Fish and Nutrition in the Pacific Lslands*

Asia-PacificJournal of PublicHealth 1987 - Vol 1 No.2

Fishand Nutrition in the Pacific lslands*

G Kent,BEE, MSc, PhD Departnent of PoliticalScience, University of Hawaii Honolulu,Hawaii, 96822, USA

Abstracl

Malnutrition in the Pacific islands arises resourcesmight be used to contribute to the alleviation partly because local production of fish and of that malnutrition. other foods is strongly export-orientedand imported foods are often of inferior nutritional Perspectivesof the Problem value. Some types of malnutrition in the Pacific islands might be remedied through Although absolutefood shortagesare rare, malnutrition improveduse of fisheriesproducts. problems occur in all of the Pacific island nations. ln the production phase of fisheries oper- Infants and children are particularly vulnerable to ations, increasing attention should be given undemutrition. Recent estimates of infant mortality rates (Table 1) suggest that there is very substantial to local production for local consumption. In malnutrition in some of the islands.r processlng, improvementscould be made in Certain kinds of malnutrition have become wide- traditional techniques ot drying, salting and spread in the Pacifrc islands as a result of smoking fish. The use of fish products in modemisation or, as it is sometimescalled, wester- weaning foods should be strengthened. In nization or urbanization.t-s However, the causal link- distribution, means could be found to imp- agesare not always the sameand the seriousnessof the rove the delivery of fish to the poor, whether problem has not been clearly assessed. through commercial channels, barter, trad- Modemisationtypically involvesa complexcluster phenomena itional gifting or Institutional feeding. Con- of including monetisation,urbanization, increased salaried growth, patterns in households employment, economic sumption could be population growth, the decline of the community and improved through educational programmes, the rise of individual wealth accumulation. In the which address traditional taboos and which 1950s it was already being reportedthat "bread and promote improved home preservation and sugarwere regularlyconsumed by villagersengaged in preparationtechniques. subsistenceagriculture on Rarotonga. The average At the natlonal level, nutritional lmpacts family was consuming1,535 grams of white breadand should be taken into account along with econ- 106 gramsof sugarper day."t omic impacts in the evaluationof flshery dev- In my view, modem malnutrition in the Pacific is elopmentplans and proiects. largely due to the fact that islanders are losing control over their own diets. The increasingavailability of money and thus of store goods, particularly imports, Keywords: Fish, Malnutrition, Nutrition, increasespeople's choice, at least for those who can Pacific islands. afford the products. But the process also enlargesthe islanders' vulnerability to alien ,influences in the Introduction formation of their choicesfrom this rich variety. Competition Between Commercial Foods and There are serious problems of malnutrition in the Traditional Foods Pacific islands. This paper explores how fishery This outside influence, whether from local store operators or from foreign corporations, is not neutral *Presentedat the PacificPeace Seminar, Honolulu, and it is not designedto promote good nutrition. The July7-25, 1986. motivation of these outsiders is businessand the more

64 Asia-Pacific Journalof PublicHealth 1987 - Vol1 No.2

Table 1. - Infant Mortality and Life Expectancy prolitable commercialfoods oftcn are lcss nutritious in the Pacific Islands. thantraditional foods. Local mcrchantspromote soft drinksrathcr than coconut milk only becauseselling lnfant soft drinksis normallymore profitable. ,. LlIe Country mortalltv Similarly, food productssuch as white bread, exPectancYT rate* doughnuts,and biscuits are promoted locally because of the profits they can yicld, not bccauseof thcir MELANESIA Papua New Guinea nutritivevaluc. Whcatproducts generally go to those Fiji 't7 50 with money,cspecially in the urbancentrcs, but they Fijians 30 64 arc somctimcsconsumcd by the poor, as prestige Indians 4l 62 foods,and tcnd to displaceother more higtrly nutritive SolomonIslands 53 54 foodswhich could bc obtainedmore chcaply. The Vanuatu 94 55 Pacific islands,likc othcr dcvelopingnations, have New Caledonia increascdcnormously thcir impors of wheatin recent Melanesians 39 60 ycars,not so muchbccause of rcal nccdsbut because Europeans 9 t5 of thc vigour with which whcatis markctcdby the POLYNESIA cxportingnations. Tl"rc dangcrs of thewhcat addiction WesternSamoa JJ 63 havcalrcady bccn rccogniscd clscwhcre.ct French Polynesia 5'7 62 Tonga 4l 63 E xport-:O riente d F-oo d Productio n American Samoa l8 70 Cook lslands 29 67 Wallis and Futuna 49 63 Incrcasingly,pattcms of production arc orientcd Tuvalu 43 59 toward accontmodatingoutside interests. Some Niue ll 67 dcvclopmcntplans givc littlc attcntion to the production Tokelau .7 I NA of food for local consumption. In the Marshall MICRONESIA Islands,for example,if livcstockis cxcludcd,thc agriculturc Guam l3 It budgctfor localfood production amounts to FederalStates of Micronesia 45 58 A.75Voof thc ovcrallbudgct for 1985to 1989.gThis Kiribati 93 52 inattcntionto productionfor local consumptionis MarshallIslands 45 60 indicatcdb1, rhc data in Tablc2. Of thenations listcd, North MarianaIslands 26 66 significant-gainsin localfood productionpcr capita Palau 28 66 havcbccn achicvcd only in thcSolomon Islands, whilc Nauru 3l 55 in thc oilrcrsthcrc has bccn littlc or no gain. Even morc signilicantly,in many of the islandnations, * Numberof deathsof infantsunder one yearof agefor each productivityvarics sharplyovcr time, suggcsLing 1,000live births considcrablcinsccurity in foodsupplics. t Age at deathwhich is statisticallyexpected at the time of birth. Thc markctoricritation intro

Tabfe 2. - Index of Food ProductionPer Capita (1974-76= 100).

1973 1974 1975 t976 t9'77 1978 1979 1980 l98l 1982 1983 Cook Islands l0l 83 106 lll ll3 98 64 90 83 92 tU Fiji tt2 102 98 100 ll0 lll 139 tzr r32 r34 92 Papua New Guinea 99 100 l0l r00 98 97 97 96 95 97 97 WesternSamoa 98 98 100 102 105 10r 100 l0l lo4 103 100 SolomonIslands 92 100 97 t02 ll3 116 t26 120 t32 t29 t38 Tonga 88 93 103 t04 98 9l 90 96 l0l 86 86 Vanuatu 8t 105 98 97 93 106 107 8l 99 82 82

Source:Statisticol Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok, Thailand: EconomicCommission for Asia and the Pacific, 1985.

oc Asia-PacificJournalof Public Heahh 1987 - Vol1 No.2 which went byond comparisonof the nutricntsin thc have few local substitutes. However, even rice two products.In thisinstance, nutrition cducation also importscan be excessive. Careful analyses need to be entailedhelping people to understandwhy CocaCola madeon a commodity-by-commodity basis, taking into was promotedso vigorouslyand whoseintcrests it accountnot only economic but alsonutritional impact. served.Thus nutrition education can bccome a formof political education. It can bccome a means of empowcrrncnt,.hclping..pcoplc to gain incrcasing Fishas a FoodResource conlrolover tnclr own olcts,to scrvclnctr lndlvrdual andcommunity interest5. to,t t ResourcePotential FoodTrade Most of thc PacificOcean is comprisedof very dcep Modem malnutritionin the Pacific appcarsto bc waler,with substantialcontincntal shclves found only associatcdwith thc pattcmof tradcthat has emcrgcd. off PapuaNcw Cuinca. Conditionsin the tropical Althoughhigirly self-sufficicnt in thepast, thc islands Pacific as a whole are suchthat phytoplanktonand now import a vcry large shareof thcir food. In the zooplanktondcnsitics are low, andthus the fish stocks early 1960s,Fiji's food importbill alrcadyamountcd in thcrcgion arc spancly distributcd. to about25Vo of thcincome derivcd from thc cxport of Scvcralmajor stocks of tunamigratc through the agriculturalproducts.t ln 1975,Fiji's food imports Paciljc.region, with scasonalvariations in thcir accountcdfor l9o/oof all imports.tzBy 1976Funafuti, migrationpaLl.cms. Tuna is thc majorcommercial themain atoll of Tuvalu,importcd 80a/o of its totalfood fishcrics'rcsourcc in thcrcgion. Priorto thccxtcnsion nccds.tIn theearly 1950s food accountcd for lcssthan of jurisdictionovcr fishing limits to 200nautical milcs 10o/oof the valueof importsin Tonga,but thatfigurc in thc latc 1970sand early 1980s,thc offshorewaters increascdto over 307oby thc carly 1970s.2In 1982 of the islandswere hcavily cxploitcdby vcssclsof half the valueof consumcrgoods importcd into the distant-watcrfishing nations, primarily vcssels from Marshall Islandsconsistcd of food, bcvcragcsand Japan,Korea and Taiwan. Accessis now provided tobacco.s throughliccnsing arrangcmcnts on a feebasis, and also Thc islands are highly depcndenton importcd through joint vcnture arrangcmcnts. Thcre is food, but that doesnot meanthat thcy shouldtry to considcrablepoaching. Tablc 3 indicates the moveto the othcrextreme and import no food at all. magnitudcof thccatchcs by distant-watcr fishing flcets Large contincntalnations such as the Unitcd Statcs in comparisonwith localcatchcs in the 1970s. importgreat quantities of food. Insistcnccon totalsclf- Whaleconsumption has dcclincd sharply bccause sufficiency for small island nations would mcan of dcplctcd stocks, rcduccd dcmand, rcstrictions sacrificingthe vcry considcrablebcnclits which could imposcdby thc IntcmationalWherling Commission, bc obtaincdfrom cngaging in tradc,Tradc can bring in andprcssurcs imposcd by environmcntalorganisations somcproducts at lowcr cost than thcy can bc produccd suchas Crccnpcacc. domesticallyand it providcsfor grcatcrvaricty and Dolphins,dugong and turtlcs arc not harvcsted oftcnhighcr quality foods. Engagcmcntin tradccan commcrcially,but thcy arc uscd on a subsistcncebasis enhancefood sccurityby providingacccss to food ln somcarcas. suppliesin timesof local shortfalls.Howcvcr, high In PapuaNew Guincathcrc arc substantialfresh depcndencyon importcdfood also mcansthat the watcrfish resources.Tilapia, dcliberatcly introduced islands have low food sccurity in that thcy are in thc 1950s,has bccomcan importantsource of vulncrableto cut-offs whcn food supplicsbccome animalprotcin in somercgions.tn Barramundi, which shortelscwhcre in thc world.u Morc importurtly,wi[r dcpcndson PapuaNcw Guinea'srivers for partof its a declining capacity for sclf-provisioning,their lilb-cycle,is of significantcommcrcial importance. bargainingpower is reduced,and thcy bccomc Thcre is a frcshwatcrclam fishcry in Fiji which compellcdto acceptunfavourablc priccs. That is produccssome 700 tons pcr year. The other lcss alrcadyclearly the pattemfor thcir cxports. dcvclopcdPacific island tcrritories havc no significant Outsidenations with greatcrbargaining powcr frcshwatcrfishcrics. Thcre arc somc small frcshwater dcrivesubstantial bcnefits from tradcwith thePacific fishcricsof localiscdintcrcst. islands.Thus they promote a levcl of dcpcndcncyon The ncarshorcisland rcsourccs arc lcss abundant tradewhich goes wcll beyondthat warrantcd in tcrms thanthcy are ncar contincntal landmasscs: of thei slanders' self-intercsts. Thc large-scalc imports Thc smallncssof the land massesgreatly rcstricts the of junk fooddemonstrate this pattcm vcry clearly. nutricntrun-olf availablcto enrich the sunounding The Pacificislands nccd to bc discriminatingand ocean. Thcrcforc,the watcrssurrounding thcm are ask how much of which kinds of food shouldbc lypicallyclcar and blue and,comparcd to continental exportcdor imported,under what sorts of conditions. coastalarcas, of low productivity.As a rcsultof this Theirtask is to find a middleway. Surclysome high lack of cxtcnsive continental shelf or coastal valuefood productssuch as tunaor gingcror vanilla cnrichmcnt.small islandstates have limited inshore shouldbe exportcd, although care is requircdto assurc fish rcsourccsand hcnce restricted new inshore fishery that the benefitsflow propcrly and to assurethat potentials.r5 environmentaldamage is keptin check. Somefoods, Nevenhclcss,the islands do have appreciable suchas rice,should indced be importcdbccausc thcy quantiLicsof fish alongthcir oceanshores and in their yield substantialnutritive value at a modestcost and lagoons. oo Asia-PacilicJournal of PublicHealth 1 987 - Vol1 No.2

Table 3. - Local and Distant-Water Fleet Catches.rs

Longline catch Pole-and-linecatch in 200-milezone by Japanesefleet Localtotal Local tuna by foreign fleets in 200-milezone Country fish catch catch in 1976 in 1976 (tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes)

American Samoa 220(',78) 20 ('18) 387 29 Cook Islands 2,866 l0 Fiji 11,594("77) 7,262 (',77) I,553 zJt French Polynesia 2,386(',74) | ,293(' 74) 7,264 0 Guam Kiribati 1,344(',77) 786(',77\ ll,349 16,5'70 Nauru 0 0 I,845 8,224 New Caledonia 499(',77) 186('77) I,800 58 Niue 20 ('78) l0 (,79) 289 4 Norlolk Island 700 2 Papua New Guinea 68,000(,78) 47,720(',78) 6,312 10,533 Pitcairn Island I,090 0 Solomon Islands 17,lU {'rc) 15,787(',76) 2,709 17,248 Tokelau 4so 1,645 Tonga l,ll7 ('77) 300('77\ 816 l8 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands 10,000('76) 5,284(''t6) 20,60r 38,360 Tuvalu 80('78) 40 ('78) I,886 7,6ll Vanuatu r0,500('76) 10,000('76) r,012 93 Wallis and Futuna 386 155 Western Samoa t,700(,'76) 850(',76) 160 24 Total 124,904 89,538 63,475 t00,817

Table 4. - Production, Import, Export Comparisons.

Commercial fish Total locally Total fish catch catch for domestic registered fish from Total fish Total fish Country consumption catches 200-mile zone imports(1986) exports(1977) (tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes) (A.$'000) (4$'000)

American Samoa 220 220 636 496 67,979 Cook Islands NA NA 2,876+ NA Fiji 4,332 11,594 l 3,380 7,000 4,705 FrenchPolynesia 2,386 2,386 9,650 2,200 Kiribati t,344 t,344 29,263 76 Nauru 0 0 10,069 NA New Caledonia 499 499 ) 7\1 1,100 t2l Niue 20 20 313 50 Norfolk Island NA NA 702+ 2 PapuaNew Guinea 20,000 68,000 84,845 8,463 20,919 SolomonIslands |,657 t7,444 37,40r 150 7,895 Tokelau NA NA 2,095+ NA Tonga t,tt7 |,tt7 I,951 96 5 Trust Territoryof the PacificIslands 4,716 10,000 68,961 NA 3,265 Tuvalu 80 80 9,577 NA Vanuatu 500 10,500 I I,605 930 12,011 WesternSamoa t,700 1,700 I,884 700 Total 38,571+ Q4,q)4+ 287,565+ 21,261+ t16,092+

Source:Kearney RE: SomeEconomic Aspects of theDevelopment and Management of Fisheriesin theCentral and Western pacific. South Pacific Commission FisheriesNewsletter l98l: 22:6-15.

67 Asia-PacificJournalof Public Heahh 1987 - Vol1 No.2

Local Supplies markctcd. A few of the island groupsare very large exportcrsof fish, while most exportonly negligible Traditionally,most fish consumcdin the Pacific quantitics. (AmericanSamoa does not recordpur- islandshave been marine hsh takcnfrom nearshoreor chasesof rawtuna for its two canneriesas imports, but lagoonwaters. Some forms of aquaculturehave been docs recordthe canncdtuna which is shippedout as practised,especially in ancientHawaii. Milkfish have exporl.s,thus making it appcar that it has an beencultured in the Cook Islands,Fiji, andKiribati. extraordinarilygood balanceof trade)'. The islands In large,high islands,inland "bush" pcople obtaincd importlarge quantitics of fish for local consumption, fish through trade with coastal people. Somc particularlychcap canned mackerel from Japan.zt freshwaterseafoods have bcen available dircctly in the In Fiji in 1970, about two-thirds of the fish higilands, including frnfish, mollusks,prawns and consumedwas importcd canned fish, largely because ecls. Now muchof the fish is caughtand distributcd Iicsh fish was simply too expensivein the Suva on a commercialbasis. Fish is sold by roadside markct.z\n 1974canncd fish importscomprised 757o vendorsand throughsmall villagc sl.orcsas well as of the local fish consumption. In that year Fiji throughurban markets. In somecascs, govcrffncnts importcd F$7,761,000worth of fish and fish provide the infrastructureand othcr support for prcparalionsor 18.87oof the total value of food marketing,as in the cascof SIACO,the SolomonIa imports. Fish has bccn accountingfor a steadily (fish)Company, Ltd. incrcasingamount as well as a steadilyincreasing Thcre have been scriousshortages of fish for proportionof Fiji's food imports.'z Importsof thc consumptionin the islands,most noticeablyin the rnost popularcanncd mackcrcl have bcin controlled urbanmarkets: whollyby onccompany.t2 Tonganwaters are a largclyuntappcd sourcc of food, In 1971lcss than one-tenth of thc fish consumcd including such fish spccicsas tuna, bill-fish, and in WcstcmSamoa was caught locally. shark. In 1973,sale of fish throughthc Vunamarkct In 1978,whcn thc local catchamounted to about equaled ovsr US$15,000,or 120,000 pounds. 20 tons,Niuc importcdabout 54 tonsof fish. Howevcr,dcmand for fish in Nuku'alofafar exccllcd ln 1973 Io 1974 PapuaNew Guineaimported this amount.Personal observations evidcnccd that on almost22,000 metric tons of cannedfishery products, those days whcn fish is to be sold, crowds of mostof it cannedmackcrcl from Japan. customerswait hours beforc thc markct opcns. In fiscal 1977 Amcrican Samoa imported Despitethe fact that domesticdcmand for fish is 2,248,464pounds of cannedfish. This weightwas unsaturatcd.40Vo of thc Ekiaki'stotal catchtor 7973 grcatcrthan that of cvcry oLhcrimported foodstuff wassent to canncricsin PagoPago.z cxccptricc. Addingthe737,951pounds of frozenfish In 1978,it was obscrvedthat thc "dcmandfor that were importcdfor local consumption,the total fresh fish has ncvcr becn anythinglikc adcquatcly quantityof importcdfish wasgrcatcr than that of any supplicd"in Tonga'scapital city of Nuku'alofa.'o othcrfood itcm including rice.zr Thamanhas noted the "scarcitv of hnfishand shcllfish ln 1974,Yap caughtabout US$2,100worth of in thecapital city of Nuku'alofa."'t fish while importingUS$550 worth of cannedfish, lrss obvious to outsidcrsthan thc shortagcsin andthus was closcr to sclf-sufficicncythan any of the urbanmarkcts is the steadilydeclining supply from othcr districtsof Microncsia. The MarshallIslands. traditionalsubsistcnce fi sheries: for cxample, were importing 7SVo of its fish Locerl marinc foodstuffs (hnfish, shcllfish, sea rcquircmcntsfor is urbanccntres and over 507o of its urchins,sea slugs, octopi, crustaceans, scawecd, etc) total requirements.Truk producedabout US$66,500 continueto becritical food rcsources in coastalarcas of worth of fish but importcd US$385,290worth of largeislands and on smallislands. Howcvcr, bccausc canncdfish. Palauproduced US$60,000 of fish but of high costsof harvestingand physicalscarcity of importcdUS$268,287 worth of fish. Morerecent data freshmarinc foods, therc is incrcasingdcpcndence on on importsof canncdfish into Microncsia are provided tinncdfish.tz in Tablc5. Thc 1985total for Yap, 96,179pounds of The declinein traditionalsupplies is duenot only importcd cannedfish, may be comparedwith the to the availabilityof importcdfish but also to thc cstimatcd160,000 pounds of locallycaught fresh fish incrcasingavailability of moncy, the prcstigeand that was sold through storcs, restaurants,and convenienceofcanncd fish, ovcrfishing, exhaustion of institutionsin 1985. Of course there are also some traditionalresourccs, thc loss of traditional considcrablequantities which are not sold,and which fishingskills, the lack of supportinginfrastructurc for aresold but not rccordcd. thedevelopment of localfishcries, and cnvironmcntal Thc highlevel of importsof fish andother food to damageto traditionalrcsources.18-20 thc pcopleof Pacificislands arc of concembecause they arc relativelypoor, their economiesare fragile, Fish Imports and they show evidcnceof substantialmalnutrition. As oneobserver from Papua New Guinea asked: Why is it thatPacific island naLions arc buyinglarge To someextent inadequate local supplicsof fish arc andincrcasing quantities of mcat,fish, dairy producls, compensatedfor with imports. Basicdata on fishery fruit and vegctablesfrom New 7*aland (or from productionand trade are providcd in Table4. These anywhereclse for that mattcr)... When fertile data probably underestimateproduction for local countricssunoundcd bv scasthat arerich in fish and consumption,especially that part which is not othcrseafoods, arc irnportinglarge quantities of food

68 Asia-PacificJournalof Public Health 1987 - Vol1 No.2

Table 5. - Canned Fish Imports into Micronesia rapidlyincreasing the price of thesecommoditics. I (in Pounds). think that if we wereto analyseimport data over the pastcouple of yearswe would find that theseprice incrcascsdo not dircctlyrelate to theincreased income Micronesian Canned Fish district and of theavcrage islander. Therefore, these islands which year Tuna Mackerel Sardines depcndso much on importedfish arefacing a situation whcrcbythe pcr capitaconsumption of animalprotein Yap couldbe on a downwardtrend, unless local production 1984 l8,018 58,516 33,663 can be increascdto offset this depcndencyon 1985 2t,021 45,244 29,914 imports.x Palau 1984 47,617 58,275 16,170 FishExports 1985 45,475 55,492 20,244 Truk Largcquantities of fish areexportcd from thePacific 1984 29,137 280,959 22,879 islands,but. most of thisis comprisedof tuna,which I 985 27,982 209,874 17,377 drawsa rclativclyhigh pricc on worldmarkets. Most Ponape of this fish is caughtin largc-scalc,capital intensive, 1984 36,435 147,315 52,920 fishingopcrations, oftcn in joint vcnturcswith foreign 1985 34,818 187,719 62,72'l {lrms,or throughthe liccnsing of foreignfishing flccts Majuro with no localopcrations at all. However,as is evident 1984 79,065 39,060 48,825 fromnational dcvclopment plans and budgets, fishcrics 1985 11 r)7 62,055 26,880 for localconsumpl"ion have not bcenpromoted ncarly Kosrae as vigorouslyas export-oricntedfisherics. To some 1984 7,539 31,542 l7 1?S extcntthc cxport-oricnted fishcrics have been promotcd l 985 4,315 19,320 8,820 at thccxpcnsc of localfisherics. The historical cmphasis on export-oriented Source: Personal communication from Living Marine Re- fishcriesdevelopment would not be problematic except sources,Inc., San Diego, California. for the fact thatthc bcnefitsretumcd to the islanders, espcciallythe poorer islandcrs,have bcen quite mcagrc.2r,26For cxample, in Fiji: .. thcre was an al.tcmptto "develop" the fishing industry, i.c., 10 turn it into an export-oriented entcrpriscconccmcd primarily with making profits (mainly lbr {brcigninvcstors) rathcr than one which cmphasiscdfccding thc local population. Accordingly, to supplcmcntthcir own production(or lack of it), thc Pacific Fishing Companywas cstablishedwith somethingwould appcarto bc vcry wrong.... The substantialforeign interest and control.... The Pacific resultis thatin orderto payfor thedcsircd imports the FishingCompany (PAFCO) is 70VoJapancse-owned, economicresources of the PacihcIsland nations are with thc Fiji govcmmcntowning 25o/o of the shares channellcdinto foreign exchangc eaming activitics and and anothcrSVo availablc to Fiji residents....While theproduction for domcsticconsumption such as food PAFCO has providcd profits for its Japanese is neglected.Once this happcns, thcrc is no choicebut investors,its contributionto Fiji is debatable. If to import food, and so the viciouscircle gocson.... anything,it hascontributcd to thecountry's nutritional Any nationwhich promotes a narrowrangc of export- problcms. About 98Voof PAFCO'sproduction is orientatedor foreignexchange eaming activities, while cxportcd.And whilein rccentyears it hascontributed not being able to fecd its own pcoplc, bccomes over F$10million in exporteamings annually, it has particularly vulnerable to outsidc forces and not providedtuna for the local market. Instead, perpetuatesits positionas an economic colony. If this rclianceon canncdmackerel, imported from Japanat stateof affain is judgedto be undesirable,it is clcar consistentlyhigher priccs, has increased.z thatthe emphasis must be shiftcdto boostingdomestic Similarly,in Vanuatu: productionfor intemalconsumption in suchvital arcas Fishhas bccomc the sccondlargest export item. This as food production,and at the sametime rcducing cxporttrade is dominatcdby theSouth Pacific Fishing unnecessaryimports.z Company,part of the JapanescMitsui group....The A similar analysiswas madc by thc Rcgional companyopcratcs a canncrywhich then ships the fish Fisheries Coordinator for the Unitcd Nations to Hawaiiand clscwherc. Fish is in tum imponed, DevelopmentProgramme: largely from the samc Japanesecompany, and Lookingat the regionas a whole,I think that oneof markctedby BumsPhilp-owncd Kcer Brothers. It is a themost surprising facs thata newcomcrlcams is that relativclylargc industryby SouthPacific standards, virtually all of the islandsrcly heavilyon importsto with mostbcncfits going to foreigncompanies and a meetthe dcmand for fishcryproducts. In manycascs, few localbourgcoisie. The govemmcntitself receives thcseimports place a relativelyheavy drain on thc littlc rcvcnue,only a few locals are employedat islands'foreign exchange reseryes, but of cvcn more relativclylow wagesand the country's dependcncy on significanceis the recentinflationary trcnd which is importcdhsh is cncouragcd.t

69 Asia-Pacific JournalofPublic Heahh 1987 - Vol1 No.2

Somefresh tuna is consumedin the islands,but Fisheries Development to Alleviate Mal- there is also very considerablcdemand for other nutrition species,especially for reef fish which generallyare caughtby subsistenceor small-scaleoperations. The export fisheriesgenerally do not draw on the same Fisheriesdevelopment efforts normally place great stocksas those fishing for local consumption. The emphasison the production (catching) of fish,and give shortagesin local suppliesare due not so muchto the verylittle attentionto whatbecomes of thefish after it fact that large amountsof tuna areexportcd as to the is caught. Attentionshould be given to the entire fact that fisheries resourcessuitable for local systeminvolving production, processing, distribution, consumptionhave been deplctcdor have not bcen and consumption.Each of thesephases of fisheries developedadcquately. operationscan be improvedin the islands. This section rcviews the potentials for strengthening production,proccssing, distribution, and consumption ConflictingInterests spccificallyfor thepurposc of usingfisheries rcsources to hclpin alleviatingmalnutrition in thePacihc islands. The critique of the export-oricntcdfishcrics is not bascdon the argumcntthat cxportcdfish would be betterused if consumedlocally. It is basedon the Production observationthat thc very considerablebcncfits drawn from the exportfishcrics do not go to thoscmost in A promincnt expcrt in Pacihc fisheries,Robert need,and that export fisherics appcar to bcpromotcd at Keamey,obscrvcs that: thc expcnscof thc dcvelopmcntof fishcrics{br local Fish and fishcricshave played a ccntralrole in the consumpuon. culturc.sustcnance and rccrcationof all smallisland One type of conflict of interestis bctwccnthe communities.Thc abilityof thetradiLionally exploited Pacificislands and the outside nations involved in thcir fish rcsourccsof thc central and westcm tropical fisheriesoperations. Outsidcrsappcar to obtain Pacificto continucto providesubsistence protcin for disproportionatelylarge sharcsof the bcnefits. One islandcommunitics is arguablythe greatcstrcsource indicationof thisis thatthe islands consistently reccive potentialof thc region,and yct it is one which is lessmoney for theirexports than others. For example, commonly overlooked in the quest for more in 1979the National Fisheries Developmcnt (NFD) of spectaculardevclopmcnt options. ts the SolomonIslands was being paid US$472pcr ton lncreasingproduction for local consumptionin of skipjack while the standardprice, at Terminal island fisheriesdocs not ncccssarilymean reducing Island,Califomia, was US$760. In 1980,the NFD fish exports. Sometypcs of fish, suchas the tunas, wasrcceiving US$487 whilc theTerminal Island price aretoo valuableto be rcservcdfor consumptionin the was US$1,200. The gap in priceswidcns stcadily islands,and shouldbe exported.The taskis not so overtime, contributing to theovcrall widening gap in muchto reduceexports as to assurethat good supplies per capita income levcls bctween rich and poor of fishare available to thosewho cannot purchase high counInes.21,26 priccdproducts in thc urbanmarkets. The secondtype of conflict is bctwccnthose at the Ncarshorereef and lagoon fisherics resources are centreand thoseat the pcripherywithin thc Pacilic ovcrcxploitcdnear thc largcr population centres in the islandnations. Pacific islands, but thcre are considcrable Export-oricntedfi sheriesare commonlyj ustilied undcrexploitcdresources around the less densely with theexplanation that camings from spccicswhich populatcdislands. Even in thecunently overexploited draw a high pricc on world marketscan bc uscdto areas,bcttcr management might allow recoveryand, purchaseothcr inexpcnsivebut nutritiousfood, and ultimatcly,higher yiclds than have been obtained in the thus meetnecds more effectivcly. This is ccrtainly past.rsIt is alsopossible to dcvelopfish aggregation possible,and it appcarsto be happcningwherc large dcvices(FADs) and artificial reefs using materials such quantitiesof cheapcanncd mackerel arc imported. assunkcn ships or discardedautomobile tyrcs. Fiowever,we should ask how all of thc foreign Onc majorconstraint on the dcvelopmentof recf exchangeeamed from fishingoperations is used. It fishcricsis the possibilityof ciguaterapoisoning, seemsevident that little of the income from joint which canlead to scriousillness in consumcrs.The venturesor from licensingfces goes beyond the urban fear of poisoningmay be more widespreadthan is centresto reachthe poor or the peopleon the outcr actuallywarranted. The toxin is difficultto detect,but islands,the pcoplemost vulnerable to malnutrition. detectionhas becn a majorfocus of scientificresearch The failure to supportfood productionfor local in the rcgion.z-rt$sygml other forms of toxicity(e.g., consumptionshould not be dismissedas mcre neglect clupeotoxism)also are matters of seriousconcem. by the island govemments. Peoplc in govemment Therc are substantialpotentials not only for apparentlysee_themselves asderiving more benefit and dcvelopment of marine resources but also for more power from increasingtax revenuesand from expansionof freshwaterfisheries resources in thehigh foreign exchangeeamings than from having well- islands. In Keamey'sview, "the socio-economic nourished populations. The interestsof ordinary retum from increased yields in these fisheries, people,especially those on outlyingislands, and those particularlyin placessuch as the highlandsof Papua of the major govemmentaland business groups in thc NewGuinea where animal protein is scarce,could well urbancentres should not be assumedto be thc same. be relatively much greater than the benefis from 70 Asia-PacificJournalof Public Health 1987 - Vol1 No.2

similar increasesin yields in coastalfisheries where consumptionin the islands. Many yearsago a small, productionis relativelyhigher." simplepamphlet was prepared which described how to The consensusappears to be that therc is little salt,dry, smoke,and cook fish in the islandcontext,3? prospectfor aquaculturedevelopment in the islands, but it secmsto havebcen forgottcn. Recentadvances butthat assessment is based primarily on considcration in smoking and drying tcchniquesthat have been of commercial, export-orientcd aquaculture.r+developcdclsewhere with thcsupport of agenciessuch Traditional aquaculture of the sort practised asthe Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited historicallyin Hawaiimight be fcasiblein manyof the Nationsprobably could be adaptedfor Pacificislands. islands,especially on less hcavily populatcdouter Sincethe mostserious malnutrition in theislands islands.Milkfish culture,already practised on several affectsyoung childrcn,it would be worthwhileto of the islands,might be improvedand extendcd. exploremethods for improvingthe use of fishproducts A studyof thepotential for culturingfinfish in Fiji in weaningfoods, especially in outer islandswhere led to the observationthat "the cultureof fish alone fish may be one of the few good food resources maynot be economicallyfcasible." availablcin abundance. However,the practiceof polycultureof shrimpundcr To improve the use of fish productsin the extensiveoperation can be higtrlyprofitable. The fish alleviationof malnutrition,emphasis should be placed will thenconstitute a sourceof relativelychcap protcin on small-scalelocal fisheries. However, the potential for local consumption.The shrimpwill providehigh contributionof large-scale,export-oriented operations revcnueto farmcrsand will dccreasethe import of this shouldnot be ignorcd. For example,the PAFCO itcm into Fiji andpossibly providc a sourcCofforcign canncryin Fiji producesabout 500 mctric tons of currcncythrough cxport.32 fishnrcalcach ycar.:r Wastcsfrom suchlarge packing Thusfish for localconsumption conccivably could plantsmight bc a good sourceof organicfertilizer for be producedas a "spinoffproduct" in whichthc high homegardcns. Such spinoff products could be studicd pricedexport-oriented operation in cffcctsubsidiscs the to dctcnnincif thcycould be uscd more effectively for productmadc available for localconsumption.:: allcviatingmalnutrition. Thereis goodpotential for culturinggiant clams Export-oricntcdtuna catchingopcrations often (Tridacrc gigas) which "possessan astonishing lcavc bchindsubstantial quantities of fish unsuitable capabilityfor producinglarge quantities of cdiblemcat for canning. This fish has bccn sold at excessively with minimalinput."r Culturingclams is promising high priccsby Van Carnpto localpeople in Palau.zrIir notonly technically and commercially but also in tcrms Majuro,Japancse purse seincrs have given away small of its potentialcontribution to local nutrition. The or damagcdtunas to localpeople. Such practices could driedadductor muscle can bc exportcdfor highprices hurt local fishermen. These problemsmight be while the rcmainingmeat, favourcd in many of the circumventcdif meanscould be found to channel islands,could be madeavailable locally at low cost.3s systcmaLicallythis fish to thosc who needit most. The mcatthat is retaincdcould bc vicwedas a spinoff Indecd,at thc time of ncgotiatingtheir contracts, export- product,in effect subsidiscdby the cxport of the orientedvcnturcs might bc positively obligatedto adductormuscle. providefish for sclcctcdlocal nutritionprogrammes. Similarly,trochus is harvestcdprimarily forcxport Onccould also ask canneries to saveand encapsulate (its shell is uscd for button-making),but thc edible fishlivcroil in arcaswhcrc thcre are significantvitamin flesh is gcnerallyundcrutiliscd. Althoughthc first A dcficicncies. temptationmay be to explorrits commcrcialpotcntial,r explorationsmight be undcrtakcninto cxpandinglocal Distribution consumptionof the meat, especiallyon thc outer islands. Fish may bc distributedtfuough severaldifferent mechanismsto rcachthc consuming family, each with its own advantagcsand disadvantlges.Usually the Processing most visible form of distribution is commercial marketing,whcthcr that is undertakenthrough well- Fish may bc processcdin many different ways, organisedstorcs or throughsmall-scale beachfront or includingsmoking, drying, salting, canning, Iicczing, roadsidevendors. The least visible occurs in gutling, trimming, flaking, shaping,and cooking. subsistencefishcrics in whichthe producer is alsothe Proccssingmay bc undertakenfor diffcrentpurposcs, consumcrand thus thcre is virtuallyno distributionat includingpreservation, maintaining quality control, all. There are also importantpatiems of barter and makingthe product easier to transport,and making the giving of gifts, and in somecases the proceedsof productmore attractivc and palatable. fishingopcrations are authoritativcly allocated by local In thePacific islands, some fisheries rcsourccs are leaders.Thcsc non-commercial means of distribution availableonly irregularly,sometimes on a seasonal are of very grcat importancein the islands. In the basis. Thus thcre is a necd for prcservation SolomonIslands, for example,it wasestimated that in techniques. Traditionalmethods such as drying, 1984 only about l1Vo of the catch for local saiting,and smokingcan be considerablyimproved. consumptionwas tradcd for cash.rc Canningand freezinggenerally are too costlyfor fish Food is also distributcd through institutional destinedfor localconsumption. fccding programmesof differenrkinds. In United Linle effort hasbeen invested into improvingthe States-affiliatcd tenitories, for example,school lunches waysin which fish productsare processedfor local aresubsidised with moneyand commodities from the 71 Asia-PacificJournalof Public Heahh 1987 - Vol1 No.2

United States Departmentof Agriculrure (USDA). makes no proposalsfor strengtheningthem. The Theseprogrammes can be used to supply fish to reasongiven is that "theycannot be developedbeyond schoolchildren. The USDA schoollunch programme prcscntlevcls and areoverexploited in manyareas," hasprovisions rcquiring that some of thefood must be but pcrhapsmore significantly,"they offer little of local origin. If locally caughtfish wcre uscd,the opportunityfor capital investment."czThe prospecs programmecould help promote improvcd nutrition and for strcngthcninglocal commercial markets are at thesame time hclp strcngthcn local fishcries. rcgardcdas slim in comparisonwith theprospects for Evenwithout outsidc subsidies. it mav be uscful to dcvclopingmore lucrative export markets. promotethe consumptionof fish producisin schools, Proposalsare ofl.cn made for strengthening hospitalsand other institutional fccding programmcs. productionof fish for local consumptionin five-year developmcntplans, in theSouth Pacific Commission's Consumption FisheriesNewsletter, and in the work of agenciessuch as the Pacific FishcriesDevelopment Foundation. A greatdeal could bc doneto improvcthc ways in Howevcr,thc nutritional benefit that might be obtained which fish productsare used aftcr they reachthe from local fishing has not been an explicit household. In many of the islands,whcn only a considcration. Although it is obvious that local limited amountof fiitr is availableit is rcscrvcd'for fishcriesmakc a substantialcontribution to localdiets, consumptionby adultmalcs and by thccldcrly. Littlc no attentionhas bcen given spccifically to thepotential fish is consumedby infants,childrcn, and young for fishcriesto hclp in alleviatingmalnutrition in the women- thegroups'most vulnerablc to malnutrition.- islands. Varioustaboos constraining thc usc of fish should It shouldnot bc assumcdthat small-scalc fisheries be revicwcd.In Kiribati,for cxample: projcctswill alwayscontribute to the alleviationof Certaintypes of fish areforbidden to bc catcn. Some malnutrition.Considcr, for example,thc OutcrIsland parentsbclicve that it is not goodto givc childrcnfish, Fish DcvclopmcntProjcct planncd for the Marshall it makesthcm lazy. Duringlocal traditionaldancing Islands: boys andgirls arenot allowedto cat fish thrccdays Thcobjcctivc of thisprojcct is to improvethe economic beforethe dancing trcgins.ro situation in thc outer islands through incrcasing However, some traditional bclicfs rcinforcc incomesand employmcnt in fisherics.It will leadto an catchingand eating fish: incrcascin thecountry's fish production and a resultant In NorthemKiribati childrcn are woken up at nightno greatcrsupply of fresh fish to urban arcas,thus matterwhat time, (depending on whcnthc menretum rcducingthc needfor fish impors andpromoting the from torchfishing) to eatfresh fish. The bclicf is that exportof lish products. if childrenare fed with fish at all timcsthcy will, whcn The projcctprovides for thc constructionof fishbases grown up, continueto go fishing to satisfy thcir with icc-makingfacilities on 24 atollsand islands each dcmandfor fiSh. Howevcr,in contrastto this is thc with a 45-footcollcctor vesscl capable of holdingten SouthcmKiribati who bclicvc that if a childis fcd with tonsof fish.s fish at this age,he or she will bccomca bcggarfor Sucha projcctcould yicld incrcasingincome to a food.ar fcw whilc at thesame timc rcducingthe supply of fish Whilc sometaboos have no cvidenfbasis in fact, to thc majorityof pcoplcin the outerislands. If no somedo, suchas the dangcrof cigual.crapoisoning. specialprovisions arc madc,fish productsgcncrally Suchbelicfs should bc examincdcarcfullv belbrc thcv arc likcly to movetoward people who arebcttcr off, aredismisscd as unrcasonable. whcthcrlocally, in urbanccntrcs, or in exportmarkcts. Improvementsin patLcmsof consumptionmay be If fishis to beuscd to hclpalleviatc malnutrition, thcre brought about through programmcsfor cducating shouldbc somcrcason to bclicvethat thc productwill consumers.However, thcre is a tendcncyto focusthis in factbc uscdthat way.r education rather narrowly, on fish prcparation Fisherics for local consumption rcmain techniques,for examplc.It may be uscfulto broaden underdevclopcdin thc islandspartly bccause projects educationalprogrammes so thatthey also help pcoplc havebccn asscssed in narrowlveconomic tcrms. and to understandwhy there are prcssureson thcm to thus have had to competefor capital with export- consumefoods which arecostly and not particularly orientedprojccts scrving wealthy outside markets. To goodfor them. illustrate,in thc latc 1970sa strongmarket developed in the PapuaNew Guincahigtrlands for saltedtilapia Iillets, solpis,from the SepikRiver.c Productionwas F isheriesDevelopment Planning discontinucd, howevcr, apparently for economic reasons.If a carcfulassessment had been made of the If the Pacific islands are to enhancethcir sclf- product'simportance to the protein-shorthighlanders, sufficiencywith rcspcctto food, fish is ccrtainlyonc it might havc bccn judgcd worthwhilcto continue resourcein whichthey have a comparativcadvantagc. production,cvcn if it requireda smallsubsidy. However, following- thc pattcm in agricultrirc, If localnutritional impacts were taken into account planningfor fisheriesin thePacific has provided little along with cconomicimpacts, some projects which supportfor the developmcntof fishcricsfor local prcviouslyhad not sccmedworlhwhile might now be consumption. For example, a reccnt fisheries sccnas yicldingvcry considcrablcbenefits. 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