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Marian art in the

The body of teachings that constitute Roman consist of four basic Marian dogmas: Perpetual virginity, Mother of God, Immaculate concep- tion and Assumption into Heaven, derived from Biblical scripture, the writings of the Church Fathers, and the traditions of the Church. Other influences on Marian art have been the Feast days of the Church, Marian apparitions, writings of the saints and popular devotions such as the , the Stations of the Cross, or total consecration, and also papal initiatives, and Marian papal encyclicals and Apostolic Letters. Each of these fundamental Mariological beliefs has given rise to Roman Catholic Marian art that has become part of Mariology, by emphasizing Marian veneration, being celebrated in specific Marian feasts, or becoming part of key Roman Catholic Marian churches. This article’s fo- cus is primarily on how the artistic component of Ro- man Catholic Mariology has represented the fundamental Marian doctrines of the Catholic Church, and has thus interacted with them, creating a force that has shaped Catholic Mariology over the centuries.

Our Mother of Perpetual Help, an of the Cretan school, in since the 15th century, which has long been a very popular 1 Blending of art, theology and image for Catholics. Reproductions are sometimes displayed in homes or elsewhere. Archangels Michael and Gabriel are also spirituality depicted. See also: , Silent preaching, and Rosary devotions The Blessed Virgin Mary has been one of the major subjects of , and Western Art Art has been an integral element of the Catholic iden- tity since the very beginning.[7] Medieval Catholicism for many centuries. Literally hundreds of thousands of pieces of Marian art in the Catholic Church covering a cherished relics and pilgrimages to visit them were com- mon. Churches and specific works of art were commis- range of Marian artistic topics have been produced, from masters such as Michelangelo and Botticelli to humble sioned to honor the saints and the Virgin Mary has al- ways been seen as the most powerful intercessor among peasant artists.[1] all saints—her depictions being the subject of veneration Although Marian art items may at times be viewed from among Catholics worldwide.[7] an artistic perspective and sold at auctions, or discussed from an academic viewpoint in the context of art history, Roman Catholic Mariology does not simply consist of a from a religious viewpoint they form part of the very fab- set of theological writings, but also relies on the emo- ric of Roman Catholic Marian culture through their emo- tional impact of art, music and architecture. Marian mu- tional impact on the veneration of the Blessed Virgin. Im- sic and Marian interact with Marian art as key ages such as and the many artistic components of Mariology, e.g. the construction of ma- jor Marian churches gives rise to major pieces of art for renditions of it as statues are not simply works of art but [8][9][10][11] are a central elements of the daily lives of the Mexican the decoration of the church. people.[2] Both Hidalgo and Zapata flew Guadalupan flags In the 16th century, Gabriele Paleotti's Discourse on Sa- and depictions of the Virgin of Guadalupe continue to re- cred and Profane Images became known as the “Cate- main a key unifying element in the Mexican nation.[3][4][5] chism of images” for Catholics, given that it established The study of Mary via the field of Mariology is thus in- key concepts for the use of images as a form of reli- herently intertwined with Marian art.[6] gious instruction and indoctrination via silent preaching

1 2 1 BLENDING OF ART, THEOLOGY AND SPIRITUALITY

to Our Mother of Perpetual Help have been constructed. John Paul II held mass at the National of Our Mother of Perpetual Help in the Philippines where the devotion is very popular and many Catholic churches hold a Novena and Mass honoring it every Wednes- day using a replica of the icon, which is also widely displayed in houses, buses and public transport in the Philippines.[16][17][18] Devotions to the icon have spread from the Philippines to the United States, and remain popular among Asian-Americans in California.[19][20] As recently as 1992, the song The Lady Who Wears Blue and Gold was composed in California and then performed at St. Alphonsus Liguori Church in Rome, where the icon resides. This illustrates how a medieval work of art can give rise to feast days, Cathedrals and Marian music.

Salus Populi Romani, a popular icon in Rome. Praying to Our Lady of the in Lithuania.

[12][13] (muta predicatio). Paleotti’s approach was imple- The use of Marian art by Catholics worldwide accom- mented by his powerful contemporary Saint Charles Bor- panies specific forms of Marian devotion and spiritual- romeo and his focus on “the transformation of Christian ity. The widespread Catholic use of replicas of the statue life through vision” and the “nonverbal rules of language" of emphasizes devotions to the shaped the Catholic reinterpretations of the Virgin Mary Immaculate Conception and the Rosary, both reported in in the 16th and 17th centuries and fostered and promoted the Lourdes messages. To Catholics, the distinctive blue Marian devotions such as the Rosary.[12][13] and white Lourdes statues are reminders of the empha- An example of the interaction of Marian art, culture sis of Lourdes on Rosary devotions and the millions of and churches is Salus Populi Romani, a key Marian icon pilgrimages to the Rosary at Lourdes shows how in Rome at , the earliest Marian Churches, devotions and art intertwine within Catholic church in Rome. The practice of crowning the images culture. The Rosary remains the prayer of choice among of Mary started at Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome by Catholics who visit Lourdes or venerate the Lourdes stat- Pope Clement VIII in the 17th century.[14] In 1899 Euge- ues worldwide.[21][22][23][24] nio Pacelli (later Pope Pius XII) said his first Holy Mass Historically, Marian art has not only impacted the image in front of it at the Santa Maria Maggiore. Fifty years of Mary among Catholics, but that of . The early later, he physically crowned this picture as part of the "Kyrios image” of Jesus as “the Lord and Master” was first in Church history, as he proclaimed the specially emphasized in the Pauline Epistles.[25][26][27] Queenship of Mary. The image was carried from Santa The 13th century depictions of the Nativity of Jesus in art Maria Maggiore around Rome as part of the celebration and the Franciscan development of a “tender image of Je- of the Marian year and the proclamation of the Queen- sus” via the construction of Nativity scenes changed that ship of Mary. perception and was instrumental in portraying a softer im- Another example, is Our Mother of Perpetual Help. age of Jesus that contrasted with the powerful and radiant Catholics have, for centuries, prayed before this icon, image at the Transfiguration.[28] The emphasis on the hu- usually in reproductions, to intercede on their behalf to mility of Jesus and the poverty of his birth depicted in Christ.[15] Over the centuries, several churches dedicated Nativity art reinforced the image of God not as severe 3

and punishing, but himself humble at birth and sacrificed at death.[29] As the tender joys of the Nativity were added to the agony of Crucifixion (as depicted in scenes such as ) a whole new range of approved religious emotions were ushered in via Marian art, with wide rang- ing cultural impacts for centuries thereafter.[30][31][32] The spread of devotions to the Virgin of are an- other example of the blending of art and devotions among Catholics. In the 12th century Cîteaux Abbey in France used the motif of the protective mantle of the Virgin Mary which shielded the kneeling abbots and abbesses. In the 13th century Caesarius of Heisterbach was also aware of this motif, which eventually led to the of the and an increased focused on the concept of Marian protection.[33] By the beginning of the 16th century, depictions of the Virgin of Mercy were among the preferred artistic items in households in the Paris area.[34] In the 18th century Saint Alphonsus Liguori at- tributed his own recovery from near death to a statue of the Virgin of Mercy brought to his bedside.[35] In his apostolic letter Archicoenobium Casinense in 1913, Pope St. Pius X echoed the same sentiment regarding the blending of art, music and religion by comparing the artistic efforts of the Benedictine monks of the Beuron Art School (who had previously produced the “Life of the Virgin” series), to the revival of the Gregorian chant by the of Solesmes Abbey and wrote, "...to- gether with sacred music, this art proves itself to be a powerful aid to the liturgy”.[36] The of by Domenico di Bartolo 1433 has been described as one of the most innovative devotional images from the early Renaissance.[37]} 2 The diversity of Marian art

Roman Catholic Marian art has expressed a wide range of theological topics that relate to Mary, often in ways that are far from obvious, and whose meaning can only be recovered by detailed scholarly analysis. Entire books, academic theses or lengthy scholarly works have been written on various aspects of Marian art in general and on specific topics such as the , Our Lady of San Juan de los Lagos, Virgin of Mercy, Virgin of Ocotlán, or the Hortus conclusus and their doctrinal implications.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45] Some of the leading Marian subjects include: The tradition of Catholic Marian art has continued in the 21st century by artists such as Miguel Bejarano Moreno and Francisco Cárdenas Martínez.

3 Early veneration

Early veneration of Mary is documented in the The Earliest fresco of the Virgin Mary, in the Catacomb of Catacombs of Rome. In the catacombs paintings show Priscilla from the middle of the 2nd century the Blessed Virgin with her son. More unusual and in- dicating the burial ground of Saint Peter, was the fact that excavations in the crypt of Saint Peter discovered a 4 4 MOTHER OF GOD

very early fresco of Mary together with Saint Peter.[46] The Roman Priscilla catacombs contain the known oldest Marian paintings, dating from the middle of the second century[47] In one, Mary is shown with the infant Jesus on her lap. The Priscilla catacomb also includes the old- est known fresco of the Annunciation, dating to the 4th century.[48] After the Edict of Milan in 313 Christians were permitted to worship and build churches openly. The generous and systematic patronage of Roman Emperor Constantine I changed the fortunes of the Christian church, and re- sulted in both architectural and artistic development.[49] The veneration of Mary became public and Marian art flourished. Some of the earliest Marian churches in Rome date to the 5th century, such as Santa Maria in Traste- vere, Santa Maria Antiqua and Santa Maria Maggiore, and these churches were in turn decorated with signifi- cant works of art through the centuries.[50][51] The inter- action of Marian art and church construction thus influ- enced the development of Marian art.[52] The Virgin Mary has since become a major subject of Western Art. Masters such as Michelangelo, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Giotto, Duccio and others produced masterpieces with Marian themes.

4 Mother of God Icon of the enthroned Virgin and Child with saints George, Theodore and angels, 6th century, Saint Catherine’s Monastery.

Mary’s status as the Mother of God is clear in the Gospels, and the theological implications of this were defined and Other narrative scenes for Byzantine cycles on the Life confirmed by the Council of Ephesus (431). Different as- of the Virgin were being evolved, relying on apocryphal pects of Mary’s position as mother have been the subject sources to fill in her life before the Annunciation to Mary. of a large number of works of Catholic art. By this time the political and economic collapse of the Western Roman Empire meant that the Western, Latin, There was a great expansion of the cult of Mary after the church was unable to compete in the development of such Council of Ephesus in 431, when her status as sophisticated iconography, and relied heavily on Byzan- was confirmed; this had been a subject of some contro- tine developments. versy until then, though mainly for reasons to do with arguments over the nature of Christ. In mosaics in Santa The earliest surviving image in a Western illuminated Maria Maggiore in Rome, dating from 432-40, just after manuscript of the Madonna and Child comes from the the council, she is not yet shown with a halo, and she is Book of Kells of about 800 and, though magnificently also not shown in Nativity scenes at this date, though she decorated in the style of Insular art, the drawing of the is included in the Adoration of the Magi.[51][53] figures can only be described as rather crude compared to Byzantine work of the period. This was in fact an un- By the next century the iconic depiction of the Virgin usual inclusion in a Gospel book, and images of the Virgin enthroned carrying the infant Christ was established, as were slow to appear in large numbers in manuscript art in the example from the only group of surviving until the book of hours was devised in the 13th century. from this period, at Saint Catherine’s Monastery in Egypt. This type of depiction, with subtly changing differences of emphasis, has remained the mainstay of depictions of 4.1 Nativity of Jesus Mary to the present day. The image at Mount Sinai suc- ceeds in combining two aspects of Mary described in the Main article: Nativity of Jesus in art Magnificat, her humility and her exaltation above other The Nativity of Jesus has been a major subject of Chris- humans. tian art since the early 4th century. It has been depicted in At this period the iconography of the Nativity was taking many different media, both pictorial and sculptural. Pic- the form, centred on Mary, that it has retained up to the torial forms include murals, panel paintings, manuscript present day in Eastern Orthodoxy, and on which Western illuminations, stained glass windows and oil paintings. depictions remained based until the High Middle Ages. The earliest representations of the Nativity itself are very 4.2 Madonna 5

Nativity at Night (c. 1490) by Geertgen tot Sint Jans

but is sometimes shown. The image in later medieval Northern Europe was often influenced by the vision of the Nativity of Saint Bridget of Sweden (1303–1373), a very popular mystic. Shortly before her death, she described a vision of the infant Jesus as lying on the ground, and emitting light himself. From the 15th century onwards, the Adoration of the Magi increasingly became a more common depiction Representation of the Nativity on the Throne of Maximianus in than the Nativity proper. From the 16th century plain Ravenna Nativities with just the Holy Family, become a clear mi- nority, although led a return to a more realis- tic treatment of the Adoration of the Shepherds. simple, just showing the infant, tightly wrapped, lying The perpetual character of Mary’s virginity, namely that near the ground in a trough or wicker basket. she was a virgin all her life and not only at her virginal A new form of the image, which from the rare early ver- conception of Jesus Christ at the Annunciation (that she sions seems to have been formulated in 6th-century Pales- was a virgin before, during and after giving birth to him) tine, was to set the essential form of Eastern Orthodox is alluded to in some forms of Nativity art: Salome, images down to the present day. The setting is now a cave who according to the story in the 2nd-century Nativity [54] - or rather the specific Cave of the Nativity in Bethlehem, of Mary received physical proof that Mary remained already underneath the Church of the Nativity, and well- a virgin even in giving birth to Jesus, is found in many [55] established as a place of pilgrimage, with the approval of depictions of the Nativity of Jesus in art. the Church. Western artists adopted many of the Byzantine icono- 4.2 Madonna graphic elements, but preferred the scriptural stable to the cave, though Duccio's Byzantine-influenced Maestà ver- sion tries to have both. During the Gothic period, in the Main article: Madonna (art) North earlier than in , increasing closeness between mother and child develops, and Mary begins to hold her The depiction of the Madonna has roots in ancient pic- baby, or he looks over to her. Suckling is very unusual, torial and sculptural traditions that informed the earli- 6 4 MOTHER OF GOD

Filippo Lippi, 1459

est Christian communities throughout Europe, Northern Africa and the Middle East. Important to Italian tra- Romanesque enthroned Madonna, Santo Domingo de Silos Abbey dition are Byzantine icons, especially those created in (Istanbul), the capital of the longest, en- during medieval civilization whose icons, such as the were sometimes dedicated to her. , participated in civic life and were celebrated for their miraculous properties. Western depictions re- mained heavily dependent on Byzantine types until at 4.2.1 Some key Madonnas least the 13th century. In the late Middle Ages, the Cretan school, under Venetian rule, was the source of great num- bers of icons exported to the West, and the artists there could adapt their style to Western iconography when re- quired. In the Romanesque period free-standing statues, typically about half life-size, of the enthroned Madonna and Child were an original Western development, since monumen- tal sculpture was forbidden by Orthodoxy. The Golden Madonna of Essen of c. 980 is one of the earliest of these, made of gold applied to a wooden core, and still the sub- ject of considerable local veneration, as is the 12th cen- tury Virgin of Montserrat in , a more developed treatment. With the growth of monumental panel painting in Italy during the 12th and 13th centuries, this type was fre- quently painted at the image of the Madonna gains promi- nence outside of Rome, especially throughout . While members of the mendicant orders of the Fran- ciscan and Dominican Orders are some of the first to commission panels representing this subject matter, such works quickly became popular in monasteries, parish by Moreno, hermitage in Warfhuizen, the churches, and later homes. Some images of the Madonna Netherlands. were paid for by lay organizations called confraternities, who met to sing praises of the Virgin in chapels found A number of Madonna paintings and statues have gath- within the newly reconstructed, spacious churches that ered a following as important religious icons and note- 4.2 Madonna 7

worthy works of art in various regions of the world. Some Madonnas are known by a general name and con- cept rendered or depicted by various artists. For instance, Our Lady of Sorrows is the of several coun- tries such as Slovakia and Philippines. It is represented as the Virgin Mary wounded by seven swords in her heart, a reference to the prophecy of Simeon at the Presentation of Jesus. Our Lady of Sorrows, Queen of Poland located in the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Licheń (Poland’s largest church) is an important icon in Poland. The term Our Lady of Sorrows is also used in other contexts, without a Madonna, e.g. for Our Lady of Kibeho apparitions. Some Madonnas become the subject of widespread de- votion, and the Marian shrines dedicated to them attract millions of pilgrims per year. An example is in Brazil, whose shrine is surpassed in size only by Saint Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City, and receives more pilgrims per year than any other Roman Catholic Marian church in the world.[56]

Latin America There is a rich tradition of building statues of the Madonna in South America, a sampling of which is shown in the galleries section of this article. The South American tradition of Marian art dates back to Sistine Madonna, Raphael 1513 the 16th century, with the Virgin of Copacabana gaining fame in 1582.[57] Some noteworthy examples are: ered a key example of high Renaissance • Our Lady of San Juan de los Lagos is lo- art. cated in the small town of San Juan de los Lagos in Mexico. It is the second most • Madonna della Strada at the Church of visited pilgrimage shrine in Mexico, af- the Gesu in Rome is a historic icon and ter Our Lady of Guadalupe. the patron saint of the Jesuits

• The Virgin of Ocotlán is a statue of the • The Madonna statue at the altar of Milan Virgin Mary in Ocotlán, Tlaxcala, Mex- Cathedral is an outstanding example of ico. Baroque Marian art

• Our Lady of Navigators is a highly ven- • Murillo's Dolorosa Madonna in , erated Madonna in Brazil. The devotion is a key example of a sorrowful started by the 15th century Portuguese Madonna navigators, praying for a safe return to their homes and then spread in Brazil. • Madonna of the Pillar at Zaragoza, Spain is a highly venerated statue based on Images of, and devotions to, Madonnas such as Our Lady a legendary vision of Saint James the of San Juan de los Lagos have spread from Mexico to the Greater. United States.[58][59] • The Virgin of Montserrat at the Santa María de Montserrat monastery in Spain Italy and Spain is a highly venerated statue and the patron saint of Catalonia. • The by Domenico di Bartolo, 1433, is considered one of the most innovative devotional images from Central and Northern Europe the early Renaissance.[37] • The Black Madonna of Częstochowa is • Raphael's Sistine Madonna painting at Poland’s holiest relic, and one of the Saint Peter’s Basilica in Rome is consid- country’s national symbols. 8 5 PERPETUAL VIRGINITY

• Dutch painter Jan van Eyck's Lucca Madonna at the Städel Museum in Frankfurt is a good example of iconography where the Virgin Mary is portrayed as the Throne of Wisdom, with Jesus sitting on her lap.

• Michelangelo's statue of the Virgin Mary and a standing Jesus known as the Madonna of Bruges at the Church of Our Lady, Bruges, Belgium shares some sim- ilarities with his Pieta which was com- pleted sometime earlier.

• The 1898 Refugium Peccatorum Madonna by the Italian artist Luigi Crosio has gathered significant popular following in central Europe and has since been called the Mother Thrice Admirable Madonna, as a symbol of the Michelangelo's Pietà, 1498 Schoenstatt Movement.[60][61][62]

Mary is then usually absent from scenes of the period 4.3 Mary in the Life of Christ of Christ’s life between his Baptism and his Passion, ex- cept for the Wedding at Cana, where she is placed in the Gospels. A non-scriptural subject of Christ taking leave of his Mother (before going to at the start of his Passion) was often painted in 15th- and early 16th- century Germany. Mary is placed at the Crucifixion of Jesus by the Gospels, and is almost invariably shown, with Saint John the Evangelist, in fully depicted works, as well as often being shown in the background of earlier scenes of the Passion of Christ. The rood cross common in me- dieval Western churches had statues of Mary and John flanking a central crucifix. Mary is shown as present at the Deposition of Christ and his Entombment; in the late Middle Ages the Pietà emerged in Germany as a separate subject, especially in sculpture. Mary is also included, though this is not mentioned in any of the scriptural ac- Christ and Mary, mosaic, Chora Church, 16th century counts, in depictions of the Ascension of Jesus. After the Ascension, she is the centrally-placed figure in depic- Main article: Life of the Virgin tions of Pentecost, which is her latest appearance in the Gospels. Scenes of Mary and Jesus together fall into two main The main scenes above, showing incidents celebrated as groups: those with an infant Jesus, and those from the feast days by the church, formed part of cycles of the Life last period of his life. After the episodes of the Na- of the Virgin (though the selection of scenes in these var- tivity, there are a number of further narrative scenes of ied considerably), as well as the Life of Christ. Mary and the infant Jesus together which are often de- picted: the Circumcision of Christ, Presentation of Jesus at the Temple, Flight into Egypt, and less specific scenes of Mary and Jesus with his cousin John the Baptist, some- 5 Perpetual virginity times with John’s mother Elizabeth. Leonardo da Vinci's Virgin of the Rocks is a famous example. Gatherings of The dogma of the perpetual virginity of Mary is the the whole extended family of Jesus form a subject known earliest of the four Marian dogmas and Catholic liturgy as the Holy Kinship, popular in the Northern Renais- has repeatedly referred to Mary as “ever virgin” for sance. Mary appears in the background of the only in- centuries.[63][64] The dogma means that Mary was a vir- cident in the Gospels from the later childhood of Jesus, gin before, during and after giving birth to Jesus Christ. the Finding in the Temple. The 2nd-century work originally known as the Nativity of 9

Annunciation mosaic, Santa Maria in Trastevere, Rome, 1291.

among others. In many depictions the angel may be hold- ing a lily, symbolic of Mary’s virginity.[72] The mosaics of Pietro Cavallini in Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome (1291), the frescos of Giotto in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua (1303), Domenico Ghirlandaio's fresco at the church of in (1486) and Donatello's gilded sculpture at the church of Santa Croce, Florence (1435) are famous examples. The natural composition of the scene, consisting of two figures facing each other, also made it suitable for deco- rated arches above doorways.

Fresco of the Annunciation at the Pantheon, Rome, 15th century 6 Immaculate Conception

Mary pays special attention to Mary’s virginity.[65] This dogma is often represented in Roman Catholic art in terms of the annunciation to Mary by the Archangel Gabriel that she would conceive a child to be born the Son of God, and in Nativity scenes that include the figure of Salome. The Annunciation is one of the most frequently depicted scenes in Western art.[66] Annunciation scenes also amount to the most frequent appearances of Gabriel in .[67] The depiction of Joseph turning away in some Nativity scenes is a discreet reference to the fa- therhood of the Holy Spirit, and the doctrine of Virgin Birth.[68] Frescos depicting this scene have appeared in Roman Catholic Marian churches for centuries and it has been a topic addressed by many artists in multiple media, rang- ing from stained glass to mosaic, to relief, to sculpture to oil painting.[69] The oldest fresco of the annunciation is a 4th-century depiction in the Catacomb of Priscilla in Rome.[70] In most (but not all) Catholic, and indeed West- ern, depictions Gabriel is shown on the left, while in the Eastern Church he is more often depicted on the right.[71] It has been one of the most frequent subjects of Chris- tian art particularly during the Middle Ages and Renais- sance. The figures of the Virgin Mary and the Archangel Gabriel, being emblematic of purity and grace, were fa- vorite subjects of many painters such as Sandro Botti- celli, Leonardo da Vinci, Caravaggio, Duccio and Murillo Murillo's Immaculate Conception, 1650 10 6 IMMACULATE CONCEPTION

Given that up to the 13th century a series of saints includ- Murillo, Diego Velázquez and others. This style of rep- ing Bernard of Clairvaux, Bonaventure, Thomas Aquinas, resentation of the immaculate Conception then spread to and the Dominicans in general had either opposed or the rest of Europe, and has since remained the usual de- questioned this doctrine, Roman Catholic art on the sub- piction. ject mostly dates to periods after the 15th century and The dogmatic definition of Immaculate Conception was is absent from . But with support from performed by Pope Pius IX in his Apostolic Constitution popular opinion, the and theologians such as Ineffabilis Deus, in 1854. The dogma gained additional Blessed Duns Scotus, the popularity of the doctrine in- significance from the apparitions of Our Lady of Lourdes creased and a feast-day for it was promoted. in 1858, with the lady in the apparition identifying herself as “the Immaculate Conception” and the faithful believing her to be the Blessed Virgin Mary.

6.1 Depiction of the Immaculate Concep- tion

Swiss emblem, 16th century. Piero di Cosimo Immaculate Conception, 1505

Pope Pius V, the Dominican Pope who in 1570 estab- From an art historical perspective, the depiction of the lished the Tridentine Mass, included the feast (but with- Immaculate Conception involves a number of interesting out the adjective “Immaculate”) in the Tridentine Cal- issues. Many artists in the 15th century faced the problem endar, but suppressed the existing special Mass for the of how to depict an abstract idea such as the Immaculate feast, directing that the Mass for the Nativity of Mary Conception, and the problem was not fully solved for 150 (with the word “Nativity” replaced by “Conception”) be years. used instead.[73] Part of that earlier Mass was revived in the Mass that Pope Pius IX ordered to be used on the feast Since a key Scriptural text pointed to in support of the and that is still in use.[74] doctrine was "Tota pulchra es...”, “Thou art all fair, my love; there is no spot in thee”, verse 4.7 from the Song of In the 16th century there was a widespread intellectual Solomon,[76] a number of symbolic objects drawn from fashion for emblems in both religious and secular con- the imagery of the Song, and often already associated with texts. These consisted of a visual representation of the the Annunciation and the Perpetual Virginity, were com- symbol (pictura) and usually a Latin motto; frequently bined in versions of the Hortus conclusus (“enclosed gar- an explanatory epigram was added. Emblem books were [75] den”) subject. This gave a rather cluttered subject, and very popular. usually was impossible to combine with correct perspec- Drawing on the emblem tradition, Francisco Pacheco es- tive, so never caught on outside Germany and the Low tablished an iconography that influenced artists such as Countries. Piero di Cosimo was among those artists who 11 tried new solutions, but none of these became generally Spanish artists such as Bartolomé Murillo (especially), adopted so that the subject would be immediately recog- Diego Velázquez and others adopted this formula, with nisable to the faithful. variations, and it then spread to the rest of Europe, since when it has remained the usual depiction. This particular representation of The Immaculate Con- ception has since remained the best known artistic depic- tion of the concept: in a heavenly realm, moments after her creation, the spirit of Mary (in the form of a young woman) looks up in awe at (or bows her head to) God. The moon is under her feet and a halo of twelve stars sur- round her head, possibly a reference to “a woman clothed with the sun” from Revelation 12:1-2. Additional im- agery may include clouds, a golden light, and cherubs. In some paintings the cherubim are holding lilies and roses, flowers often associated with Mary.

7

Immaculate Conception by Diego Velázquez, 1618

The definitive iconography for the Immaculate Concep- tion, drawing on the emblem tradition, seems to have been established by the master and then father-in-law of Diego Velázquez, the painter and theorist Francisco Pacheco (1564–1644), to whom the Inquisition in Seville also contracted the approval of new images. He described his iconography in his Art of Painting (Arte de la Pintura, published posthumously in 1649):

“The version that I follow is the one that is closest to the holy revelation of the Evangelist and approved by the Catholic Church on the authority of the sacred and holy interpreters... In this loveliest of mysteries Our Lady should be painted as a beautiful young girl, 12 or 13 years old, in the flower of her youth... And thus she is praised by the Husband: tota pul- chra es amica mea, a text that is always written in this painting. She should be painted wearing a white tunic and a blue mantle... She is sur- rounded by the sun, an oval sun of white and ochre, which sweetly blends into the sky. Rays of light emanate from her head, around which is a ring of twelve stars. An imperial crown adorns her head, without, however, hiding the Titian Assumption, 1516 stars. Under her feet is the moon. Although it is a solid globe, I take the liberty of mak- The Catholic doctrine of the Assumption of Mary into ing it transparent so that the landscape shows Heaven states that Mary was transported into Heaven with through.”[77][78] her body and soul united. Although the Assumption was 12 8

only officially declared a dogma by Pope Pius XII in his Apostolic Constitution Munificentissimus Deus in 1950, its roots in Catholic culture and art go back many cen- turies. While Pope Pius XII deliberately left open the question of whether Mary died before her Assumption, the more common teaching of the early Fathers is that she did.[79][80] An early supporter of the Assumption was Saint John of Damascus (676–794), a Doctor of the Church who is of- ten called the Doctor of the Assumption.[81] Saint John was not only interested in the Assumption, but also sup- ported the use of holy images in response to the edict by the Byzantine Emperor Leo III, banning the worship or exhibition of holy images.[82] He wrote: “On this day the sacred and life-filled ark of the living God, she who con- ceived her Creator in her womb, rests in the Temple of the Lord that is not made with hands. David, her ances- tor, leaps, and with him the angels lead the dance.” The Eastern Church held the feast of the Assumption as early as the second half of the 6th century, and Pope Sergius I (687–701) ordered its observance in Rome.[83] The Orthodox tradition is clear that Mary died normally, before being bodily assumed. The Orthodox term for the death is the Dormition of the Virgin. Byzantine de- pictions of this were the basis for Western images, the subject being known as the Death of the Virgin in the West. As the nature of the Assumption became contro- Salus Populi Romani crowned by Pope Pius XII versial during the High Middle Ages, the subject was of- ten avoided, but depiction continued to be common until the Reformation. The last major Catholic depiction is Caravaggio's Death of the Virgin of 1606. Meanwhile, depictions of the Assumption had been be- coming more frequent during the late Middle Ages, with the Gothic Siennese school a particular source. By the 16th century they had become the norm, initially in Italy, and then elsewhere. They were sometimes combined with the Coronation of the Virgin, as the Trinity waited in the clouds. The subject was very suited to Baroque treatment.

8 Queen of Heaven Coronation of the icon by Pope Pius XII in 1954 Main article: Queen of Heaven The Roman Catholic teaching that Mary is far above all other creatures in dignity, and after Jesus Christ possesses primacy over all goes back to the early church. Saint and a number of Roman Catholic Church rededications Sophronius said: “You have surpassed every creature” took place, e.g. the 1955 rededication of the church of and Saint Germain of Paris (469–576) stated: “Your Saint James the Great in Montreal with the new title Mary, honor and dignity surpass the whole of creation; your Queen of the World Cathedral a title proclaimed by Pius greatness places you above the angels.” Saint John of XII. Damascus went further: “Limitless is the difference be- [84][85] Yet, long before 1954 the Coronation of the Virgin had tween God’s servants and His Mother.” been the subject of a good number of artistic works. The feast of the Queenship of Mary was only formally Some of these paintings built on the third phase of the established in 1954 by Pope Pius XII in his encyclical Ad Assumption of Mary in which following her Assumption, Caeli Reginam. Pius XII also declare the first Marian year she is crowned as the Queen of Heaven. 13

9 Apparitions Mexico.[5] Apparition-based art is at times considered miraculous by Catholics. Replicas of the distinctive blue and white statue of Our Lady of Lourdes are widely used by Catholics in devotions, and small grottos with it are built in houses and Catholic neighborhoods worldwide and are the subject of prayers and petitions.[88] In Ad Caeli Regi- nam, Pope Pius XII called the statue of Our Lady of Fa- tima “miraculous” and Pope John Paul II attributed his survival after the 1981 assassination attempt to its inter- cession, donating one of the bullets that wounded him to the Sanctuary in Fatima.[86][89]

10 Distinguishing characteristics

The Catholic approach to Marian art is quite distinct from the way other Christians (such as the Protestant and the Eastern Orthodox) treat the depictions of the Virgin Mary. From the very beginning of the Protestant Ref- ormation its leaders expressed their discomfort with the depictions of saints in general. While over time a Protes- tant tradition of art developed, the depictions of the Vir- gin Mary within it have remained minimal, given that most Protestants reject Marian veneration and view it as a Catholic excess.[90][91][92] The statue of Our Lady of Fatima includes several Catholic el- ements, such as being apparition-based, being a crowned statue and holding a Rosary. One of the bullets that wounded Pope John Paul II in St. Peter’s Square in 1981 was placed in the crown of the statue.[86]

Roman Catholic devotion to Mary has at times been driven by religious experiences (and visions) of simple and modest individuals (in many cases children) on re- mote hilltops which in time have created strong emo- tions among large numbers of Roman Catholics. Exam- ples include Saint Juan Diego in 1531 as Our Lady of Guadalupe, Saint Bernadette Soubirous as Our Lady of Lourdes in 1858 and Lucia dos Santos, Jacinta Marto and Francisco Marto as Our Lady of Fatima in 1917.[87] Although every year over five million pilgrims visit Lour- des and Guadalupe each, the volume of Roman Catholic art to accompany this enthusiasm has been essentially restricted to popular images. Hence although appari- tions have resulted in the construction of very large Mar- ian churches at Lourdes and Guadalupe they have not so far had a similar impact on Marian art. Yet images such as Our Lady of Guadalupe and the artistic rendi- tions of it as statues are not simply works of art but are a central elements of the daily lives of the Mexi- can people.[2] Both Miguel Hidalgo and Emiliano Zap- The use of Marian Sacramentals such as the Brown Scapular is ata flew Guadalupan flags as their protector, and Zap- a distinguishing feature of Catholic art. ata’s men wore the Guadalupan image around their necks and on their sombreros.[3][4] Depictions of the Virgin of Unlike the majority of the Protestants, the Eastern Ortho- Guadalupe continue to remain a key unifying element in dox Church venerates Marian images, but in a different the Mexican nation, and as the main national symbol of manner and with a different emphasis from the Catholic 14 11 GALLERIES OF MARIAN ART

tradition. While statues of the Virgin Mary abound in 11.1 Perpetual virginity Catholic churches, there are specific prohibitions against all three-dimensional representations (of Mary or any For a larger gallery, please see: Annunciation other any saints) within the Orthodox Church, for they in Christian art are regarded as remnants of pagan idolatry. Hence the Orthodox only produce and venerate two-dimensional • Perpetual virginity [93][94][95][96] images. • Annunciation by Mariotto Albertinelli, 15th century Catholic Marian images are almost entirely devotional • Annunciation by Murillo, 1655 depictions and do not have an official standing within liturgy, but Eastern icons are an inherent part of Orthodox • Philippe de Champaigne, 1644 liturgy. In fact, there is a three way, carefully coordinated • interplay of prayers, icons and within Or- Annunciation by Pietro Perugino, 1489 thodox liturgy, at times with specific feasts that relate to • Rubens Annunciation 1628 Antwerp the Theotokos icons and the Akathists.[93][96][97] • Cestello Annunciation by Botticelli, 1490 While there is a tradition for the best known Western artists from Duccio to Titian to depict the Virgin Mary, • Francesco Albani Annunciation The Hermitage most painters of Eastern Orthodox icons have remained • Mikhail Nesterov, Russia, 19th century anonymous for the production of an icon is not viewed as a “work of art” but as a “sacred craft” practiced and per- fected in monasteries.[93] To some Eastern Orthodox the 11.2 Birth of Christ natural looking Renaissance depictions used in Catholic art are not conducive to meditation, for they lack the For more images, please see: kenosis needed for Orthodox contemplation. The rich Salome images background representation of flowers or gardens found in Catholic art are not present in Orthodox depictions whose • Birth of Christ primary focus is the Theotokos, often with the Child Je- • sus.[98][99] Apparition-based images such as the statues of Adoration of the Magi, ivory, 15th century the Our Lady of Lourdes accentuate the differences in • Marten de Vos, 1577 that they are based on apparitions that are purely Catholic, as well as being three-dimensional representations. And • Lorenzo Lotto, 1523 the presence of Sacramentals such as the Rosary and the • Pietro Perugino, 15th century Brown Scapular on the statues of Our Lady of Fatima emphasize a totally Catholic form of Marian art. • Pedro Berruguete, 15th century Apart from stylistic issues, significant doctrinal differ- • Giorgione, c1507 ences separate Catholic Marian art from other Christian • approaches. Three examples are the depictions that in- Gregorio Fernández, 1614 volve the Immaculate Conception, Queen of Heaven and • Gauguin, 1896 the Assumption of Mary. Given that the Immaculate Conception is a mostly Catholic doctrine, its depictions within other Christian traditions remain rare.[100] The 11.3 Adoration of the shepherds same applies to Queen of Heaven, for long an element of Catholic tradition (and eventually the subject of the en- For a larger gallery, please see: cyclical ) but its representation within Adoration of the shepherds gallery themes such as the Coronation of the Virgin continue to remain mostly Catholic.[89] While the Eastern Orthodox • Adoration of the shepherds support the Dormition of the Theotokos, they do not sup- • Caravaggio, 16th century port the Catholic doctrines of the Assumption of Mary and hence their depictions of the dormition are distinct • Bronzino, 16th century and the Virgin Mary is usually shown sleeping surrounded • Guido Reni, 1630–1642 by saints, while Catholic depictions often show Mary ris- ing to Heaven.[96][101] • Gaudenzio Ferrari c1533 • Gerard van Honthorst, 1622 • Domenico Ghirlandaio, 1485 11 Galleries of Marian art • Caravaggio, 16th century • Giorgione, 1510 11.6 Madonna frescoes 15

11.4 Adoration of the Magi • Madonna del Granduca, Raphael, 1505 • • Adoration of the Magi Tempi Madonna, Raphael, 1508 • Titian, 1520 • Rembrandt, 1632 • Rubens, 1634 11.5.3 Post 16th century • Botticelli, 1475 • Post 16th century • Murillo, 17th century • Madonna and Child by Sassoferrato, 17th century • Gentile da Fabriano, 1423 • Crowned Madonna, Rokitno, Poland, 1671 • Jacopo da Ponte, 1563–1564 • Dolorosa, Murillo, 1665 • Diego Velázquez, 1619 • Madonna, Pompeo Batoni, 1742 • Virgin of the Host, Dominique Ingres, 1852 11.5 Madonna paintings • Franz Ittenbach, 1855 For a larger gallery, please see: Madonna paint- • Refuge of Sinners Madonna, Luigi Crosio, 1898 ings gallery • Virgin with Angels, Bouguereau, 1900

11.5.1 Pre 15th century 11.6 Madonna frescoes • Pre 15th century For a larger gallery, please see: Madonna fres- • Virgin, 6th century, St. Catherine Monastery coe gallery • Vatopedi, Mount Athos, Greece, pre-870 • Pre 15th century • Russian Theotokos icon, 10th century • Fontignano. Pietro Perugino, 1522 • • Madonna, Cimabue 13th century Saturnia, Tuscany. Benvenuto di Giovanni, 15th c. • • Madonna and Angels, Duccio, 1282 Black Madonna, Axum, Ethiopia • Cathedral of Spoleto, Perugia. Pinturicchio, late • Madonna by Giotto, c1300 15th c. • Giacomo di Mino, 1342 • Naddo Ceccarelli, 1347 11.7 Madonna statues

For a larger gallery, please see: Madonna stat- 11.5.2 15-16th century ues gallery

• 15-16th century • Madonna statues • Taddeo di Bartolo 1400–1405 • Assumption statue, Attard, Malta • Jan van Eyck's Lucca Madonna, as Throne of Wis- • Our Lady of Navigators, Porto Alegre, Brazil dom, 1430 • Our Lady of Aparecida, patron saint of Brazil • Madonna and Child, 1440–1445 • Our Lady of Saúde, Portugal • Madonna, with God the Father in evidence, Filippo • Our Lady of Sorrows in Warfhuizen, dressed for Lippi, 1459 October • Benois Madonna, Leonardo da Vinci, 1475 • Golden Madonna of Essen, Essen, Germany • Magnificat Madonna, Botticelli, 1481 • Blue Madonna, Lleida, Catalonia, Spain • • Madonna and five angels, Botticelli, c1485–1490 Assumption statue, Għaxaq, Malta, 1808 • Baroque Madonna Altar at the Milan Cathedral • The Glorification of the Virgin, Geertgen tot Sint Jans, c. 1490–1495 • 31 metres statue, Haskovo, Bulgaria 16 12 SEE ALSO

11.8 Mary in the Life of Christ 11.11 Queen of Heaven

• Mary in the Life of Christ For a larger gallery, please see: Queen of Heaven gallery • Rubens, Lamentation 1614/1615

• Marriage at Cana, Giotto. • Queen of Heaven • Christ and Mary, mosaic, Chora Church, 16th cen- • Martino di Bartolomeo, 1400 tury • Crowning of the Virgin by Rubens, 17th century • Christ taking leave of his mother, Correggio, 1517– 1518 • Velázquez, Crowning of the Virgin, 1645 • Deposition of Christ, Regnault, 1789 • Gregorio di Cecco Enthroned Madonna • Michelangelo's Pietà, 1498 • Giacomo di Mino, 1340–1350 • Pietro Lorenzetti, Assisi Basilica, 1310–1329 • Raphael, 1502–1504 • Resurrection of Christ, , 1437 • Pietro Perugino, 1504 • Giulio Cesare Procaccini, 17th century 11.9 Immaculate conception

For a larger gallery, please see: 11.12 Apparitions Immaculate conception gallery • Apparitions • Immaculate conception • The Vision of St. Bernard by Fra Bartolommeo • Murillo Immaculate Conception, 1650 c1504 • Murillo Immaculate Conception, 1678 • St. Dominic receiving the Rosary from the Virgin • Velázquez Immaculate Conception, 1618 Mary by Caravaggio, 17th century • di Cosimo Immaculate Conception, 1505 • The Virgin Giving Scapular to St. Simon by Pierre Puget 17th century • Zurbarán Immaculate Conception, 1630 • Statue of the Virgin Mary giving the Scapular to St. • Carlo Maratta, 1689 Simon, by Alfonso Balzico, Rome, 19th century • Statue, Porto Alegre, Brazil, 19th century • Apparition to St. Hyacinth by Lodovico Carracci • Gregorio Fernández, 17th century 1594 • Eternal Father painting the Virgin of Guadalupe 11.10 Assumption into Heaven anonymous, 18th century • Statue of Our Lady of Lourdes, Lourdes, France For a larger gallery, please see: Assumption of the Virgin Mary in art 12 See also • Assumption • Art in Roman Catholicism • Andrea Mantegna Dormition 1461 • Roman Catholic Marian churches • Rubens Assumption, 1626 • Marian devotions • Titian Assumption, 1516 • • Mateo Cerezo Assumption, 1650 Hymns to Mary • • Guercino Assumption, 1655 Madonna (art) • Andrea del Sarto Assumption, 1526 • Fountain of Life • Rubens Assumption of the Virgin, 17th century • Theotokos • Charles Le Brun, 1835 • Icon of the Hodegetria 17

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[1] Timothy Verdon, 2006, Mary in Western Art ISBN 978- [24] China’s Catholics by Richard Madsen 1998 ISBN 0-520- 0-9712981-9-4 21326-2 pp. 6–7

[2] A History of Modern Latin America by Teresa A. Meade [25] Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger 2009 ISBN 1-4051-2051-7 p. 45 Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 pp. 520–525

[3] Secular ritual by Sally Falk Moore, Barbara G. Myerhoff [26] Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity 1977 ISBN 90-232-1457-9 p. 174 by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 ISBN 0-8028-3167-2 pp. 113, 179 [4] Emiliano Zapata by Samuel Brunk 1995 ISBN 0-8263- 1620-4 p. 68 [27] II Corinthians: a commentary by Frank J. Matera 2003 ISBN 0-664-22117-3 pp. 11–13 [5] The Virgin of Guadalupe by Maxwell E. Johnson 2003 ISBN 0-7425-2284-9 pp. 41–43 [28] The image of St Francis by Rosalind B. Brooke 2006 ISBN 0-521-78291-0 pp. 183–184 [6] Caroline Ebertshauser et al. 1998 Mary: Art, Culture, and Religion through the Ages ISBN 978-0-8245-1760-1 [29] The tradition of Catholic prayer by Christian Raab, Harry Hagan, St. Meinrad Archabbey 2007 ISBN 0-8146-3184- [7] Distinctively Catholic: an exploration of Catholic identity 3 pp. 86–87 by Daniel Donovan 1997 ISBN 0-8091-3750-X pp. 96– 98 [30] The vitality of the Christian tradition by George Finger Thomas 1944 ISBN 0-8369-2378-2 pp. 110–112 [8] Janusz Rosikon, 2001, The Madonnas of Europe: Pilgrim- ages to the Great Marian Shrines ISBN 978-0-89870-849- [31] La vida sacra: contemporary Hispanic sacramental the- 3 ology by James L. Empereur, Eduardo Fernández 2006 ISBN 0-7425-5157-1 pp. 3–5 [9] Edel 2006, Madonna: Sacred Art And Holy Music ISBN 9783937406404 [32] Philippines by Lily Rose R. Tope, Detch P. Nonan- Mercado 2005 ISBN 0-7614-1475-4 p. 109 [10] University of Dayton Marian Music http://campus. udayton.edu/mary/marymusic.html [33] Arthur Calkins, Marian Consecration and Entrustment in Burke, Raymond L.; et al. (2008) Mariology: A Guide for [11] Peter Mullen Shrines of Our Lady ISBN 978-0-312- Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons 19503-8 ISBN 978-1-57918-355-4 pp. 725–737 18 14 NOTES

[34] Life in Renaissance France by Lucien Febvre 1979 ISBN [56] Religions of the World by J. Gordon Melton, Martin Bau- 0-674-53180-9 p. 145 mann 2003 ISBN 1576072231 pages 308-309

[35] Saint Alphonsus Liguori by Saint Alfonso Maria de' [57] Art and architecture of viceregal Latin America, 1521– Liguori, Richard Paul Blakeney 1852 p. 20 1821 by Kelly Donahue-Wallace 2008 ISBN 0826334598

[36] Acta Apostolicae Sedis 5, 1913, pp. 113–117 [58] Mapping the Catholic cultural landscape by Richard Fos- sey 2004 ISBN 0-7425-3184-8 p. 78 [37] Art and music in the early modern period by Franca Trinchieri Camiz, Katherine A. McIver ISBN 0-7546- [59] Globalizing the sacred: religion across the Americas by 0689-9 p. 15 Manuel A. Vásquez, Marie F. Marquardt 2003 ISBN 0- 8135-3285-X p. 74 [38] Full of Grace: Encountering Mary in Faith, Art, and Life by Judith Dupre, 2010 ISBN 1-4000-6585-2 [60] Schoenstatt website http://www.schoenstatt.de/index_ english.htm [39] The Black Madonna by Fred Gustafson 2008 ISBN 3- 85630-720-6 [61] Research on Luigi Crosio

[40] University of Dayton http://campus.udayton.edu/mary/ [62] University of Dayton resources/aoeu.htm [63] Marian Dogmas at University of Dayton http://campus. [41] University of Dayron http://campus.udayton.edu/mary/ udayton.edu/mary/mariandogmas.html resources/themeaning.htm [64] Divine Liturgy of St John Chrysostom, Coptic Liturgy of [42] The Madonna della Misericordia in the Italian Renaissance St Basil, Liturgy of St Cyril, Liturgy of St JamesArchived by Carol McCall Rand, 1987, Thesis, Virginia Common- 15 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine., Understanding wealth University the Orthodox Liturgy, etc. [43] Virgen de San Juan Shrine, by Bonnie Robertson, 1980 [65] L. Gambero, Mary and the Fathers of the Church trans. T. ASIN: B0021ZHECE Buffer (San Francisco: Ignatius, 1991), p. 35. [44] Luis Nava Rodríguez, 1975 Historia de Nuestra Senora [66] Guiley, Rosemary Ellen (2004). The Encyclopedia of An- de Ocotlan Tlaxcala: Editoria de periodicos “La Prensa”, gels (Second ed.). p. 183. ISBN 0-8160-5023-6. MLCS 98/02238

[45] The énclosed garden: history and development of the hor- [67] Medieval art: a topical dictionary by Leslie Ross 1996 tus conclusus by Rob Aben, Saskia de Wit 1999 ISBN 90- ISBN 0-313-29329-5 p. 99 6450-349-4 [68] Christian iconography: a study of its origins by André [46] M Guarducci Maria nelle epigrafi paleocristiane di Roma Grabar 1968 Taylor & Francis p. 130 1963, 248 [69] Annunciation Art, Phaidon Press, 2004, ISBN 0-7148- [47] I Daoust, Marie dans les catacombes, in “Esprit et Vie”, n. 4447-0 91, 1983. [70] The Annunciation to Mary by Eugene Laverdiere 2007 [48] The Annunciation To Mary by Eugene LaVerdiere 2007 ISBN 1-56854-557-6 p. 29 ISBN 1568545576 page 29 [71] The Oxford Companion to Christian Art and Architecture [49] Early Christian Art and Architecture by R. L. P. Milburn by Peter Murray 1996 ISBN 0-19-866165-7 p. 24 (Feb 1991) ISBN 0520074122 Univ California Press page 303 [72] Medieval art: a topical dictionary by Leslie Ross 1996 ISBN 0-313-29329-5 p. 16 [50] Image and Relic: Mediating the Sacred in Early Medieval Rome by Erik Thun 2003 ISBN 8882652173 pages 33-35 [73] Paul Cavendish, “The Tridentine Mass”

[51] Mary in Western Art by Timothy Verdon 2005 ISBN [74] Marion A. Habig, “Land of Mary Immaculate” 097129819X pages 37-40 [75] Emblems for Immaculate Conception http://campus. [52] Michael Rose, 2004, In Tiers of Glory: The Organic udayton.edu/mary/meditations/immac_con_images.html Development of Catholic Church Architecture through the Ages Mesa Folio editions, ISBN 0967637120 pages 9-12 [76] The whole text

[53] Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of World Religions 2000 [77] Ésotérisme, gnoses & imaginaire symbolique: mélanges of- ISBN 0877790442 page 408 ferts à Antoine Faivre by Richard Caron, Antoine Faivre 2001 ISBN 90-429-0955-2 p. 676 [54] Infancy Gospel of James, chapter 20 [78] Divine Mirrors: The Virgin Mary in the Visual Arts by [55] Encyclopedia of Comparative Iconography by Helene E. Melissa R. Katz and Robert A. Orsi 2001 ISBN 0-19- Roberts 1998 ISBN 1-57958-009-2 p. 904 514557-7 p. 98 19

[79] As the Virgin Mary remained an ever-virgin and sin- 15 External links less, it is viewed that the Virgin Mary could not thus suffer the consequences of Original Sin, which is • Christian Iconography from Augusta State Univer- chiefly Death. http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3819. sity – see under Virgin Mary, after alphabet of saints htm Nicea II Session 6 Decree • [80] Nicaea II Definition, “without blemish” Birth of Mary in Art, All About Mary The Univer- sity of Dayton’s Marian Library/International Mar- [81] Christopher Rengers, The 33 Doctors Of The Church, Tan ian Research Institute (IMRI) is the world’s largest Books & Publishers, 200, ISBN 0-89555-440-2 repository of books, artwork and artifacts devoted [82] Mary H. Allies, St. John Damascene on Holy Images, Fol- to Mary, the mother of Christ, and a pontifical cen- lowed by Three Sermons on the Assumption London, 1899. ter of research and scholarship with a vast presence in cyberspace. [83] University of Dayton http://campus.udayton.edu/mary/ resources/maryassump1.html

[84] Dictionary of Mary, Catholic Book Publishing Co., New York, 1985

[85] Ad Caeli Reginam 40

[86] Guiley, Rosemary Ellen (2001). The Encyclopedia of Saints. Infobase Publishing. p. 162. ISBN 0-8160-4134- 2.

[87] Michael Freze, 1993, Voices, Visions, and Apparitions, OSV Publishing ISBN 0-87973-454-X

[88] Moved by Mary by Anna-Karina Hermkens 2009 ISBN 0-7546-6789-8 p. 38

[89] Encyclical Ad Caeli Reginam on the Vatican website

[90] The encyclopedia of Protestantism edited by Hans Joachim Hillerbrand 2003 ISBN 0-415-92472-3 pp. 171–173

[91] Mary in Western art by Timothy Verdon, Filippo Rossi 2005 ISBN 0-9712981-9-X p. 61

[92] Christian art by Beth Williamson 2004 ISBN 0-19- 280328-X pp. 102–106

[93] The : Its Thought and Life by Ernst Benz 2009 ISBN 0-202-36298-1 pp. 4–9

[94] Serbian orthodox fundamentals by Christos Mylonas 2003 ISBN 963-9241-61-X pp. 45–48

[95] Encyclopedia of Catholicism by Frank K. Flinn, J. Gordon Melton 2007 ISBN pp. 244–245

[96] Ecclesiasticus II: Orthodox Icons, Saints, Feasts and Prayer by George Dion Dragas 2005 ISBN 0-9745618-0-0 pp. 177–178

[97] America’s religions: from their origins to the twenty-first century by Peter W. Williams 2008 ISBN 0-252-07551- X pp. 56–57

[98] Keeping silence: Christian practices for entering stillness by C. W. McPherson ISBN 0-8192-1910-X, 2002 p. 48

[99] The encyclopedia of world religions by Robert S. Ellwood, Gregory D. Alles 2007 ISBN 0-8160-6141-6 pp. 33–34

[100] Mark Miravalle, 1993, Introduction to Mary, Queenship Publishing ISBN 978-1-882972-06-7 pp. 64–70

[101] Butler’s Lives of the Saints: August by Alban Butler, Paul Burns 1998 ISBN 0-86012-257-3 p. 147 20 16 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

16 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

16.1 Text • Marian art in the Catholic Church Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church?oldid=730542833 Con- tributors: Xandar, Ham II, Rich Farmbrough, YUL89YYZ, Bender235, Lima, Woohookitty, BD2412, JamesBurns, Josh Parris, Gryffindor, Wavelength, Borgx, RussBot, Fnorp, Fram, Hmains, Chris the speller, Colonies Chris, Sct72, Rrburke, JohnI, Neddyseagoon, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in Australia, Cydebot, PKT, Supparluca, Yarovit, Bundas, DGG, CommonsDelinker, Johnbod, Biglovinb, VanishedUserABC, StAnselm, Brenont, Lucasbfrbot, MrsKrishan, Sfan00 IMG, Hafspajen, Aitias, Tran The Vinh, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Saracen78, Testus, TheAMmollusc, Maris1891, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Armbrust, FrescoBot, Eagle4000, PigFlu Oink, Alonso de Mendoza, SW3 5DL, HyperGaruda, IRISZOOM, Esoglou, Midas02, Aavindraa, AlbertusmagnusOP, Jbribeiro1, 11 Arlington, Clue- Bot NG, Jdcollins13, Editør, Escapepea, Helpful Pixie Bot, The Cake 2, Sabre ball, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Hz.tiang, Khazar2, Blevintron, BlevintronBot, Patient Zero, Azlotnik and Anonymous: 13

16.2 Images • File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark • File:10_Inmaculada_Concepción_(National_Gallery_de_Londres,_c._1618).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/9/90/10_Inmaculada_Concepci%C3%B3n_%28National_Gallery_de_Londres%2C_c._1618%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: See below. Original artist: Diego Velázquez • File:Annunciation_Melozzo_da_Forli_Pantheon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Annunciation_ Melozzo_da_Forli_Pantheon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jastrow • File:Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE. svg License: Public domain Contributors: • File:Coat of arms Holy See.svg Original artist: Cronholm144 created this image using a file by User:Hautala - File:Emblem of Vatican City State.svg, who had created his file using PD art from Open Clip Art Library and uploaded on 13 July 2006. User talk:F l a n k e r uploaded this version on 19 January 2007. • File:Fra_Filippo_Lippi_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Fra_Filippo_Lippi_002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Filippo Lippi • File:Gardenenclosed.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Gardenenclosed.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Broederhugo • File:Geertgen_tot_Sint_Jans,_The_Nativity_at_Night,_c_1490.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/ Geertgen_tot_Sint_Jans%2C_The_Nativity_at_Night%2C_c_1490.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Gallery Original artist: Geertgen tot Sint Jans (circa 1460-circa 1488) • File:ImmaculateEmblem.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b5/ImmaculateEmblem.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Inmaculada_Concepcion_(La_Colosal).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Inmaculada_ Concepcion_%28La_Colosal%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [2] Original artist: Bartolomé Esteban Murillo • File:Istanbul_-_S._Salvatore_in_Chora_-_Nartece_-_Cristo_e_Maria_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_26-5-2006.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Istanbul_-_S._Salvatore_in_Chora_-_Nartece_-_Cristo_e_Maria_-_Foto_ G._Dall%27Orto_26-5-2006.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Own work Original artist: Giovanni Dall'Orto • File:Madonna-of-humility-_1433_Domenico_di_Bartolo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/ Madonna-of-humility-_1433_Domenico_di_Bartolo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.aiwaz.net/panopticon/ madonna-of-humility/gi648c103 Original artist: Domenico di Bartolo • File:Madonna_catacomb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Madonna_catacomb.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: adapted from the quoted page. Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718 • File:Madonna_of_the_Magnificat.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Madonna_of_the_Magnificat. png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Livioandronico2013 • File:Mary-header.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Mary-header.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Jayarathina • File:Mary_&_Child_Icon_Sinai_6th_century.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Mary_%26_Child_ Icon_Sinai_6th_century.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Saint Catherine’s Monastery, Sinai (Egypt) / K. Weitzmann: “Die Ikone” Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718 • File:Michelangelo’{}s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Michelangelo% 27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: This file was derived from: Michelangelo’s Pieta 5450.jpg Original artist: Stanislav Traykov 16.3 Content license 21

• File:Nativity_(Throne_of_Maximianus).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Nativity_%28Throne_ of_Maximianus%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Testus • File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project • File:Ostrabrama-prayer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Ostrabrama-prayer.jpg License: CC BY- SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fczarnowski • File:Our_Mother_of_Perpetual_Help.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Our_Mother_of_ Perpetual_Help.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Our_Mother_of_Perpetual_Help.jpg Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718 • File:Piero_di_Cosimo_057.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Piero_di_Cosimo_057.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Piero di Cosimo • File:Pietro_Cavallini_013.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Pietro_Cavallini_013.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Pietro Cavallini • File:PiusXIISaluspopuli.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/PiusXIISaluspopuli.jpg License: CC BY- SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Ambrosius007. Original uploader was Ambrosius007 at en.wikipedia • File:Raffael_051.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Raffael_051.jpg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Raphael • File:SalusPopuliromanicrowned.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/SalusPopuliromanicrowned.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original artist: Ambrosius007 (talk) • File:Sto_Dom_de_Sil-23.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Sto_Dom_de_Sil-23.JPG License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Juergen Kappenberg • File:Tizian_041.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Tizian_041.jpg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Titian • File:Virgen_de_Fátima.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Virgen_de_F%C3%A1tima.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Manuel González Olaechea assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Virgen_del_Carmen.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Virgen_del_Carmen.JPG License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jorge Barrios • File:Virgin_salus_populi_romani.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Virgin_salus_populi_ romani.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718 • File:Vladimirskaya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Vladimirskaya.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ?

16.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0