant Walrussia (name for Alaska), 488 languages, 368; on international Wampanoag Indians, 158 language, 62–3; on intonation and stress, wampompeage, 469 74–5; and Latinate grammar, 366, 370, wampum, 93, 166, 188, 478 371; and Lowth, 366, 370; nationalism, Wanchese (Roanoke Indian brought to 34–5, 62–3, 199, 367, 368; on name of England), 159, 467 letter z, 191; observation as basis of want + preposition, 124, 272, 432 work, 370; on origin of all languages in Ward, Artemus (pseud. of Charles F. “Chaldee,” 379; on past participles, 369, Browne), 230 371–2; on past tenses, 343, 369; on Warfel, Harry R., 362, 400 phonology, 73, 74–5, 99, 123, 141, war-kettle, 478 368–9; prescriptivism, 369–71; on purity War of American Independence. See of American English, 367, 373; religious Revolution, American views, 379; and spelling, Canadian, 433; War of the Austrian Succession (King —, codification, 345–6, 367; —, George’s War), 17 establishes American/British War of Jenkin’s Ear, 17 differences, 34, 62, 199, 353; —, French- War of the League of Augsburg (King influenced, 171, 348; —, orthographic William’s War), 17 principles, 199; —, reform War of the Spanish Succession (Queen recommendations, 34, 62, 345–6, 347, Anne’s War), 17 372; on spelling pronunciation, 73; and

622

Index

standard, 67, 367; on style, 367, 371; and Delaware Valley, 12, 60, 82, 92, 124, 164; uniformity of language, 62–3, 99, 367–9; immigration, 84, 92; literacy in Welsh, and usage, 366–73, 382; valuing of 90, 92; in Midland area, 265; written and spoken language, 369–70, monolinguals, 92; in New Amsterdam, 372–3; and vocabulary, xii, 67–8, 169; Old Welsh, 146; and vocabulary, 92 199–200, 367, 372 Welty, Eudora, 57 : An American Dictionary of the Wentworth, Harold, 238 English Language (1828), 35, 62, 67–8, were with singular subjects, Lower South, 199, 227, 345, 372–3, 379, (2nd ed. 131 1843), 346; American Spelling Book (“Blue- werowance, 467 Backed Speller,” Pt I of A Grammatical West, Benjamin, 481 Institute of the English Language, 1783), 34, West, Sir Thomas, Baron De La Warr, 35, 61, 62, 199, 344, 345, 366; A 13 Compendious Dictionary of the English West African Pidgin English, 314 Language (1806), 35, 62, 345, 372; A Westcott, David; David Harum, 240 Dictionary of the English Language (UK West Country, English. See England publication, 1830), 62; Dissertations on the (southwestern) English Language (1789), 62, 74–5, 99; The Western dialects, xxiv, 280–90; AAE Elementary Spelling Book (1829), 62, 345; influence, 266; Amerindian loanwords, Fugitiv Writings, 345; A Grammatical 167; area, 280–2; coastal, 286–8; Far Institute of the English Language (1783), 62, West, 167, 286–8, 290; homogeneity, 36; 67, 199, 366, 367, 370 (see also American Midland dialect influence, 264, 280, 281, Spelling Book above); Philosophical and 282, 284, 285–6, 287, 288; in Midwest, Practical Grammar (1807), 371; school 280, 282, 289; Mississippi Valley, 280–3, dictionary (1830), 345; school reader, 35, 289; morphology/grammar, 287; New 199, 366; Unabridged Dictionary (1864), England influence, 286; and northern 346 British dialects, 79; Northern dialect Webster, Rebecca, 372 influence, 264, 280, 281, 284, 285, 286, Webster’s Dictionary of English Usage (E. W. 287, 288; origins and historical Gilman), 414 development, 264, 266, 280, 281, 282, Webster’s New International Dictionary, 396, 286; Pacific coast, 280, 287, 290; 403 Pennsylvania influence, 282, 283; Webster’s New World Dictionary of American phonology, 282, 286, 287; —, r- English, 414, 416 pronouncing, 283, 285; pioneer speech Webster’s Third New International Dictionary communities, 281, 286; plains, 280, (1961), controversy over, xxvi, 400, 283–6, 289–90; Rocky Mountains, 280, 403–10; associated with modern 283–6, 289–90; Southern dialect linguistics, 405, 406–7, 408, 410, 418; influence, 264, 280, 281, 283, 285, 286, commercial aspects, 364–5; New Republic 287, 288; Spanish influence, 266, 280, article on, 419; and slang, 405, 409, 410; 285, 286, 288; trails and development of, and social attitudes, 406, 407–8; sources, 281; urban, 266; vocabulary, 195–9, 404; stylistic labels, 403, 405, 409–10 205–9, 282, 283, 284, 285–6, 287, 288; week, days of, in Southern dialects, 276 vowels, 282, 283, 285, 286. See also weh (Gullah relativizer), 307 individual states Welsh language and people, 92; dialects of Western states: agriculture, 205–6, 283; immigrants, 90; distinct national identity, British prevent colonial expansion, 20, 89; evangelicals in Pennsylvania and 22; economy, 205–6, 283, 287; Russian

623

Index

Western states (cont.) 370–1, 380–1, 473–5; Irish inﬂuence to colonization, 179; settlement, 24–6, 163, will, 120, 133, 450, 474 164, 204, 205–8, 255; —, by Willamette Valley, Oregon, 286, 287 “parachuting,” 281, 286. See also Western Willes, Richard, 465–6 dialects and individual states William and Mary College, Williamsburg, West Indies: Gullah prosody reminiscent of 342, 346, 477; foundation, 342 speech, 297; loanwords from, 175–6, Williams, James (condemned criminal), 242 478; Loyalist exodus to, after Revolution, Williams, Roger, 9, 240 23 Williams, Tennessee, 57 Westinghouse, George, 33 wills as source documents, 103, 104 Westmorland dialect, 84 Wilmington; Fort Christina on present site Westricher variety of German, 174 of, 169 West Virginia, 192, 193, 271, 272, 282 Wilson, C. M., 108–9 we’uns, 149–50 Wilson, Woodrow, US President, 40, 41, 44 Wexford, Ireland, 449 Wilsonian democracy, 209 wh-. See w ([hw]/[w] variation) Wiltshire dialect, 10, 81 whaling trade, 161 Winchell, Walter, 244, 245 what (AAE relativizer), 307 Winnipeg, ESL enclaves in, 426 wheat words, 268, 269, 270, 271, 277, 278, wireless, 492 282, 283, 285 Wisconsin, 31, 49, 50; spelling of state Wheeling, West Virginia, 271, 272 name, 340, 348–9 whenever ‘as soon as,’ 125; ‘when, at the Wister, Owen; The Virginian, 206 moment when,’ 150 witchcraft, Pennsylvania Dutch, 214 White, Elwyn Brooks, 360, 363 witch hunts, political, 45, 211 White, John (illustrator), 467 with, 268 White, Richard Grant, 385–8, 391, 408, Witherspoon, John: on Americanisms, xxii, 417, 418 61, 66, 68, 69, 185–6, 459; on New white-collar, 210 England/Middle states/South regional whites, AAE terms referring to, 214 dialect division, 111; on slang, 242; on Whitford, Helena Wells, 480–1 standard, 459, 480 Whitman, Walt, 35, 36, 70, 236, 392 wobblies (Industrial Workers of the World), Whitney, William Dwight, 235–6; and 209 analogy, 381; and Century Dictionary, 379; Wodehouse, P. G., 488 on correctness, 381, 390; descriptivism, Wolfe, Bernard, 231 380; emphasis on spoken language, 399; Wolfe, Thomas, 57 focus on best educated, 390, 398; on It is Wolfram, Walter A., 316 me, 381, 385; relativistic view of usage, Wolof, 180, 248 379–80, 406; and slang, 236–7 women: AAE speakers, 311, 323, 324; Whittier, John Greenleaf, 67 American Heritage Dictionary and speech who, whom, 371, 377, 396, 398, 411 of, 412; employment, 49, 212; whoopee, making, 245 movement for equality, 29, 42, 49; slang, wieners, 174, 216 222, 238 wigwam, 155, 166, 188, 469 Wood, William, 468–9 wigwam words (Algonquian loanwords), woodchuck, 165, 189 155 Woolf, Virginia, 251 Wilde, Oscar, 3 Worcester, Joseph E., 199, 344, 346 will, variation with shall, 120, 133, 368, 369, Worcestershire dialect, 10, 192

624

Index

workers, indentured. See servants y’all, you all, 131, 149, 151, 275, 286, 332; Work Projects Administration, Nova putative singular reference, 332 Scotia; Ex-Slave Recordings, 317 yam, 180 Works Progress Administration, 44 Yankee, 12, 170, 194, 201, 246, 490; literary World Bank, 45 character type, 100; white-washed Yankee world language, English as, xix, 6; (Australia), 490–1; Yankee twang, 9, 80 American English as, xx, xxvii, 56–7, Yazoo River basin, 274, 280 213, 334, 491–3; Webster’s notion of, yen ‘longing,’ 179 62–3 yeoman farmers in Georgia, 11 World War I, 5, 40–3; Americanisms, xxii, yes-indeedy, 133 194, 209; aviation, 53; international yez (pronoun), 149 expansion in aftermath, 37; and slang, Yiddish, xxii, 178–9; literary character 250; Yankee used for Americans, 194 types, 18th-century, 100; humor, 182; World War II, 5, 44–5; aftermath, 45–6; loanwords, 182–3, 494; New York City, Americanisms, xxii, 210–13, 492; 76, 181; regional variation in impact of, employment of blacks and women, 48, 181; and slang, xxiii, 249. See also Jews 49; Newfoundland contacts with Yinglish, 178 mainland, 444–5; slang, 246–7 yinz, 125, 150 World Wide Web, 52 yiz, 149 Woty, William, 229 yonder ‘there,’ 275 Wright, J.; English Dialect Dictionary, 90, 92, Yorkshire, 12, 127 138 you all. See y’all Wright, Richard, 57 you guys, 333 Wright, Wilbur and Orville, 53 Young, Brigham, 26, 284 write, 372 young people: AAE, 215, 291–2, 293, written language: British influence on 320–1, 323, 324; Canadian English, 428, American, 66–7; common language, 430, 431; complaints about usage of, American/British, 70–1; and fixing of 494; influence on international English, language, 84; slang in, 224; and spoken 57; and Newfoundland English, 454; language, see under spoken language; slang, xxiii, 220, 221, 222, 224, 226, 248 standard, 36, 66–7, 84, 122, 334, 352, young’un ‘child,’ 150 391; variant forms in, 391. See also yous, youse, 95, 149, 410 literature; spelling you’uns, 125, 149, 150 Wyoming, 284 yucca, 464 Yugoslavia, former, 46, 48 xenophobia, 41, 246, 384, 408 yuns, yunz, 150, 332–3 -xion/-ction variation, 354 yuppies, 212 yuz, youse, 332 y: -ie changed to, 342 -yze/-yse variation, 354, 433 [y]: linking glide absent in AAE, 296; [yu]/[u] variation, yod-dropping, 78, z:name of (zee/zed ), 191, 492. See also s, 428–9. See also new voicing of Yale University, 342, 379 zeme, 464

625