Applied Phonetics and How Speech Sounds are Produced Phonology Speech sounds are produced by a moving column of air in a resonating chamber – just English Phonetics like a musical instrument. and Phonology: Different sounds are produced by varying the speed of the column of air, the size and English Consonants shape of the resonating chamber, and by introducing various kinds of vibrations into the column. Tom Payne, TESOL at Hanyang University 2007 How Speech Sounds are Produced How Speech Sounds are Produced This is why different musical By changing the speed of the column of air, the shape of the resonator, and the instruments sound different. kind of vibration introduced into the air stream , we produce the phonetic differences that constitute the sounds of This is also why different people speech. sound different when they talk. Classification of Consonants Classification of Consonants Most English consonants can be classified Meet Sammy, the sagittal diagram: Our phonetic using three articulatory parameters: phriend: Voicing: vibration or lack of vibration of the vocal folds. Place of Articulation: the point at which the air stream is most restricted. Manner of Articulation: What happens to the moving column of air. 1 Classification of Consonants Classification of Consonants Bilabial sounds are pronounced with the lips To make the sound [m], Sammy simply lowers together. Here Sammy is pronouncing a [p]: his velum, to allow the column of air to pass through his nose: This increases the size of the resonating chamber, and allows the consonant to be pronounced continuously. Classification of Consonants Classification of Consonants Velar sounds are pronounced with the tongue Velar sounds are pronounced with the tongue near or touching the velum, or “soft-palate ”: near or touching the velum, or “soft-palate ”: What sound Now what is this? sound is Sammy pronouncing ? Classification of Consonants Classification of Consonants Alveolar sounds are pronounced with the tongue So far we have only seen stops. To produce a near or touching the alveolar ridge, just behind fricative, the air stream is impeded, but not the top teeth. What is Sammy saying now? stopped. What sound do you think this is? Watch the larynx! 2 Classification of Consonants Classification of Consonants Palatal fricatives, like / ʃʃʃ/ and / ʒʒʒ/ are pronounced With the three parameters of voicing, with the tongue behind the alveolar ridge: place of articulation and manner of articulation, we can uniquely identify (almost) all the phonemic consonants of What sound English. is this? Voiced and Voiceless Places of Articulation Voicing introduces vibration into the Lips: Bilabial consonants /p, b, m, w/ resonating column of air. When the vocal Lips and teeth: Labiodental consonants: /f, v/ folds are tensed, they vibrate as the air Teeth: Interdental consonants / θθθ, ð/ stream passes them. The result is a Alveolar ridge: Alveolar consonants /t, d, s, z, n, l/ voiced sound, such as /z/ and /v/. When Central palate (or hard palate): Palatal consonants the vocal folds relax, the air stream / ʃʃʃ, ʒ, r, tʃʃʃ, dʒ, y/ passes them without causing vibration. The result is a voiceless sound, such as Velum (or soft palate): Velar consonants /k, g , ŋŋŋ/ Glottis: Glottal fricative /h/ /s/, /f/ and /t/. Manner of Articulation The Stops The process by which the moving column of air is Stops occur when the air stream stops shaped is called the manner of articulation. For English, completely for an instant before it exits these are: the vocal tract. Stops: /p, t, k, b, d, g/ Voiceless stops in English are the /p/ in Fricatives: /f, v, θθθ, ð, s, z, ʃʃʃ,ʃ, ʒʒʒ,ʒ,,, h/ pour and slap, the /t/ in time and adept, Affricates: / ʧ, ʤʤʤ/ and the /k/ in cold and poke. Nasals: /m, n, ŋŋŋ/ (sometimes called “nasal stops ”) Voiced stops are the /b/ in bow and crab, Liquids: /l, r/ the /d/ in dock and blood, and the /g/ in Glides: /w, y, hw/ game and bag 3 The Fricatives The Affricates Fricatives occur when the air stream is audibly disrupted but not stopped Affricates start out as a stop, but end up completely. as a fricative. There are two affricates in Voiced fricatives are the /v/ in very and English, both of which are palatal. shove, the /ð/ in th y and bath e, the /z/ in Therefore we do not need to mention zoo and wise, and the / ʒ/ in measure and place of articulation to describe afficates. Zh a Zh a. The voiceless affricate is the /tʃ/ in lunch Voiceless fricatives are the /f/ in fool and and ch apter. laugh , the / θ/ in th igh and bath , the / ʃ/ in The voiced affricate is the /dʒ/in germ, sh ock and nati on, the /s/ in soup and journal and wedge miss , and the /h/ in hope and ahoy. The Nasals The Liquids Nasals occur when velum is lowered Liquids occur when the air stream flows allowing the air stream to pass through continuously through the mouth with less obstruction than that of a fricative. Both the nasal cavity instead of the mouth. liquids in English are voiced, so we don ’t The air stream is stopped in the oral need to mention voicing when we describe cavity, so sometimes nasals are called liquids. “nasal stops. ” We will just call them “nasals. ” Nasals are the /m/ in mind and sum, the /n/ in now and sign, and the / ŋ/ in sing , longer and bank. The Liquids The Glides The “““lateral ””” liquid , /l/, is pronounced with the Glides occur when the air stream is restriction in the alveolar region at the beginning of unobstructed, producing an articulation that is syllables, as in low and syll able , but in the velar vowel-like, but moves quickly to another region at the ends of syllables, as in call , halter , articulation making it a consonant. and (optionally) syllable. It is called “lateral ” Sometimes glides are described as semi- because air flows around the sides of the tongue vowels . The “““central ””” liquid is the /r/ in rough and chore. The glides in English include the /w/ in witch This also has various pronunciations. It is called and away, and the /y/ in yes and yoyo. “central ” because air flows over the center of the tongue. Some English speakers have a voiceless alveolar glide. This is transcribed /hw/ and So the terms “central ” and “lateral ” replace the place occurs in wh ether, and wh y. of articulation in descriptions of the liquids. 4 Redundancy Sometimes we don’t need to specify all three Redundancy, articulatory parameters (voicing, place and Syllables manner of articulation) in order to uniquely and identify certain consonants. This is because some features entail certain other features. Consonant Clusters For example, the manner feature of “nasal” entails “voiced.” This is because there are no voiceless nasal consonants in English. To specify voicing for nasal consonants would be redundant . Syllabic and Non-Syllabic Sounds Syllabic and Non-Syllabic Sounds A syllable is a peak of sonority , often surrounded by less sonorous segments. A rhyme consists of an obligatory nucleus , followed by an optional coda . A syllable consists of an obligatory σ (sigma) rhyme , preceded by an optional onset . σ (sigma) (O) R (O) R N (C) Syllabic and Non-Syllabic Sounds Syllabic and Non-Syllabic Sounds A syllable nucleus consists of an obligatory The onset and coda, when present, may sonorant (or resonant) segment, usually a consist of one or more less sonorant vowel: σ (sigma) segments: σ (O) R O R N C N (C) V C C C V C C / s p r ɪ n t / 5 Syllabic and Non-Syllabic Syllabic and Non-Syllabic Sounds Sounds In fact, there is a sonority hierarchy that goes Therefore, relatively sonorant consonants can something like this: be the nucleus of a syllable: Vowels (most sonorant) W (for “word ”) W Nasal consonants σ σ σ σ Liquids Glides O R O R O R R Voiced fricatives N N N C N C Voiceless fricatives Voiced stops C C V . C C C V C . C C Voiceless stops (not sonorant at all) [ p r I . z m ] [ ʃ ʊ d .n t ] Syllable Structure Syllable Structure Appendix 4 (p. 375) of your text lists the possible Many syllables of English conform to this syllable structures of English. universal tendency: Consonant clusters (pp. 80-89) are complex syllable onsets and codas. ʌ However, not just any consonant cluster may / t r I p / / b l I ŋ k / / g r n t / occur in the onset or coda. There is a universal (in all languages) tendency for sonority to gradually increase in the onset, and decrease in the coda. Relative Sonority This is called the Sonority Sequencing Principle. Syllable Structure Syllable Structure HOWEVER, some do not. In particular, those For this reason, L2 learners of English often consonant clusters that start with /s/ slightly violate have difficulty with these clusters. They tend to the universal tendency: make them more natural by inserting, or deleting segments: / s t r I p / / s p l æ ʃ / / s k r ʌ n tʃ / [ ǝ s . t r ɪ p ] [ s ǝ . p l æ ʃ ] [ k r ʌ . n tʃ ] Relative Sonority 6.