Environmental Science, Sustainability, and Critical Thinking 3

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© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC CHAPTERNOT 1FOR SALEEnvironmental OR DISTRIBUTION Science,NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Sustainability, and © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC CHAPTER OUTLINE NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 20.11.1 TheEncouraging Endangered Global Critical Thinking CommonsSigns/Continuing 20.1 TheChallenges Effects of Climate 1.2 andWhat Topography Is Environmental on Air A problem well stated is a problem half solved. © Jones & BartlettPollutionScience? Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION—Charles Kettering 20.11.3 TheScience Effects and of Scientific Air PollutionMethod: Keys to 20.1 AirUnderstanding Pollution Control: TowardEnvironmental a Sustainable Issues and f you are like most people, you’ve probably heard a lot of conflict- StrategyCreating Lasting© SolutionsJones & Bartletting Learning, information LLC about the environment and© Jones environmental & Bartlett issues. Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 20.11.4 Noise:Critical The Thinking Forgotten Skills ITeachers, friends, news reporters, writers, and scientists may have SpotlightPollutant on Sustainable warned you of serious problems. Others have offered an opposite view, 20.1 IndoorDevelopment Air Pollution 1-1: The saying things are not nearly as bad as some people would have you 20.1 SpotlightNetherlands’ on GreenSustainable Plan believe or that some of the problems don’t exist. What is the truth? © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC DevelopmentRevolutionizes 20-1: the Way In this book, you will find ample scientific evidence to suggest that NOTIndustries FOR FunctionSALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Germany's Sustainable the problems are real. In fact, a survey of U.S. environmental trends that Spotlight on Sustainable Approach Pays Huge I conducted covering 30 years showed that the vast majority (nearly 70%) DividendsDevelopment 1-2: The Philadelphia Eagles Go of environmental indicators are pointing in the wrong direction. They © Jones & BartlettGreen! Learning, LLC indicate movement© Jones away & from Bartlett a healthy Learning, environment. LLC Although there NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION are some very NOTencouraging FOR SALE signs ORof improvement—about DISTRIBUTION 20% of the

CRITICAL THINKING KEY CONCEPTS Although there are some signs of improvement, the vast major- Exercise © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesity of& the Bartlett environmental Learning, trends show LLC signs of movement away The term critical thinking has become the lat- NOT FORfrom sustainability. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEest buzzword OR DISTRIBUTION in colleges and universities. This term means different things to different people. Some college textbooks, for example, 1.1 Encouraging Signs/ contain critical thinking questions designed Continuing Challenges to encourage students© Jones to think & Bartlett a little Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC deeper—that is, NOTto assimilate FOR SALE facts and OR DISTRIBUTIONAll across the world, change is underway.NOT FOR It’s not SALE ordinary OR change, DISTRIBUTION concepts. Other books ask critical thinking either. It is profound change in the ways societies conduct their questions that call on students to use their everyday affairs—ways that are leading to a new wave of envi- ability to reason. This calls on students to ronmental protection with lasting impacts. In Holland, for ex- weigh evidence. ample, industries have banded together to produce a nationwide © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Green Plan.© Drafted Jones in conjunction& Bartlett with Learning, several key govern-LLC What do you think the term critical think- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ment agencies,NOT the GreenFOR Plan SALE calls on OR industries DISTRIBUTION to reduce toxic ing might mean? Hint: You might begin by emissions drastically and pollutants voluntarily (see Spotlight looking up the word critical in the dictionary. on Sustainable Development 1-1). This bold new plan will, if its goals Ask friends and teachers. After you have com- are reached, practically eliminate hazardous wastes and a host pleted your inquiry, write a definition, and of additional pollutants. What is encouraging to many is that the © Jones & Bartlettthen check Learning, the definition LLC given in this chap- © Jonesplan does & Bartlett not require Learning,regulations and LLC fines, which governments NOT FOR SALEter. What OR ruleDISTRIBUTION of critical thinking would you NOT typicallyFOR SALE use to get OR companies DISTRIBUTION to improve their environmental propose based on this exercise? performance. Rather, companies are left largely to their own de- The author’s analysis of this exercise is lo- vices to find economical ways to meet national goals. The gov- cated at the end of the chapter. ernment is there to lend a hand, providing financial resources and technical assistance if needed. If companies do not meet goals, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCfines may be imposed. Because ©of Holland’sJones success,& Bartlett many other Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONnations, including Bhutan, NewNOT Zealand, FOR Nepal, SALE Mexico, andOR Sin- DISTRIBUTION gapore, have launched similar programs. trends showed improving conditions—there is still In the United States, impressive change is also in the cause for serious concern and action. works. For example, a number of programs have been established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), As© Jonesyou read & this Bartlett book, Learning,I invite you LLC to explore a federal agency© Jones charged with& Bartlett writing many Learning, environmental LLC reg- the issuesNOT withFOR an SALE open ORmind, DISTRIBUTION looking carefully at ulations andNOT enforcing FOR environmental SALE OR laws DISTRIBUTION passed by the Con- all aspects of each one. We’ll examine the scien- gress. One program, EPA’s Green Lights program, was designed tific evidence behind the issues and hear what the to reduce electrical consumption by businesses and government agencies. So far, thousands of the nation’s largest cor- experts from all sides of the issues have to say. porations, including Boeing, and many governmental agencies © Jones &We’ll Bartlett explore Learning, traditional LLCsolutions and a new brand© Joneshave signed& Bartlett up to participate Learning, in this LLC program (FIGURE 1-1). NOT FORof SALE responses OR DISTRIBUTION that could help us find NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION lasting solutions to pressing problems— solutions that are good for people, the environment, and the economy. These are part of a new strategy© Jones known & Bartlettas sus- Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC tainability. Let’s beginNOT with FOR some SALE of the OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION encouraging trends.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION FIGURE 1-1 EPA Green Lights program. Boeing Corporation, based in Seattle, Washington, joined the EPA Green Lights program (now part of the EPA’s En- ergy Star Program) and saves over $12 million per © Jones &year Bartlett by reducing Learning, electrical energy LLC consumption. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOREvery SALE eight years,OR DISTRIBUTIONthis would buy one Boeing 757 jet. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

2 PART I. Introduction to Environmental Protection: Sustainability, Science, and Systems

SPOTLIGHT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE1-1 ORThe DISTRIBUTION Netherlands’ Green Plan RevolutionizesNOT FOR SALE the Way OR Industries DISTRIBUTION Function

The Netherlands is a tiny country, about one-fourth the therefore, combined the carrot (incentive) and stick (penalty) size of the state of Illinois (FIGURE 1). It is, however, a gi- approaches in hopes of restructuring industry for sus- ant among nations. Why this glowing praise for such a small tainability. country? © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCThis approach was widely© hailed Jones by many & Bartlett major Dutch Learning, LLC In 1989, the countryNOT adopted FOR a SALE National OR Environmen- DISTRIBUTIONindustrialists. They liked theNOT agreement FOR because SALE it ORgave DISTRIBUTION tal Policy Plan (NEPP) commonly called its Green Plan, af- them free rein to find solutions that made the most sense ter widespread public alarm over many environmental trends. to their businesses. The net effect is a kind of customized An even tougher plan came into existence several years implementation that avoids the one-size-fits-all solutions later. Known as the NEPP 2, it gave the Dutch government typically employed in industrial nations’ environmental more© power Jones to write & Bartlett and enforce Learning, environmental LLC laws and to control policies.© Jones Such approaches & Bartlett have Learning, met with consider- LLC earmarkNOT substantial FOR SALE sums of OR money DISTRIBUTION to research and redesign able resistanceNOT in theFOR United SALE States OR because DISTRIBUTION they often im- industrial processes. Since then, it has been twice upgraded. posed prohibitive and sometimes unnecessary costs on The most exciting aspect of the Green Plan is that it al- businesses. lows for a new approach—a set of voluntary agreements with The voluntary approach was also popular because it industry and other sectors of society responsible for pro- helped companies become more efficient and more prof- © Jones & ducingBartlett the bulk Learning, of the nation’s LLC pollution. Why was all of this© Jonesitable. & In Bartlett addition, the Learning, Netherlands LLChas become an exporter NOT FOR SALEnecessary? OR DISTRIBUTION NOT ofFOR technologies SALE createdOR DISTRIBUTION by the country’s industries to meet Although the Netherlands has some of the most strin- the goals of the nation’s ambitious Green Plan. As other gent environmental laws in the world, they weren’t work- nations see the need for this shift, the Dutch pollution pre- ing well. Because of this, the government took a bold step: vention and sustainable technology industry could profit It admitted that there are limitations to regulating complex enormously. and interdependent environmental© Jones &problems Bartlett on an Learning, issue-by- LLCThe Netherlands’ Green Plan© Jonesrelies on four& Bartlett basic princi- Learning, LLC issue basis. In place ofNOT this unworkable FOR SALE system OR of rulesDISTRIBUTION and ples. First is life cycle management,NOT which FOR makes SALE companies OR DISTRIBUTION regulations, the government decided to meet with the key responsible for products throughout their life cycle—from players (industries and citizen groups, for example) to reach production to consumption to disposal. Under this principle, agreement on establishing bold new targets and timeta- producers are responsible for disposing of products after bles for drastically reducing pollution. The government let their useful life span has expired. This has spawned inter- the© companies Jones select& Bartlett ways to Learning,reduce pollution; LLC all that it est in manufacturing© Jones products & Bartlett that are Learning, easily recycled. LLC askedNOT of industryFOR SALE was a commitment OR DISTRIBUTION to meet ambitious AnotherNOT essential FOR component SALE ofOR the DISTRIBUTION strategy is energy government targets and timetables. Industry groups hap- efficiency. By using energy more efficiently, companies can pily signed the agreements, recognizing that the responsi- save huge sums of money—and gain a competitive edge in bility of meeting the targets was theirs and that failure to the market by producing goods and services more cheaply meet the goals would result in stiff penalties. The Dutch, than international competitors. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © JonesSustainable & Bartlett technologies Learning, are alsoLLC an important com- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT ponentFOR SALEof this plan. OR The DISTRIBUTION government has launched a major program to develop sustainable technologies and make ex- isting technologies more readily available to people and industries. Finally, success also hinges on improving public aware- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCness. The government launched© aJones media blitz & Bartlett that echoes Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONthe important theme: “A betterNOT environment FOR SALE begins OR with DISTRIBUTION you.” Today, over 250,000 Dutch businesses participate in the Green Plan, focusing on ways to conserve energy, produce more environmentally friendly products, and reduce pollu- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC tion emissions.© Jones Seventy & percent Bartlett of the Learning, original goals LLC have NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION already beenNOT achieved FOR according SALE toOR the DISTRIBUTIONResource Renewal Institute, which tracks green plans. The successes of this ambitious program have been im- FIGURE 1 The Netherlands is leading the world in sustainable pressive: ozone-depleting substances have been phased out. development. Industry has reduced its waste disposal by 60%. Recycling © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

CHAPTER 1: Environmental Science, Sustainability, and Critical Thinking 3

© Jones &has Bartlett increased Learning, to 80%, and LLC sulfur dioxide emissions have© Jonesenlist & their Bartlett aid in reducingLearning, consumption. LLC They’re even NOT FOR SALEbeen reduced OR DISTRIBUTIONby 70%. In the 1980s, the Rhine river wasNOT workingFOR SALE on land OR use DISTRIBUTION and transportation issues with a so polluted the few remaining fish were too toxic to eat. greater emphasis on consumer responsibility. In addition, Today, children fish and swim in the river thanks to the after 2010 sustainability will become a major criterion for Netherlands Green Plan and international agreements that all government purchases, which will stimulate businesses reduce pollutants released into the river. The country has to produce even more green products. All in all, this tiny, been able to achieve© economic Jones growth & Bartlett while reducing Learning, its LLCprogressive country stands as© a Jonesmodel for & the Bartlett rest of the Learning, LLC

impact on the environmentNOT FOR(except SALE for CO2 ORemissions). DISTRIBUTIONworld, proving that economicNOT prosperity FOR and SALE environment OR DISTRIBUTION Not all environmental problems facing this small coun- do not have to be at odds. try were the result of industry. Realizing this, the Dutch government has revised its plan to address the citizens and Go to http://environment.jbpub.com/9e/ to learn more. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Participating companies are working with the EPA to cut elec- crease. Forests are being cut down. Species are disap- trical demand through efficiency measures. All efforts are vol- pearing, and global pollution is increasing. Although untary. The EPA provides technical assistance. global statistics can become overwhelming, consider what Many businesses have also voluntarily taken on energy will happen in the next 24 hours. During this period, © Jones &efficiency Bartlett and renewableLearning, energy LLC projects to lower their carbon© Jones223,000 & Bartlett people will Learning, be added to LLC the world population. NOT FORfootprint, SALE ORthat is,DISTRIBUTION to reduce the amount of greenhouse gasNOT InFOR the nextSALE 24 hours,OR DISTRIBUTION a huge amount of tropical rain for- (carbon dioxide) they emit. Johnson and Johnson, for ex- est will be leveled to make room for farms, roads, dams, ample, has invested $100 million in energy efficiency and mines, and towns. The daily loss comes to about 525 renewable energy projects at their many facilities—and are square kilometers (230 square miles)—that’s equivalent realizing a substantial return on their investment of around to a swath 115 miles long and 2 miles wide. Unfortu- 15%. Wal-Mart has pledged© Jones to makes & Bartlett its new stores Learning, even LLCnately, very few of these trees© Jones will ever & be Bartlett replanted— Learning, LLC more energy efficient NOTthan their FOR already SALE energy-efficient OR DISTRIBUTIONonly about 1 for every 10 treesNOT felled. FOR In this SALE same ORperiod, DISTRIBUTION stores. They’ve pledged to cut waste and make their trans- 180 square kilometers (70 square miles) of land will turn portation fleet substantially more efficient within 10 years, to desert, in large part because of poor farming practices, saving millions of dollars each year while helping reduce overgrazing, and a warming trend that may be caused by greenhouse gas emissions. Google and Microsoft have both pollutants—largely from industrial societies—that trap recently© Jones installed &huge Bartlett solar electric Learning, arrays at theirLLC facilities heat in the© Earth’s Jones atmosphere. & Bartlett The Learning,list goes on. LLC on theNOT West FORCoast. EvenSALE the ORbuildings DISTRIBUTION that replace the Twin These NOTand a hostFOR of SALEother environmental OR DISTRIBUTION trends pre- Towers of the World Trade Center in Manhattan are being sented throughout this book suggest to many observers that built green—using environmentally friendly materials. These the current course of virtually all nations of the world is un- energy-efficient buildings and others around them will be sustainable. This is not to say that we are doomed, however. powered entirely by renewable energy. Stating we’re on an unsustainable course is simply another © Jones & BartlettWhat motivates Learning, companies LLC to use energy more effi-© Jonesway of & asserting Bartlett that Learning, things can’t go LLC on as they have been. To NOT FORciently? SALE Many OR adopted DISTRIBUTION these programs to become better en-NOT avoidFOR problems—potentially SALE OR DISTRIBUTION serious problems—and to cre- vironmental neighbors, but they also did it to save money, ate a better future, experts contend that we will need to sometimes millions of dollars a year in energy bills. change our ways. Thankfully, many of the world’s people What has brought about all of the changes discussed pre- are realizing this. You should not give up hope. There are viously? Quite simply, these and a great many other changes many very favorable trends underway and new and promising underway have been brought© Jones about by& aBartlett growing recognition Learning, LLCdevelopments. New technologies© Jones are also & Bartletthelping solve Learning, LLC that the current paths manyNOT nations FOR are SALE following OR are DISTRIBUTIONnot sus- problems, as are individual actionsNOT FOR(FIGURE SALE 1-3). Another OR DISTRIBUTION tainable. That is to say, many individuals have realized we encouraging sign is that more can’t go on as we have been without serious social, economic, and more people have come GO GREEN and environmental repercussions. In my analysis of environ- to realize that there are a Use compact fluorescent light mental trends spanning a period of 30 years, mentioned ear- number of fundamental driv- bulbs in your dorm room or lier, I© found Jones that &nearly Bartlett 70% of Learning, U.S. indicators, LLC including ing forces—or© Jones root causes— & Bartlettapartment Learning, to save energy LLC and energyNOT consumption, FOR SALE population OR growth,DISTRIBUTION waste production, that have createdNOT theFOR present SALEreduce OR pollution. DISTRIBUTION These bulbs and wildlife habitat, showed decline. About 20% of the trends conditions. Two of the most use 75% less energy than a showed some improvement. The rest of the conditions were important are continuing standard light bulb. neither improving nor deteriorating (FIGURE 1-2). growth in both economic Worldwide, similar trends have caused concern among output and population. © Jones &many Bartlett political Learning, leaders, activists, LLC citizens, scientists, and© JonesEncouragingly, & Bartlett Learning, many nations LLC have responded swiftly NOT FORbusiness SALE leaders.OR DISTRIBUTION The world population continues to in-NOT toFOR the population SALE OR challenge. DISTRIBUTION They have developed educa-

4 PART I. Introduction to Environmental Protection: Sustainability, Science, and Systems

Neither toward © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC nor away© Jones from & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION sustainabilityNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Volatile organic Carbon monoxide Cancer deaths Toward emissions emissions sustainability © JonesAgricultural & BartlettParticulate Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORpesticide SALE use emissionsOR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Toxic release to environment Cropland Wetlands erosion Population © JonesRecycling & Bartlett Learning, LLC © ForestedJones & BartlettSulfur Learning,growth LLC land area Toxic dioxide Annual NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Industrial energyNOT FORrelease SALE ORemissions DISTRIBUTIONNitrogen water consumption to surface oxide consumption water emissions Renewable energy production Carbon dioxide emissions

Residential energy consumption Total energy consumption © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Land in farms andNOT harvested FOR acreage SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Away from Commercial energy consumption sustainability

Transportation energy consumption and vehicle miles traveled © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Municipal solid waste consumption per capita

Songbird and waterfowl populations © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

FIGURE 1-2 Environmental trends. Summary of 25 environmental trends studied by the author.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartletttional Learning, programs and LLC other voluntary mea- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALEsures OR thatDISTRIBUTION are helping to slow the growth of their populations. Many countries have begun to take steps to create economies that are better for the environment. Important agreements have been © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC reached to curb© global Jones pollution, & Bartlett protect forests, Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and protect wildNOT species FOR and SALE in recent OR years, DISTRIBUTION some nations have taken steps to combat global climate change. Although there’s a lot more to do, the world seems to be moving in the right direction. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION KEY CONCEPTS There are many positive changes in perception and policy that have led to real progress in solving local, regional, and global environ- FIGURE 1-3 Solar electricity. Photovoltaic (PV) modules produce electricity from mental problems. However, the problems still © Jones &sunlight. Bartlett On these Learning, homes in Brazil, LLC PVs provide electricity for two indoor© Jones compact & Bartlett Learning, LLC outweigh the solutions. NOT FORfluorescent SALE lights.OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

CHAPTER 1: Environmental Science, Sustainability, and Critical Thinking 5

SPOTLIGHT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE1-2 ORThe DISTRIBUTION Philadelphia Eagles Go Green!NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

“The Philadelphia Eagles may not have a winning record power. The team even subsidizes renewable energy pur- on the field,” writes NBC’s Laura Marquez, “but they are chases by employees. setting the record in the© Jones NFL as the & greenest Bartlett team Learning, in foot- LLCThe team minimizes the use© Jonesof potentially & Bartlett toxic chem- Learning, LLC ball.” How can a football team become a leader in green? icals and fertilizes their playing field with organic fertilizer. Like individuals,NOT businesses, FOR andSALE governments, OR DISTRIBUTION the They also recycle much of the mountainNOT FOR of waste SALE left behind OR DISTRIBUTION Philadelphia Eagles football team has adopted a number of after each home game. policies and practices to help ease their impact on the en- The team is also helping to educate its fans on the vironment. For example, they now print their programs and importance of little things they can do to reduce their impact tickets© Jones on recycled & Bartlettpaper. They Learning, also require the LLC use of plas- on the environment.© Jones They & do Bartlett this by sharing Learning, facts about LLC their tic made from corn, a renewable resource, for the beer cups individual contributions to the problems and the solutions. soldNOT on the FOR premises. SALE Plates OR used DISTRIBUTION in the executive suites are AlthoughNOT the FOREagles SALEare leading OR the DISTRIBUTION charge, they’re made from plant products. not alone. The St. Louis Rams are also taking steps to be- Even the lights in their stadium are green—powered by come a greener team. Their efforts have spurred interest in renewable energy. Overall, one-third of the energy the team greening high school and college teams, not just in foot- © Jones & consumesBartlett derives Learning, from renewable LLC resources, mostly wind© Jonesball, but& Bartlettin other sports Learning, as well. LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

1.2 technologies, but they may also involve new ways of think- What Is Environmental© Jones & Bartlett Science? Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ing, new behaviors, and new laws and regulations. Today, nu- This book focuses on the environmental problems that we face— NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONmerous environmental scientistsNOT realize FOR that SALE many solutions OR DISTRIBUTION issues in three principal areas: pollution, natural resources, proposed since the 1960s were stop-gap measures—that is, and population. However, it also focuses on solutions, that is, they solved the problems but only temporarily. This realiza- what individuals, businesses, and governments can do about tion has led many to rethink previous ideas and propose more our many environmental problems. The topics covered in this lasting, preventive measures—solutions that are good for book ©fall Jones within the & domain Bartlett of a relativelyLearning, new science, LLC known © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC people, the economy, and the environment. We call these sus- as environmental science. What is environmental science? NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION tainable solutions.NOT FOR In this SALE book, I ORpresent DISTRIBUTION traditional, stop- Environmental science is, in broadest terms, a branch of sci- gap–type solutions and the newer set of sustainable solutions. ence that seeks to understand the many ways that we affect our As you shall see, these solutions are part of a new movement environment and the many ways that we can address these is- called sustainable development. You’ll see the connection sues. Environmental science draws on the research and exper- in the next chapter. Basically, though, sustainable solutions tise of specialists from numerous traditional sciences, including © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Joneswill help & Bartlettus create a moreLearning, sustainable LLC course of development. NOT FORbiology, SALE ecology, OR DISTRIBUTION chemistry, geology, engineering, and physics.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The study of environmental issues and solutions also draws KEY CONCEPTS heavily on the humanities: economics, political science, an- Environmental science is a multidisciplinary endeavor that thropology, history, law, sociology, and even psychology. Thus, seeks to understand and solve a wide range of environmental environmental science is a multidisciplinary field of endeavor. problems. More recently environmentalists and environmen- To many observers, ©myself Jones included, & Bartlett a full understanding Learning, LLCtal scientists have taken steps© to Jones implement & solutionsBartlett that Learning, LLC of issues and solutions requiresNOT FOR this broad, SALE multidisciplinary OR DISTRIBUTIONeliminate problems, thus promotingNOT sustainable FOR SALE development. OR DISTRIBUTION approach. We won’t solve the complex environmental issues that we face today through science and technology. We must understand and address the human element. This book takes a multidisciplinary approach. It discusses 1.3 Science and Scientific Method: the science© Jones behind & the Bartlett issues, technologies Learning, that LLC will help us Keys© Jones to Understanding & Bartlett Learning, LLC addressNOT problems, FOR butSALE also drawsOR DISTRIBUTION on a wide range of other NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION disciplines to help you develop a deeper understanding of is- Environmental Issues and sues and solutions. Environmental science, like engineering, is an applied Creating Lasting Solutions science. Environmental scientists seek knowledge to expand The term science comes from the Latin word scientia, which © Jones &our Bartlett body of knowledge, Learning, but alsoLLC to enable us to develop so-© Jonesmeans & “to Bartlett know or Learning, to discern.” Technically,LLC the term sci- NOT FORlutions SALE to ORour problems.DISTRIBUTION Those solutions may involve newNOT enceFORrefers SALE to a body OR of DISTRIBUTION knowledge derived from observation,

6 PART I. Introduction to Environmental Protection: Sustainability, Science, and Systems

measurement, study, and experimentation—and to the such as this one that are based on observation and measurement process of accumulating such knowledge. are derived by inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning occurs © Jones & BartlettThroughout Learning, this book you LLC will learn both fundamental© Jonesany time & Bartletta person uses Learning, facts and observations LLC to arrive at gen- NOT FORprinciples SALE ofOR science DISTRIBUTION and many of the scientific concepts andNOT eralFOR rules SALE or hypotheses. OR DISTRIBUTION This is very common in scientific facts behind environmental issues. Some of the most impor- study. Charles Darwin based his theory of natural selection on tant scientific principles come from the science of ecology, the observations. He was engaged in inductive reasoning. study of ecosystems (Chapters 4–6). An ecosystem is a sys- Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive rea- tem composed of living things (animals, plants, microorgan- soning, in which one arrives at a specific conclusion drawn isms) and the interrelated© physical Jones and & chemical Bartlett environment. Learning, LLCfrom general principles. Deductive© Jones reasoning & Bartlett is common Learning, in LLC Before we can delve into theNOT realm FOR of science, SALE however, OR itDISTRIBUTION is help- mathematics, philosophy, politics,NOT and FOR ethics. SALE General OR prin- DISTRIBUTION ful to understand how scientific information is acquired. ciples are used to examine and evaluate decisions. Consider an example: Scientists have found that brightly colored frogs KEY CONCEPTS of the tropics are generally poisonous, a fact established by Science is a body of knowledge and a method of acquiring fur- scientific research (inductive reasoning). Brightly colored ther knowledge about the world around us. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC snakes are also© Jones often poisonous. & Bartlett Studies Learning, suggest that LLC this is NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION a kind of warningNOT coloration.FOR SALE Wary OR predators DISTRIBUTION know to avoid such colorful meals. If you were to encounter a brightly col- Scientific Method: ored snake or frog, you might assume that it is poisonous The Basis of Good Science (FIGURE 1-5). You would have used deductive reasoning to do this. You would have used a general principle to derive a con- © Jones &Scientific Bartlett study Learning, of the world aroundLLC us generally occurs in an© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC orderly fashion. As a rule, scientific discovery begins with clusion about a specific organism. NOT FORobservations SALE OR and DISTRIBUTION measurements of the subject under studyNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION KEY CONCEPTS (FIGURE 1-4). From such observations, scientists often formulate tentative explanations, or hypotheses. Consider an exam- Scientific knowledge is often gained through a deliberate process of observation and measurement, which leads scientists to forple: Scientists hypothesize that rattlesnakes shake their rattles mulate hypotheses that can then be tested through experi- to warn large animals to© stay Jones away. It & is Bartlettnot an aggressive Learning, act, LLCments. This is a form of inductive© Jonesreasoning. & Bartlett Learning, LLC but a protective measureNOT that reduces FOR theSALE chances OR of aDISTRIBUTION snake’s NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION being stepped on and killed. This hypothesis is based on observations of wild rattlesnakes. Hypotheses (generalizations) Experimentation: Testing Hypotheses After a hypothesis is made, the scientist must determine if © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC it is valid. This© Jones is usually & done Bartlett by experimentation. Learning, Properly LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION performed,NOT experiments FOR provide SALE information OR DISTRIBUTION that either sup- Substantiated ports or refutes the hypothesis under question. As shown in hypothesis

2 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Observation and 1 New/revised measurement hypothesis

NOT FORHypothesis SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Experiment

FIGURE 1-4 The scientific method. This drawing shows a sim- plified view of the scientific method, beginning with observation FIGURE 1-5 Predator beware. Many brightly colored reptiles and © Jones &and Bartlett measurement. Learning, In some cases, LLC the original hypothesis may © Jonesamphibians & Bartlett are poisonous, Learning, like this poison LLC dart frog from the NOT FORhave SALE to be revisedOR DISTRIBUTION many times. NOT tropicalFOR rainSALE forest. OR Predators DISTRIBUTION learn to avoid them.

CHAPTER 1: Environmental Science, Sustainability, and Critical Thinking 7

Figure 1-4, if a hypothesis is refuted, a modified or new similar humans who have been exposed to the same con- one is generally substituted. The new hypothesis must then ditions throughout life is impossible. Consequently, © Jones be& tested.Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesscientists & Bartlett often rely Learning, on epidemiological LLC (EP-eh-DEEM- NOT FOR SALEScientific OR method, DISTRIBUTION then, consists of observations andNOT ee-ah-LO-jeh-cul)FOR SALE OR studies DISTRIBUTION to study the effects of chemical measurements that result in hypotheses. These are tested pollutants on people. through experimentation and refined as needed. Surprisingly, Literally translated, epidemiology (EP-eh-DEEM-ee- most people use scientific method nearly every day of their lives. OL-oh-gee) is the study of epidemics caused by infectious dis- Suppose, for example, that every time you went to a friend’s ease organisms. Today, however, epidemiology refers to a house you became ill. To© determine Jones what & Bartlett made you sick,Learning, you’d LLCbranch of science that also studies© Jones the health & Bartlett effects of Learning, en- LLC probably start by makingNOT a mental FOR list of SALE all of the OR activities DISTRIBUTION you vironmental pollutants, foodNOT additives, FOR radiation, SALE and OR a va-DISTRIBUTION engaged in at your friend’s house during your visits. After riety of other agents. Epidemiological studies generally rely making the list and weeding out activities that seem irrelevant, on statistical analysis of data on populations that have been you might conclude that your problems began when you pet- exposed to various potentially harmful substances. Con- ted your friend’s cat. That’s your hypothesis. sider an example: Suppose a scientist wanted to know the To© testJones this hypothesis, & Bartlett you Learning, could perform LLC an experi- cause of a ©kind Jones of cancer & Bartlettin humans. Learning, If she were LLCan epi- ment.NOT For instance, FOR SALE you might OR ask DISTRIBUTION your friend to keep the demiologist,NOT she would FOR generally SALE begin OR byDISTRIBUTION searching through cat outdoors when you were there. If you come home feel- death certificates from hospitals to identify patients who ing sick again, you might alter your hypothesis. Maybe it’s had succumbed to the cancer in question. She would then the new carpet in her apartment. Of course, scientific study interview their next of kin to learn about the deceased’s per- is much more involved than this example, but the process sonal habits, lifestyle, and possible exposures. She would © Jones &is muchBartlett the same. Learning, LLC © Jonesthen put& Bartlett all of the Learning,information into LLC a computer and sort NOT FOR SALEMany ORscientific DISTRIBUTION experiments are carried out on animals,NOT throughFOR SALE it to see ORif she DISTRIBUTIONcould find any commonalities. For ex- plants, and other living organisms. Studies such as these are ample, a large percentage of the people might have been em- often designed to test the effects of a chemical substance— ployed in a chemical factory. The job is not finished yet, for example, the effect of a pollutant on an animal’s lungs. In though. Before any conclusions could be drawn, the re- experiments of this nature, it is necessary to establish two searcher would assemble a control group as identical to the distinct groups of organisms,© Jones an experimental & Bartlett group andLearning, a con- LLCfirst group as possible. The control© Jones group & would Bartlett consist Learning, of LLC trol group. The experimentalNOT groupFORis SALE the one ORthat youDISTRIBUTION treat people of the same age and NOTsex, except FOR that SALE these ORpeople DISTRIBUTION or “experiment on.” In a study of the effects of air pollution would have died from causes other than the cancer under on laboratory mice, for example, the experimental group study. By analyzing their life histories and comparing the would be exposed to certain amounts of air pollution. The con- results with those from the cancer group, she might be able trol group is treated identically, except that it is not exposed to pinpoint the cause of the cancer in the experimental group. to the© pollution. Jones By& settingBartlett up experimentsLearning, in LLC this manner, Epidemiological© Jones studies & Bartlett may also Learning, involve comparisons LLC scientistsNOT can FOR test theSALE effect OR of one DISTRIBUTION and only one variable, of living subjects.NOT ForFOR example, SALE a scientist OR DISTRIBUTION might compare the which is known as the independent variable. Any observed health records of workers exposed to a certain pollutant in differences in the two groups should result from the treatment. a factory to workers at the same company who are not ex- In experiments outside the laboratory, it is not always posed to the pollutant (for example, office workers). This may easy to isolate one variable. Scientists studying areas in which turn up differences that could be attributed to workplace © Jones &acidic Bartlett air pollutants Learning, are being LLC deposited in rain, for exam-© Jonesexposure. & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORple, SALE have found OR DISTRIBUTIONmany biological effects. However, other pol-NOT FORScience SALE requires OR aDISTRIBUTION lot of experimentation to validate hy- lutants such as ozone may be responsible for some of the potheses. No one study can be taken as the final word. How- effects. Sorting out the specific pollutants involved can be ever, by repeating experiments and achieving the same results quite complicated. each time, scientists can gain confidence in their hypotheses. (Such repetition may seem like overkill to some people, KEY CONCEPTS © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCbut it is essential to the scientific© Jones process.) & Bartlett Learning, LLC Experiments enable scientists to test hypotheses and gain new knowledge, but experimentsNOT must FOR be carried SALE out very OR carefully. DISTRIBUTIONKEY CONCEPTS NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Good experiments often require control and experimental groups. Studies of the effects of chemicals on humans are often performed by comparing carefully selected groups of individuals Studies on Human Health Studying the effects of pollu- exposed at work or at home to individuals of the same sex and age who were not exposed. These are known as epidemiological tion on humans is much more difficult than analyzing the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC studies. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC effectsNOT of chemicals FOR SALE on laboratory OR DISTRIBUTION animals described pre- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION viously. Why? First, ethics generally prohibits experimentation on humans such as those performed on laboratory rats or mice. Second, unlike laboratory mice, which are Scientific Theories and Paradigms genetically identical, humans represent a genetically di- Scientific knowledge grows little by little. As facts accumu- © Jones &verse Bartlett group of Learning, organisms. SettingLLC up control and experi-© Joneslate from & Bartlett observation Learning, and experimentation, LLC researchers gain NOT FORmental SALE groups OR DISTRIBUTIONcontaining large numbers of geneticallyNOT anFOR understanding SALE OR of how DISTRIBUTION things work. They often formulate

8 PART I. Introduction to Environmental Protection: Sustainability, Science, and Systems

theories, explanations that account for many different facts, observations, and hypotheses. Theories are scientifically ac- © Jones ceptable& Bartlett principles, Learning, broad generalizations LLC regarding natural,© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORphysical, SALE and OR chemical DISTRIBUTION phenomena. Unlike hypotheses, the-NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ories generally cannot be tested by single experiments because they encompass many different pieces of information. Atomic theory, for instance, explains the structure of the atom and fits numerous observations. Science is not static,© however.Jones &It constantlyBartlett growsLearning, and LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC evolves. Thus, scientistsNOT sometimes FOR findSALE that newOR interpre-DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION tations emerge, replacing entrenched ideas. This sometimes forces scientists to alter or abandon well-established theories. Consequently, scientists must be open-minded about theories; they must be willing to replace their most cherished theories© Joneswith new & ones, Bartlett as more Learning, information accumulates.LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC PerhapsNOT FORthe best SALE known ORexample DISTRIBUTION of a changing theory is NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the Copernican revolution (coe-PURR-nick-in) in astron- omy. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy (TOLL-eh-me) hy- GO GREEN pothesized in A.D. 140 that Make a list of your environmental values—what you think © Jones &the Bartlett Earth was Learning, at the center LLC © JonesFIGURE & 1-6 BartlettScience isLearning, Fun for the Mind! LLCRobert Bakker, one of NOT FORof SALE the solar OR system. DISTRIBUTION This is is right or wrong, environmen- NOT America’sFOR SALE most creative OR scientistsDISTRIBUTION is a man of great energy, enthu- called the geocentric view. The tally. For example: It is wrong siasm, and creativity. moon, the stars, and the sun, to waste water. Then make a he argued, all revolve around list of things you can do to put your values into action. the Earth. In 1580, however, Paradigms also shape our language, thought, and per- Nicolaus Copernicus (coe-© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCceptions. Slogans and common© sayings Jones reflect & Bartlett our paradigms Learning, LLC PURR-nick-us) showedNOT that theFOR many SALE observations OR DISTRIBUTION of as- and are repeated and reinforcedNOT day FOR after day.SALE Perhaps OR the DISTRIBUTION tronomers of the time were better explained by assuming most obvious expression of the dominant social paradigm is that the sun was the center of the solar system. Copernicus the growth-is-essential philosophy. You hear it in the busi- was not the first to suggest this heliocentric view. Early Greek ness world every day when businesspeople proclaim, “A astronomers had proposed the idea, but it gained little at- company must grow or die.” Politicians echo a similar sen- tention© untilJones his time. & Bartlett Learning, LLC timent. Systems© Jones analyst &Donella Bartlett Meadows Learning, wrote in her LLC book OverNOT time, FOR scientists SALE have OR created DISTRIBUTION philosophical and the- The GlobalNOT Citizen FOR, “Your SALE paradigm OR is DISTRIBUTIONso intrinsic to your oretical frameworks within which theories, laws, and gener- mental process that you are hardly aware of its existence, alizations are formulated. These frameworks that underlie all until you try to communicate with someone with a different scientific disciplines are called paradigms, a term popularized paradigm.” Perhaps the most difficult problem is that peo- by the philosopher and science historian Thomas Kuhn. A ple often get attached to their paradigms and fiercely resist © Jones ¶digm Bartlettis a basicLearning, model of LLCreality in science. For example,© Jonesany effort & Bartlett to change Learning,them. Because LLC of the importance of our NOT FORevolution SALE isOR a paradigm DISTRIBUTION of the biological sciences. Atomic the-NOT paradigms,FOR SALE success OR in DISTRIBUTION building a sustainable future may re- ory is the dominant paradigm of modern chemistry. quire concerted efforts to overcome this resistance. Paradigms govern the way scientists think, form theo- Although this description of science and scientific ries, and interpret the results of experiments. They also gov- method shows that they require analytical skills and rea- ern the way nonscientists think. Once a paradigm is accepted, soning, they are also creative and fascinating endeavors. Sci- it is rarely questioned. ©New Jones observations & Bartlett are generally Learning, in- LLCentific research may sound dull© andJones boring & to Bartlett many people, Learning, LLC terpreted according to NOTthe paradigm; FOR SALE those that OR are DISTRIBUTION incon- but the truth is that, in many NOTcases, itFOR is extremely SALE exciting. OR DISTRIBUTION sistent with it are often ignored or disputed. In some cases, Far from being the left-brained, analytical types depicted in though, observations that fail to fit the paradigm may amass many movies and books, scientists are often highly creative to a point at which they can no longer be ignored, causing and—believe it or not—intuitive people (FIGURE 1-6). They scientists to rethink their most cherished beliefs and, some- see hidden connections in the chaos of experimental data times,© discard Jones them. & Bartlett This is called Learning, a paradigm LLC shift. and make leaps© Jones of logic & that, Bartlett upon testing, Learning, often turn LLC out to TheNOT term FOR paradigm SALEis commonly OR DISTRIBUTION used today in a more gen- be true. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION eral way, referring simply to the way we see the world. Many observers, for instance, speak about the dominant social par- KEY CONCEPTS adigm of modern society when they refer to the set of beliefs As scientific knowledge accumulates, scientists are able to forthat govern our lives. As you will see in Chapter 3, our atti- mulate theories that explain their observations. Overarching theories or paradigms emerge and profoundly shape scientific tudes and behaviors often flow from our beliefs. Unsustain- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesthought & Bartlett and our perceptions Learning, of reality. LLC NOT FORable SALE systems, OR for DISTRIBUTION instance, are largely a result of our beliefs. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

CHAPTER 1: Environmental Science, Sustainability, and Critical Thinking 9

Science and Values Table 1-1 © Jones Science& Bartlett is all about Learning, facts and LLCfigures that explain our world.© JonesSummary & Bartlett of Critical Learning, Thinking LLC Rules Scientists endeavor to remain objective, letting the data de- NOT FORtermine SALE their OR hypotheses DISTRIBUTION and theories. Ultimately, scientistsNOT FORGather SALE all information. OR DISTRIBUTION hope to find objective truths—assertions about the world • Dig deeper. around us that can be backed up by data they’ve acquired • Learn all you can before you decide. through careful experimentation and observation. Because • Don’t mistake ignorance for perspective. of this, most scientists argue that science is amoral—out- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCUnderstand all terms. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC side the sphere in which moral judgments are made; that is, • it is not about right andNOT wrong. FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONDefine all terms you use. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • Scientists bring human qualities to their work, including Be sure you understand terms and concepts others use. their own values and preconceived notions that can taint their Question how information/facts were derived. observations. Thus, scientists are not always as objective as one • Were they derived from scientific studies? might© hope. Jones Today, & scientists Bartlett can Learning,be found to argue LLC both sides • Were the© studies Jones well conceived& Bartlett and carried Learning, out? LLC of controversial issues. They may look at the same data and • Were there an adequate number of subjects? come NOTaway with FOR markedly SALE different OR DISTRIBUTION conclusions because their NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • Was there a control group and an experimental group? biases often get in the way of objective analysis. Numerous • Has the study been repeated successfully? Point/Counterpoints in this book illustrate this situation. • Just as human values affect scientific interpretation of data, Is the information anecdotal? © Jones &science Bartlett can also Learning, affect public LLC values. A good understanding© JonesQuestion & Bartlett the source Learning, of the information. LLC of ecological science, for instance, can help reshape human NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR• Is the SALE source investedOR DISTRIBUTION in the outcome of the issue? values concerning nature and our part in the natural world. • Is the source biased? Societal values can be based on accurate scientific knowl- • Do underlying assumptions affect the viewpoint of the edge. This book will help expand your knowledge of natu- source? ral and human systems, helping you see things more clearly. This may help you to rethink your values. Question the conclusions. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC• Do the facts support the conclusion?© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC One value-shapingNOT role of FOR science SALE rests in OR its ability DISTRIBUTION to NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION help us see hidden connections—for example, the role of • Correlation does not necessarily mean causation. forests in maintaining atmospheric carbon dioxide levels Expect and tolerate uncertainty. and global climate. This book shows the many ways that • Hard-and-fast answers aren’t always possible. natural systems support human life. Knowing how impor- • Learn to be comfortable with not knowing. tant the© Jonesplanet is &to ourBartlett future cannotLearning, help but LLC change our © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC attitudes and, possibly, our actions. Examine the big picture. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • Study theNOT whole FORsystem. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION KEY CONCEPTS • Look for hidden causes and effects. Scientists seek to be objective in their work so that science is • Avoid simplistic thinking. fact based and value free. However, biases based on values can • Avoid dualistic thinking. influence scientific analysis at times. Scientific knowledge can © Jones &also Bartlett affect human Learning, values. LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION will help you analyze arguments, research findings, issues, 1.4 Critical Thinking Skills and statements you read. One of the skills a good scientist (and many a great thinker) KEY CONCEPTS has is called critical thinking.© Jones Critical & thinking Bartlettis theLearning, capac- LLCCritical thinking is an acquired ©skill Jones that helps & us Bartlett analyze issues Learning, LLC and discern the validity of experimental results and assertions. ity to distinguish betweenNOT beliefs FOR (what SALE we thinkOR DISTRIBUTIONis true) NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and knowledge (facts that are backed by accurate observation and valid experimentation). Critical thinking helps us separate judgment from facts. It is the most ordered kind of Gather All Information thinking of which people are capable. Critical thinking in- The first requirement of critical thinking is to gather all of volves© subjecting Jones & facts Bartlett and conclusions Learning, to careful LLC analysis, the information© Jones you can & before Bartlett you make Learning, a decision. LLC In or- lookingNOT for weaknessesFOR SALE in logic OR andDISTRIBUTION other errors of reason- der to understandNOT FOR most issues,SALE it ORis often DISTRIBUTION necessary to seek ing. Critical thinking skills are essential in analyzing a wide out additional information. When you do, you often find a range of environmental problems, issues, and information. slightly different picture of reality. This is especially true in So how does one think critically? Clearly, there is no environmental debates, in which advocates tend to simplify single formula. However, most critical thinkers would agree issues or to present information that supports their case © Jones &that Bartlett several steps Learning, contribute LLC to this process. These steps or© Joneswhile &ignoring Bartlett contradictory Learning, findings. LLC Although you’ll rarely NOT FORprinciples SALE ORof critical DISTRIBUTION thinking, summarized in Table 1-1NOT, haveFOR all SALE the information OR DISTRIBUTION you need to make a decision, you

10 PART I. Introduction to Environmental Protection: Sustainability, Science, and Systems

can always get more. So get in the habit of learning all you Table 1-2 can before you make a decision. Don’t mistake ignorance © Jones for& Bartlettperspective. Learning, LLC © JonesSixteen & Bartlett Myths and Learning, Assumptions LLC NOT FOR SALEWhen OR gathering DISTRIBUTION facts, be sure to seek out statistics.NOT FORof Modern SALE Society OR DISTRIBUTION Watch out for anecdotes—or stories—that may sound con- vincing but don’t accurately represent the truth. Humans 1. People do not shape their future; it happens to them. prefer stories to statistics and often reach erroneous con- 2. Individual actions don’t count. clusions as a result. 3. People care only about themselves and money; they can’t © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC be counted on to take action© onJones the part & of Bartletta good cause Learning, LLC KEY CONCEPTS unless they’ll gain. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Critical thinking requires one to know as much information about 4. Conservation is sacrifice. an issue as possible before rendering an opinion or making a 5. For every problem there is only one solution; find it, cor- decision. rect the problem, and all will be well. 6. For every cause, there is one effect. 7. Technology can solve all problems. Understand© Jones All& Bartlett Terms Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 8. EnvironmentalNOT FORprotection SALE is bad ORfor the DISTRIBUTION economy. The second rule of critical thinking is that when analyzing 9. People are apart from nature. any issue, solving any problem, or judging the accuracy of 10. The key to success is through the control of nature. someone’s statements, you must understand all terms. In 11. The natural world is here to serve our needs. some instances, you will find that the people presenting a case 12. All growth is unqualifiably good. have inaccurate or incomplete understanding. A good ex- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones13. Favorable& Bartlett economics Learning, justifies all LLC actions; if it’s economical NOT FORample SALE is the OR term DISTRIBUTION sustainability, which is currently beingNOT FORit’s SALE all right. OR DISTRIBUTION used by people who have a poor understanding of the term. 14. The systems in place today were always here and will They even use the word to construct oxymorons, such as always remain. sustainable economic growth. In a finite system, as you will 15. Results can be measured by the amount of money spent on soon see, growth cannot be sustained. a problem. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC KEY CONCEPTS 16. Slowing the rate of environmental destruction and pollution NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION To think critically about an issue, one must understand the solves the problems. terms and concepts related to it. Source: Adapted from Donella Meadows (1991). The Global Citizen. Washington, DC: Island Press; and Daniel D. Chiras (1990). Beyond the Fray: Reshaping America’s Environmental Response. Boulder, CO: Johnson Books. Question© Jones the & MethodsBartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC The thirdNOT principle FOR SALE of critical OR thinking DISTRIBUTION is to question the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION methods by which information has been acquired. Were the facts derived from experimentation? Was the experiment Count! table. It will help you examine your own values and performed correctly? Did the experimenters use an adequate assumptions for bias. number of subjects? Did the experiment have a control © Jones &group? Bartlett Were theLearning, control and LLC experimental groups treated© JonesKEY &CONCEPTS Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORidentically SALE OR except DISTRIBUTION for the experimental variable? NOT FORCritical SALE thinking ORrequires DISTRIBUTION one to search for hidden biases and assumptions that may influence one’s understanding of an issue KEY CONCEPTS or interpretation of data. Critical thinking requires that we know how information has been acquired and that we question the methods by which it was derived. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCQuestion the Conclusions© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONThe fifth requirement of criticalNOT thinking FOR is SALE to question OR the DISTRIBUTION conclusions derived from facts. Do the facts support the con- Question the Source clusions? Are other interpretations possible? One of the A fourth requirement of critical thinking is to question the earliest studies on lung cancer, for instance, showed a cor- source of the facts. Ask yourself who is giving the informa- relation between lung cancer and sugar consumption. The tion. ©When Jones business & Bartlettowners say Learning,that pollution fromLLC their fac- researchers© who Jones performed & Bartlett the study foundLearning, that people LLC with toriesNOT isn’t causing FOR anySALE harm, OR beware. DISTRIBUTION Environmentalists are the highestNOT rate of FOR lung cancer SALE ate ORthe most DISTRIBUTION sugar. However, not immune to bias and are also fair game for your critical upon reexamination it turned out that cigarette smokers thinking skills. consumed more sugar than nonsmokers. The real cause of Be on the lookout for bias and underlying assumptions, cancer was cigarette smoking. even in this text. Some of the most well-entrenched as- This example illustrates a key scientific principle worth © Jones &sumptions Bartlett and Learning, myths are listed LLC in Table 1-2. Study them© Jonesremembering: & Bartlett Correlation Learning, doesn’t LLC necessarily mean causa- NOT FORand SALE be aware OR of DISTRIBUTION them. Also, look at the Individual ActionsNOT tion.FOR A SALEcorrelation OR is DISTRIBUTIONan apparent connection between two

CHAPTER 1: Environmental Science, Sustainability, and Critical Thinking 11

variables. For example, just because people living near a This book presents several conceptual models that will chemical plant have a high rate of leukemia (cancer of the help you understand the big picture. These learning tools or- © Jones blood)& Bartlett doesn’t Learning, mean that the LLC factory is causing it. © Jonesganize & a Bartlettgreat deal ofLearning, information LLCinto a simple format. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORTo SALEunderstand OR the DISTRIBUTION big picture, we must often look at KEY CONCEPTS whole systems, both human and natural. For example, it is Critical thinking requires us to question the conclusions drawn important to understand how value systems influence the from facts to see if other interpretations might be possible. systems (infrastructure) that serve our needs, such as our economic system. The economy, for example, is largely Tolerate Uncertainty© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCbased on a belief that the Earth© isJones an unlimited & Bartlett supply of Learning, re- LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONsources, all for human use.NOT Economic FOR expansion SALE OR is per- DISTRIBUTION The sixth rule of critical thinking is to tolerate uncertainty. Al- ceived as a positive thing even though continued economic though this may seem contradictory at first, it really isn’t. As expansion is at the root of many potentially catastrophic noted earlier, science is a dynamic process. Scientific knowl- environmental trends. edge is constantly being refined. What we know, however, is As an additional example, agricultural systems in many dwarfed© Jonesby our ignorance. & Bartlett Although Learning, knowledge LLC of poisons countries are© aJones reflection & of Bartlett the view that Learning, the key to successLLC and hazardousNOT FOR materials SALE is immense, OR DISTRIBUTION in actuality very little is is throughNOT domination FOR SALEand control OR ofDISTRIBUTION nature. We level known about the toxic effects of chemicals on humans. How grasslands, plant acre after acre of the same crop, and then do they interact? Are impacts affected by diet? control the insects that arise to take advantage of this bo- Some current debates on environmental issues involve nanza with an arsenal of potentially harmful pesticides a fair amount of uncertainty. Hard-and-fast answers just (FIGURE 1-7). © Jones &aren’t Bartlett available Learning,yet. Sometimes LLC we have to make decisions with© JonesHuman & Bartlett systems Learning, obviously have LLC profound effects on NOT FORlimited SALE data. OR DISTRIBUTION NOT naturalFOR SALEsystems. OR One DISTRIBUTIONof the goals of this book is to help you become a better systems thinker. This is one of the most KEY CONCEPTS valuable skills architects of a sustainable future must Our knowledge of the world around us is evolving, and, thus, it possess. is necessary to accept uncertainty as an inevitable fact of life and make decisions with the best information possible. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCKEY CONCEPTS © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONTo become a critical thinker it NOTis necessary FOR to SALEexamine theOR big DISTRIBUTION Examine the Big Picture picture—relationships and entire systems. The seventh rule of critical thinking is always to examine the big picture. Don’t get trapped in simplistic thinking. Dual- istic thinking is one of the most common forms of simplistic To be ignorant of one’s ignorance is the thinking.© Jones Dualistic & thinking Bartlett is reasoningLearning, that LLCis black-and- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC white,NOT right-or-wr FORong SALE oriented. OR Dualistic DISTRIBUTION thinking sees two malady ofNOT the FOR ignorant. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION options for every issue and nothing in between. —Bronson Alcott

CRITICAL THINKING © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEExercise OR AnalysisDISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Critical thinking requires students to think carefully and objectively and to assimilate facts and concepts. At the heart of critical thinking, however, is something much more important. Your dictionary probably offered several definitions of the word critical. For example, it may have defined it as “finding fault,” which is clearly not appropriate© Jones in this& Bartlett instance. Learning, The dictionary LLC may have also defined critical© Jones as “being & Bartlett charac- Learning, LLC terized by careful analysis.” Careful analysisNOT requires FOR that SALE we examine OR DISTRIBUTION issues very thoughtfully, that we studyNOT the factsFOR that SALE back OR DISTRIBUTION up our opinions. It also means that we look for loopholes in people’s logic. Critical thinking helps us separate beliefs that may have little factual basis from facts. One of the rules of critical thinking illustrated by this exercise is that to be a critical thinker you must understand© Jones terms& Bartlett you encounter. Learning, Be sure LLC a speaker explains the terms© Jones he or she & Bartlettis using. Don’t Learning, be timid LLC aboutNOT askingFOR forSALE an explanation. OR DISTRIBUTION Also, be sure you understand newNOT words FOR you’re SALE reading. OR Don’t DISTRIBUTION launch into an argument until you really understand what the other person is saying. One thing you might try when you’re talking with someone is a process called active listening—repeating what you think someone is trying to say. This technique is very simple and is one way you can be sure you truly understand another person’s point before you propose your own ideas. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

12 PART I. Introduction to Environmental Protection: Sustainability, Science, and Systems

5. A graduate student interested in studying the effects of air pollutants on lichens (a fungus that grows on © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesrocks) & Bartlett designed Learning,an experiment LLC as follows: He proposed NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORto bringSALE rocks OR with DISTRIBUTION lichens into the laboratory, where he would expose them to urban air pollution. (His uni- versity was located downtown in a major metropolitan area.) He then proposed to circulate outside air into the laboratory and measure the effects. What is wrong © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCwith this experimental design?© Jones How would & Bartlett you design Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONa better experiment? NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 6. What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis? 7. Numerous studies on the natural toxin known as afla- toxin, which is found in peanuts, show that it is muta- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC genic and© Jonescarcinogenic; & Bartlett that is, it Learning, causes mutations LLC in NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the geneticNOT material FOR andSALE cancer OR in someDISTRIBUTION organisms. Drawing on these studies, scientists have labeled afla- toxin as a potentially dangerous substance. What kind FIGURE 1-7 The control of nature. A belief that humans are su- of reasoning is this, inductive or deductive? perior to other living things and that domination and control of 8. “From the facts of the case,” said Sherlock Holmes, natural systems are the key to success profoundly influences how © Jones &we Bartlettdesign human Learning, systems such asLLC agriculture. Sustainability calls © Jonesfamous & Bartlett investigator Learning, of fictional LLC repute, “I can deduce NOT FORfor SALE systems ORto be DISTRIBUTIONecologically intelligent. NOT FORthat SALE the butler OR did DISTRIBUTION it.” Is Holmes using the word deduce correctly in this context? 9. In what ways do our values affect science? How can CRITICAL THINKING AND CONCEPT REVIEW science affect our values? 1. Companies throughout the world are recognizing that 10. Make a list of the critical thinking skills outlined in good environmental practices are good for business. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCthis chapter. Describe and© give Jones an example & Bartlett of each Learning, LLC Make a list of reasons why this may be true. one. Over the next week, make a list of all the times 2. In what ways can scienceNOT helpFOR us SALEsolve problems OR DISTRIBUTION sus- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION you use these rules. tainably? What are the limitations of science in prob- 11. Study the list of myths and assumptions in Table 1-2. lem solving? Which ones do you agree with? Which ones do you 3. Describe the scientific method. What are the steps, and disagree with? why© Jones is each one & Bartlettnecessary? Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 4. Describe the components of a good scientific experiment. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

KEY TERMS control group epidemiological paradigm shift © Jones &Copernican Bartlett revolution Learning, LLC epidemiology © Jones & Bartlett Learning,sustainable developmentLLC NOT FORcritical SALE thinking OR DISTRIBUTION experimental groupNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONtheories deductive reasoning hypotheses U.S. Environmental Protection dominant social paradigm independent variable Agency (EPA) ecology inductive reasoning ecosystem paradigm © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING Connect to this book's website: To save on paper and allow for updates, additional reading http://environment.jbpub.com/9e/ recommendations and the list of sources for the information © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ©The Jones site features & Bartlett eLearning, Learning, an online review LLC discussed in this chapter are available at http://environment area that provides quizzes, chapter outlines, .jbpub.com/9e/.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION and other tools to help you study for your class. You can also follow useful links for in-depth information, research the differing views in the Point/Counterpoints, or keep © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlettup on the Learning, latest environmental LLC news. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

CHAPTER 1: Environmental Science, Sustainability, and Critical Thinking 13