CHAPTER: IV a Comparative Study the Main Purpose of the Comparison of Two Great Philosophies Through This Thesis Is to Conclude

293

CHAPTER: IV A Comparative study The main purpose of the comparison of two great philosophies through this thesis is to conclude the best and most practical spiritual practices out of all prescribed by both the Philosophies and apply them in practice for all the followers of each philosophy and classes and masses inclusive of the entire society full of stressful and suffering people. From the data collected from previous two chapters, a comparative study is done here between both the philosophies with respect to following principles and practices having some important characteristics or factors of spirituality as described in this chapter now onwards. I. Basic Principles II. Pramāṇa III. Concept and Nature of liberation IV. Doctrine of karma V. Spirituality and concepts of Īśvara and praṇava VI. Literature VII. Patañjali‟s aṣṭāṅgayoga and Jainism VIII. Attitudes IX. Super natural powers: siddhi-s X. Afflictions: avidyā v/s mithyātva XI. Biographies XII. Similarities and differences in Nutshell

I. Basic Principles: Foundation: Indian culture mainly and basically flows through three traditions: Vedic, Bauddhist and Jain. All of them provide the scientific background necessary for spiritual progress, whereas, Yoga in general, provides technical details, how it can be put into practice. The path of Yoga through its practices takes us towards liberation or kaivalya sooner or later. Yoga has noway any direct connection with any of the religion or culture, but its wide range of practices is already inculcated in each culture. Jainism is one of the oldest living religions. It is most environment 294

friendly, ecology protecting with intrinsic respect and equality for all living beings. There is a provision for the highest level of enlightment for all in a scientific way in both these philosophies. The special features of Jain philosophy are based on independent existence of the soul and matter, denial of supreme divine creator, owner, preserver or destroyer and a strong emphasis on non-violence, accent on relativity, multiple facets of truth and strong ethics for the purpose of liberation. Yoga basically is a kind of technology to put into practise. The main principles of yoga to attain permanent peace by controlling mind and living life with detached attitude are told by almost all religions of India. Now, it is officially accepted as a Science which is beneficial to the entire mankind. Therefore, it is accepted by 192 countries in the world (almost entire world), today. After having knowledge of history, we are not interested in proving whether the pioneer of Yoga culture, Hiraṇyagarbha was same as first Jain Tīrthaṅkara and founder of Yoga Ṛṣabhadeva. According to “Srimad Bhāgvata Purāṇa”, Ṛṣabhadeva was the first Yogī546. Even Hathayoga believes Adinath as the first

547 founder and pioneer of Yoga . Apart from this information, if we go through the list of current twenty four Jain Tirthankars starting with Adinath, the names of eighteen Tirthankars ends with word „nath‟ like Ajitnath, Sambhavnath and Sumtinath. “Nath tradition” is one of the two pioneer traditions of Yoga, (the other is „Datta’) of which Adinath is the founder „Adipuruṣa‟. This shows that there must be some connection between sequence of Jain Tirthankars and Yoga founders548. Jīva v/s Puruṣa: An independent existence of consciousness is termed as jīva according to Jainism. The similar term used by Maharshi Patañjali is „Puruṣa‟. According to Sāṃkhya philosophy which is the basis of Patañjali‟s yoga, Puruṣa

546 भगवान ्셁षभदेवो योगीश्वर् | Bhāgavata Purāṇa, 5.4.3

547 श्री आददनाथाय नमोस्तु तस्मै येनोऩददष्टा हथयोगवव饍या | Haṭhayogapradīpikā 1.1

548 “Yogsadhana and Jaindharma”, (Guj), P.88 295

comes in contact with Prakṛti gives rise to bondage. The main causes of bondage of jīva according to Jainism are perverse attitude, delusion and influx of karmas. Goal: Today, there are millions of Yoga practioners all over the globe. Also, there are more than millions of spiritual practioners in various religions and with non- religious background wanting to attain peace and happiness. They enjoy glimpses of the secrets of consciousness and its mysterious capacity to take them beyond their own conditioning. If they are provided with more powerful practices from the fields of Yoga and Jainism and a proper sūtrachotechnological blend of both, the effect, experience and result will be astonishing sūtrachospiritual. The purpose of doing comparison of spiritual practices of Patanjal Yoga and Jainism and analysing both these fields is that atleast some of the followers of each tradition can try to reach upto the deeper levels of body and mind and find the alchemical elixir of enlightenment. The best part is that both these fields and related practices are equally open to all, Jains and non-Jains, Yogī-s and common people, eastern as well as western global populations. In the old era, all the ṛṣis were true scientific researchers making their body-mind systems virtual laboratories for their spiritual experiments. All Rishi-munis from different religious sects were searching for eternal bliss or permanent happiness where there is no suffering. The happiness should be independent of anything, including outside material, person or situations, which is long lasting and also calms down the mind. And for this, they went into deeper level of practices consistently including meditation and came out with great results. What they found eternal, they called it „Ātman‟ (self), what they got infinite, they called it „Brahman‟ and the element supporting and controlling the entire universe was termed as „universal consciousness‟ or „Īśvara‟. And the path through which they got this realized is ‘Yoga sādhanā’. This is the basis of comparision of any religion or philosophy with Yoga. Mutual influence: Patañjali, as explained in chapter on Yoga, through his various sūtras, tried to include principles of different types of Yoga and cultures to control cittavṛttis. He has mentioned Hathayoga (physical practices) in Āsana- 296

Prāṇāyāma549, bhaktiyoga (devotional attitude) in „Isvara-praṇidhāna550’, Tantrayoga in „Viṣayvātipravṛti551‟, Vairāgya of Jainism in „Vitarāg-viṣayata552’, Dhyānayoga of Buddhism in „Svapnāvalambana553‟ and so on. This indicates that varieties of techniques were popular in different traditions during and before Patañjali‟s time. Similarly, Jainism has generously included various spiritual, religious and Yogīc principles and practices from other sects in exchange of their views and principles. Basically, the main difference in the meaning of word „Yoga‟ according to Patañjali is control of „vṛttis‟ where as Jain‟s Agama has given one meaning of Yoga as body- mind-speech, a three-fold activity through which vṛttis are rather multiplied. Actually, „Saṃvara‟ aspect (stoppage of influx of karma, which minimises all vṛttis) of Jainism are close to and comparable to Patañjali‟s Yoga. Later on, Jain Ācārya Haribhadra and other scholars gave different meaning of „Yoga‟ as sarva-sanyāsa which means stoppage or relief from all vṛttis (activities) of mind, body and speech. This meaning is more close to Patañjali‟s Yoga. Many other words which are common to both Philosophies have the same meaning like Tapa, Samādhi, Svādhyāya and Dhyāna. Though, Jain-sādhanā-paddhati (spiritual practice in Jainism) was developed independently of other traditions in the beginning but later on, about 700 years after Lord Mahāvīra, the system was coordinated and modified by many scholars to match with Aṣṭāṅgayoga of Patañjali554. Swāmī Samantbhadra of second century wrote „Ratnākar’ and ‘Shrāvakācār’ which includes Pratyāhār, Dhāraņā, Dhyāna and Samādhi, the internal practices of Patañjali. Kundkundācārya‟s “Mokṣaprabhrut” includes all angas of Aṣṭānga-Yoga except Prāṇāyāma of Patañjali. Ācārya Shubh-

549 PYS 2.46 to 2.53 550 PYS 1.23, 2.45 551 PYS 1.35 552 PYS 1.37 553 PYS 1.38 554 Anand Aruna, “Patanjalayoga evam Jainyog ka Tulanattmak Adhyayan”, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 2002, p.268-69 297

chandra‟s „Jnānārnav‟ (11th century) has described shramaṇācāra (guidelines for aspirants) as per principles of Jainism in details and in coordination with Aṣṭānga- Yoga. This scripture „Shramaṇācāra’ and „Yogashastra‟ of Ācārya Haribhadra are inspired by all of Jainyog, Patanjalyoga, Hathayoga and Tantrayoga. Maximum details of Dhyāna are given in „Jnānārnav‟. Amongst the highest differences in religious principles and secularism during 18th century, Upadhyay Yoshovijayji introduced Jainayoga-sādhanā based on Ācārya Haribhadra‟s (8th century) thoughts and writings. Yashovijayji in his scripture “Dwatrinshad-dwatrishinka” has pointed out Patañjali‟s sūtra “cittavṛtti nirodha” is incomplete. It should be “kliśta-cittavṛtti nirodha”, only afflictions which should be controlled according to him. Almost all of them tried to explain Patañjali‟s yoga as practices for internalization of extrovert attitude of fluctuating mind (cittavṛttis) and have given less stress on Hathayoga. As per Āgamas like Sthānānga sūtra (10/33, 3/88), Sūtrakrutanga (1/2,1/11), Uttaradhyayana sūtra (27/2, 11/14) and Bhagwati sūtra (18/10/9), „Yoga‟ word is used for Samyam (equanimity), Samādhi and Dhyāna kriyās. Haribhadrasuri‟s “Yogvinshika” refers to five states of Yoga555 namely, 1. Sthāna 2. Urṇa 3. Artha 4. Ālambana 5. Anālambana First two refers to Karmayoga and the remaining three are Jñānayoga. The first state or type “Sthāna‟ is comparable with the third limb of Patañjali‟s Aṣṭānga-Yoga, „Āsana‟ with broader approach556. It indicates steady and motionless state of our body. Jain-scripture written during 8thand9th Century, “Adipurāṇa” (22/75-86) refers to meditation-friendly postures like “Payandakāsana”, one of the most comfortable posture similar to Sukhāsana fulfilling the requirements of “Patan- jal Yogadarśana” for steady and comfortable posture (“स्स्थरसुखमासनम॥् २.४६॥“).

555 Ibid., p.27 556 Ibid., p.272 298

„Urṇa‟ is chanting or reading of sūtras while doing each practice. „Artha‟ is understanding meanings of sūtras. „Ālamban‟ is taking support of a symbol or an object while practising meditation. It may be visible or invisible and comparable to „Dhāraņā’ and „Dhyāna‟ states of Patañjali‟s Aṣṭānga-Yoga. As the practioners has to depend on the object (ālamban) and meditate on it. „Anālamban‟ is focused mind or getting totally absorbed into the object of meditation. Though, the object and subject become one, yet the seed of the object remains. This state is comparable with sabīja samādhi state of Patañjali‟s aṣṭāṅgayoga. The methodology in Jainism differs from Patañjali‟s aṣṭāṅgayoga. Initially, beginners who are not capable of comprehending the ultimate reality should reach the ultimate truth by adopting the vyavahārika (practical / empirical) aspect and consequently he starts examining each problem from both aspects i.e. absolute or transcendental too. Jainism emphasizes more on implementation of practices than talking of principles. As such both the philosophies Yoga and Jainism are experimental and experiencial sciences. Jainism today, does not receive the scholarly attention it deserves. Even Jain followers and scholars of this one of the most ancient tradition lack adequate resources for studying their own scripture in modern languages. There is no separate scripture amongst Agama written exclusively on dhyāna (meditation) but, the scriptures are available on conduct (cāritra) of an aspirant. As mentioned earlier, the original Āgamas and translations suggests a different meaning of word „Yoga‟ as various activities or karma pudgals generated out of our action, speech or thoughts, as against Patañjali‟s meaning of Yoga as mental control or control over mental modifications. Later Jaina writers like Haribhadra suri (750 C.E.) have made use of some of the terms of Patañjali‟s Yoga-sūtra. In “Yoga-bindu” written by him, Yoga is described and praised in the manners of Patañjali. He has explained four preparative services (pūrva seva) before one enter into proper Yoga. It is worshipping different ideologies of Tirthankaras. They are pujana (veneration), sadācāra (proper conduct), tapa (penance) and mukti-adveśa (non-aversion towards liberation). He also speaks of five degrees of genuine Yoga as under: 1. Adhyātman-yoga: constant pondering upon one‟s essential nature. 299

2. Bhāvanā (contemplation): regular focused observation of the essential nature. 3. Dhyāna: fixing mind upon auspicious subjects results into mental stability. 4. Samatā: indifference towards rāga and dveṣa (sources of attachment and aversion). 5. Vṛtti-samkṣaya: full removal of movements of consciousness, transcendence. Perverted world-view “Mithyātva” is the main force which obstructs the innate capacity of the soul to end the wordly existence. Jainism, like Yoga is a science of experiencing and not only understanding it logically. The supreme sermons (upadeś) in Jainism are for Mokṣamārga (path of liberation) which are same as Kaivalya of Patañjali‟s Yoga. Both the systems lead us to beyond self. Eight fold path of Patañjali is a ladder leading from the common life of self involvement to the uncommon realization of the self beyond the ego personality. With this progressive purification, unification of consciousness is indicated by him. One has to cast this ladder off at the end of spiritual journey. Both these types of practices guide us to recognize our inherent freedom, which gives us authority and power to see Reality in its original form beyond all.

Traditions Both the philosophies have similar and long lasting traditions and thought patterns which have made them popular even in current times. Main emphasis of all practices is on controlling mental modifications and meditative practices as the goal is common. Sage Patañjali has suggested gradual control over body and breath followed by mind (citta). Jainism also suggests various practices on body and mind level for gradual spiritual progress. Both suggest some ethical rules to be followed by an individual for faster progress, which are at the suttlest level for Jain monks. Jainism has put more emphasis on Tapa and Dhyāna. II. Pramāṇa (means of valid knowledge) The focus of Pramāṇa is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one doesn't, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired. Both these philosophies suggest that knowledge acquired 300

through senses and analysed by mind is conditioned one called as “Avidyā” or “Mithyāttva”. If one knows the self, everything is known what is there inside as well as outside. The principles of these both philosophies are quite similar that everything exists in the atomic form or „pudgals‟. And the process of observation involves object‟s interaction with the observer i.e. subject. This was later on proved by quantum theory by modern science. According to Patañjali Yogasūtra (1.5), Pramāṇa is one of the Vṛtti-s557 (modifica- tion of mind). Hence, it should be controlled by various Yoga practices suggested by him. Pramāṇa according to Yoga Philosophy are of three types558: Pratyakṣa (direct perception), Anumāna (inference) and Āgama (scriptures or words of authority). The epistemology of Jainism describes means of knowledge as five types of valid sources of acquiring knowledge as discussed earlier. Avadhijñāna, Manahparyāya and Kevalajñāna are complete and absolute Pramāṇas. It is direct or Pratyakṣa Pramāṇa as it does not require any medium or senses to acquire knowledge. Thus, as compared to Pratyakṣa Pramāṇa of Yoga, which according to Jainism, is sensual knowledge and indirect or Parokṣa as it needs medium of senses. The direct of Jainism is subtler and higher spiritually. The intuition power in Yoga is obtained according to Patañjali by developing total control and mastery over all three aspects of Saṁyama (Dharāṇa, Dhyāna and Samādhi).559 The other Pramāṇas or the sources of valid knowledge in Jainism are all indirect and are similar to Yogīc Pramāṇas. They are āgama (original scriptures) or āptavacana (words of authorities like Tirthankaras or omniscient souls) and Anumāna (inference). These scriptures or words present an exposition of the true nature of the reality and which is good for all. Anumāna or inference includes right logical deductions.

557 प्रमाणववऩयय ववक쥍ऩननद्रास्मतृ य्। PYS 1.6

558 प्रत्यऺानुमानागमा्प्रमाणानन। PYS 1.7

559 तज्जयात्प्रऻाऱोक् I PYS 3.5 301

III. Concept and Nature of liberation (मोक्ष / कैव쥍य) The ultimate goal of any Indian Philosophy or religion is to get rid of all sufferings of life for ever and the best remedy suggested by most of them is path of liberation or termination of vicious cycle of birth and death. All techniques or efforts suggested are more or less spiritual or meditative with inculcation of good virtues in life. As detailed earlier Chapter on Yoga, Patañjali takes us through journey of his techniques from an ordinary state of consciousness (vyutthānacitta) via Antarangayoga, from sabīja to nirbīja Samādhi and finally towards Kaivalya through Dharmamegha Samādhi. According to Patañjali 560, Kaivalya means termination of witnessing by puruṣa, no need of Gunas further serving to puruṣa (puruṣarthaśunya) resulting into reversal of evolution and Prakṛti going into original state. Thus, essential nature of Kaivalya is beyond pure sattvik state, a complete realization of self and isolation of puruṣa. Here, all three gunas, sattva, rajas and tamas are in perfect equilibrium. This is possible by elimination of Avidyā and renunciation of Vibhūtis (super natural powers), once we start discriminating Puruṣa from Prakrti. This state is termed as “viveka khyati” according to Pātañjala yogadarśana. Mokṣa is defined as per Tattvārthasūtra in Jainism as “owing to the absence of the cause of bondage and with the functioning of the dissociation of karmas the annihila- tion of all karmas is liberation or kaivalya.” A liberated soul free of karma is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge and infinite perception. Such a soul is called siddha as per Jain scriptures. In other words, those who pass the last stage of guṇasthānaka-s are called siddha and become fully established in Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. After his death (nirvāṇa), he attains Mokṣa561. Jainism also talks of getting rid of mithyāttva similar to avidyā. Jainism firmly believes that even though man is imperfect at present, it is quite possible for him to get rid of karma through his own personal efforts without any external help and to attain the highest happiness as a liberated soul. A sure

560 ऩु셁षाथशय ून्याना車गुणाना車प्रनतप्रसव्कै व쥍य車स्व셂ऩप्रनतष्ठावाचिनतशस्ततररनत I PYS 4.34 561 C.R.Jain, The Practical path, The Central Jaina Publishing House, Delhi, 1917, p. 121 302

method to be adopted for this is right path for the Mokṣa-marg i.e. ratnatraya (three gems) of Samyak darśana-jnāna-cāritra. The entire third chapter on Jainism of this thesis is devoted on understanding of various practices prescribed in scriptures for this Mokṣa-marg. "Mokṣa and Nirvāņa are synonymous in Jainism”562 Both these philosophies work on similar principles and towards the same direction of liberation. The technique is notional correction, removal or elimination of kleśa-s or kliśta vṛttis or karma pudgals as explained later. Main practices are at the inner level, correction of attitude, approach and thought pattern. IV. Doctrine of karma Yoga and Jainism, both the philosophies agree to the fact that man, and only he is responsible for all that is good or bad in his life. Actions, thought and speech along with passions result in karmas. For attainment of liberation, Jainism suggests that one must remove karmas or bear their consequences at maturity without inviting new karmas. Satta-karma and Uday-karma of Jainism is similar to Sancita-karma and Prabdha-karma of Yogīc scriptures. Current generation of karma in Jainism is bandha. Sage Patañjali has given relevance of karma principle in five of his sūtras no. 1.24, 2.12, 3.22, 4.07 and 4.30. According to yogasūtra 2.12, 2.13 and 2.14, past life karmas are the root cause of miseries and kleṣās. So, one has to try to consume them in current and future lives. Patañjali muni has used term „karmaṡaya‟ as storage house of karma that we pos- sess. These karmas result into new birth, having different class, life-span and experiences. Those lead to fruits of pleasure and pain according to our actions full of virtues and vices. According to sūtra 3.22, if we perform Saṁyama on presently active as well as dormant karma or on the portents, the knowledge of death is obtained. As compared to Pāpa and Puņya (wholesome and unwholesome) karmas of Jainism, Patañjali in his sūtra 4.07 refers to aṡukla (unwholesome), akṛśnam (not sinful or

562 P.Jaini, Collected Papers on Jaina Studies, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 2000, p.168

303

wholesome) and mixed, threefold karma which are accumulated by a commonman. In case of the Yogī, the karma is neither pure nor impure, because his citta is purified. When the aspirant attains Dharmamegha Samādhi, he gets complete freedom from actions and karma i.e. „तऱेशकमनय नवस्ृ त्त’ (PYS 4.30). Thus in the final stage of spirituality, one gets total freedom from accumulation and influence of karma according to both the philosophies. Kleśa-s v/s Karma: According to Jainism, the right faith acts as a basis or guideline regarding our life goal. The person who gains pure knowledge with genuiene faith through samyak darśana succeeds in this life inspite of all sufferings which are part of our life. Most of us can‟t create a state to remove faults through which we build up karma or we can‟t destroy all karma. In all such cases, we should make consistent and serious efforts to allow us to build Puṇyanubandhi (wholesome) karma initially, as comparatively it is easier to enjoy or burn them. Patañjali‟s path of Yoga talks of the similar sequence of practices to become aware of avidyā and destroy all kleśa-s through the science of knowing ourselves and technique of inner yoga. We can conclude that „karma-pudgals’ of Jainism and „kleśas‟ of Patañjali are the main obstacles on our spiritual path. Both of them are almost similar, comparable and can be annihilated with different techniques suggested to handle and remove them.

V. Spirituality All Indian spiritual personalities had propounded that the religion is the path to salvation. The question arises, “what and which religion?” Jain scriptures (Āgama-s) have defined religion in two forms śruta dharma (to study the scriptures) and cāritra dharma (to put this acquired knowledge into practice in real life)563. Self-restraint, austerity and morality are the main constituents of Jainism like any other religions.

563 Swami Dharmananda, Concept of Reality in Jainism, Adhyātman Sadhana Kendra, New Delhi (2001) 304

Both Yoga564 and Jainism recommend „human birth‟ as an essential eligibility for liberation, kaivalya or mokṣa. Spirituality in Jainism means awareness of the form of the self, ātman. “He who knows inner self (spirituality) knows the outer (world) and one, who knows the outer, knows the inner self. Explore and ponder over this comparision with self.”565 Srimad Yashovijayji, Jainācārya of 18th century defines spirituality as “Self purification processes towards the universal consciousness by which influence of delusion (moha) is eliminated.”566 The wise should not relax even for a muhurta (moment)567 with full of inner awareness. As long as all sense organs and faculties are working properly, one should make efforts for betterment or liberation of soul568. The main obstructions on spiritual path as per Jainism are delusion (moha), illusion (māna) deceit (māyā) and anger (krodha). According to following sūtra of Dashavaikalik sūtra (8/40), these four passions nourish the root of rebirth:

ित्तारर एए कससणा कसाया सस祍िस्न्त車 मुऱानय ऩुणब्भवस्स I The obstructions on spiritual path, according to Patañjali are citta vikṡepas. There is a gradual spiritual progress with continuous sādhanā in both the philosophies and eligibility for final goal depends on the level of aspirant or intensity569 of his practices. According to Patañjali, these levels of urge for Samādhi are mild, medium or most intense or speedy570. A comparison of spiritual journey in both the philosophies is given separately below:

564 PYS 1.19 565 Amarmuni, Acharangasūtra, Motilal banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, chapter-1, sūtra-57, p.69

566 Yashovijayji, Adhyatmasāra: गतमोहाचधकाराणामात्मानमचधकृ त्य याI प्रवतयते क्रिया शुद्धा तदध्यात्मम ्

जगुस्जनय ा्I२.२I 567 Ibid, p.87 568 Ibid, p.90 569 PYS 1.21 570 PYS 1.22 305

a) Summary of spiritual journey according to Patañjali : Yoga state is achieved through various practices like Yama, Niyama, Āsana and Prāṇāyāma clubbed with or followed by inner practices prescribed for control of mental fluctuations. Rather Maharshi Patañjali has given enough options in spiritual practices according to different psycho-physiological dispositions of an aspirant. Apart from above referred practices, the others suggested by him are Abhyāsa, Vairāgya, surrender to Īśvara, practice of repetition of one principle (Omkara) to remove impediments on the path of Yoga, various virtues like maitri, karuṇā for citta prasādana (purification of mind) and six other techniques571 of steadying citta like expulsion and inhalation of breath, inclining mind on a preferred object or towards illuminous object, meditating on a person who has transcended desires or on knowledge obtained during dream and in deep sleep or on any object of own choice. These result into one-pointedness and dynamic equilibrium. Prof. Dr. Shriram Agashe has nicely compared the quality of spiritual practices with the efforts needed to escape from the gravity.572 Mainly two things are needed if one wants to escape from the gravitational pulls: the fuel that liberates the necessary energy to go beyond the gravity and cutting off all earthly bondages that forbid the upward movement. The first comes from continuous practice (abhyāsa) and the second through renunciation (vairāgya). These two form the essence of Yogasādhanā. Kriyāyoga is also suggested by Patañjali as preliminary practices. With constant and continuous practice, there is a progress towards higher state of consciousness or meditative state where a merger takes place of knower, known and knowledge. It further results into Samprajñāta (Samādhi with wisdom) a stage of super-consciousness where the citta is in a state of ṛtambhara prajñā or Sabīja Samādhi. Beyond this stage, the aspirant reaches the state of nirbīja samādhi (Samādhi without seed) or Asaṃprajñāta stage followed by Dharmamegha Samādhi (showering of virtues) state. During the last state of spiritual elevation, the aspirant reaches Kaivalya isolating himself from the Prakŗti and regains his real liberated

571 PYS 1.33 – 1.39 572 Anand Rishi, Pātañjalayogadarśana, Yoga Vidya Niketan, NaviMumbai, 2012, pp. xix 306

state (svarupāvastha): For spiritual journey, Please refer Appendix – III on page no.351 “Renunciation is an integral aspect of the Yogīc lifestyle573.” This statement gives us the true meaning of the quality of a Yogī who not only follows but lives great vows574, that too at the suttlest level (mahavruttas). And such Yogī is no more different from a renounced Jain monk, who lives the same Yogic lifestyle575. b) Summary of spiritual journey according to Agama of Jainism: The important components of Lord Mahāvīra‟s spiritual practices are discipline of speech (अबहु वाई – वाणीस車यम), austerities including mortification of body, different postures tolerating cold and heat (तऩ - कायातऱेश) and austerities of taste buds (रस-

ऩररत्याग). As explained earlier, the „tri-gem‟ (त्रिरत्न) path of Jainism recommends following and experiencing various spiritual practices to achieve Samyak Darśana followed by Samyak Jnāna, which again is followed by Samyak Cāritra (right perception, right knowledge and right conduct). The progress and level of spirituality achieved can be experienced or explained with the help of fourteen Gunasthanakas (14 stages) mentioned in previous chapter. Once the aspirant crosses thirteenth stage, there is no return, he gets Kaivalya soon. Agama assures that one can reach upto the higher state of a monk (shramana or sadhu) with the practice of equanimity (समताए समणो होयीI). This equanimity is Yoga. The meaning of this sūtra is very close to the meaning of sūtra given by Gita-yoga

(समत्व車 योग् उच्चच्चयतेI). Jainism recommends spirituality based on practice of penance (tapa) combined with an emphasis on renunciation (vairāgya) and ethical practices on virtues (vruttas). Srimad Yashovijayji mentions in following verse the factors responsible for multiplying spiritual values. They are pecification of kaṣāyas (afflictions), calming of senses and mind, practice of guptis (prohibition of physical, mental and verbal

573 G.Feuerstein , The Yoga Traditions, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 2002, p.338 574 PYS 2.31

575 देशसवतय ोऽणुमहती। T.S. 7.2 307

activities), intense desire and efforts towards destruction of karma to attain liberation and egoless attitude. A true Jain is the conquerer of the self, where as the true Yogī as per Patañjali is conquerer or controller of citta-vṛtti. These distracting vṛttis only take us away from our true self or dṛṣtu. When Patañjali says „Samādhi with seed‟, it indicates the seed of karma that leads to reincarnation or the next birth. This is similar to principles of bondage of Karma pudgals of Jainism which prevents the aspirant from liberation or Mokṡa. The spiritual progress takes our mind through the upward journey of five states according to Vyāsa bhāṣya of Patañjali‟s first sūtra of first pada i.e. Kṡipta, Moodha, Vikṡipta, Ekāgra and niruddha. Similarly sequence of spiritual elevation in Jain Agamas is in the form of 14 Gunasthanakas. One can observe here that first two states of citta (mind) i.e. „Kṡipta‟ and „Moodha‟ are comparatively very close to first and second (mixed) state of guṇasthānas (initial levels of spiritual elevation). „Vikṡipta citta‟ is close to third state of guṇasthānas. “Ekagra citta’ (focused mind) is comparable with the guṇasthānas from fourth to twelfth state. The perfect state „Niruddha citta’ is almost equal to 13th and 14th state (Kevali) of guṇasthānas. There is a description of three states of soul (trividh ātman) in Jain scripture. This concept is similar to Vedic idea of three states of existence i.e. sthula-sukshma- kāraṇa sarira and also the idea of pancha-kosa of Taittirīya Upaniṣad. „Bahirātman’ state of soul is upto first three states of guṇasthānas. State of „Antarātman‟ is from 4th to 12th state of guṇasthānas and „parmātman‟ existing in 13th and 14th states of Gunasthanas. Thus, there is almost no difference between these five states of citta in Yoga and progressive states of spiritual elevation of Jainism. Upadhyay Yashovijayji and Ācārya Haribhadra have taken these similarities further in their scriptures and developed their own description of states of mind and sequence of progress parallel to Patañjali inorder to remove any misconcepts of secular differences. c) Meditation Various meditative practices have been suggested in both these philosophies. Mahar- shi Patañjali has described practice of Saṁyama (a uniformity of concentration, me- 308

ditation and absorption), an internal practice on various objects and parts of the body including naval centre. Lord Mahāvīra has suggested that while doing meditation to get liberated from these wonderings in the world, a far sighted aspirant should ponder over the lokas (worlds) like ūrdhva – madhya – adholokas.576 One should also know joints or centres of consciousness (cakras) in the body and become detached through pious meditation on them. Try to visualize these centres to purify and im- prove our attitude and to direct the flow of spiritual consciousness upwards. Knowledge of discrimination is equally important as a stepping stone in both the philosophies. Praṇavajapa v/s Navkāra mantrasādhanā Patañjali has designated Om as Īśvara and recommended meditation with prayerful attitude on its meaning. Jainism also recommends mantra- Navkāra as the prime prayer in all Jain sects, where obeisance is paid not to any person but to the virtues. Usually it is salutation to 108 virtues of great souls, so chanted 108 times mentioned as under: 12 virtues of Arihanta i.e. the worthy souls similar to „viṡeṣa puruṣa’ of Patañjali of similar qualities 8 virtues of Siddhas i.e. liberated souls 36 virtues of Ācāryas i.e. preceptors (spiritual guides) 25 virtues of Upādhyāyas i.e. spiritual teachers and 27 virtues of Sādhus i.e. all saints in the world (pious personalities) Most of the time, each of the first five lines (padas) of Navkarmantra are suffixed by word „Om‟. According to Jain scripture:

अररहन्ता असरररा, आयररया उवज्जाय मुणणणो I ऩ祍ितखर ननप्ऩणणो ओ車कारो ऩ祍ि ऩरसमत्ढदह

I१२I (द्रव्य स車ग्रहदटका ४९) The word Om is denotative of five supreme spiritual guides, because it is made up of five letters (a, a, ā, u and m): Arhat, asariri, ācārya, upādhyāya and muni or ascetic.

576 Amarmuni, Achārangasūtra, Motilal banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, sūtra-92, pp. 124-25 309

According to dhyāna stuti adhikāra by Yashovijay, dhyāna gives spiritual happiness and destroys cycle of birth and death.577

ध्यानधास्नन ऱभते सुखमात्मा I Adhyatmasāra, 6.9

ध्यानमेव भवनासश भवध्व車 I 6.10 d) Concept of God: (Patañjali’s Īśvara v/s Jaina’s Tirthankar) Though surrendering attitude to Patañjali‟s Īśvara and Jain‟s Tīrthaṅkara is same as mentioned in respective scriptures, Jainism does not believe in any Īśvara or God. Patañjali and Mahāvīra (or any Jain tirthankar) are not comparable with each other as the levels of both are different. Maharshi Patañjali, the compiler of Yoga prevailing in those days is comparable with any Ganadhar or Ācārya of Jainism, who memorized, understood and compiled the words and lectures of Lord Mahāvīra. Where as Lord Mahāvīra is considered as Tīrthaṅkara in Jainism, who founded the Jain sect and principles of Jainism. Social aspect: Who is Tirthankar? Tīrthaṅkara or Arihanta expounds and establishes Tirtha – Dharmashāsana (the religious society, unique philosophy), preaches to the world „truth‟ and shows to people the path of liberation. All disciples and followers of Jainsim adore and worship Tirthankaras like his own God. Īśvara as defined by sage Patañjali is definitely comparable with any Jain Tīrthaṅkara from characteristics point of view. But, Tīrthaṅkara is not Īśvara - of Vedic literature as creator, operator and destroyer of this universe. No individual person is worshipped in both Yoga and Jainism. It is qualities, knowledge and abilities that are worshipped. Patañjali‟s “pranava” is not Ḯśvar or God, though; it truly represents symbolically any form of the God. Sameway, Jina or Arhata, which is worshipped in Jainism, is not any one person like Buddha, Jesus Christ, Shiva or Krisna. God is regarded as completely unconcerned with creation of the universe or with any happening in the universe. The universe goes of its own accord following the laws of

577 Yashovijay, Adhyatmasara, Sri Rajasaubhag Satsang Mandal, Sayla, 2004 310

nature. No God nor his prophet or beloved can interfere with life of others. The soul alone is directly and necessarily responsible for all that it does. Applications: Both Jaina and Yoga philosophies in their function as ontology (science of being) provide Yogīns with a map that allows them to traverse the different levels of existence until, at the moment of liberation; they leave the orbit of Nature altogether. For both, the correlation between the self and the nature (prakṛti) is the real source of all human malaise (dukha), because it gives rise to an illusion that we are the individual body-mind (personality complex) rather than the transcendental self. Thus, spiritual ignorance (Avidyā of Yoga and mithyāttva of Jainism) is the root cause of our mistaken identity as the finite egoic body-mind, source of our attachment and aversions as well as our survival instinct. Their attenuation and ultimate transcedentce is the objective of the basic principles and technology of both the philosophies. Patañjali‟s “Antaranga sādhanā” (internal practices) namely the practice of Dhāraņā-Dhyāna-Samādhi is comparable with various meditative practices of Jainism. Out of so many types of internal practices in Jainism, the prime ones are Samayik and Pratikaman. The practice of Samayik (48 minutes of meditation) makes us to stay with our true self to realize our right identity. One has to be fully alert not to commit any mistake to get connected to one‟s soul. Whereas, Pratikaman makes us detached from the outer world, takes us away from all our wrong actions which are due to our own wrong identity. Actually principle of Pratikamana of Jainism is similar to „Pratiprasava‟ process (going back to the origin - the root) of Sāṃkhya from which Yoga is derived. This process is similar to get realized through Yoga practices, the root cause avidyā and to get the true knowledge (prajñā).

VI. Literature: The most creative minds of traditional and ancient India like Mahāvīra or Patañjali had weaven their innovative thoughts into sūtras which stimulated discussion and dissent. But, in case of Pātaňjalayoga, the exact period of formation of original literature has controversy. Patañjali‟s era is considered by most of the researchers as

200 to 300B.C. Where as the days of delivery of sermons by Lord Mahāvīra, based on 311

which the Āgama-s are formed are exactly known as it happened just at the time of his nirvāṇa (death). It is believed that all main angas of Āgama-s were written by his Ganadharas and the other canonical literature (Anga-bahya) was composed by elderly monks known as sthāvirs. They are shrut-kevlis and Das-purvas. Chronologically, 170 years after Lord Mahāvīra‟s nirvāṇa, the Jain order became devoid of any shrut-kevalis and there only remained those versed in the knowledge of the ten Purvas. Jains believe that only those persons who know and comprehend the Purvas can be the spiritual practitioners having rational faith (Samyak Darśana). Hence in their works there is no possibility of there being present anything that may go against Agama. This is the reason why their works also gradually got included in the Jain Agama. All the names with periods of compositions are not exactly known. From lots of evidences and discussions, it is believed that one of the Upangas „Prajnapanasutta‟ written by Kalakācārya was developed during 335 to 376 years after nirvāṇa of Lord Mahāvīra578. About rest of them, the authors and dates are not known exactly. Among the Ched-sūtras, Dasashrut, Brihatkalpa, and Vyavahar are well known as the works of Bhadrabahu were already composed prior to the year 300 before the commencement of Vikram era. Among Mula-sūtras, „Daṡavaikālik sūtra’ work of Ācārya Sayyambhav was written exactly 75years after Mahāvīra‟s nirvāṇa. The „Uttaradhyan sūtra’ was composed during second and third century by more than one Ācāryas. „Nandi sūtra’ of Chulika sūtras, was composed by Devardhigani in the beginning of sixth century V.S. All these original scriptures gave rise to commentaries, Bhāṣyas, subcommentaries, Vṛttis, Tikas and glosses thereon. Both inspired later generations to produce a considerable commercial literature. Bhāṣyas are original explanatory works containing much background information. Vṛttis are original commentaries offering word-by-word explanations. Ṭīkā-s are glosses on commentaries. Upatikas are subglosses on glosses.

578 www.jainworld.com/general/prem/jain.agams.htm#chapterVI” (Retrieved on 14.07.2015) 312

As an example of Yoga literature, in case of Patanjal Yogasūtra, various scholars have done huge work with tremendous efforts in translations and commentaries on Vyāsa bhāṣya. Few of them are Vācaspati Mishra‟s Tattva-Vaisharadi (clarity of truth) in 9th century, King Bhoja‟s Raja-Martanda (Royal Sun) or Bhoja-Vṛtti in 11th century are subcommentaries, Vijnana Bhikshu‟s Yoga-Varttika (Tract on Yoga), Yoga Sara-Samgraha (Compandium of the Essence of Yoga) in later part of 16th century are glosses on Vyāsa‟s Yoga-Bhāṣya and Patanjala-Rahasya (secret of Patanjala) of Raghavananda of 19th century belongs to the category of subglosses579. Similarly, after Lord Mahāvīra, his lectures in the form of Agams were written by his followers and then, lots of great scholars from Kundkundācārya and Umaswātī to Latest Ācāryas Bhuvanbhanusuri, Tulsi and Mahaprajna who have contributed great to the society by translating original Agamas, their derived meanings and details of various methodologies of spiritual practices. One of Jain scholar Haribhadra Suri wrote “Shad-Darśana -Samuccaya” which is compilation of the six systems of Indian Philosophy inclusive of a chapter on Patañjali‟s Yoga. Thus, both philosophies have treasure of literature in original languages and translation available for the researchers. VII. Patañjali’s Aṣṭāṅgayoga and Jainism The main spiritual Yogīc practices recommended normally for a common man are included in Aṣṭāṅgayoga by Patañjali. Each anga upgrades the mental level of a person taking him towards the final Stage Samādhi and consequently to Kaivalya. One can definitely check the level of each practice and as compared to his own level of practicing them. a) Patañjali ’s Yama v/s Pancha-vrata of Jainism These five principles of implementation of noble human practices are common in both the philosophies namely Truthfulness (Satya), Non-violence (Ahiṃsā), Non- stealing (Asteya), Celebasy (BrahmAcārya) and Non-accumulation (Aparigraha). Both philosophies talk of practicing vows at ordinary level (anuvrata) and at higher

579 Ibid, p.311 313

and stricter level (mahavrata)580. Patañjali‟s Mahavrata is not limited by caste, place, time and circumstances whereas same of Jainism are for ascetics and anuvrata for common householders as they can not practice them with social and family responsibilities. Due to some fundamental principles and metaphysical foundation in each philosophy, Jainism could take the implementation upto the deeper and subtler level as compared to the Yoga techniques. Following illustrations shall clarify it. a) Ahiṃsā (Non-violence) of Patañjali = Prānātipatvirmāṇa vrutta of Jainism: Jain darśana accepts consciousness in Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Space (sthāvarkāy jīva)581. These are natural resources. So, any torture to them or to the Nature is an act of violence. A true Jain believes in non-violence and shall look for minimum usage and wastage of water, light, food and other natural resources to prevent death of millions of jīva-s (lives). This is called principle of jīvadayā, which offers the highest level of non-violent life-style582. It can also be practiced by minimizing the usage of cosmetics, chemicals and other products of materialistic pleasure to make our life contented, simple, kind and compassionate. This is mainly a great social aspect. Lord Mahāvīra was the best example of practioners of non-violence to the highest level, one can think of. The amount of care he was taking during all his activities like search of food, while taking alms and while consuming the food was with minimum of violence, attachment or aversion. He was apathetic to any treatment or medication and devoid of fondness for his body. Without getting moved by tortures on him, continued his meditation free of illusion and deceit for days, months and years for 12.5 years. In his presence or during his sermons, any opposite pair of animals like Tiger and Goat was sitting together forgetting all enimity which normally exists since their birth. Patañjali has given the same result of non-violence in his sūtra583.

580 जानतदेशकाऱसमयानवस्च्चिन्ना् सावयभौमा महाव्रतम ् I PYS 1.31 581 Tattvārthasūtra 2.13 582 “Sukhnu sarnamu” (Gujarati) by Muni Udayvallabh vijay, p.25, Samkit Yuval Mandal, 1912

583 अदह車सा प्रनतष्ठाया車 तत ् सस्न्नधौ वैरत्याग् I PYS 2.35 314

If somebody tries to differentiate anybody from his own life, that amounts to violence. Deprival of life on account of non-vigilance constitutes violence. It may be due to negligence, wrong motive and other acts. As per Jain literature, our Kṛṣṇa-leṣya (black) tends to take us towards violence as against śukla- leṣya (white)584. A full statement of the theory of lesya occurs in chapter 34 of the Uttarādhyayana, one of the fundamental sūtras of the scriptural canon. Anekāntavāda of Jainism is the best example of respecting others and their opinion and thus, not hurting others. b) Satya of Patañjali = Mrushāvādvirmāṇa vrut of Jainism:

Speaking through pramattayoga (through body, speech and thoughts out of passion) what is not commendable is falsehood or Asatya.585Telling lie also is a form of violence. Jainism defines and describes falsehood, where as Patañjali limits his sūtra only up to result i.e. benefits one gets, while practicing truthfulness. Jain Philosophy has covered wide range of acts covering innumerable divisions of injury like violent actions done directly, get it done or motivated, supported or permitted to do it be others at different levels of intensities. c) Asteya of Patañjali = Adattādānavirmāṇa vrata of Jainism Vow of non-stealing has same meaning in both the philosophies. Yoga mentions the result as achievement of treasure, whereas Jain scriptures lay down many rules which include: “Abstain from taking anything, whatever worthless or unclaimed it is, which does not belong to him without the consent or by immoral methods, asking, approving or encouraging others for any of these prohibitions”. d) Brahmacarya of Patañjali = Pardaravirmāṇa vrut / swadarasantosh of Jainism:

584 Uttarādhyayanasūtra, Sūtra 34.21:22, 31:32 585 Tattvārthasūtra 7.14 315

When one developes full control (Saṁyama) on all senses and at subtler level on Svadhisthan cakra with Yoga practices, it‟s Brahmacārya. In Jainism, it is fourth vrutta also called as „pardara virman’ Just surrendering to the desires or lust is loosing control (asaṁyama) over senses. Anything not conducive to soul is “Abrahma” that needs to be averted. e) Aparigraha of Patañjali = Parigrahvirmāṇa vrut of Jainism: Attachment to any object is possessiveness. When one possesses material, thoughts or any entity more than his minimum necessary requirement is called Parigraha. According to Jainism, non-possession and non-attachement are to be observed in speech, mind and deed. Jainism defines and describes falsehood, non-stealing, celebasy and non- accumulation with effects where as Patañjali limits his sūtras only up to result i.e. benefits one gets, while practicing these virtues. Thus in both the philosophies, Pancha-vratas and five Yamas are closely related and interconnected. So, one should have integrated approach in observing them. ii) Niyama of Patañjali: a) Śauca is first Niyama of Yoga for purification of body and mind. Similarly, Jainism also recommends Śauca and is of two types: 1. Dravya Śauca, which is cleansing of body and senses. This is mainly external. 2. Bhav-Śauca is purification of mind, which is an internal process More importance is given to Bhav-Śauca in Jainism, and Patañjali also has given various practices in his first chapter for the same which are called as „Citta- prasādana’. b) Santoṣa: Maharshi Vyāsa, bhāṣyakar of Patanjalyogasūtra, defines contentment as the inner state where, "exist a joyful and satisfied mind regardless of one's environment, whether one meets with pleasure or pain, profit or loss, fame or contempt, success or failure, sympathy or hatred". In Jainism, “Dashalakshana dharma” (ten observances) 316

includes “Uttama-śauca’. This is purely at mental level. It is supreme contentment and purity586. c) Tapas: The third Niyama of Patañjali „Tapa‟ is given prime importance as spiritual practice in Jainism. Most of the description given in Acārangasūtra for destruction of karma is about ascetic observances. One of the biggest achievements of Lord Mahāvīra‟s life was strict observance of Tapa for more than twelve years before he realized Kevaljnāna. Today also, Jains try to observe various forms of Tapa including fasting and „Uṇodari vrata’ which are external austerities and similar to „Mitāhāra’ (eating less than required) or Yogīc diet. Maharshi Ved Vyāsa, bhāṣyakar of Yogasūtra has also indicated importance of Tapa as “Yoga aspirant can not get success without practicing Tapa”.

न अतऩस्स्वनो योग ससध्यनत I587 d) Svādhyāya: Maharshi Ved Vyāsa has commented on Svādhyāya in sūtra 2.32 as:

स्वाध्यायो मोऺशास्िाणामध्ययन車प्रणवजऩो वाI One should study Holy Scriptures like „Mokṡa-shāstra’ and chant repeatedly praṇava-japa. This leads to emancipation. This practice stabilizes our mind to move forward spiritually. Importance of Svādhyāya is rightly explained in an article on Jainism: ‘Journey to Mokṡa through Svādhyāya’ 588. Some part is shared here: For a Jain monk, and higher level of sādhaka, Svādhyāya is a regular practice among and part of others like Pratikamana and Samāyika (meditation). Bhagvati Sūtra, a Jain scripture classifies Svādhyāya into five types589, namely 1. Vacana (study by reading) 2. Pṛcchana (Enquiry, resolving all doubts)

586 Vilas Sangave, Jain Community - A Social Survey, Popular Prakashan Pvt.Ltd. Bombay, 1980 587 Veda Bharati, Vol.II, Yogasūtra of Patañjali with the exposition of Vyasa, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 2009, p.2 588 Chimanlal Kaladhar, Jain Darsana, Mid-day, dt.31.03.2013 589 http://hi.encyclopediaofjainism.com/index.php”, p.365(Retrieved on 01.08.2016) 317

3. Parivartana (establishing the knowledge of topics studied) 4. Anuprekṣa (if done all above properly and with joyful experience) 5. Dharmakathā (distribution of knowledge acquired from scriptures to common people) Bhagvati sūtra certifies Svādhyāya as Gate of liberation through following steps. One gets Dharmasravaṇa with the Svādhyāya and company of monk, this takes him to philosophy and then to Science. Science takes one to pratyākhyān, which in turn takes to Samyam. Samyam takes us to Anasrava then to Tapa, Tapa to Vyadana Vyadana to Akarmatā and finally, Akarmatā takes us to Mokṣa, the complete liberated state. Out of many paths (passages) to liberation suggested by Yoga and other spiritual scriptures like Bhaktiyoga, Karmayoga and Hathayoga, Jnanayoga is the fastest and shortest path according to both Philosophies. All karmas get destroyed within no time once the aspirant realizes true knowledge, removing the layers of false knowledge (Avidyā of Yoga or Mithyāttva of Jainism). Though, it is not the easy option. Viveka (discriminative knowledge), Vairāgya (total detachment from all worldly desires) and Mumukṣatva (intense desire for liberation) are three necessities of this path. e) Īśvara praṇidhāna is a surrendering attitude towards the supreme reality or God. It gives benefit of samādhi as per Patañjali590. Īśvara praṇidhāna is the centre of Yogasādhanā. Tīrthaṅkara of Jainism is defined in the similar way as Patañjali‟s Īśvara which is devoid of kleśas, karma, fruits of karma and results (latent impressions) of it. All these values very well covered by Sage Patañjali make an individual, the noblest and perfect human being, whereas different doctrines and practices of Jainism are mainly targeted towards an ideal community and inturn the entire society. As an example, the principle of Anekāntvād and approach suggested by syādvād not only gives a breadth of vision and helps a right and proper evaluation of ultimate realities, but also infuses in those who believe in and practice this philosophy, a healthy spirit

590 समाचधससवद्धररश्वरप्रणणधानात ् I PYS 1.23 318

of sympathetic understanding, reconciliation, tolerance, co-operation and co- existence in the every-day conduct of their life and in their relations with their fellow beings. The attitude provided with this philosophy will help to remove the conflicts between man and man, society and society or nations and nations permanently leading the entire world towards permanent peace. iii) Āsana: Maharshi Patañjali has beautifully defined asana as a limb of aṣṭāṅgayoga and the way it should be done alongwith benefit without mentioning any name or type of it. Many old scriptures and sculptures of Jain monks found from ruins of Sindhu valley including Jain‟s Khadagasnastha Dev in „Kāyotsargamudrā’ exhibits Yogīc postures. One of such idol of second century of first Tīrthaṅkara Rushabhdev in Yogasana is preserved in Mathura Museum. Lord Mahāvīra when attained realization (kevala jñāna) was in Godhulika āsana (a type of squatting position taken while milking a cow). Jain Agamas and other scriptures have given lots of importance to “Kayaklesha”, which is training and tuning our body for Tapa and other internal practices. According to Agam Uttarādhyāyana sūtra (30.27), Kayaklesha is practice of specific asanas like comfortable Virasana. Another Agam Thanangasūtra (7.49) has recommended seven types of Āsanas for Kayaklesha-tapa. During lots of rituals like Khamāsamana, Pratikamana and Samāyik and devotional processes also, practice of many āsanas are included. iv) Prāṇāyāma: Patañjali has talked about breaking the continuity of inhalation and exhalation. Prac- tices of Abhyantara or Puraca, Bahya or Recaka, Staṃbhavṛtti, automatic cessation as Caturtha and „Prachhardana Vidhāraņābhyam’ as forcefull exhalation are mentioned in his sūtras. Agams don‟t have any direct reference of Prāṇāyāma, but Jain scriptures of later stages written by other scholars have details of Prāṇāyāma. Many of them were inspired by Patanjal Yogasūtra. According to Pravachana 319

sārodvar (first part) – Pratikaman dvar591 sūtra – 183, 184, 185, which explains number of Logassa sūtra and its coordination with breath in details i.e. during

Kayotsarga in annual meditation (स車वत्सरी प्रनतिमण), one has to contemplate on forty Logassa sūtra and one Navkar mantra in 1008 breaths (one breath is inhalation followed by exhalation). v) Pratyāhār: Pratyāhāra is taking control over our senses. It is diversion from many distracting objects and thoughts to one single and positive object and also from gross world to the subtle world. It is a journey which takes our senses from external subjects to the original form of citta. Pratyāhāra of Patañjali‟s is fifth anga and is comparable with „Prati sanlinta’ or „Vivikta shayyasan’ of Jainism which is external Tapa. Pratyāhāra Dhāraṇā and Dhyāna are similar to „Kāyākleśa‟ (external tapas). vi) Dhāraņā: As such, there is no separate stage and recommended practices for Dhāraṇāin Jainism. The practice of Samayika and „Salamban Dhyāna’ in Jainism is comparable with the stage of concentration or Dhāraṇā of Patañjali‟s Aṣṭāṅgayoga. Even, during the practice of „Paushadh’, where one lives the life of a monk for a day is focusing mind on spirituality through out the day by Tapa, Japa and other restrictions. The process is termed as „Sanniveṣaṇa‟. vii) Dhyāna: Sage Patañjali has defined Dhyāna as directing all the thoughts towards one object (Pratyaya) and has given choice of pratyayas also as Praṇava, flame of a lamp, noble qualities of a person or any object of meditator‟s choice. Lord Mahāvīra has suggested that an aspirant should know the joints (plexus) in our body and try to visualize or meditate on them to get the attitude of detachment592. These joints are comparable with junctions of nadis called Chakras in Yoga. Tenets of the detached

591 Avashyak sūtra, Shri Akhil Bharatiya Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, pp.124-25 592 Amarmuni, Acarangasūtra, sūtra-92, pp. 124-25 320

are believed to be the practices of discipline to attain „samyak darśana-jnana- charitra’. The level of concentration and purity of attitude improves directing the flow of spiritual consciousness upwards with this pious meditation. Meditation on aṡuchi bhāvanā (focusing on impurities in our body) is also recommended in commentary of Ācārangasūtra (sūtra-93). The same scripture (sūtra-100) gives other method as „mauna‟, observing silence. The attitude of ascetic and basis of his life should be knowledge based without any grumbling. One can develop and expand awareness of bondage and liberation. As you move towards the higher level of spiritual practices in Jainism, priorities keep on changing. Dhyāna plays significant role in Jain sādhanā-marg as Abhyantar-tapa. For ascetics (sadhu), Dhyāna is on the top priority on his routine as per „Samaṇasuttam593’, the abstract of Āgama-s.

शीषय यथा शरीरस्य, यथा मऱू 車 द्रमु स्य ि I

सवस्य य साधुधमस्य य तथा ध्यान 車 ववचधयत े II (श्ऱोक-४८४) According to Samanasuttam, the monk (sādhu), who is totally absorbed into meditation or Dhyāna, gets relieved from all faults (doshās) and impurities. Lord Mahāvīra used to meditate upon various objects like jīva (beings), ajīva (substances) of Trilokās (upper, lower and transverse worlds) in meditative sitting or standing postures. Therefore, only Dhyāna is a Pratikamana (purifier) of all Atichārs (dirt or all bad and unwholesome actions) as per sloka from Samanasuttam mentioned below:

ध्यानननऱीन् साधु ऩररत्याग 車 करोनत सवदय ोषाणाम ् I

तस्मात ् त ु ध्यानमेव दह सव य अनतिारस्य प्रनतकमणम ् I (श्ऱोक-४३३) According to Jainism, Ārtadhyāna and Raudradhyāna are (Aṡubha) causes of bondage and Dharmadhyāna and Ṥukladhyāna (Ṥubha) are causes of Mokṡa or liberation. Apart from the ethics and practices prescribed in Agams for an Aspirant or common man and the monk, there are many other recommended practices suggested

593 Aruna Anand, “Patanjalyog evam Jainyogka tulanattmak adhyayan”, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 2002, p.90 321

afterwards by several great scholars like Ācārya Hemcandra and Haribhadra in the form of 35 characteristics of „Margānusāri’ who were ideal followers of Jainism. Those who follow them are true Shrāvakās and can follow anuvrutta afterwards. Internal Tapa of Jainism i.e. Svādhyāya, Dhyāna and Vyutsarga (Īśvara praṇidhāna) are also different types of meditative practices. Dhyāna in Jainism is inclusive of Dhāraṇā and Samādhi, where as they are different limbs as per Aṣṭāngās of Patañjali. Inspired by basic principles of different philosophies like observation of spiritual centres (cakras) and leṡyas of Jainism (described in various Agamas as mentioned earlier), Ekāgratā (one-pointedness) and Saṁyama (self-restraint) of Patanjal Yoga, observing only the present moment or moment-to-moment awareness of Buddhism and other scientific studies, Jain scholar Muni Nathmal (Acārya Mahaprajna) under the guidance of his Guru Ācārya Tulsi and based on Kundkundācārya‟s “Samaysār”, developed a special meditative technique called “Prekṡā-dhyān” for a common man to pacify the mind and to manage day-to-day stress. It is a Dharmadhyāna. The process consisting twelve steps is briefly mentioned below:

Prekṡā-dhyān: 1. Kāyotsarga-Relax muscles and joints. Reduce the excessive attachments of the body. One should abandon body and be with the self, the soul. Divert your mind from Bahyātmā to Antarātmā by feeling that “I am different from the body” to attain the state of Paramātmā which is absolutely free form the body. 2. Anatarayātrā - Feeling of nervous energy from bottom to top of our body 3. Śvāsaprekṣā - Witnessing our own breath with total awareness 4. Śarīraprekṣā - Witnessing each body-cell increases level of awareness 5. Caitanyakendraprekṣā - Feel endocrine gland centres – plexuses. Their locations and activities are close to spiritual centres i.e. cakras. They are Anus (centre of power), Sex organs (centre of health), Navel centre (luminosity), Lungs (centre of control), Throat (centre of purity) and Nasal tip (centre of energy). 6. Leṣyādhyāna - Experience colour of the body aura (depending on the specific colour and its intensity, it is bad or auspicious aura). 322

Yoga of Jainism i.e. activities of mind, body and speech lead to subtle coloration over the surface of the soul. If the soul is engaged in unwholesome activities or Aṡubh-kārya (Ārtadhyān or raudradhyān), unpleasant and dark aura is produced. Incase of wholesome activities, light and pleasant coloration takes place. Jainism recommends that leṡyās can be corrected and improved by Dharmadhyāna mentioned in Āgamas. 7. Vartamānakṣaṇaprekṣā - Observe, experience and try to remain in the present moment

8. Vicāraprekṣā - Observe own thought process without any prejudice.

9. Samyama: Try to develop self-restraint 10. Bhāvanā - try to develop an attitude of detachment through mantra-chanting 11. Anuprekṣā - Experience the unique transitory state and existence of our body and the world, the entire universe 12. Ekāgratā - Choose single object of contemplation and get focused Thus, above meditation technique is a beautiful and effective blend of spiritual practices of Yoga and Jainism. viii) Samādhi: Patañjali has basically mentioned three varieties of Samādhi. These are Sabīja, Nirbīja and Dharmamegha Samādhi. For remaining states of spiritual meditations, he has used word „samāpatti’ for different varieties of samprajnāta getting resulted into asamprajnāta which can be considered as part of Sabīja Samādhi. Depending upon the subtleness of Pratyaya (Ālamaban) chosen for meditation, Saṃprajñāta samāpatti could be Vitarkānugat, Vichārānugat (gross level of Pratyaya), Anandānugat and Asmitānugat (subtle level). But all these stages don‟t indicate total control of cittavṛttis. Patañjali calls it „Sabīja Samādhi’ or Salamban Samādhi i.e. practices dependent on the Pratyaya (bija). When this Pratyaya or Dhyey gets merged with Dhyātā or the meditator, the stage of Asamprajnāta (Nirbīja Samādhi) is attained. No support exists here (Nirālamban). 323

Jainacārya Yashovijayji has explained meaning of samāpatti as attainment of super soul status through meditation.594 Patañjali has given many techniques to make our mind steady to make citta‟s inward journey smooth and successful. Some of them are “manasah-sthiti-nibandhani” (sūtra 1.35 to 1.38) and cittaprasādana (1.33-34 and 1.39). As compared to Patañjali‟s puruṣā, Jain philosophy believes in real independent existence of soul. Religion is the gateway to get into the soul. Soul can be realized only in the stage of Vitarāgatā (attitude of complete detachment) which occurs and persists in the higher stages of spiritual development. A person can become Vitarāga when he has perfectly conquered the four vicious passions viz anger, pride, deceit and greed and acquire perfect self mastery. His Vitrāga consciousness will bloom when the soul raises above all likes and dislikes (rāga-dveṣa). All the spiritual practices of Jainism are moving around this Vitarāga chetnā. Ten duties of Jain aspirant mainly, Saṁyama and Tapa are also comparable with the antarangas (inner practices) of Patanjal Yoga. Though, there is no separate reference of Samādhi in Jainism. According to Ācārya Haribhadra595 and Upadhyaya

Yashovijay, the first two types of Ṥukladhyāna („ऩथृ तत्वववतकय -सवविार’ and

‘एकत्वववतकय -अवविार’) are comparable with Saṃprajñāta Samādhi. The other two

Ṥukladhyāna (‘सूक्ष्मक्रियाप्रनतऩानत’ and ‘समुस्हहन्नक्रियाननवस्ृ त्त’) are similar to Asaṃprajñāta Samādhi. Patañjali‟s Aṣṭānga-Yoga of eight limbs is a group of practices of all varieties. Pratyāhāra is shutting windows of distracting thoughts (vitarkas) and bringing suppressed emotions, thoughts to the surface to deal with. Dhāraņā, Dhyāna and Samādhi are the stations on this spiritual journey to take us the ultimate destination – Kaivalya, which is permanent blissful state and almost similar to Kevali state in Jainism achieved through various practices of Dhyāna.

594 Yashovijay, Jnanāsāra, p.175, sūtra 235

595 समाचधरेष एवान्ये् स車प्रऻातोडसभधीयते I सनयतप्रकषय셂ऩेण वत्ृ यथऻय ानतस्तथा II अस車प्रऻात

एषोडवऩ समाचधगीयते ऩरे् I नन셁द्धाशेषवत्ृ याददतत्स्व셁ऩानुवेधत् II (योगत्रबन्द,ु ४१९, ४२१) 324

According to Patañjali, higher kind of Samādhi like Nirvitarka Samādhi brings transcendental knowledge beyond sense perception. This is similar to the result of initial stages of Shukladhyāna mentioned in Jain literature. The noticeable difference is that Patañjali‟s Kaivalya comes after Samādhi state through Dharmamegha. Though, this Samādhi is part of or result of Dhyāna, it comes after Dhyāna. As against this, Dhyāna of Jainism directly takes you to the state of Kaivalya where Kaivalyajnāna is attained and then, the self gets liberated and becomes Siddha. Thus, there is no separate state of Samādhi. Infact, Patañjali has given term “Saṁyama” as a merged state of Dhāraṇā-Dhyāna-Samādhi. Here, Dhāraṇā can be explained as preparative stage and Samādhi which is a result of Dhyāna. So, Dhyāna is the prime state comparable with Jainism. The word „Samādhi‟ is used in Jain Agams596 in different context and not for the state of self followed by Dhyāna. Āchāranga sūtra describes „Āyātayoga‟ which is getting fully absorbed into present moment without any distraction keeping all thoughts focused, unprejudiced and undogmatic (समाचधप्रेऺाand अप्रनतऻा). In order to avoid any distraction during meditation, Mahāvīra used to accept food whatever was available (tasteless and insipid) and never out of disperation by hunger597. Lots of practices and efforts are prescribed in both the philosophies to attain these final goals. Patañjali suggests „Upay-pratyaya’ in the form of Shraddhā (faith), Virya (vigour), Smriti (memory), Samādhi (absorption) and Prajna (special intellect) for permanent attainment of the final goal. Similarly various practices at gross and subtle levels are prescribed in Agamas and other literature in Jainism. Many separate and common practices for monks and ordinary aspirants were detailed in the previous chapter.

596 Sthanangsūtra (10/3) equates Samādhi as five Samitis 597 Avashyak sūtra, sūtra-324, Shri Akhil Bharatiya Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, p.503 325

ix) संयम (Dhāraņā-Dhyāna-Samādhi):

ियम एकि स車यम् I (योगसूि ३.४) Patañjali has used the term „Saṁyama‟ for internal yoga practices to reach the deeper and subtler level of spirituality. This is the higher level of spiritual practices towards the final goal. Similarly, the life of a Jain monk is the toughest and involves all higher level of spiritual practices like austerity, an ultimate level of non-violence, celibasy and other virtues. Such a hard life of a monk is called „Saṁyam jīvana’ (life with full of restrictions) in Jainism, where he remains in Dharma-dhyān and Ṥukla- dhyān all the time. After becoming monk or taking this Saṁyam only, one is called as „Mokṡa-mārgi’ (eligible for liberation). Lord Mahāvīra, during his hardships of twelve and half years of Sādhanā full of austerity hardly took food and water. His disinterestedness in food and water was due to his „Saṁyama‟ on „kantha-kup598’ (area near jugular notch in throat) during his prolonged meditation for days and months together. Patañjali also suggests the same effect of Saṁyama on pit of the throat as suppression of hunger and thirst:

कण्ठकू ऩे ऺुस्त्ऩऩासाननवस्ृ त्त् I PYS 3.29 Therefore, all Jain monks following true Saṁyama are actually progressing towards the path of liberation. Sameway, the ultimate stage of Samādhi in Aṣṭāṅgayoga takes the aspirant to liberation or „Kaivalya‟. Apart from this, some other scholars in Jainism have tried to compare different principles and practices with Yogangas. Ācārya Haribhadra has described in his scripture “Yogadrishti samucchaya”, jīva‟s different states of karma as eight types of Yogadriṡti which correlates purification of Karma with elevation of jīva and compared them with Astāngas (eight angas of Patañjali) as explained under:

समिा तारा बऱा दीप्रा स्स्थरा कान्ता प्रभा ऩराI

नामानन योग 饃ष्टीना車 ऱऺण車 ि ननबोधत II (योगद्र्षस्ष्टसमच्चु िय १२, १३)

598 Bhuvanbhanusuri, “Dhyāna ane Jivan” (Guj), Part-I, Acaryashri Omkar suri Jnanmandir, SuratVeerSamvat 2025, p.161 326

Stage / Anga Jain’s Yoga-Drishti Patañjali’s Anga 1 Mitra dṛṣṭi Yama 2 Tara dṛṣṭi Niyama 3 Bala dṛṣṭi Āsana 4 Deepra dṛṣṭi Prāṇāyāma 5 Sthira dṛṣṭi Pratyāhāra 6 Kanta dṛṣṭi Dhāraṇā 7 Prabha dṛṣṭi Dhyāna 8 Para dṛṣṭi Samādhi

1. Mitra dṛṣṭi (Love and friendliness towards all) = Yama 2. Tārā dṛṣṭi (Intense purification leads to Viveka, loyal to Niyama) = Niyama 3. Bala dṛṣṭi (efforts to gain strength and steadiness in body, sthana) = Āsana 4. Dipra dṛṣṭi (Purify inner attitude, expel out exrternal attitude) = Prāṇāyāma 5. Sthira dṛṣṭi (equilibrium, sensual control, to get united with the soul, Pratisanlinta, Samyakttva) = Pratyāhār 6. Kāntā dṛṣṭi (without fluctuations (chanchalta),to fix steady mind on one alamban, object) = Dhāraņā 7. Prabhā dṛṣṭi (clarity, pure realization like Sunlight and focused meditation, to stop body, mind and speech activities) = Dhyāna 8. Parā dṛṣṭi (Realization like cool Moonlight, aspirant gets totally detached from all, Niraticār sādhanā. Ayogavasthā takes him to Nirvāṇa ) = Samādhi Yogasādhanā normally is purification of all cittavṛtti s and then, minimizing and getting rid of them. It is to experience body consciousness, to get connected with other‟s consciousness and harmonized with the universal consciousness. Special knowledge, you acquire on this spiritual path is called Avadhijnāna in Jainism which is comparable with Patañjali‟s Prajnā.

327

VIII. Attitudes There are five attitudes (bhāvanā) for each of the five vṛttās, namely darśana, jnāna, cāritra, tapas and vairāgya in Jainism as per Tattvārthasūtra. The scripture also has described twelve types of attitudes under Vairāgya bhāvana (attitude of detachment). Each one of them is already discussed. Ninth Adhyayan of „Shrutaskandha‟ of Ācārangasutta-II Agama classifies Ātmanbhāvanā599 into two types Sankliṣta and Asankliṣta. This is comparable with Kliṣta and Akliṣta vṛttis of Patañjali. The Asankliṣta (Apraṡaśta) bhāvanās are of five types and they create hurdles in practicing right conduct so, should be avoided. They are Kandarpika, Daiva killisika, Abhiyogīka, Asuri and Sammohi. If we want to summarise the positive attitudes suggested by Jainism through the practice of various kinds of Dhyāna, we need to decrease the intensity of Aṡubha- dhyāna (Ārtadhyāna and Raudradhyāna) and increase the intensity of Ṥubh-dhyāna (Dharma and Ṥukladhyāna) even while practicing other practices like austerity if the progress in spirituality is the goal of one‟s life. The best positive attitude could be developed as explained in both the philosophies Yoga and Jainism respectively as under:

मिै ीक셁णामदु दतोऩेऺाणाम ् सखु द्ु खऩण्ु याऩण्ु यववषयाणाम ् भावनातस्श्ित्तप्रसादनम ् I (योगसिू

१.३३)

मिै ीप्रमोदका셁ण्यमाध्यस््यानन ि सत्त्वगणु ाचधक स्तऱश्यमानाववनयेष ु I (तत्वाथयसिू ७.६) Both these sūtras from different philosophies guide us to develop an attitude of friendship towards all, happiness towards great knowledgeable people (by appreciat- ing them), compassion towards suffering people and neutral towards rude and sinful people. In short no one should have an attitude of raga-dveśa towards anyone. For this, the scripture in Jainism suggests to meditate on attitude of forgiveness, appreci- ation, gratitude and compassion. This attitude creates opposite bhāvas (emotions) converting negative thoughts to positive ones by an introspective attitude called as

599 Umaswati Maharaj, Sri Tatvarthadhigam sūtra, tr. Sri Prabhudas Parekh, Sri Jain Shreyaskar mandal, Mehsana, Gujarat, 1960 328

„Pratipakṡa bhāvanā’, where we identify with our afflictions (kleṣās) first and then, try to meditate upon opposites. It is also a pure awareness development process as we become more and more aware of our negative thoughts; it leads to acknowledgement of our own negativities and faults and brings more virtues. Forgiveness Patañjali has not explained or prescribed directly the virtue of forgiveness, but the person following the Yama of non-violence never thinks of hurting others and can use this practice if someone is hurt. Jainism speaks of “Kṡamāpanā” as the biggest virtue and the seed of many virues like humbleness, compassion, simplicity, contentment, love, egolessness, equanimity, happiness and friendliness. While answering to disciple Gautam, Lord Mahāvīra said, “With the attitude of forgiveness, initially you get lightened and then delighted with inner joy. Slowly, you develop an attitude of love and friendliness with all, which brings about purification of mind and one becomes fearless and happy.” The famous current Jain philosopher Kumarpal Desai described „forgiveness‟ as the opening gate to liberation600. „Kṣa‟ is knott and „mā‟ is to demolish. It unites two hearts and helps self development by removal of all misunderstandings, ill-feeling among people. Sixth sermon of Lord Mahāvīra as mentioned in “Kalpasutta” addresses this issue of „Kṣamāpana’ as Kammasattunigghayanatthie. It means those are very strong and difficult to conquer who are always ready to destroy completely all enemies in the form of karmas. Forgiveness is the most selfish act because of its immense benefits to the one who forgives. The universal truth is that those who can tolerate all troubles and pains without getting disturbed can definitely succeed in controlling and destroying karma. Jainism believes that actually our inner enemies are culprits. They are eight types of enemies or “aṡubha karma” (unwholesome deeds) as per „Āvaśyakasūtra’. One of the illustrations given in Kalpasūtra is about great monk Gajsukumal, younger brother of Shri Krishna Vasudeo who could tolerate all problems without getting disturbed or blaming others for his miseries, thus avoiding generation of new

600 Kumarpal Desai, Gujarat Samachar, daily newspaper, dt.19.09.12 329

„Aṡubha karma’. He praized and appreciated his father in-law, inspite of severe punishment he got from him during his meditation in crematorium. Gajsukumal took it as opportunity to burn and destroy his karma. He finally got liberated to mokṣa. Attitude towards Food: Mitāhāra or Unodari vrat (Alpāhār), which is eating less than needed is common practice to both these philosophies and is prerequisite for spiritual progress. Jain monks go for Bhikṣā (alms) and take minimum, not to waste any particle and also can not preserve for the next meal. If they don‟t get sattvik food, they fast happily as they are used to it. So, they never crave for eating. Same is the characteristic of a Yogī. Haṭhayoga prescribes sattvika food and mitāhāra.

IX. Supernatural powers: Siddhis Patañjali’s Vibhūtis v/s Labdhis of Jain tradition On the path of spirituality, when one reaches a particular stage, he gets some special powers, experiences and signs. This is referred in both the philosophies: Yoga and Jainism. One should take them as indicators of his spiritual progress for further continuation of his journey with increased level of faith. Some scriptures mention them as supernatural powers or extra-sensory perceptions, as they are beyond normal sensory perceptions. Some miraculous achievements called as Siddhis are mentioned in both the literatures. Patanjal Yogasūtra has entire third chapter (ववभूनतऩाद) detailing all such powers with progress in spiritual practices. Jain scriptures have „Ruddhis‟ in the form of experiences at the time of destroying all the karma pudgals through Tapas

601 and Dhyāna . Common men can‟t achieve these Siddhis in their ordinary or social life. It happens only after purification of mind and spiritual upliftment with various spiritual practices mentioned in respective scriptures. According to Jain Muni

601 क्षऺणोनत योग् ऩाऩानन चिरकाऱास्जयतान्यवऩ | प्रचितानन यथैधास्न्स, ऺणादेवाशुशुऺणण् || (योगशास्ि,

१/७) 330

Nathmal, all spiritual practices lead to lots of chemical and electrical changes in body. They manifest externally in the form of such enlightenment602. Patañjali has termed all achievements like high Pratibh (intellect), Ṥravan and Vedan as „Siddhis‟603. Apart from siddhis mentioned in Vibhūtipāda which are mentioned in this thesis in chapter on Yoga, Patañjali has mentioned such siddhis at various other places with various practices. Few examples are: 1. Siddhis from practicing Yama a) Once established in non-violence (Ahiṃsā), anybody including wild animals coming in contact with such person will forget the normal tendancy of violence and enemity. b) When a person practicing truthfulness (Satya) speaks whatever, it comes true; his words are such as can not be altered. c) The person practicing honesty (Asteya) gets wealth inform of gems and jewels from all directions. d) Practice of celibasy (Brahmacarya) brings great stamina and focused mind to the person practicing it. e) Non-accumulation (Aparigraha) brings knowledge of this and past births. 2. Siddhis from practicing Niyama a) With the practice of purification (Sauchā), one gets internal purity, one pointedness, cheerful mind, control on senses and detachment from the lust for body. b) We get perfect bliss and deep peace with the practice of contentment (santoṡa) c) The practice of austerity (tapa) brings mastery over senses. Vyas-bhāṣya describes seven types of siddhis: Aṇimā, Garimā, Laghimā, Mahimā, Prapti, Prakamya, Vaṡitva and Iṡitva. It also gives extra-ordinary powers of distant and divine hearing and vision. d) Svādhyāya (self-study) makes us realized the diety. e) Īśvara -praṇidhāna (surrendering to God) gives us benefits of Samādhi.

602 Muni Nathmal, Jain Yog, p.130,131

603 तत् प्रानतभश्रवणवेदनादशायस्वादवाताय् जायन्ते | PYS 3.36

ते समाधावुऩसगाय् व्युत्थाने ससद्धय् | PYS 3.37 331

3. Practice of Asanas destroys all dualities in us. 4. Practice of Prāṇāyama removes the sheaths of Avidyā to make us experienced the true knowledge (vivek-jnāna) and prepares our mind for the practice of Dhyāna. 5. Practice of Pratyahara (sensual withdrawal) gives us victory over all senses. 6. Internal Yoga consists of Dhāraņā, Dhyāna and Samādhi. All three together is termed by Patañjali as „Saṁyama‟. There is no exact demarcation for each practice and the practice of Saṁyama results into „Vivek-khyāti’. Saṁyama on various objects give rise to various Siddhis as already mentioned earlier like direct realization of knowledge of past and future, previous births, body- mind, birth and death and many other powers. Many such siddhis are described in „Patanjal Yogasūtra’ as results of Saṁyama on different objects. Apart from this, specific Siddhis (The supreme one is Samādhijanya siddhi) are attained by birth, medicines, mantra or Tapa (Sankalpa siddhi by Tapas).604 This Samādhijanya siddhi takes one to the state of Kaivalya. Similar kind of concept prevails in Jainism too. Here, Siddhis are referred as „Ruddhis‟ and also „Labdhis‟. The meaning is same i.e. abnormal or super-normal powers or achievements. Bhagvatisūtra605 of Jainism defines Siddhi as literally perfection, success; spiritual power as clearvoyance, ability to levitate, materialising objects, access to memories from past lives606. Mainly, references of siddhis are found in Āgamas like „Sthānāngasūtra’, ‘Aupāpaaatiksūtra‟ and „Prajñāpanā sūtra’. The other following scriptures607also have mentioned details of Ruddhis. Here numbers are given for 337 ruddhis also called as labdhis mentioned in some scriptures:

604 जन्मौषचधमन्ितऩ् समाचधजा् ससद्धय् I PYS 4.1 605 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8455/14/14_chapter%2010.pdf (Retrieved on 01.08.2016) 606 http://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=67373 (Retrieved on15.12.2015) 332

1. Bhagvatisūtra has mentioned ten types of Labdhis (similar to Vibhūtis of Patañjali) related to Jnān, Darṡan and Cāritra (knowledge, faith and conduct). 2. Tiloypanatti (1/4/1067) -69 labdhis 3. Tattvārthasūtra Srutsgariya Vṛtti (3/36) and Dhawalatikā – 64 labdhis 4. Avashyak niryukti – 24 5. Satkhandāgam – 44 6. Vidyānushasan – 48 7. Mantraraj Rahasya – 50 8. Pravachansarodhvar and Vishesavashyak bhāshya – 28 ruddhis Buddhiruddhi608 includes 18 types of ruddhis like Kevaljnana, Avadhijnāna and Manahparyaya all three as referred earlier, doorsparśatva, doordṛśitva, Padānusari and Pratyekbuddhi (powerful sensing through each sense organ from long distance, getting knowledge of full sloka from one pada) are some of them. Vikriyāruddhi609 includes 11 types of various unique capabilities like Animā, Laghimā. Kriyāruddhi610is of two types: Charanruddhi (expert in conduct) and Akashgamitva (special powers to fly in sky) each one is again of 7 types. Balruddhi are of three types. Aushadhruddhi611 (excretes of monks get converted into medicines) is of 8 types. Rasaruddhi (special powers of Yogī) is of 6 types, Kshetrarudd- hi612is of two types of variety of special powers of monks. Thus, there are lots of similarities in these powers of spiritual practices in Jainism and Pātañjala yoga. Effects are almost same, but different bhāṣyakāra-s of Pātañjala Yogasūtra have elaborated Vibhūtipāda in different ways in case of some sutra-s. Jain literature and Bhāṣyakars have much more details and uniformity in explanation in understanding of ruddhis. The powers mentioned in scriptures written by four great Jain scholars Ācārya Shubhchandra, Ācārya Haribhadra, Ācārya Hemchandra

607 Anand Aruna, Patanjalyog evam Jainyog ka tulnātmank Adhyaya, MLBD, Delhi, 2002, p.253 608 Tattvartharajvartika 3/36/3/201 609 Ibid 3/36/3/202/33 610 Ibid 3/36/3/202 611 Ibid (3/36/3/203) 612 Ibid 3/36/3/204 333

and Upadhyay Yashovijay are almost similar to Vibhūtis mentioned by Patañjali. It shows that they have great influence of Sage Patañjali. Upadhyay Yashovijay has accepted all siddhis of Patañjali as seen in his book „Yog mahātmya dvātrinshikā’. All of them showed great respect for all traditions apart from Patanjala Yoga as they could show similarities in principles inspite of different wordings and style of presenting them. Both philosophies613 have pointed out that the aspirant should not get influenced by these siddhis or powers. He should develop an indifferent and detached attitude towards them and continue his Sādhanā keeping the final goal of liberation infront of him. Otherwise each Siddhi acts as a hurdle on the spiritual path614. Following it, each Siddhi increases self-confidence and faith in the practice adopted by him. X. Afflictions: Avidyā v/s Mithyāttva Patañjali has nicely explained Avidyā615 as the breeding ground and root of all kleṣās (afflictions) which is cognition of impermanent as permanent, impure as pure, pain as pleasure and non-self as self, due to lack of awareness. Āvashyak sūtra616, one of the most important Āgamas in Jain‟s literature has described twenty five types of misconceptions as Mithyāttva. The prime ones mentioned below of these are similar to Patañjali‟s avidyā. To believe jīva (self) as ajīva (non-self) and ajīva as jīva, dharma as adharma and adharma as dharma, have doubtful and impure knowledge, to understand worldly path as path of liberation and vice-versa. Avidyā is also explained by Yashovijayji, a Jain Ācārya, later in his scripture „Jñānasāra‟617 as conscience when one recognizes and finds eternality, purity and

613 ससद्धौ चित्त車 न कु वीत ि祍िऱत्वेन िेतस्I तथावऩ ऻानतत्वोसौ मुतत एव車 न स車शय |

(योगसशखोऩननषद ५/६२)

614 ते समाधावुऩसगाय् व्युत्थाने ससद्धय् I (योगशास्ि, ३/३७)

615 अननत्याशुचिद्ु खानात्मसुननत्यशुचिसुखात्मख्यानतरवव饍या I PYS 2.25I 616 Avashyakasūtra, Shri Akhil Bharatiya Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, pp.251-52 334

soulness where there is non-eternality, non-purity and non-soulness. According to him, avidyā, kleṡa and karma are causes of birth-death cycle618. Both the philosophies insist that the main remedy for these hurdles on the path of liberation is to remove or attenuate these kleśa or kaṣāya (Avidyā or Mithyātva). Each philosophy has given practices like Kriyāyoga, awareness, meditation and practicing Samyak darśana-jñāna-cāritra towards the same goal. XI. Biographies Short scatches of life of the founders (Patañjali v/s Mahāvīra): Maharshi Patañjali is definitely a formulator of Yogasūtra or Yogadarśana, but not Yoga as such, as Yoga prevailed long before him. Almost nothing is known about his era, family or whereabouts. Many scholars have given different timings of his existence and his work too. The life scatch of Lord Mahāvīra has already been described briefly in previous Chapter with exact period of his existence and establishment of Jaina sect by him. Nothing much is known about Patañjali‟s life, lifestyle or relatives. What we can predictfrom his sūtras is his attitude towards life and spirituality. As against this, we have complete details of Mahāvīra‟s life, family and transformation. The complete life scatches are available not only of his last birth but previous twenty seven births. All those values and virutes that he gave were lived by him throughout his life. Patañjali is only the formulator of Yogasūtras in Yogadarśana. Mahāvīra is founder of the entire Jain tradition, prevailing guidelines, rules and regulations of all our actions, words and thoughts through his sermons preserved in the form of Āgama-s. Jainism offers the life scatches and factual stories as useful principles and philosophies to inspire others with good values and spirituality. Jain scripture „Kalpa sūtra’ includes biographies of all 24 Tirthankaras in brief. But, more details of last Tirthankar, Lord Mahāvīra‟s last twenty seven births. His all lives are mentioned in it and include lots of hardships, different levels of tolerance, Tapas and various spiritual practices in the form of masseges for the followers. These virtuous

617 ननत्य शुच्चयात्मताख्यानतरननत्या शुच्चयनात्मसु I अवव饍या तत्वचधववयध्या योगािायय् प्रकीनतयता | १०५ 618 Yashovijayji, Jňānasarā, Sri Raj-Saubhag Satsang Mandal, Sayla, p.566, 2004 335

masseges guide us towards our ideal duties and practices in the society which are comparable to Yamas of Patañjali. Some of them are as under619: 1. Be compassionate towards others: Mahāvīra continued charity of all his property for a complete year before he renounced, made Gautamaswāmī his first Ganadhar inspite of his ego as Indrabhuti, made Chandanbala first nun of Jain traditions, got Chandakaushik the deadly poisonous snake realized his unwholesome karma of previous birth which induced total repentance and gave him Devloka. Mahāvīra blessed us with the greatest principle of anekāntavāda and one of the best religions „Jainism‟. 2. Never hurt the parents: He followed this principle right from the womb of mother Trishala till the death of his parents. He lived with parents as per their request till they died. 3. Remain detached from the pleasures and tolerant and neutral towards all the sorrows and pains: He demonstrated theses in his Samādhi state and through out the life. He loved all and treated all lives equally, so never hated anybody. 4. Each human can come out of the cycle of life and death with great efforts of one‟s alone. Nobody can help or support in elimination of Karma. So, increase the tolerance through various hardships he suggested. 5. Do not fight against any adverse situation, but accept and experience it with peaceful mind as a result of karmas earned. 6. Strenghten suttleness like atmā (soul), mauna (silentern) as against gross forms of materialism. 7. Forgive all and seek forgiveness: Mahāvīra had forgiven Sangam, inspite of twenty upsarga (torchers) done by him, Gosalak and Chandkaushik inspite of his burning flames and its poisoning bite on him respectively. 8. Have equanimity in adverse surroundings: Have tolerance towards any environment. Don‟t insist on favours and comforts. Sage Patañjali wrote all the sūtras after going through the experience of all hardships, meditations and different stages of Samādhis and spirituality.

619 Vora Arti, „Sampark-setu’ monthly magazine, p.7, Zalawad Jain mandal, Ghatkopar, Nov.2013 336

Thus, both the great scholars and their philosophies set examples as „Role models‟ for their followers to get inspired to move towards permanent bliss and happiness. To conclude this, let me quote a sloka written by Ācārya Rajshekharsuri620:

सनयक् जैनमत車 ऻात्वा योगष्टा敍गे रमन्ते य्I

कमयऱाघव車 ऱब्ध्वा ऱभ्यते सौख्य車 ऩरनऩराम ् I One who practices Aṣṭāṅgayogasādhanā (individual level) and gives equal weightage to all opinions (follows ‘Anekāntvād’ of Jainism, which is at society level) can minimizes his kleśa-s or karma and gets eternal bliss (as an aspirant to Mokśa–path of liberation). This is a unique example of simultaneous upliftment of an individual and the entire society i.e. 핍य啍ति – सम啍टि. XII. Similarities and differences of both the Philosophies in Nutshell: 1. According to Indian Philosophy, Yoga is a Āstika-darśana, where as Jainism is Nāstika-darśana. 2. Jainism is broadly considered as a religion, Yoga is a spiritual science 3. Patanjala yoga believes in Īśvara whereas there is no existence of Īśvara in the form of creator of this universe according to Jainism. 4. Prāṇāyāma is one of the most important limb of Aṣṭāṅgayoga for progress towards higher and inner Yogic journey, which is not there in original scriptures of Jainism 5. Both the philosophies Yoga and Jainism are experimental and experiencial sciences. 6. Practice and implementation of it based on philosophy is must in both. 7. Same three valid means of acquiring knowledge (Pramāṇas) in both philosophies namely Pratyakṡa, Anumāna and Āgama, but understanding is different. 8. Setting up of good conduct through Yama in Yoga and Vrata in Jainism is es sential in both philosophies for spiritual pregress. 9. As a result of spiritual upliftment, many similar and different achievements are mentioned in both darśana as Siddhis in Yoga and Labdhis in Jainism. Both have

620 Acharya Rajshekharsuri, Gujarat Samachar, daily newspaper, dt.19.09.12 337

warned that they are hurdles on spiritual path and should be taken only to enhance confidence. (According to PYS-3/37 and Dashvaikaliksūtra-9/2/22, Uttaradhyayanasūtra-35/18, 6/16). 10. Though meditation is the most essential and important step in both these philosophies for upward movement of consciousness from gross to subtle, many other different preparative stages are described for purification, training and perfection of body-mind complex. Meditation accelerates the process of evolution of consciousness. Out of five stages of spiritual evolution as mentioned by Jain scholars Shri Haribhadrasuri and added by Shri Hemchandrācārya, the details of first four stages, namely अध्यात्म (spirituality), भावना (attitude), ध्यान (meditation) and समाचध (spiritual absorption) are similar and comparable to Patañjali‟s stages of vitarka, vicāra, ananda, asmitā of Saṃprajñāta Samādhi. Also, the fifth one वस्ृ त्तस車शय (complete detachment) of Jainism is comparable to Asaṃprajñāta Samādhi. 11. Asankliṣta bhāvanās mentioned in Jain Agama (Ātmanbhāvanā of Ācārangasūtra) are of five types. They are comparable with five kliṣta vṛttis of Yoga, as one should minimise and get rid of them. 12. In both Yoga and Jainism, the journey of a common man has begun with actions and attachments (कमय), afflictions (तऱेश) followed by propensities (वासना) to bring impurities in citta. Meditational practices bring him out of this vicious cycle and take towards spirituality. As he reaches the final stage of spiritual progress in both the cases, i.e. dharmamegha samādhi in Yoga and 13th and 14th state of Gunasthanakas in Jainism (sayogī and ayogī kevali), you get completely free from

621 Kleśas-karma . Following table indicates similarities and differences in spiritual practices and related aspects in Yoga Philosophy and Jainism:

621 तत् तऱेशकमनय नवस्ृ त्त्॥ PYS, 4.30

338

Table showing comparison of spiritual practices in Jainism and Yoga

Purpose/ Topic Spiritual Practice in Yoga Spiritual Practice in Jainism Reference: Yoga / Jainism

Aim of Practices. PYS, Control of cittavṛtti Control and conquering self, mind Descriptions Vyāsabhāṣya, More of philosophy (vicāra) and senses. Tattvārtha- than actual practices More of practices (ācāra-s) sūtra Ultimate Goal As above Samādhi followed by Kaivalya followed by mokṣa. kaivalya. Isolation of puruṣa Achieved through meditative from prakṛti achieved practices under triratna through aṣṭāṅgayoga and सनयग्दशयनऻानिाररिाणण other practices मोऺमागय: I (T.S.1.1)

Varieties of As above + Different levels of sādhanā Separate standards/levels: Practices for Vyasabhashya suggested for different levels gṛhasthadharma and sādhu- different of aspirants. dharma (प्रवस्ृ त्तमाग-य categories of or sādhaka-s ननवस्ृ त्तमागय श्रावकािार-

श्रमणािार) pramāṇa: means Yogasūtra + 1) pratyakṣa: direct Knowledge through senses & of Acquiring Vyasabhāṣya perception through senses, mind is indirect (parokṣa): mati knowledge Tattvārtha- 2) Anumāna and and śruti 1) Direct/ pratyakṣa sūtra 3) āgama through soul: avadhi, (Inference & Testimony) manaḥparyāya, keval 2) and 3) are same Prime Obstacle As above avidyā / Pañcakleśa-s mithyāttva / mithyādṛṣṭi and Remedy Remedy: kriyā-yoga samyaktva / samyakdṛṣṭi Social & Self As above yama / niyama aṇu / mahāvṛtta, guṇavṛtta for discipline svādhyaya as important aṅga self discipline, svādhyāya as part of samyak darśana

Practices at As above + Physical stability with āsana. It starts with Sthana/ postures. Physical level Uttarādhyana Patañjali has defined posture Few practices for kāyakleśa, 339

and Thāṇanga and procedure, but no names. kāyotsarga, godhuli mudrā are sūtra mentioned in Āgama-s Breathing PYS Prāṇāyāma is breaking the Regulation of breath is not practices Āvaśyaka sūtra flow of inhalation - strongly recommended, Japa in exhalation coordination with breath is referred Internal practices PYS Starts with dhāraṇā: First ekāgramanaḥ Sanniveśana: T.S. step of antaraṅgayoga, sālambana dhyāna- focusing binding mind on an object mind Subtler practices As above Meditation, samādhi after dhyāna here is a broader term dhāraṇā dhyāna stage than antaraṅgayoga ekāgratā = Focus As above samprajñāta samādhi First two stages of śukladhyāna: 1 & 2 niruddha state As above asaṃprajñāta samādhi Śukladhyāna stages: 3 & 4 ultimate Sequence of PYS and Tārakajñāna-vivekakhyāti – Samyak darśana – Spiritual journey Tattvathasūtra asamprajñāta samādhi - svasamvedanjñāna – samyak kaivalya caritra – kevalajñāna

Concept of Diet As above No direct mention for food Anaṡana, Avamaudārya or Uṇodari i.e. fasting and restricted food: external tapa Concept of PYS and First know Manifested First get knowledge of jīva - ajīva Spiritual progress Tattvathasūtra (vyakta) and unmanifested of Jain traditions as samyak / + (avyakta) elements. Gradual darśana. States Samavāyāṅga Progress from vyuthita citta Fourteen guṇavṛtta-s / jīva sutta to nirbīja samādhi, sthānaka of ādhyātmika vikāsa dharmameghasamādhi and to taking to kaivalya. kaivalya Causes of Influx Yogasūtra + Kleśa-s, cittavṛtti-s (mental yoga (activities of Body, mind of karma bhāṣya modifications) resulting into and speech) Tattvathasūtra actions Causes of bandha Yogasūtra + avidyā, asmitā, rāga, dveṣa, mithyāttva, āvirati, pramāda, or bondages. bhāṣya abhniveśa (kleśa) kaṣāya and yoga. Remedies: Tattvathasūtra anekāntavāda to handle kriyāyoga abhiniveśa/ kleśanivṛtti. Means of stoppage Yogasūtra + Abhyāsa & vairāgya. saṃvara: gupti, samiti, dharma, 340

of karma-Influx bhāṣya antaraṅgayoga anuprekṣā, parisaḥ-jaya, Tattvathasūtra caritra Means of PYS (4.7) and A true Yogi gets rid of both A true aspirant gets rid of Pap- anhilition of T.S. merits and demerits Abhyāsa- punya both at the end. karma Vairāgya, Kriyāyoga, Aṣṭānga-Yoga and Tri-ratna: Samyak darśana - Pratiprasava of gunas: jnana-caritra. Nirjara depends on level of aspirant Vibhūtis or siddhis PYS (4.1) Obtained by birth, Medicines, devariddhi by birth, rajya-riddhi v/s riddhis / sthānangsūtra(2 mantra, japa-tapa. by various efforts, gani-riddhi by labdhis /2),Prajñāpana tapa. 24-64 riddhi-s in various (6/144), agamas & other post-agama aupapātika(24) scriptures Attainment of PYS and gradual upward Transformation by total pure form of self Tattvathasūtra transformation by cittavritti Anhilition of karma involves nirodha Supreme PYS and arihanta, tīrthaṅkara Īśvara - puruṣaviśeṣa authority Tattvathasūtra Attitude or PYS, kliṣṭa and akliṣṭa vṛttis sankliṣṭa and asankliṣṭa bhāvanā Ātmabhāvanā Acharangasutta -II. Approach to Yogasūtra + All are eligible for Kaivalya All, non-Jaina also can attain liberation (Broad) bhāṣya irrespective of caste and siddha-liberated state Tattvathasūtra religion (Sthānaṅgasutta1/214-22) heya, heyahetu, Yogasūtra + samsāra, samsārahetu, bandha, āsrava, mokṣa, nirjarā hāna, hānopāya bhāṣya mokṣa, mokṣopāya

Tattvathasūtra

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