New Empires in the Americas

US History: Beginnings to 1877 - Chapter 2 Chapter Focus Question

What was the impact of European exploration on America’s land and people? Chapter 2 Section 1 Vocabulary

• Leif Eriksson – Norwegian explorer, so of Erik the Red, was first European to explore the Americas • Henry the Navigator – Prince of Portugal who established a school of navigation and financed trips of exploration • Astrolabe- a device that enabled navigators to learn their ship’s location by charting the position of the stars • Caravels – ships that used triangular sails to sail against the wind, and had rudders to improve steering Chapter 2 Section 1: Europeans Set Sail

I. Viking Sailors reach North America Vikings were skilled sailors, warriors, and farmers who hailed from the Scandinavian Peninsula (modern day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) and spread across Europe from about 800 C.E. to about 1240 C.E. thanks in part to their invention, the longboat. The Vikings, or as they referred to themselves, the Norsemen, spread across most of coastal Europe with their violent war raids. However, these raids also allowed the Norsemen to establish trade networks across the Continent. By 874 C.E., the Norse had established a large settlement on Iceland. Schematic of a Viking Longboat Erik the Red (Erik Thorvaldsson)

Leif Eriksson • Erik Thorvaldsson, born in about 950 was one of the most important of all of the Vikings. Born in Norway, Erik and his family were expelled when his father, Thorvald Asvaldsson, was exiled from the kingdom for manslaughter (Vikings were notoriously violent during their raids, but they still believed in the rule of law amongst themselves). Erik’s family relocated itself to Iceland. • By 980, Erik the Red had been expelled from Iceland (legend has it that several of his servants caused a landslide, and the subsequent clan war led to a three year banishment for Erik), and so he established a settlement on Greenland. • Erik’s son, Leif Eriksson, was born prior to Erik’s exile from Iceland (~970 C.E.), and would go on to become a powerful Norseman in his own right. Around the year 1000, Leif and a crew of Norsemen set sail from Greenland to Norway to swear allegiance to King Olaf Tryggvason of Norway (it is reputed that Leif converted to Christianity during this visit). • When Leif and his crew attempted to return to Greenland, the ship was blown off course due to storms and it is believed that he and his crew travelled all the way to North America. • The region was “self-sown with wheat fields and grape vines,” according to legends told of Leif’s voyage. It is believed that Eriksson and his crew landed first at Helluland (Flat-Rock Land – possibly Baffin Island), then Markland (Forest Land – possibly Labrador), before establishing a camp to spend the winter called Vinland (believed to be the northern tip of Newfoundland). Eriksson’s attempts to settle the area were thwarted by either rampaging Native Americans or harsh weather (depends upon which legend is consulted). II. Prince Henry the Navigator • In the early 1400s, Portugal became a world leader in exploration (not in the least because it was the first modern nation to be unified both politically and under the same religion). Under the sponsorship of Prince Henry (third son of King John I and Queen Philippa, who was the daughter of King John II of England), Portugal began to explore western Africa and beyond. • In 1416, Prince Henry established his “School of Exploration,” a University where he employed mathematicians, astronomers, cartographers, and instrument makers to teach the art and skill of sailing at Sagres. In addition to establishing an astronomical observatory at Sagres (which helped in teaching the sailors the art of navigation through the use of the astrolabe and sextant), a port was established at nearby Lagos (it is from Lagos that the first caravels were launched). Infante Dom Henrique of Portugal, Modern day location of the School of Navigation at Duke of Viseu Sagres (Prince Henry the Navigator) Sailors set out from Lagos, as well as Porto and Lisbon on the Atlantic Coast, in an effort to find a sea route to Asia. It was believed that the discovery of a secret sea route to China and India, which would allow nations to bypass the Middle Eastern merchants who held a monopoly on all trade from the “Orient,” would grant the discoverer riches and fame beyond their wildest dreams. It was also believed that Christians had an obligation to spread “the word of God” and to attempt to save the souls of countless non- Christians by converting them to the “one true religion.” While it would be convenient to discount this as a motive for Portuguese exploration, Prince Henry was named administrator general of the Order of Christ in 1426 (a Portuguese rival to the Ancient Christian Order of the Knights Templar).

After several Portguese ships sailed west to “discover” the Canary Islands off the coast of Africa (which had been claimed by Spanish fishermen several years earlier), an expedition to the western coast of Africa was blown off coast and the Canary Islands were discovered and claimed. The Canary Islands became the first “European Colonies,” although the Canaries had been inhabited for hundreds of years prior by the Guanches (people who had their roots in the Northern areas of Africa). III. A Sea Route to Asia • Sailors believed that if they sailed much further south than the Canary Islands, “their skin would turn black, sea monsters would eat their boats, or the ships would never return home.” Prince Henry financially supported several voyages to prove that the fear was ridiculous and that a route to Asia could be found. Under his financial support and direction, Portuguese sailors sailed as far south as modern-day Sierra Leone. • Henry’s death did not end the Portuguese push for discovery. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias and his ship travelled as far south as the Cape of Good Hope (which is where the Atlantic and Indian Oceans meet). Nine years later, Vasco da Gama set sail in 1497 to sail beyond the Cape of Good Hope, landing at Calicut (Calcutta) in 1498. Long a trading port, the arrival of da Gama at Calicut did not surprise the Indian inhabitants (in fact, several merchants spoke Portuguese due to trade with Italian and Muslim merchants). • Unfortunately, exploration came with a harsh price. The quest to gain gold and other riches also created the Atlantic slave trade. Slaves would first be sold to Europeans controlling the Atlantic Islands (Canary Islands, Madeira Islands, Cape Verde Islands, and the Azores) before Trans-Atlantic voyages opened new markets for slavery. Chapter 2 Section 2 Vocabulary • Christopher Columbus – Italian explorer, he was convinced that he could reach Asia by sailing westward across the Atlantic Ocean. He gained the support of Spain’s monarchs and commanded a small fleet that reached the so-called New World, setting off a tide of European exploration of the area • Line of Demarcation – boundary between Spanish and Portuguese territories in the New World • Treaty of Tordesillas – a treaty between Spain and Portugal that moved the Line of Demarcation • Ferdinand Magellan – Portuguese captain of a Spanish fleet that sought a western route to Asia via the “Southern Ocean,” he found a passage through South America, now known as the Strait of Magellan, but died during the expedition. His crew of 18 people with one remaining ship successfully circumnavigated the world • Circumnavigate – to travel all the way around the globe • Columbian Exchange – the transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the Americas and Europe, Asia, and Africa Chapter 2 Section 2: Europeans Reach the Americas

I. Columbus Sails across the Atlantic Christopher Columbus, born in Genoa in 1451, became a sailor at the age of 14. At 25, a shipwreck near the coast Portugal not only threatened his life, but gave Columbus the opportunity to become an oceanic sailor. Over time, Columbus, who was a highly skilled sailor, came to believe that a sea route to Asia was not only theoretically possible, but in fact quite manageable. Columbus (incorrectly) considered himself to be an expert on the notion of theoretical travel, having read texts such as the Travels of Marco Polo and Natural History by Pliny (a Roman writer) in an effort to “find out what the world and its people were like.” Marco Polo’s Journal, while mostly factual and informative about the riches and splendors of the Indies, occasionally included fable-like tales about island inhabitants which were pure fantasy. In addition to these works, Columbus came into contact with Florentine cosmographer Paolo del Pozzo Toscanelli. Toscanelli believed that the world was actually smaller than it truly is, and presented a map as part of his proposal to voyage to China for the Portuguese in 1474. Toscanelli’s voyage failed, but his map did make the voyage, as Columbus carried a copy of it on his first voyage. The “Toscanelli” map, a copy of which Columbus carried with him in 1492. • Columbus proposed to sail west to find and map a direct sea route to Asia to many of the courts of Europe. King John of Portugal heard his proposal, refused it, and supported a failed Portuguese mission to do as Columbus proposed. Spain refused multiple times, as did France and England. Only with the completion of the Spanish Reconquista with the Catholic Spanish army forcing the Muslims to surrender the city of Granada in January 1492 were Ferdinand and Isabella interested in what Columbus and his plan represented. • Columbus, a devout Catholic, had for years proposed to sail for Their Most Majestic Catholic highnesses, Ferdinand and Isabella, to the Indies. Once there, Columbus would lay claim to any and all unincorporated lands he encountered as well as any gold spices or other riches he could gain access to, as well as to convert as many non-Catholics to the “True Church.” The young Spanish monarchs saw an opportunity to see the prestige of their kingdom rise across Europe and especially in the eyes of the Pope, Innocent VIII (who actually died before Columbus could set sail, and was replaced by Alexander VI). Their greed and desire for acclaim saw them even accept Columbus’ request to be granted the titles of “Admiral of the Ocean Sea” and “Viceroy and Governor” of all the new lands he could claim for Spain, as well as 10 percent of all the revenue claimed from these lands in perpetuity (meaning even after the voyages of Columbus were over, Columbus would receive 10% of the annual income brought in to Spain from those lands for the rest of his life!)

• Columbus’ first voyage began from the port of Palos with three ships (the Nina, the Pinta, and his flagship, the Santa Maria), 90 sailors, and nearly a year’s provision of food and supplies. The ships departed port on August 3, 1492, and sailed to the Canary Islands, where they made port at San Sebastian to take on more fresh water, and finally on September 6th set sail west. Columbus, who had experience sailing in the Atlantic Ocean, knew that ocean currents existed which would pull his ships in the direction he wished to travel (namely, the North Equatorial current to pull the ships west from Europe, and the North Atlantic current to propel the ships eastwards towards Spain), and so sailed deliberately with these in mind. His crew were seemingly aware of these currents, and within weeks were panicked that the voyage would end in failure. Columbus, recognizing the thin line between panic and anger, maintained two sets of records on this first voyage - one ledger kept privately detailing the nearly-exact distance travelled, and another ledger kept “publically” purporting to have travelled further distances daily. On October 11, 1492, assorted detritus could be seen floating on the ocean (branches, leaves, carved sticks) denoting that the ships were close to land. After midnight (of what would now be October 12th), the posted lookout on the Pinta cried “Land! Land!” – the discovery of which would have guaranteed this lookout, Rodrigo de Triana, a lifelong pension from Ferdinand and Isabella had Columbus not written in his journal that he had seen lights on the horizon hours earlier. • Columbus and his men first stepped foot on an island they called San Salvador (it is known that this was one of the 700 islands of the Bahamas, but historians have no idea as to which one). They planted a Spanish flag on the coast, claiming it as a Spanish possession, and would soon thereafter encounter the Taino, who were the peaceful inhabitants of the region. The Taino were friendly and hospitable to the Spanish (to their own historical detriment) and agreed to show the Spanish to where they were able to find gold, which held no importance to the Taino and great importance to the Spanish. • Columbus and his ships would sail past Cuba and make an additional landfall at “Hispaniola” (modern day Haiti and the Dominican Republic). The Santa Maria ran aground on the coast of Hispaniola and had to be abandoned, which caused Columbus to leave 39 men behind to establish a Spanish settlement on Hispaniola, when the rest returned home to Spain with a cargo of several dozen Taino and several examples of “the riches of the East Indies,” as Columbus referred to the islands he had “discovered.” The two ships entered Palos harbor on March 15, 1493. • Columbus’ first voyage was so tantalizing to the Spanish monarchs that the almost immediately called for a second voyage – only with a much larger fleet. • Columbus’ Second voyage disembarked from the port of Cadiz on September 24 1493, with a fleet of 17 ships and over 1,200 men. Unlike the first voyage, this was one aimed at establishing a permanent settlement for the Spanish in the Indies. Departing from the Canary Islands on October 13th, the Spanish fleet made landfall in the Caribbean on November 3rd. The ships explored the present-day Lesser Antilles Islands of Domenica, Guadaloupe, Nevis, and St. Croix, as well as Puerto Rico and parts of Cuba and Jamaica. Most importantly, the Spanish established the short-lived settlement of La Isabela on the island of Hispaniola. La Isabela, while it functioned as a settlement for the Spanish, saw interactions between the Taino and the Spanish change from welcoming and friendly to harsh brutality. While some Spanish reports from the time claim that the Taino were only treated harshly when events necessitated it, the construction of a fort called Santo Tomas seems to show otherwise. Also, nearly 1600 natives were taken as slaves, with 560 shipped to Spain (over 200 died in the travel) and the remaining serving as slaves in the Americas. Columbus would fall ill towards the end of this voyage, returning to Spain on March 10, 1496, while he left his brother Bartholomew in charge of the settlement. • The third voyage of Christopher Columbus left Spain on May 30 1498 with six ships. After leaving the Madiera Islands, half of the ships traveled directly to Hispaniola, while the other three under the command of Columbus attempted to discover how far south the islands existed. From August 4 to August 12, Columbus’ small fleet explored the region between Trinidad and modern-day Venezuela, “discovering” the Orinoco River and naming the mouth of the river, “Boca del Drago.” They traded with local natives, receiving three bags of pearls in exchange for assorted trinkets. • Upon returning to Hispaniola on August 19th, Columbus came to discover that his brother Bartholomew had mismanaged the settlement at Isabella, causing several Spanish settlers to return to Spain and complain to the monarchs about the mismanagement. On August 23rd, royal administrator Francisco de Bobadilla arrived at Hispaniola and ordered the arrest of the Columbus brothers. They were returned to Spain in chains in October 1498 – to be released from bondage by the King and Queen (but not to be granted the titles which had been stripped by Bobadilla). • Columbus’ fourth and final voyage saw him granted command of four old ships and 140 men. Leaving Spain on May 11 1501, the “fleet” arrived at Santo Domingo on June 29, and promptly warned the Spanish fleet set to return to Spain of an impending hurricane. The fleet ignored the warning and was lost at sea, costing the lives of 20 ships worth of men (including Francesco do Bobadillo) and the Crown’s treasure. Columbus set off to explore Central America – trekking and charting the coast of present-day Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. After a native attack cost the fleet one of its ships, and a storm cost a second one, Columbus and his men landed at St. Anne’s Bay, Jamaica where the remaining two ships sank. Columbus and his men were stranded on Jamaica from June 25 1503 to June 29 1504, as no Spanish settlements had been established on the island. Upon his return to Hispaniola, Columbus boarded a ship to Spain, and returned to Cadiz on November 7, 1504. II. The Impact of Columbus’ Voyages • While Columbus was engaged in his voyages to the Indies, Portugal’s Vasco da Gama had returned to Portugal from his voyage to India. The two geo- political rivals had been engaged in a “cold war” of discovery, which threatened at times to blossom into an actual military war. Pope Alexander VI, recognizing that such a war would lead to a loss of profit to either kingdom (and thus to the Vatican as well), issued the papal bull Inter caetera (“Among other works,”) which drew a line of demarcation approximately 320 miles to the west of the Cape Verde Islands from the North to the South Pole– Spain could claim all lands to the west of the line, Portugal all lands to the east. It should be noted that no nation actually paid any attention to this line of demarcation, as it excluded the existence of the English, Dutch, French, Italian, or even Swedish exploratory efforts. • Portugal was displeased with the land allotted to it, and requested a renegotiation of the terms. On June 7 1494, representatives from the two kingdoms and the Vatican signed off on the Treaty in the Spanish city of Tordesillas. This Treaty of Tordesillas saw the line moved approximately 780 miles further west, and would allow Portugal to lay claim to what would become Brazil.

III. Columbian Exchange • Thanks to the four voyages of Christopher Columbus, Europe markets gained access to a great many commodities unavailable previously. Foods such as tomatoes and corn were unknown in European cuisine until the so-called Columbian Exchange occurred. However, the most profitable items to cross the Atlantic Ocean (as a direct result of Spanish exploration in the Americas) were gold and silver – items which Columbus promised but failed to deliver in large quantities. The most impactful of all items to cross the Atlantic, however, were the diseases brought to the “New World” by the Spanish, such as Diphtheria, Measles, and Smallpox (all of which decimated Native American populations far more effectively that the conquering Spanish ever could).

• IV. Other Explorers Sail to America a) Amerigo Vespucci – Florentine born Amerigo Vespucci helped outfit Columbus’ first and second voyages, and at the behest of King Ferdinand sailed to Hispaniola to explore and map some of the lands south of the region. Vespucci charted the coastline of Brazil, as well as the constellations of the Southern Hemisphere (recognizing that they were different from those usually seen in Europe). His return to Spain led to an additional voyage – this time in the pay of King Manuel of Portugal. Vespucci’s second voyage continued charting the lands to the south of Hispaniola, this time reaching present-day Argentina. After a third voyage, Vespucci’s claim of a Mundus Novus “a new world,” became popular with the mapmakers and aspiring explores of Europe. In 1507, German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller published a book entitled “Introduction to Cosmography,” and in it included his map of the “known world.” For the first time in print, the name America was attached to the new continent. b) Vasco Núñez de Balboa – born in Spain to a noble but poor family, Balboa traveled to the new world on an expedition in 1500 and remained in Hispaniola until opportunity presented itself to travel to Darien (in present- day Panama). Balboa, who became close friends with Francisco Pizarro, convinced the Spanish settlers of the region to shift their location to Santa Maria de la Antigua (which became the first stable Spanish settlement of the region). Balboa was elected as one of two magistrates in the region by the colonists, and appointed interim governor by King Ferdinand II in December 1511. Balboa saw his settlement grow rich due to trade for gold with local native tribes, but trade soon became coercion and torture when the flow of gold was not strong enough for his taste. Having heard tales of a province infinitely rich in gold (probably the Incan empire), Balboa set off on a journey across the isthmus of Panama. Balboa is attributed as having been the first European to have seen the Pacific Ocean, which he did on September 27 1513. Unfortunately for him, his request for permission to launch an expedition against the rich southern neighbor was refused, a replacement was sent to Darien, and Balboa was ultimately executed for “rebellion, high treason, and mistreatment of the Indians” in January 1519. c. Ferdinand Magellan – born in Sabrosa Portugal in 1480, Magellan served as a page in Queen Leonora’s court before being assigned, in 1505, as a sailor on a ship bound for India. Over the following dozen years, Magellan had travelled to India and Africa, and became convinced of the need for a sea route to Asia which did not require delays in Africa. Magellan requested the permission and support of King Manuel of Portugal three times for such an expedition, and each of the three times the King of Portugal refused. Magellan became so frustrated that he renounced his Portuguese nationality and became a Spanish subject. Early in his time in Spain, Magellan met Diego Barbosa (another transplanted Portuguese) whose contacts with the Spanish fleet allowed Magellan to meet the King of Spain in early 1519 (Magellan married Barbosa’s daughter, and the couple had a son whom Magellan barely knew). King Charles I, grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, was enamored with Magellan’s promises of riches and thus agreed to finance Magellan’s expedition. • On August 10 1519, the fleet commanded by Magellan set out with 5 ships and 270 crew members (the ships were the Trinidad, San Antonio, Conception, Victoria, and Santiago – only the Victoria would actually return to port in Portugal at the end of the voyage) and sailed southwest to South America. The fleet sailed south along the coast of South America, travelling via the “Strait of Magellan” (a narrow body of water connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, situated between mainland South America and Tierra del Fuego) into the Pacific Ocean. • Traversing the Pacific ocean took some 98 days (during which time supplies ran dangerously low – men were reduced to eating rats and leather) before the fleet, now numbering three ships, reached Guam, allowing the fleet to resupply. Leaving Guam, the fleet sailed to the Philippine Island of Cebu, where Magellan befriended the locals and began to convert them to Christianity. The Cebuese were at war with the inhabitants of a neighboring tribe, the Mactanese, and Magellan in his zeal to help his new friends agreed to lead a battle. Magellan died in the battle, failing to complete his trip. • However, two of his ships continued the trip, reaching the Malucca Islands (the so-called Spice Islands of present day Indonesia) on November 5 1521, and eventually returning to Portugal in September 1522. Of the original complement of 270 sailors, only 18 survived the full circumnavigation of the world, including Magellan’s slave Enrique and the man who took command of the Victoria, Juan Sebastien Elcano.

The Strait of Magellan Chapter 2 Section 3 Vocabulary • Conquistador – a Spanish soldier and explorer who led military expeditions in the Americas and captured land for Spain • Hernan Cortes – Spanish conquistador, he conquered Mexico and brought about the fall of the Aztec Empire • Moctezuma II – Emperor of Mexico’s Aztec Empire, he welcomed explorer Cortes as a god but was taken prisoner by him. He was later killed, and the Aztec capital was destroyed during the following Aztec uprising • Francisco Pizarro – Spanish conquistador who sailed with Balboa on the discovery of the Pacific Ocean, he later pursued rumors of golden cities in eth Andes Mountains of South America and conquered the Inca Empire • Encomienda system – a system in Spanish America that gave settlers the right to tax local Indians or to demand their labor in exchange for protecting them and converting them to Christianity • Plantation – a large farm that usually specialized in growing one kind of crop for profit • Bartolome de Las Casas – Spanish missionary and historian, he became the first ordained Catholic priest in the New World and advocated for the welfare and protection of Native Americans as well as preached against the slavery system Chapter 2 Section 3: Spain Builds an Empire

I. Spanish Conquistadors – Hernán Cortés • Hernán Cortés was born in the village of Medellin, Spain in 1485 into a noble but not wealthy family. Cortés grew to attend the University of Salamanca in pursuit of a law degree, but dropped out after two years. He decided that he wished to live a life of action, and so decided to travel to Hispaniola in 1504. • Cortés was fortunate enough to establish a large an profitable farm, which allowed him to amass wealth enough to join an expedition to Cuba under the command of Diego Velázquez (with whom Cortez would have quite a bit of animosity). In Cuba, Cortés would serve as clerk to the treasurer of the colony of Cuba. Cortés became so popular that he was elected as mayor of the town of Santiago twice before he was afforded the opportunity to assist in the establishment of a colony on the mainland in 1518. Diego Velásquez, the governor of Cuba, became suspicious of Cortés (Cortés had, by this time gained six ships and nearly 300 volunteers for the expedition) and ordered that the expedition be cancelled. Cortés disobeyed Velázquez’ order, and his fleet set sail for Mexico – stopping at several settlements along the way to grow his expeditionary force to 11 ships, 508 soldiers and about 100 sailors, and 16 horses. In March 1519, the expedition made landfall at Tabasco, Mexico, where Cortés acted to explore the land for a suitable settlement site. He encountered the native Tabascan people, and upon learning that the blood stains near the Tabascan pyramid signified it as a location for human sacrifices, began a great effort to convert the natives to Christianity. Clashes arose between the groups and on March 25 1519, the greatly outnumbered Spanish defeated the Tabascans at the Battle of Cintla (800 natives were killed to the 2 Spanish who died in battle). The Tabascans pledged their loyalty to the Spanish, and lavished gold and women upon Cortés. One of the women “gifted” to Cortés, Malinche, would serve as Cortés’ interpreter (and mistress – she gave birth to Martin Cortés in 1521) as she spoke both Aztec and Mayan and would learn Spanish as well.

Through Malinche, Cortés learned that the Aztecs were indeed powerful, but at the same time quite vulnerable. The vast majority of the Aztec Empire (and surrounding lands) was inhabited by natives who resented Aztec rule and the sacrificing of people and paying of tribute to the Aztecs. Over time, Cortés would convince local tribes (such as the Tlaxcala) to ally with the Spanish in opposition to the Aztecs. At one point, Cortés could count on over 200,000 native allies. Aztec Emperor Montezuma II, aware of the Spanish interlopers, issued several warnings that the Spanish would regret approaching Tenochtitlán, but the Spanish would not turn back. On November 8 1519, the Spanish entered Tenochtitlán. • Uncertain of Spanish intentions, Montezuma welcomed the Spanish in accordance with Aztec customs. The Spanish were given a grand tour of the city, and lavished with extravagant gifts (as Montezuma would with the ambassador from any tribe the Aztecs would attempt to form a relationship with). This only served to stoke the Spanish lust for wealth – Cortés ordered the seizure of Montezuma, and held him while Cortés effectively took control of the Aztec Empire (Montezuma would be released by the Spanish, only to be stoned to death by his own people for allowing the Spanish to enter the city). • Cuban Governor Velázquez sent an army under the command of Pánfilo Narváez to Mexico with orders to arrest Cortés. Cortés left Tenochtitlán in the command of one of his lieutenants, Pedro de Alvarado, and marched out to meet Narváez on the field of battle – Cortés not only defeated Narvaez, but enlisted the entirety of the Cuban army to aid in the conquest of the Aztecs. When Cortés returned to Tenochtitlán, he found the Aztecs in open revolt as a result of Alvarado’s ill- fated decision to execute many Aztec chiefs during a religious festival. • The Spanish escaped from Tenochtitlán, massed their army, and defeated the pursuing Aztecs at the Battle of Otumba on July 7 1520. Cortés then spent the next several months reorganizing his forces, marching on Tenochtitlán in December 1520. The Spanish army finally captured Tenochtitlán on August 13, 1521 – ending the Aztec Empire and establishing Spanish dominance in Mexico. • Cortés ruled Mexico until 1528, when accusations from Velazquez, and subsequent plots by several jealous Spanish bureaucrats, forced Cortes to defend his actions to King Charles II. Charles received Cortés as a returning hero - confirmed him as Captain-General of Mexico and ennobled him as Marques del Valle, and allowed Cortés to return to Mexico. Cortés governed Mexico until the establishment of a Viceroy in 1540, when Cortés returned to Spain and eventually died. I. Spanish Conquistadors – Francisco Pizarro • Francisco Pizarro, born around 1475, was the illegitimate child of Captain Gonzalo Pizarro, a situation which directly impacted his upbringing. Unlike the personalities born into poor but noble families striving to regain familial wealth, an illegitimate son wished for nothing more than recognition of the familial ties by the father. As such, Pizarro’s story is quite different from those of Balboa or Cortés. • Pizarro traveled to the New World in 1502, farming for a few years on Hispaniola until the opportunity arose for him to join an expedition to explore Colombia. On this trip, he was referenced as a “hard, silent, and apparently unambitious man who could be trusted in difficult situations” – basically the perfect soldier. Three years later, Pizarro acted as Captain of the forces under the command of Vasco Núñez de Balboa on his expedition across Panama to the Pacific. Pizarro amassed some wealth in the years following this expedition, rising high enough in social status and prestige to be elected mayor of Panama City from 1519 to 1523. • Bored with his position, in 1523 Pizarro allied himself with Diego de Almagro (a soldier) and Hernando de Luque (a priest) and made plans for an expedition of discovery and conquest south along the unexplored (by the Spanish) west coast of South America. Two expeditions (1524-25 and 1526-28) were led south, allowing the Spanish to hear stories of a rich culture to the South in the region Pizarro called Peru. During the second expedition, when Almagro was sent back to Panama for reinforcements (the two expeditions were notorious for large numbers of lost lives), the governor of Panama ordered the end of the expedition. After travelling as far South as 9° South latitude, the explorers returned with reports and artifacts from the Incan empire. • Pizarro returned to Spain to petition King Charles II for permission to continue the expedition. King Charles granted permission, investing Pizarro with a coat of arms and the ranks of Captain-general and Governor of the new province of New Castile (which would eventually become expanded to be the Viceroyalty of Peru). Pizarro, after amassing troops and supplies enough for the expedition, left Spain for Panama with all the rights and powers of a Viceroy (while his partners Almagro and de Luque were left in subordinate positions). • In January 1531 the expedition left Panama for Peru. In April, contact had been made with emissaries of Atahuallpa, emperor of the Incan empire, and a meeting was arranged in the town of Cajamarca (the seat of Atahuallpa’s power). • Pizarro arrived at Cajamarca on November 15th, and proceeded to establish artillery positions around the town. Hernando Pizarro (Francisco’s half-brother) and Vicente de Valverde (a priest) met with Atahuallpa, trying to convert Atahuallpa to Christianity and to accept the rule of King Charles II over the Incas. With Atahuallpa’s refusal, the representatives returned to report to Francisco Pizarro, who ordered an immediate attack. The nearly 4,000 Incans were easily cut down by Spanish artillery, and Pizarro took Atahuallpa captive. • Atahuallpa would be executed (by strangulation) on August 29, 1533, ending the drawn out Incan uprising. Pizarro installed Manco Capac, Atahuallpa’s brother, as Emperor of the Incas (and subordinate to the Spanish). In 1535, Pizarro founded the city of Lima and governed from there (his once-ally Almagro, angered and jealous of Pizarro’s power and authority, would seize the city of Cuzco for a short while before being persuaded to govern Chile – Chilean poverty caused the disgruntled Almagro to return to Peru, where he was imprisoned and ultimately executed by Pizarro) until his assassination at the hands of Almagro’s followers on June 26 1541 in Lima. The Council of the Indies

• In 1524, recognizing that the lands claimed in the New World would have to be organized and governed properly, King Charles I allowed the establishment of the Council of the Indies. The Council of the Indies was designed as an advisory body to the King; made up of a president and eight councilors it was given the responsibility to manage the territorial possessions in the New World. • The Council began to organize its territories into Viceroyalties (first with the Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru, and ultimately adding New Granada and Rio de la Plata) and acted as an advisory body to the King on a weekly (or more frequent if necessary) basis. • The Council allowed for the establishment of three types of settlements: Pueblos which would serve as trading posts and sometimes local centers of government, Missions which were the centers of religious conversion in the areas, and Presidios which served as military headquarters and bases to protect the Spanish from the natives. • In 1550, construction of the Royal Road (El Camino Real) began between Mexico City and the port at Veracruz. Designed to ease communication (and the flow of gold from the New World and Spain), the Royal Road would eventually stretch from Veracruz north to Santa Fe in present-day New Mexico. El Camino Real (The Royal Road) II. Exploring the Borderlands on New Spain • While the Spanish empire was developing in the Americas, many Spanish explorers travelled to North America, seeking fame and fortune. • Ponce de Léon - In 1508, Juan Ponce de Léon landed on Puerto Rico after having served for six years as a Captain of the Army on Hispaniola. He established the town of Caparra, and was appointed governor of Puerto Rico for a time. • Tradition holds that Ponde de Léon heard tales of an island named Bimini, upon which flowed magical water which could rejuvenate the drinker (the so-called Fountain of Youth). While modern scholarship purports that Ponce de Léon’s actions were not motivated by a desire to find such a location, the legend persists. • In his search to find Bimini, Ponce de Léon’s privately outfitted expedition landed on the coast of present-day Florida (near St. Augustine) and explored the coastline as far south as the Florida Keys. A trip to Spain following his return to Puerto Rico secured the governorship of Florida for Ponce de Léon. • In 1521, Ponce de Léon led an expedition of two ships and over 200 men to attempt to colonize Florida. Landing at Charlotte Harbor on the West coast of Florida, the expedition encountered hostile natives and Ponce de Léon was injured – he was transported to Cuba where he died in July 1521. Ponce de Léon’s death temporarily ended the Spanish attempt at colonization. • Hernando de Soto – de Soto, like so many of the Spanish explorers, was born into a noble but poor family. By 14, he left home to find himself on an expedition to the New World. He would become quite rich in Nicaragua as one of the leading African slave traders in the region. Comfortable though he was in Nicaragua, he joined Pizarro’s expedition in 1531 and became Pizarro’s chief lieutenant. Through the Spanish victory over the Incas, de Soto became the richest conquistador in the New World. • Wealth was apparently not de Soto’s goal, as he requested permission from the King to explore and settle Florida in what would become one of the best supplied of the Spanish expeditions – 10 ships with almost 1000 men and a large amount of livestock (200+ pigs and cattle, and 237 horses). The fleet landed at present-day Tampa Bay in May 1539, establishing a small settlement there before travelling north to establish winter camp near present-day Tallahassee. On his search to find gold, de Soto and his men travelled north to Georgia, west through the Carolinas and Tennessee, and then south to Mobile Bay (where they were to meet up with the Spanish ships). The Spanish were attacked by natives near present-day Mobile Alabama in October 1540, and both sides took heavy losses. After a month’s rest, the expedition continued northwards before again turning west, becoming the first Europeans to ever see the Mississippi River. The expedition crossed the river, traveling into present-day Alabama and Louisiana before de Soto became ill and died on May 21 1542 – his expedition buried his body in an unmarked grave for fears that Native Americans would dig it up and defile it. The rest of the expedition would eventually complete the journey by building boats and sailing to Mexico.

• Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca – In 1528, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca joined an expedition under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez to explore the Gulf of Mexico and the surrounding North American lands. The ships landed the expedition in Florida (with less in the way of supplies than was needed), and when the Spanish antagonized the local Apalachee Indians the Spanish were driven to the coast and forced to build rafts to try to return to Cuba. Unfortunately for the Spanish, a hurricane drove the crude sea craft across the Gulf to Galveston Island (off the coast of present-day Texas). Stranded on the coast and without supplies, the Spanish survivors were initially welcomed and aided by the local Native Americans until the natives began dying from “a disease of the bowels” and blamed the Spanish. The Spanish would be taken into slavery for years until they were able to escape, crossing Texas on foot (and getting assistance from several other Native American groups along the way). In July 1536, Cabeza de Vaca encountered a Spanish group of slave-takers in present-day Mexico and was returned to “civilization.” He returned to Spain and wrote a book detailing his journey, including the claim that “[w]e heard that on the shores of the South there are pearls and great wealth, and that the richest and the best are near there.” Cabeza de Vaca would also petition the King to change the Spanish policy towards Native Americans (as a result of the treatment Cabeza de Vaca and his fellow survivors received from many of the Native Americans) to no avail. • Francisco Vásquez de Coronado - Francisco Vásquez de Coronado travelled to the New World in 1535, married the daughter of the former colonial treasurer of New Spain, and was appointed Governor of the province of Nueva Galicia (in present-day Mexico). In 1540, when word of Cabeza de Vaca’s claims of riches in the north reached Mexico, Coronado led an expedition to find the so-called “Seven Golden Cities of Cíbola.” As there have never been Seven Cities of Gold in the southwest, Coronado’s expedition was a failure. With the exception of being the first Europeans to view the Grand Canyon, this expedition was notable only for the animosity created between Native Americans in the Southwest and the Spanish – a situation which would continue to worsen over the span of the 16th and 17th Centuries. III. Spanish Treatment of Native Americans • The Spanish Empire in the Americas was created for one purpose – wealth. From 1503 to 1660, Spanish treasure fleets transported nearly 200 tons of gold and over 18,600 tons of silver from the claimed lands and vanquished peoples. • By 1650, the Spanish Empire in the New World was populated by nearly 4 million inhabitants, with the vast majority of those inhabitants being natives. The European-born Spanish, known as peninsulares, were given as a reward for settlement in the colonies the opportunity to establish their own near-feudal system, the encomienda system. The encomienda system allowed the Spanish landowners to govern the Native Americans and slaves the way a feudal lord would have in Europe – the natives would be given the opportunity to work the land of the Peninsular, or to pay taxes to them instead. In return, the Spaniards were expected to convert the inhabitants to Christianity, as well as to protect them from outside forces. • Unfortunately, the Peninsulars treated the Natives as slaves, and worked them in horrific conditions. Plantations were established throughout the region, and thousands of natives were forced to work in the fields, growing a single crop on each plantation. Haciendas were established where Natives were forced to raise and take care of livestock. Mines were dug and worked by Natives to pull the gold and silver the Spanish craved from deep in the earth. The Spanish became rich, the Kingdom of Spain amassed power, the Catholic Church oversaw the conversion of the Natives, and the Natives endured their suffering. • The Church, which expanded its power and standing through the conversion of the Natives to Christianity, would be placed in a position that saw several of its priests act against its own wishes. Bartolome de Las Casas became well known as an advocate for the conversion of natives through love, gentleness, and kindness- three attributes which could not be used to describe the events in the New World. Las Casas spoke out against the abuses of the Spanish colonials, but the abuses continued. Chapter 2 Section 4 Vocabulary

• Protestant Reformation – a religious movement begun by Martin Luther and others in 1517 to reform the Catholic Church • Protestants – reformers who protested certain practices of the Catholic Church • Spanish Armada – a large Spanish fleet defeated by England in 1588 • Northwest Passage – a nonexistent path through North America that early explorers searched for that would allow ships to sail from eth Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean • Jacques Cartier - French sailor and explorer, he made three voyages to Canada for Francis I • Charter – an official document that gives a person the right to establish a colony Chapter 2 Section 4: The Race for Empires I. Events in Europe – The Protestant Revolution • The Protestant Reformation – In 1517, a German-born Catholic priest named Martin Luther became perturbed that the Church, in looking to finance the building St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, offered the opportunity for Catholics to purchase Indulgences. Luther believed that at the core of Catholicism was the belief that “if you believed, you are saved,” and yet, while sin was a fact of life (and as a result of sin we were destined to spend a period of time in Purgatory before ultimate salvation) there was nothing to be done to wash away the sins. Confession and good deeds helped, but Purgatory was still to be endured. However, with the opportunity to purchase Indulgences, Catholics were being given the opportunity to “spend less time in Purgatory,” which Luther believed was a subversion of the true faith. • On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther nailed his series of 95 talking points, “Ninety-five Theses,” on the door of the Chapel at the University of Wittenberg (where Dominican friar Johann Tetzel was reputed to have claimed that “the purchase of a letter of indulgence entailed the forgiveness of sins”). Luther claimed, when questioned by Church authorities, that these were a series of talking point to be used in an academic debate on the Church’s use on indulgences (and not a heretical attempt to overthrow Church dogma, as it would ultimately be seen to be). • Thanks to the existence of Gutenberg’s printing press, Luther’s Ninety-five Theses were spread across Europe, first in the original Latin in which it was written, and then in German and the other languages of Europe. This spreading of knowledge was considered dangerous to the Church, and Luther was excommunicated for heresy in 1521. • As Luther’s ideas spread throughout Europe, many groups begin to question the existence they led. Large numbers of peasants throughout the southern and western regions of present-day Germany rose up in arms against the nobility in the name of agrarian rights and freedom. The failed German Peasant’s War lasted for less than a year, but its impact spread across the continent. • Catholics in Switzerland began to follow the teachings of John Calvin, whose doctrine of Predestination became the basis of a new Protestant sect - the Calvinists. Predestination is the belief that people are born with their destiny already written – that is to say that their actions in life will have no effect as to whether or not they will be saved or damned in the afterlife, but it is in everyone’s best interest to lead a good life. • French Protestants, known as Huguenots, followed the teachings of John Calvin. Unlike most Calvinists (or Lutherans, for that matter), the French Protestants participated in actions which directly led to their persecution – a plot to kidnap the King of France, Francis II, and force his conversion to Protestantism failed spectacularly, and the resulting Wars of Religion in France saw the Huguenots in a constant state of war with the more populous Catholics through the end of the century, with only King Henry IV’s Edict of Nantes (which granted civil rights and the right to worship publically everywhere in France except Paris) in 1598 acting to staunch the bloodshed. Over the course of the 17th Century, French Catholics acted to abolish the Edict of Nantes, causing a great many Huguenots to emigrate to North America in search of freedom from religious persecution. • In England, Protestantism took root not from the actions of the lower classes, but in fact through the actions of the King. • King Henry VIII, whose father Henry VII had won the throne by defeating the previous king in the War of the Roses, believed that the only way to protect the monarchy in England was to ensure dynastic succession. Henry VIII was married to Catherine of Aragon, aunt of Spanish King Charles I (who had also been elected Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). Catherine had given birth to a daughter, Mary Tudor (who would go on to become Queen Mary), but was unable to give birth to the son Henry believed would protect his legacy. As Catherine was six years older than Henry (not a big deal today, but very big in Henry’s time), Henry became convinced that Catherine would never be able to give him a son. He ordered his advisor, Thomas Cardinal Wolsey, to request an annulment (dissolution) of his marriage from the Pope in 1527. Pope Clement VII found several reasons for delay, and ultimately refused the annulment (for fear that granting such a request would anger Catherine’s nephew King Charles). • King Henry VIII, at this point besotted with Anne Boleyn (who had become his mistress and would soon become Henry’s second of six wives), broke from the Church in 1533 and declared that he would create an English Church which would allow divorce (among its other doctrinal virtues). Anne Boleyn, ironically enough, would give birth to another daughter – the future Queen Elizabeth I, but not a son (that honor fell to Henry’s third wife, Jane Seymour), who gave birth to the ill-fated Edward VI (who died months short of his sixteenth birthday). Henry VIII’s establishment of the Anglican Church (Church of England) would lead to nearly a century of religious conflict in England. I. Events in Europe – Spanish Armada • The events surrounding the SPANISH ARMADA can be best described as an abortive Catholic Counterreformation effort by a spurned suitor. Spain’s King Philip II was married to English Queen Mary (who was Catholic) from 1554 to her death in 1558. Mary, who attempted to return England to Catholicism (the religion of her mother, Catherine of Aragon) from the Protestant Anglicanism of her father and brother, died without children and was succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth. • Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, ascended to the throne and returned England to Anglicanism. As the world’s most eligible woman (an unmarried Queen), Elizabeth had her pick of suitors from all over the courts of Europe, including her former half-brother-in-law, Philip II. Ultimately, Elizabeth decided against marrying (or having children, and is thus often referred to as “The Virgin Queen”), which angered Philip II. • English sailors during the Age of Elizabeth delighted in attacking the “Spanish Main,” the treasure fleet which sailed from Veracruz to Spain semi-annually. These English privateers (Captains who sailed for themselves, but when successful were claimed by England) became known as “sea dogs,” and most famous among them were Martin Frobisher and Sir Francis Drake (who was knighted due to his circumnavigation of the globe in 1578-1580). • In 1585, Elizabeth pledged financial and military support to the Dutch Protestant rebels in the Low Countries of Belgium and Luxembourg (who were fighting a revolt against the Spanish, who controlled the Low Countries). This was seen as the final insult to Philip II, who called for the construction of the largest war fleet ever built. Philip’s plan was to send a military force, under the leadership of the Duke of Parma, to the coast of the Low Countries, where they would be transported by the Armada across the English Channel to invade and capture England. • The Armada, a fleet of nearly 130 war ships, was under construction from 1585 to 1588. English spies discovered the plan, and Sir Francis Drake led a raid on the Spanish port of Cadiz, destroying nearly 30 ships and, more importantly, destroying the vast majority of the barrels constructed by the Spanish to transport food and water on the voyage. Once the fleet set sail in 1588, lack of naval discipline and harassment from England’s fleet of small coastal vessels delayed the attack until finally, in July 1588 the Armada was ready to strike from across the English Channel, although Parma’s army was not yet prepared for such an move as Parma and the Spanish Admiral had not been in communication for months. . The English use of fireships gave the Spanish sailors doubt as to their ultimate success, and a terrible storm blew the fleet into the North Sea, preventing the army and fleet from meeting. This “Protestant Wind” of legend was the final straw for Admiral Medina Sidonia, and he ordered the fleet to return home by rounding Scotland and Ireland on the way back to Spain. The North Sea was unusually stormy that year, causing many of the Spanish ships to sink at sea or become grounded on the Irish coastline. Nearly half of the fleet was destroyed by the time it returned home to Spain, and thousands of Spanish sailors died, not from battle or drowning, but from diseases contracted by drinking contaminated water and eating tainted food. • The defeat of the Spanish Armada is often referred to as the beginning of the end of the Spanish Empire, but Spain would control international territories until the Spanish- American War of 1898. It is more accurate to describe the Armada as the beginning of England’s ascendancy to world power from years of near-isolation.

II. The NORTHWEST PASSAGE • Once it became known throughout Europe that a continent existed on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, explorers changed tact and began to search for a “Northwest Passage,” a water-route through the continent to Asia. A “Northwest Passage does, in fact, exist – unfortunately it requires ships to travel through the Arctic Ocean and between the northernmost Canadian islands and the Arctic Ice Shelf to traverse it. Many European explorers attempted to find the route, opening up North America for non- Spanish exploration and claims in the process. • John Cabot, an Italian living in England, convinced English King Henry VII that a sea route to Asia could be found at the same time Columbus was making his second voyage to the Caribbean. Cabot believed that a northern route across the Atlantic would work, and convinced King Henry to grant Cabot a royal charter for any lands found by the expedition. Cabot’s first voyage took place in 1497, with the English expedition claiming parts of Labrador, Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island for King Henry and England. A second voyage for Cabot ended in disaster, with Cabot drowning in a storm on the Atlantic Ocean in 1498. • Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian Captain in the employ of France, set sail in January 1524 in an attempt to discover a sea route to Asia. Verrazzano made landfall near present day Cape Fear, North Carolina, and sailed first south, and then north – mapping the coastline from the northern border of Florida to the Bay of New York – before sailing home in July 1524. • Jacques Cartier was a French explorer who sailed to Canada for France. First detailed to find a sea route to Asia, Cartier’s first voyage (1534) saw the French captain map the west coast of Newfoundland, discover Prince Edward Island, and sail into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. His second voyage (1535) saw Cartier sail to Canada with three ships, where they sailed further along to St. Lawrence River to present-day Quebec, where a small settlement was established. Cartier sailed as far west as Montreal before returning to France. In his third voyage (1541), all plans of finding a sea route to Asia were cast off in favor of establishing a permanent settlement (which colonists did, until they experienced their first Canadian winter, returned to France in 1542, and France would not attempt to colonize Canada again for nearly half a century). • Henry Hudson was an English born explorer who sailed for both England and the Netherlands in his quest for the Northwest Passage, and was perhaps the closest explorer to reaching that goal. His first (English-financed) expeditions both ended in failure – the first voyage (1607) to find a northern route by sailing west was financially successful only because his crew discovered a whale hunting ground, whereas the second voyage (1608) saw his crew sail east to be stopped by ice north of Russia. His third (Dutch-financed) voyage (1609), which began by sailing east, saw the crew frustrated once again but this time sailed west and made landfall at Nova Scotia. The Half Moon sailed down the east coast as far south as the Chesapeake Bay, before sailing back up to explore New York Harbor and the Hudson River before returning to Europe (his ship was stopped at Dartmouth in England, where he was forbidden from working with the Dutch as an Englishman). His fourth voyage (1610) was once again under English financing, saw Hudson and his ship Discovery sail west past Greenland through the Hudson Strait into Hudson Bay, where the ship was ultimately trapped in ice and unable to continue on sea. The crew established winter quarters on the coast of Hudson Bay, and when spring came the ship (minus Hudson, his son, and a few crew members loyal to Hudson – they were cast adrift in Hudson Bay in a small boat to presumably die of exposure) returned to England. Several of the mutineers were tried, but were acquitted of the charges.

III. European Presence in North America • Roanoke – Walter Raleigh was a privateer like Sir Francis Drake, but unlike Drake Raleigh parlayed this skill set and persona into becoming one of Queen Elizabeth I’s favorites at court. Granted power, money, and prestige, Raleigh requested and was granted a Royal Charter giving him to establish an English Colony in North America. In 1584, Raleigh financed an expedition to chart and explore part of North America – the region (present-day Virginia and North Carolina) was called “Virginia” by Raleigh in honor of the Queen (who was referred to as “The Virgin Queen” due to her being unmarried). In 1585, his first attempt at colonizing failed when the 100 men sent to settle Roanoke Island (off the coast of present- day North Carolina) returned to England as a result of the harsh winter (and difficulties with local Native Americans). In 1587, Raleigh sent a second group of settlers (nearly 150 in all) to Roanoke Island. John White, one of the leaders of the settlement, was sent back to England in the fall of 1587 for supplies, and was delayed in returning until 1590 (due to the Spanish Armada and difficulties in financing a return voyage). When White finally returned to Roanoke, he found the colony deserted, with the only clues as to what happened being the words “CRO” and “CROATOAN” carved into the trunk of a tree. No one knows for certain what befell to the Lost Colony of Roanoke. • In 1564, a group of nearly 300 French Huguenots established a small colony in Spanish Florida, constructing a triangular-shaped structure they called Fort Caroline. News of this fledgling Protestant colony reached the Spanish in Madrid, where King Philip II ordered an army of Spanish soldiers to drive the French out of Florida and toe stablish a Spanish settlement there. • A Spanish fleet of eleven ships and over 1,000 soldiers embarked under the command of General Pedro Menendez de Aviles, landing and establishing the settlement which would grow to be St. Augustine on August 28 1565. Menendez de Aviles then took a detachment of soldiers, attacked Fort Caroline, and killed most of the Huguenots (those who were spared were either willing to convert to Catholicism or were artisans whose labor was needed at St. Augustine). The inlet where the massacre took place has since been called “Matanzas” (killings or slaughters). • In 1608, French explorer Samuel de Champlain established a small fort on the St. Lawrence River at present-day Quebec City. Quebec would act as the key fur trading post for the French in Canada for the next century and a half. Champlain was responsible for the alliance which was to blossom between the French and the Hurons, and the animosity between the French and the Iroquois. Champlain and his Huron allies went to war against the Iroquois in 1615, which led to a Huron defeat and Champlain’s being forced to live with the Hurons through the winter of 1615-16 due to a leg injury – however, Champlain’s journals of the daily life of the Hurons was essential for continued amicable relations between the French and their Native American allies. • In 1673, French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette travelled along the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes to find the head of the Mississippi River, and to explore the length of the Mississippi River. Their journey of discovery expanded French knowledge of, and influence in, the Midwest region of North America. • Rene-Robert Cavalier, Sieur de La Salle, was granted permission by King Louis XIV to take an expedition south to the mouth of the Mississippi River. La Salle established the forts of Prod’homme at present-day Memphis Tennessee and St. Louis in present-day Illinois, and laid claim to the entire Mississippi River Valley Region, calling it “Louisiana” in honor of King Louis XIV. Louisiana would never be heavily populated by the French (in fact, none of Canada would be) – French settlements tended to be small, and the French settlers would be more likely to live with and work with the local Native Americans than any of the other European colonizers. • The Dutch, thanks to the explorations of Henry Hudson, laid claim to the lands between the Delaware and Hudson Rivers in North America. These lands would include parts of Delaware, New Jersey, New York, and Connecticut. In 1624, 30 Dutch families were hired by the Dutch West India Company and sent to live in the newly claimed Dutch territory, called New Netherland. In 1625, more Dutch families traveled to New Netherland, including Peter Minuit, a trader who established trade relations with local Native Americans. By 1626, Minuti was the director for the colony of New Netherland, and was reputed to have purchased Manhattan Island from the local Lenape tribe for approximately 60 guilders (about $24) worth of beads, cloth, and ornaments. Minuit then consolidated the scattered Dutch settlements, establishing Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of the island and ultimately the town of New Amsterdam. Minuet’s expertise was in trade (nearly 15,000 beaver furs passed through New Amsterdam annually under his leadership), not in community building (by 1628 there were only 270 Dutch colonial residents. The West India Company established the Patroon System, in which large tracts of land were granted to farmers who could bring 50 workers to live in the colony. The Patroon System, along with the Dutch belief in religious toleration for all led to the growth of the colony of New Amsterdam. • Peter Minuet, upon being fired from his position of director of New Amsterdam (he was accused of unlawfully aiding his friends in schemes to smuggle furs and tobacco), convinced the Swedish government to establish a Swedish colony south of the Dutch land claim. Fort Christiana, erected in 1638 on the site of present-day Wilmington Delaware, would be home to a small settlement of Swedish farmers and traders. • The Dutch feared that the Swedish were encroaching upon their land and trade, and thus built Fort Casimir (at present-day New Castle, Delaware) seven miles south of Fort Christiana as a pretext to enforce expanded Dutch land claims. Several battles later saw Dutch governor Peter Stuyvesant lay siege to Fort Christiana in 1655, and when it was finally captured the Dutch renamed it Fort Althena.

Chapter 2 Section 5 Vocabulary

• Immune – having a natural resistance to disease • Middle Passage – a voyage that brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to North America and the West Indies • African Diaspora – the population of displaced Africans and their descendants around the world Chapter 2 Section 5: Beginnings of Slavery in the Americas I. The Need for a New Labor Force Unlike West Africans (who had been exposed to Europeans about a hundred years earlier), Native American populations were devastated by their first encounters with Europeans and their diseases (especially smallpox, measles, and typhus). Modern historians estimate that 80- 95% of the Native American population were decimated by the newly introduced diseases between 1492 and 1600. Not only was this sharp decrease in population disastrous for the native cultures, but it was also detrimental for the agricultural and labor systems put into place by the Europeans. Large numbers of inexpensive yet physically capable workers were needed throughout the New World, and for this Europeans turned to slaves from West Africa. II. The Slave Trade • In 1510, the Spanish government authorized the sale of slaves into New Spain settlements, with the first slaves arriving just eight years later. By the dawn of the 17th Century (1600 C.E.), over a million African slaves had been forcibly transported from their home to the New World. • Slaves were transported to the New World in one of three “legs” or “passages” of trade. The first leg, called the “Outward Passage,” saw ships travel south from Europe to Africa to trade guns and alcohol for slaves. The second leg, called the “Middle Passage,” saw slaves transported across the Atlantic Ocean for sale in the New World, and slave ships purchase raw materials (cotton, sugar, and other plantation-grown crops) to be transported back for sale in Europe on the third leg, the so-called “Return Passage.” This Triangular Trade was so incredibly lucrative financially that the moral issue of slavery was easily forgotten by many in their quest for financial gain.

• Transportation of slaves was almost as cruel as slavery itself. Slaves were chained and marched from central Africa to the western slave trading ports (often a journey of hundreds of miles), where slaves were held in confinement at large slave holding centers until they were sold for transportation across the ocean. • Slave ships were small, cramped wooden ships on which the slaves were chained in place and stowed like cargo. Slaves would be packed into lower decks which were often no taller than four feet high, and these decks would be partitioned with shelves, so that slaves could be confined in incredible small amounts of space. Disease, suffocation, and malnutrition all led to the death of slaves being transported from Africa, with estimates of nearly 1 of every 6 slaves dying on board the ships. • Between 1520 and 1860, nearly 12 million African slaves were transported across the Atlantic. Approximately 10 million survived the voyage, and the vast majority of those who did so were sold to plantations in the Caribbean and South America. Less than a million African slaves were sold directly to the colonies which would become the United States. • This transportation of huge numbers of Africans became known as the African Diaspora, and its effects on the population of several African nations are still felt today.

III. Slave Culture in the Americas • African slaves were not always treated harshly, nor was slavery treated as a life-long sentence in the English colonies. The harshness of the masters always depended upon the masters themselves, and the laws of the colony in which the slave and his “owners” resided. • Slaves could often rely upon the bonds of family as a way to get past the horrors they endured. Unfortunately, masters often did not view the slave family as a sacrosanct unit to be respected and maintained – slave families would often be broken up with the sale of members of those families upon the whim (or financial necessity) of the master. • Religion was another refuge for the minds of slaves. The idea of a paradisiacal afterlife held great sway, as one can imagine that hardships of the present could possibly be mitigated by the notion that suffering now meant salvation in the next life (the great majority of slaves were or became Christian). Slave spirituals often contained religious references in their expressions of sorrow, agony, joy, and most of all hope.