Folio Archives

Six Philosophies

Atma das ”The four vaisnava ” (tapes 5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12 & 13)

This is Sri Sri and Krsna, the Supreme truth and here is the four handed form of and here are the four sampradayas. This is Laksmi. In Laksmi’s line after so many acaryas, we discussed the , we discussed Natha Muni. In that line after Yamunacarya comes Ramanujacrya. Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu in His unmanifest pastimes in He met and He gave him instructions what to do and how much he should preach, what aspects of impersonalism he should defeat and He also predicted: I am coming to preach acintya bedhabedha tattva, then your philosophy will find it’s culmination. Here is our line coming from , , , Madhvacarya. From tomorrow we will discuss Madhvacarya’s pastimes, how Madhvacarya met Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu in His unmanifest pastimes in Mayapur, then we will go into Madhva lila, then we will find out how that instruciton was carried again from Madhva to Pancatattva. Here is the Pancatattva, this is the manifested pastime of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu 500 years ago. This is the transcendental form of Sri Caitanya which was always present, who is now present here and who will always be present here. This is how He instructed the . This is Kumara, the , then comes Nimbarka. The also had darsan of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu during Caitanya’s unmanifested pastimes. Here is Lord Siva from whom comes Visnu- and in Visnuswami’s line.. later it is known as sampradaya, Vallabhacarya was personally there with Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu in His pastimes. Nimbarka appeared as Kesava Kasmiri during Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu’s pastimes. In this way Sri Caitanya instructed the four sampradaya founder acaryas how to defeat impersonalism and establish pure devotional service. As Caitanya He took two points from each sampradaya and He formed the instructions which were given to the . Here are the Goswamis. After the Goswamis so many things happened, that is subject matter for another seminar, it is not possible in this one. Then Bhaktivinod Thakur, he organised everything and on his came Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur. He took initiation from Gaurakisordas Babaji, the disciple of Bhaktivinod Thakur. From Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati came visnupad paramahamsa parivrajikacarya astottara asatta sri srimad AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Srila Prabhupada. Srila Prabhupada KI JAY!!! Srila Prabhupada KI JAYA!!! Srila Prabhupada KI JAYA!!! So Bhaktivinod Thakura predicted that all the sampradayas will find their culmination in and he said that all the religious principleç,,li0e rVvers entering the o8ean will enter the ocean of Hare Krsna, Hare Krsna, Krsna Krsna, Hare Hare, Hare , Hare Rama, ,RTma Rama, Hare Hare. This was Bhaktitinod Thakur’s prediction. So all the sampradaya’s find their actual culmination and actual practical appliction of their philoso phy in the Hare Krsna movement. So now all the sampradayas are united under one flag and that is the flag of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu. That is why He is the avatara, He is the for this age. By taking shelter of Hare Krsna, Hare Krsna.... we will please all these acaryas. They are all pleased, Ramanuja is pleased, so pleased when he sees 8hat in Russia they are chanting Hare Krsna. Nimbarka is so pleased that in Africa there is a Radha Krsna temple. Visnuswami is so pleased that Srimad Bhagavatam is recited in Folkland and here is Madhvacarya who is so happy that in New York they are chanting Hare Krsna maha . They are all pleased and most of the acaryas in the four lines, it is also predicted that they would make their appearance in the Hare Krsna movement. This is also a prediction by the Alvars. So this Hare Krsna movement has come here to stay but we don’t know whether we are here to stay in this movement. That is up to us. By seeing so many different things happening to this movement, by seeing that so many people are stoppingPchanting Hare Krsna if anyone will leave this movement then he is the most unfortunate person. Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura said: do not get discouraged by the circumstances that hfppen to the Hare Krsna movement, do not get discouragep that so many have left chanting Hare Krsna. Take shelter of the lotus feet of Rupa and Ragunatha, the feet of RupMtand Ragunatha are the only shelter and keep away from vaisnava aparad and keep on chanting Hare Krsna. This is even the instruction of Y0aktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura and Srila PrabPupada said: never leave. ”With all the defects of ISKCON I you!”, he said. So if anything happening, if one will just stick unto this movement and speak as he has spoken and do as he has done then there is no scarcity, no scarcity of strength. The strength is coming from the purity of the principles and books are the basis, p0eaching is the , utility is the principle. This has been thaught by all these acaryas and this is what they dreamed that one day this should be destroyed and how can it be destroyed? Only by the Hare Krsna movement, nobody else has this potency and all these people, all these religions2 all these sampradayas will one day or other merge into this Hare Krsna movement. This is the prediction of Bhaktivinod Thakur. So Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu took 2 principles from Sri sampradaya: puretunalloyed devotion devoid of , and and vaisnava - serving vaisnavas. These instructions were given by Mahaprabhu to Ramanuja. Then he came in lila and he took those instructions and he gave them to Rupa and , the rest of it we will see intthe future classes. Before we start with Brahma’s line this is Laksmi 0ampradaya and this is Ramanujacarya and we 2iscussed the Alvars. Then Ramanuja, as we discussed in the stories, by the mercy o2 came to Mayapur and Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu He instructed him on how much he should bring the philosophical understanding and what aspects of impersonalism should be defeated, in what manner. Then His manifest pastimes Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu took two principles from Ramanuja’s dardsan, this was ordinarily known as vasistadvaita. After Ramanuja’s 6ime it was known as Ramanuja because of his expertise in that prilosophy. So He took 2 principles: pure unalloyed devotional service devoid of karma, jnana and some mental platform of which was at that time knotn as bhakti )oga. So he established prapati which is devotional service, active devotiPnaI servMce in our terminology. So these two principles were taken. The Goswamis were instructed by Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu, these principles were instructed to them. So in this way Krsna comes through these different successions and then He comes as Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu and He organized them. In His manifest pastimes He takes principles from them and in this way He continues to establishing Absolute Truth. There are many philosophical points in the vasistadvaita philosophy and it is not necessary for and we don’t need to go into all the details. What are the different ways in which impersonalism is defeated by vasistadvaita philosophy is a subject matter for another type of class. Here we will only discuss those points, philosophical points where they seem to be different from our line and where exactly these two principles fit in. Because they are just TYke, we dittu,sed the other day mathematics department and biology department, so these are just growing into the other one explainng it in one angle and another one explaining another angle. Sometimes it looks like they are two different, it’s only those points we will discuss here. In the Ramanuja siddhanta the Supreme Absolute is Lord Visnu, every other form is His ocean of planery portion or expansion. In Sri Caitanya’s line Sri Krsna is the Supreme Absolute Truth, every other form is His expansion and both understand the visnu tattva principle. So in Ramanutl line when they see the form wf Krsna they see it as: here is our Visnu in a child form, here is our Visnu playing lila, here is our Visnu in two handed form. This is how they see Krsna and Krsna is considered as purna avatara, complete incarnation of Visnu. But then the supreme abode, because Visnu is Supreme their acarya is Laksmi and for Laksmi Visnu is Supreme, the supreme abode of . is one part of Vaikuntha planets, this is their understanding. Because of taking instruction from Laksmi, for Laksmi Narayana is the Supreme, this is why Vaikuntha for them is ... There are very many technical details in it just touching the subject matter, later if anyone wants to go into details then we can discuss some other time. So bhokta thogya and prerita they have svarupa bedha, in other words enjoyer, enjoyment and he director of that enjoyment they have difference in their constitutional position. This is Ramanuja siddhanta. It is a same understanding explained more clearly. In Sri Caitanya’s line there are bhogya and bhokta, there are both energies of the prerita in other words the living entity and this material energy they are both energies of the Supreme Lord. Then simply just understanding that they have some difference in constitutional position does not answer many questions. If you accept the Lord as energetic and these two as energy then those questions are answered. Then in Ramanuja siddhanta is visesa and cetana cita visesana, that means the Absolute Truth Brahman is qualified substance. It is similar to samadyak which has got unlimited auspitious qualities so it is visesa. Because of this, this philosophy is known a vasistadvaita because it speaks of the visesa. Cit means conscious living entity and acit means dead matter or material energy. These are visesana, these are attributes of the first two of that object. This object has goten, some of the attributes whereas this is more clearly explained in the line of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu. He said, ”This svarupa bedha and dadatmaka bedha, these two different kinds of difference that is in quality.” To make it into simple sentences which are known to us in quality the living entity is one with , in quantity it is different. By quality of eternity, consciousness and bliss they are the same. But in question of.., that point is more explained in the next one, in question of quantity then the living entities are very small. Then the bedhabedha principle, there was this philisophy of bedhabedha long, long before, even before Vyasadeva’s Brahma - that the Lord and the living entity are one and different. This principle was always there but no one could explain it properly. Whenever they explained the bedha too much then it became like everything is two and whenever they explained the abedha, the nondifference too much they ended up in impersonalism so they&didn’t know what to do. It was like a new bhakta cooking halava. Later it became a paste good for pasting posters or it was so hard you could use it on the householders, if you want to get him to do things. It’s either this stage or that stage. Bedha vada was a very difficult subject matter everyone touched, but anyone touched it, it was sticking on the hand or biting the hand. They didn’R know what to do so Ramanujacarya he s1id, ”This is all advaita, this is all impersonalism.” He refuted bedhabedha, whereas Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu took it iTNthe hand and very nicely explained it, ”It is not biting me, ip is not sticking. Here is how you deal with this.” Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu said, ”Simultaneously one and different.” And now that is inconceivable, it is acintya. It is btdhabedha but acintya bedhabedha. Because of Braman we talk Brahman, in the Brahma Sutras the living entity is considered as Brahman, God is considered as Brahman, material is also considered as Brahman. St 0sAall 7rahman so how do you see the differnce? You can see the difference in this way: God Brahman, Krsna Brahman is infinite and this living entity Brahman is infinitesimal; it is small just like the sun and the sunrays. Krsna Brahman is the only person, and the living entity Brahman is limited. Only by the mercy of Krsna he can attain sometimes some omnipresence, like Narada Muni he is present in so many places so this difference is inconceivable. Though it is Brahman there is difference, Brahman should not have difference but there is difference so it is inconceivable. This is the simple way of explaining acintya bedhabedha tattva. Acintya bedhabedha tattva is a big ocean, it is not possible to describe it easily. But this solves the problem. By the unlimited powe, of Krsna this becomes possible, that means one first has to accept Sri Krsna as the Supreme Orginal Godhead mattah parataram nonyat kincit asti dhananjaya.. you have to keep that position very clear. Krsna is above everything. He is the transcendental Lord, He is the only isvara everybody else is His servant. Unless one akes that und8rstanding contradictions wkll always come and one will be wandering what to do, so if he wants to deal with it he would deal with it otherwise he would say: no this is all impersonalism. In this way at least you can save your student from reading it. Some student did not touch the bedhabedha because they didn’t know what to do with that and they have qualified adhikaris to explain it so they just didn’t touch that point. They simply,said, ”No, this is dangerous just like lib eration in brahmajoti.” In the vasistadvaita siddhanta originally the idea is that Veda came through different lines and they havt some arguements going t on. Anyway, instead of telling that this liberation is very dangerous if you go there for long, long time you have to be there then you fall. Why even give some hope, it is eternal. In this way many techniTues are followed by acaryas and according to what main principles they want to establish, that particular time they will deal with the philosophy so unless one sees these principles through theseyero8 Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu then it is very difficult to see uniformity, the harmony between them. So another point is that acit and sit are conscious living entities and unconscious matter. This forms the body, this constitutes the body and the Lord is the . In Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu’s explanation of Visnu Purana there are three kinds of energies: there is internal energy, marginal energy and external energy. Unconscious energy is the external matter and the conscious living entities are the marginal energy and spiritual energy is the internal energy1 Marginal enenrgy is also belonging to the internal energy but because it is marginal by using its independance it is either taking shelter of in(ernal energy o6 the external energy. In this way the problem considering this is body and this is sou,, that problem is also solved because if this is the body and Krsna is the soul, Krsna is the Supreme controler how everything is not going according to His wish? But there seems to be something facking there, some information is laking and Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu by quoting this verse from Visnu Purana,hthe Shree kinds of e,ergies He made the position of the living entity very clear. Why this2living entity ,s here and how he is suffering is very clearly understood better than simply taking everything th be lila. This is the only escaping answer that they alwSys have. It is all lila so why have I decided to be in this lila nd someone else decided to be in another lila, you ask them and they will only chant some and chant some mantra. So they just don’t want to touch that point. Because of this visesa principle not so much explanation can be given and here by taking t,e h instruction h from Visnu Purana Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu clearly ex15ained the origin of the miseries. Then jnana and karma, fruitive aclivities aRd mental speculation are taken as getting favors from the Lord whereas prapati or devotional service is very pl(asing t. the Lord, one is pleasing and the ouher one is dis- pleas6ng. These two karma and jnana are for pleasing us and the other one is for pleasing Him. But here in acintya bedhabedha tattva it is very clearly explai5ed that karma kanda jnana kanda kevala viserbhanda - this Ts simply a pious pot, don’t even touch it. Completely purified of fruitive nature and philosophical speculation ,ne should engage in pure devotional service which is T one’s constitj1ional position. Brahman doesn’t transform into living entity os mat8rial nature. This is a philosophical point in the vasistadvaita philosophy. Here Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu explained that point more clearly, instead of simply telling Brahman doen’t transform into this world He said that the energies because Krsna has got unlimited energies and some of these energies they transform. Eventhough they transform, the energies are transforming, the energetic doesn’t change it is the Supreme Lord. The change of energy does not affect Him just like a touchstone it goes and toches many metals and the metals turn into gold but the touchstone remains the same. If a material stone has got this quality then why you say that the Supreme Absolute Truth will not have this quality? Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu discussed this point, we shouldn’t be afraid to say that Brahman transferred because it is mentioned that there is transformation. Now touching this transformation point each one is trying to make a difficult kitchri from it, one kind of kitchri is that Brahman doesn’t transform: don’t say of Brahman trasforming because it is against the quality of Brahman; this is advaita, kick it out. This is one way of saying, another way is let us see what is Brahman, how does it transform. Here Brahman has unlimited energies, it is complete no matter how many energies come from it, it stays. So let the energies come out, let them transform into various things then nothing happens to the Brahman, He is the Supreme Lord. He is untouched, one can go into technical details there are thousands of points. A big question mark is left over in the sampradaya and Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu ocmes and puts as explanation mark there, He gives the answer. Everything is answered by Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu’s instructions, that is why Prabhodananda Sarasvati says that any contradTction in the scriptures you just bring it in fornt of the Pancatattva, by the time it reaches their feet they are solved. Even a child can understand, in this way so simply it is explained. So philso- phical subject matter is actually meant for a certain type of discussion. S, if we go on with the discussion certain audience will not be able to appreciate so we will stop this here and then we will go to the stories because that is the actual program given to us during the festival. So we will in some other arrangements... it is very interesting to see these points how each on& is taking the tail and the leg and then deciding this is elephant and each one is expert in condemning the other one and they are spending more time and energy in condemning the other than establishing one’s own. But S6i Caitanya Maha6rabhu, He just goes aro,nd then He stiche1 all the wholes and makes it into a beautiful vastra. This deity is standing in a particular mood, that mood is that everyone is the speaker, the person who is writing the philosophy and the person who is reading should be chanting Hare Krsna... Unless one takes this Hare Krsna movement, this chating of Hare Krsna it is not possible to see oneness and diversity. Some panditas came tp see Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu, they said, ”Nimai, we are comi1g from Sankara’s school so we say it is all one. What do You say?” He nlosed His ear and said, ”! Hari! What are you saying, how can it be one?” So then they went and the dvaitis came, these people came and they said, ”Nimai, ee heard that You agave them a nice chastisement by 7olding Your ears and saying Hari how can it be one, it is two.” Then He sa,d, ”Hari! Haji! How can it be two?” So 2hey also went. AnA 7hese panditas met under a banyan tree and they don’t like each other so one is looking that way and another is looking this way and the breeze was coming from that side so the dvaitis couldn’t sit and they left. The wouldn’t take that breeze since it is coming thr7ugh the head of advaitis. So the advaitis asked, ”Where are you going? There is a nice breeze here, it is all one whether you sit here orpyou sit there what is the difference?” So they said, ”We come from Nimai’s place and He doesn’t accept our theory either.” they said, ”Hey, this is not fair He told you the same and we got the same reply. Let’s go together and see what He says.” They made a plan and they both went together. They said, ”Nimai, we are here. We have joined together. We are dvaitis and advaitis so what do you say?” He said, ”It is one and it is two.” ”This boy has gone mad. How can it be one and two at the same time?” So then Nimai said, ”Yes, it is inconceivable.” Then they said, ”If it si inconceivable how can you explain it?” ”I can explain it if you come to Siva Satnam.” They came in there and joined the sankirtana, after the sankirtana Nimai told them, ”What do you think?” They said, ”It is one and it is two. It is inconcei- vable.” ”See I told you, there lies the secret. The harinama solved the problem. There lies the secret.” So after Ramanuja disappear1d again these impersonalists they became stronger and stronger, little by little, little by litale and they used to co)duct their Brahma classes everywhere and whoever was devotional they had to leave their villages and g2 hide somewhere in the mountains. Some such families they left the plains from the bank of Kolveri and they went to the other side of the mountains to the Western beach and on the mountain they were living in some places. One of such places was close to Udipi and in this Pajaka ksetra was Madyageha Bhatta’s family. Madyageha was very famous in those days. Geha means house and madya means in the middle, in the middle of their village they had their houses. This is why they are known as Madyagehas and,this person was a strict follower of principles. And in Udipi there was a 8emple of Aeant,svara and the used ot go to Siva temples but they would wo5ship him as Anantasana - they would him as was in him, he is the Supersoul of Anantesvara. I0 this way they were worshiping only Visnu. As this family was there, this is this line we are explaining now. So before we start into the appearance of MTdhvacarya there is one small principle we have to understand through the discussion of Madhvacarya’s stories he ps one of the purT devotees of the Lord who is a great preacher. Amongst tae demigods he is considered as a great vaisnava preacher. So this appears in various form assistin in the pastimes of Sri Krsna. During Ramacandra appeared, He was there in the form of and then in in Krsna’s time he was there in the form of . Then in the age of Kali he came in the form of Madhvacarya. Sripad Madhvacarya is the angsa of Vayu like we was Ramanujacarya as the angsa of Sesau of Anantasesa the snake2on which the Lord sleeps and this is the breeze that makes the Lord6happy. So he appeared as Madhvacarya. There was a big festival in Anantesvara temple. In this temple it’s like Kumbamela. From everywhere all kinds of people came, it was a big shopping center at that time. So in this festival everyone goes on sankirtan6, bamboo tricks, pole selling and everybody makes his business there. So it seems like festivaR and everybody has to make his business. When this big carneval is going on, religious carneval Madyageha Batta came with his wife. He was fasting the whole day and in the evening he accepted a little prasada and he was praying to this Anantasana, the Lord in the heart of Anante)vara he was praying for a son. At that time they saw there was a big pole for raising a flag and1suddenly a man, he was possessed by some power and he started climbing on this pole. He went to the top of the pole and on the top of the pole he started dancing. He was preforming secret abinya, he is performing the whole dance. This is because he is possessed by someone who is a good dancer. So finally when everyone gathered together, he was doing the d,ncing io get everyone together, wheR everyone came there he stopped datcing. Hi lifted his hands anp then hp said, ”The great Vayu will app1ar in this land in a family and he will preach the principles of devotional service. He will destroy the demoniac philosophy of impersonalism preached by the demons.” Then from there he fell unconscious. Then they went to him and tried to get any other information but he didn’t know anytt1ng, he was possessed. Then everyone was talking about this. Madhyageha Batta came to his residence there in the festival area and he was telling his wife, ”Did you hear that? This means that there will be some relief for those who think in Bhagavata principles,7we don’t hh9e to hear this legless, mouthless, eyeless, lame, dumb S,preme Lord who has subjected Himself to the material energy and on the illusory platform He is thinking I am a soul. You don’t have to hear this anymore because if Vayu comes then he ill establish it very nicely.” And little did he know that this Vayu was going to appear in his own hsuse. So then the festiva5 finished and another was started and by this time this lady conciev6d. Then the baby was delivered in time. At that time 1ll the bells of different eemples simultaneously rang so also there were signs of the body of the baby. There are 32 signs of a maha purusa in that body. Madyageha became very afraid, he was thinking: now there is another preacher, he looks like a maha purusa. What will happen to him? So quickly at 11 o’clock in the night, wrapping his baby in a piece of cloth, him and his wife left from Anantesvara. From Udupi they were walking to Padera ksetra. It takes about 67 hours to walk to this place. So on the way there is a big banyan tree where stays a raksasa and these brahma raksasas are not just full of knowledge but also full of passion. So as some of the people who followed Madyageha Batta, there were 3 new men in the front, 4 men in the back. This brahma raksasas came and slapped one who was right in the front and he vomited blood and he fell. Also the brahma raksasas entered him and he was spe6king dif5eRent k&nds ,f languages. So Madyageha came there and he took his acmana cup and sprinkled some water and he was chanting for the brahma raksasas to go. This brahma raksasa from within the body of this man spoke, he said, ”Unless touched by the feet of this great devotee, I will not go away from here.” The brahma raksisas know how to get delivered although they are ghastly they know some principles. Immediately Madyageha brought thS babyt as soon as this man saw th6 baby the brahma raksas in his body left. While leaving he said that nobody could touch, no body could get close to this Bhima. His name was pronounced and this brahma raksasa left. Now M6dyageha became all warried now that it is confirmed that this baby has something to do with Bhima. Sow whatever happened to Bhima he knows, he is a big pauranika. How many thimes they tried to kill Bhima so he became all afraid and quickly he reached 8oae. He performedtall the samskaras1for the baby and then he was taking care. There were only 4-5 houses in Pandega ksetra, there is a mountain there and a Durgadevi temple. There is a water tank and it’s a big forest from there to Udupi. Even now only by some specnal,taxi arrangemFnt you can go to Padega ksetra, no business 1oinF there, nothing happening in that place. At that time it was even more wild. So he was staying there and he always took care that this baby will not be seen by impersonalists. It was that difficult at that time, if a bhagavata was seen they would do anything to somehow root out that understanding of devotional service. Just like the materialistic people in the modern ages, when they see devotees they want to somehow surpress the Hare Krsna movement, somehow they want to stop book distribution. These things are happening. This materialism in the Vedic language when you translate Vt, it is called impersonalism. Then writeen in varnasrama it is known as advaita and beyond varnasrama it is known as ugrakarma. It is the same thing. There they want to become the Lord, 9ere they want to become Narayana. They want to become Narayana by following some smrtis and they’re following no smrtis they want to become Narayana. There is no difference. So every method the materialistic demon is trying to use against the Krsna consciousness movement these impersonalis3s used to use. Anyway, very secretly this child was growing up in there and when he went to school teachers gave up teaching him bechuse every time, this child was so different, like a teacher starts teaching today’s class he will tell the teacher what is suppose to bettaught a month later. 3nd the Reacher would say, ”No, no, no. Not this, likeVthis.” He would say, ”No, no, no. This.” So then the teacher would say, ”No, I haven’t taught this, what can I do?” ”But IBhave learned it.” So then the teachers called Madyageha Batta and said, ”This isVa different level of brain your child has so you teach your child in your house. And if you want we will giveSsome cont3ibution. We will come one hour a day, we will teach another subject but not 7n our school. It is not possible.” So different professors came to his house and they were teaching and he was learning things in such a way that everybody who came to Madyageha Bata would say, ”Why are you giving us this test, you are keeping this child in front, you put something in him he knows past, present and future and he always answers questions about subject matters we don’t know.” So at one point they decided: we cannot educate your boy and we don’t think he needs any education. Maybe you should make him into a philosopher, because those days philosophy means you can say anything, you don’t have to learn you just have to say something and it is your philosophy. Anybody who says something new he is considered as great. They said, ”Teach him philosophy, that is easy. These things you have to know according to system. Philosophy anybody can speak.” So Madyageha became very warried, ”How am I going to get my son educated?” One day a Pauranika came to his house, some story teller. He came there and he was telling stories, the child was only four years old and the teachers have already failed the test. When he was only three years old he harrased the fathers now within one year he already completed his education because no one wants to educate him. Now he is playing around the house and he is a four year old baby but then he is so learned too. So then this man, this Pauranika came and started giving explanations of so then the baby came and stood in the middle of the assembly of all the and he said, ”This man is lying!” ”No, no, go away from here.” ”No, eE will go away from here. Why is he epeak,ng like that?” Then he gave explanation, ”This is not how Sukadeva Goswami explained in Srimad Bhagavatam, why is he speaking like this?” And all the brahmanas got scared and they got up, ”What is this four year old baby talking about Sukadeva Goswami?” Some of them ran away, ”Oh this is some raksasa, some brahma raksasa entered him.” So many brahma raksasas in that area, they were afraid of brahma raksasas. Madyageha said, ”What am I suppVse to do?” So he called his son and he said, ”Why do you explain like this?” ”This is my explanation, you tell me...” So the father said, ”Excellent! Excellent!” Then he said, ”That i- wtVt I said, now why are you stopping me?” ”We can say these things, but unless we have a commentary on the Brahma Sutras you cannot say these things. Because Sankara has written his commentary and someone has refuted it but it is not strong enough...” Then the wife came and said, ”What are you telling your four year old baby? You brahmanas, you lost your intelligence and logec. Here is a bab,, he’s still drinking milk from me and you are talking to him about Brahma Sutras!” So then Madyageha Batta closing his eyes and explaining said, ”What can I do, I am so much i7 anxiety. Someone should show the path..” Then1this child got up on a clay pot, he stood there like this and he showed his fingers, then he said, ”I will show the path.” Then they looked at him and said,”What are you doing?” He said, ”The Lord and the soul, they are two. This is a fact, I will show it. I will write a commentary on Brahma Sutra.” So then the mother said, ”See how he is going mad! Four years old and he is telling about Brahma Sutras.” Then the baby said, ”No, no, no. You just keep feading me breast milk and then you wi2l see that I will write a commentary on the Brahma Sutras and I will establish that it is dvaita, it is not ekha - it is not one.” Frtm t,atrtime, every time he would drink milk his fingers would be like this. Anyone who would come by he would say, ”Hey, look at this boy!” And he tried to fold his fingers. Sometimes they tried to put it together, tie a rope around. In this way Madhvacarya grew. One day the mother, she left Madhvacarya in the care of the sister and she went out. They had this dahl, this one particular dahl. So they ground this dahl and they make flour.t2 big ba9rel full of it on one side and the mother bussy doing some work outside. The baby started crying, crying, cryisg and he’s telling, ”Milk, milk, milk!” The sister didn’t know what to do, she said, ”You sit here, I will go and call the mother.” So he sat down and the girl went out, then the child crawled, he was very hungry, he didn’t know what to do. His mother is going to finish the work then come and feed me, then he looked around. There was a big barrel and there was this baby, he had eaten all dahl - twenty kilo and he was beltching and smiling. So then the mother came there, lifted him up, she said, ”What happened to you? You have eaten all this? You are suppose to be only drinking milk from me, you think that this milk and this dahl they are all one?” And immediately he couldn’t speak anymore he just showed his fingers. It is not one, how can it be one? It’s always two. Then they went to the doctor and they did so many things but he was all right, he was perfectly all right. Heedigested everything, he became a big eater. Then5another time8when thV father was trying to do his pujas,2 ome Tulasi leaves and he has a Bhagavatam book. Madhva came the1e and sta25ed 3ulling his cloth, ”I’m hungry! Hungry! Give me some food, give me some food!” This became a permanent factor in that house. They he,rd two )hings, one they heard the name of Krsna, twelve names of Krsna and in bewt,en that they heard, ”Hungry! Hungry!” Every moment he was becoming hungry, it doen’t matter how much you fed him he was still hungry and anything you fed him he digested. Now he was pulling him, ”Hungry! Hungry!” So, then he got very upset, ”You see that bull”, they had this big strong bull ”I bought this bull and I hace to pay money and there is not enough money9for this bull. We cannot have 8nything. You understand, big genius, you know everything, you are understending this also?” The fathe2 got very upset so the son said, ”Oh, you have to pay money for this bull.” Then he went out. Anyway the father continued his . Just at that time the man who sold the bull came in there, he is not asking money because he knows this brahmana will never be able to give it back, how is Madyageha going to give back this money? He is almost thinking it is a donation but sometimes he tries his luck because he is a business man and he always has to look for money. Even when he goes to take a bath in a tank, he looks if there is a coin inside. He is this much vaisya! He came and hs looked in there, ”Oh, what is this brahman doing? He is always reading Bhagavatam. Where is my money?” Then he just goes away. When he said that there was this boy, he was named as Vasudev, at that time he was known as Vasudev. He said, ”I am here and I am responsible for all the debts,o8 the ,roperties of the ,ouse. I am the son, my name is . You talk to me.” Then&he looked, ”I heard about you, you are a ghost!” So he said, ”W ether I am a ghost or not, why don’t you tell me how much is the money. I will pay right now.” He said, ”You are going to pay me money? All right, this is 300 coins.” Then there was a Tamarind tree there, children used to take the tamarind fruit, eat the fruit and throw the seeds in there. Some of them would take the seeds and crush it on the floor, then it would become white on one side and black on the other and they would play with them. He picked some of them and said, ”Here, take this and give us the ballance.” Then he said, ”OK, yes, a wonderful ghost. You give us tamarind seeds for money.” And he took it, as soon as he recieved it they became hundred coins worth each gold coin in his hand. Then the child said, ”So, where’s th, ballance?” This vaisya he didn’t know what to do, he has never seen such big gold coins in his life and he ran away to get the ballance. In the mean time Vasudeva came around the bull, he looked at the bull and said, ”Now you are our bull!” He opened the rope that went behind the bull and took hold of the tail and started shouting, ”You are our bull, we payed for you! You are our bull!” The bull didn’t know suddenly about payments and accounting systems and somebody pulling from the back. He didn’t know what to do, so he lifted his tail and started running. Madhva was holding the tail like this and the bull was running all over the village. As people came they wanted to save the baby and they came with sticks. The bull became even more ferotious ane he was5running around, climbing on the trees and Madhva won’t leave the tail, he was shouting, ”Our bull! Our bull!” Then the father came out and the whole village is behind this scene, he said, ”What is happening here?” ”Your son Vasudeva is just doing the latest lila. He payes gold coins to the vaisya and now he is shouting: he is our bull and we want everyone to know abot it. So he is going on a tour with him, he is on the back side of the bull, that’s the problem.” Finally all the strong men in the village they came and somehow controlled the bull. Then Madyageha asked his son, ”What are you doig?”f”I’m hungry, you feed me. If you feed me, I won’t be doing this.” Then somehow they arranged for some 70 kilo of breakfast. Then very close from that village there was Madyageha’s sister and there was a festival going on, Madhvacarya was taken there. There were so many relatives sitting together and they were talking, talking, talking: my daughter’s marriage, your son’s marriage, This one, that one,T9his festival, that festival, sraddha for my grand father, new baby just born, one tooth is just coming o,t... They are talking all these religious subject matters. So Vasudeva was going around the house and he was hearing these things, ”What are these people talking? About tooth, about marriage.. it’s all agout some material mundane things.” He got so angry and he came out of the house, he walked straight like this and some people who were there said, ”Hey Vasudeva, where are you going?” ”Who will stay in this place, what are they talking? There is nothing about Narayana there, it is all mundane subject matter. I’m going, you tell my father.” Then he walked out and throught the forest he walked alone and then ht went to this temple Hudawur ksetra, there was a Narayana Deity there. He prayed there, circumbulated and the things he was doing there, people who came to this temple they saw this small boy: he was paying his obeisances in perfect manner, he was going around, he was looking at the DTity helling some mantras. Everyone was astonished to see this boy. There was a small crowd behind him and from there he went to another place. There was a Siva temple there also, he went there but h1 was chanting slokas for VisRu. But someone came in there and said, ”My dear son, maybe you don’t know this is Lord Siva’s temple.” He said, ”My dear father, you don’t know this is Lord Visnu’s temple.” He said, ”This boy is speakind back like this. Whose son are you?” ”I’m Madyageha’s son.” ”Oho, you are that ghostly son, now how do you say this is Visnu ksetra?” ”You look in there, what is that?” They all looked, there was a Siva linga, ”There is a Siva linga in there.” ”Oh, what is that? Who is that person?” ”Lord Siva.” ”Who is the lord of Lord Siva?” ”Lord Siva. Lord Siva is bhuvanesvara, he is only Bhuvanesvara but there are many ,huvanau.” p ”Who is the lord of all buvanas?” He started his arguenemts like that. Some of them didn’t because of child’s arguing but he was talking about some )pecial subject matte1.)There wert hundreds of people around standing and he is standing these t8lling, ”No, no, Visnu is the Supreme, Siva is secondary...” Finally they gave him sweets, they took him on their sholder, they didn’t mind. Some of them were dvaitis too, but they were thinking: this is first class, this is good fun. Then he went to Udupi temple and behind him is a crowd already, by that time Madyageha’s wife she looked for her son because every half hour she has to feed him with milk. There is no more sound, ”Hungry! Hungry!” She felt very bored, ”Where’s my son? He’s not telling: hungry.” Then they looked for him and he’s not there. Then they asked and they said, ”He went into the forest.” Madyageha thought: I have to protect him. What happens if the advaitis see him? They will kill him. So quickly the festive mood chaged into a mood of anxiety. They went to Purahu and they heard that he was there and that he went to Bonaje. From Bonaje they went to Udupi and they say an Anantasesvara temple and there were thousands of people behind this boy. He was standing there explaining how God has got quality. He is speaking all this and they are all standing there and some vaisnavas they are crying, they are having tears in their eyes. They are telling, ”He has come, he has come to deliver us. Here is that person, we heard in this temple that Mukhyapran is coming. Here is that Mukhyapran otherwise how can this baby speak like that?” They are already worshiping him like anything. Madyageha came and he was telling, ”Move, move! He is my son!” And they said, ”He is also our son. It is my son too, we all feel like that. Only you can feel like that?” He said, ”No, no, no. He IS my son.” So then they said, ”We all feel like that.” And they won’t let go so he started begging, ”Please let me go, he is my son. He’s name is Vasudeva, I am his father.” ”We al& feel like his father. Finally he is speaking the Absolute Truta, you stand here, we are already before you...” Then Madyageha didn’t know what to do, so he took his chaddor and he was waiving it like this. As soon as Vasudeva saw this chaddor he stopped talking and he said, ”I am hung,y!” Madyageha took him on his sholder and said, ”As long as you are hhsgry I can tell everyone that I’m your father.” Then they brought so many sweets and offerings end he sat down there and everybody watched what he is doing. Normally he is speaking but he is eating so much and they have never seen anyone eat so much food. HeTwas sitting there eating all that. Then he sair, ”Oh, now I am half stomach full. Now we cSn go back and I will drink some milk.” Then he was holding his father’s hand, he was going and telling everyone, ”See you later next festival.” TFey were all wandening: what is this boy? What is he doing at home, he should be now going out and some of the people were talking, ”He sholt be taking and he should be preaching.” And on the way slow7y he was pinching his father’s finger, father said, ”What do you want? You wait until we reach home, you can have some food.” He said, ”no, no. What ts sannyasa?” So hP said, ”Sannyasa? Sannyasa is... sannyasa is... Sannyasa is a kind of fruit, it is notiavailable here.” So he said, ”Oh, that is a fruit. So I am only having root now. So from the root stage I have to go to the fruit stage. So someday I will take sannyasa.” Then he said, ”Don’t speak 6ike this, we have nobody except you. You are the only son.” He said, ”Even me you cannot feed, why do you need another son?” Then the father took him and said, ”My dear son, I’m begging from you let us have another son then you can go.” ”All right. When another son is born, you give me permission then I can go.” ”Where will you go?” ”To take sannyasa, the fruit.” Madyageha didn’t know what to say, it was so dangerous to talk anything in front of this boy. Anyway for that time he took him home. The father was once giving a Bhagavatam class and he was describing tenth canto, in the tenth canto he was describing the garlands. There is one particular verse describing the likucha tree, the word likucha was there. Father didn’t know the meaning. So he mentioned all other words and he skipped that one, and he went to the next word. Anyway some old ladies and a few villagers, they didn’t mind. Vasudeva way playing outside, he was playing with mud and he was making castle but Pis eind was in the Bhagavatam lecture. When he skipped that he said, ”No, no, no. This is not proper. You are cheating. You are a brahmin, why are you cheating?” So Madyageha said, ”Who is that? Who is that?” They said, ”Your son from outside, he is talking to you. What did you do? Why did yo cheat him?” Then Madhva came in and said, ”All of you should understand my father is a big cheater, he is cheating you.” The father said, ”What did I cheat them, why are you speaking like this?” He got up, ”Don’t get angry, so many trees were there. You explained all the trees except for one. Why didn’t you explain likucha tree?” He kept quiet: this is Supersoul, this is Paramatma. How is it possible that he is sitting there playing atd he is explaining what I am speaking? Then he took him on his sholder and said, ”Well, you explain this.” ”What is there to explain, this is lemon tree. You all know the lemon tree but my father doesn’t know the lemon tree, not only doesn’t he know lemon tree - he doesn’t know the four orders of life. You ask him what is sannyasa, he will say it is a fruit.” He got up, put his chaddor on his sholder and said, ”No more Bhagavatam for today.” So in this way Vasudeva was keeping on doing his pastime. Once he went out and his mother was bussy working, he was climbing on this rope and he saw this big snake coming in there. All his friends disappeare, they ran away and some went to his mother and said, ”Snake is there, Vasudeva is in front of the snake.” The mother came around, called all the villagers. They were all coming, the snake is coiling around the body of Vasudeva and he is already biting him. Three times he has already bitten on him and they are seeing it and immediately she fainted. Then Madyageha wa,y58tside tRe village, he sas not there. He went for some class, he was giving some Bhagavatam lecture. nobody knew what to do, they all prayed to the temple - there was a Durga temple on the road. They are all praying,p”Plehse save Vasudeva.” When Vasudeva heard this, he was holding his head out like this and he said, ”Who is saving Vasudeva? He is going to saveVme?” Theys9,id, ”You are bitten by a snake, poison will go to your head.” He said, ”No, no, no. Poison cannot do anything to me, it is not possiblpK” They got out of the coils and he stept on the snake, he smashed it and he was hitting on the head like anything and he spit every drop of poison in the body. Then he threw the s6ake just like1it w8s a rope and he said, ”Only this snake is a rope, all o”her ropes they are talking abou, will beat me in the Brahma Sutra commentary.” Nobody understood what he said, the villagers didn’t know what he was talking about. All the time he wa) talking about Brahma Sutra. So he came back and one day he told his father, ”I can’t be educased like this.” He said, ”What! You are unedu ted? You have enough education to give me trouble, yoR don’t need any more education.” He said, ”No, no, no. I have So get some education9and2education means philosophy, so I will go and I will learn from Acyta Prakas.” And Madyageha said, ”Poor Acytananda P&akas, sixty year old man, He is a nice , why are you going to trouble him?” He said, ”No, no, no. I will go there.” So the boy went there. Acyutandaprakas is a very0old saint, he is a vaisnava butShe is in the line of impersonalist sannyasa. His was a big impersonalist peracher. At the time of leaving his body, his guru called him, ”Acyutaprakasa, I have to leave now. You come here.” He told him in his ears, ”All the time we are thinking that we are brahman. Somehow we have been covered by illusion and by studying there ane discussing and thinking ’I am braman’ how one day we will become brahman? But I tell you ten generations have been before me in this disciplic succe ssion, none o, these have become brahman.. I am telling you also, I am not becoming brahman, I am dying. So at least before you die, you try to understand is this Brahman ac8uslly.” Re gave him his laet instruction and he died. So Acytaprakasa from that time was looking. He had a big book called Istasidhi by Vimuktatma, this was a big impersonalist commentary and philosophy. He would read in that book, he would go: ’no one became brahman, how is that possible. This is absurd.’ He would take, ”This, that page is nonsense.” He would take that page but then he doesn’t know what to do. He himself didn’t know what to do, so anyway he would take that. He would put tilak, go to the temple and he would always chant the name of Krsna and he was praying: Please, before I leave this body You should show me what is Brahman. One day after circumbulating the Siva deity in the temple he came in there and said, ”Oh my Lord, You know what is Brahman. You wrote this commentary and it is confusing and we don’t understand it. You have made it in such a way that nobody can understand. Please, at least for me, I am very humbly requesting You. Just one sannyasi. Just me only. Tell me what is this Brahman.” Then he turned around and he saw this shinning boy standing and he looked at him and said, ”I will tell you.” Usually children come to the Math, he gives them some sugar cane. So he went there opened his bag and he was taking out sugar cane. Then Madhva came to him adn said, ”No, no, no. I didn’t come here to get sugar cane. I came here to get an explanation of what is Brahman.” Then he said, ”But you were telling me that you will tell me. Someone should tell.” ”It doesn’t matter as long as we know what is brahmanUthen)the problem is selved. But accept me as your student.” So Acyt prakas s,id, ”Yes, you can stay with me.” Text morning ca25 Madyageha Batta, with tears in his e es he said, ”Acytaprakasa, you have to do this to my family? Wh,t wrong I did? I have my only son and already he is known that he is ghostly, hounted. Now you are taking him, now you are going to make him into a monk. All you monks come here telling: brahmasmi, I have not seen any recent. Why are you taking my son?” And he was so upset, Acyta Prakas said, ”Oh, I haven’t done anything. I was praying to the Lord: tell me what is brahman. Your son came and said: I will tell. Someone has to tell what is Brahman. I am 65 years old, my guru 0old me: I do not understand what it is, and I don’t want to die like 6im.” ”You will teach to him, something will happen and he will go away from me. Why you are destroying my family?” So Acytaprakasa said, ”No, no. He will stay here. I will not change his order unless you give permission. I promise to you.” So Vasudeva said, ”I will not take any order unless my father gives permission.” So then he looked at his father, ”Now you will go back.” So he said, ”No, no. You come and get permission from your mother.” Then Vasudeva came, he told his mother, ”I am studying there, whenever I am hungry I will run here. Don’t worry.” Then he said, ” By that time you will get another son, then we can discuss the future.” By the time he was studying in Acyta Prakasa’s math, Acytaprakas will give some explanations regarding Brahman and it’s nonqualified situation and immediately this Vasudeva will do some kind of vadmad, either he would sneeze loudly so then Acytaprakas would say, ”This is vey inauspitious.” would say, ”It is not as inauspitious as thinking Brahman has no qualifications.” Then Acytaprakas would say, ”Then you come here and give explanation.” ”No, how can I sit there? I will sit here and give explanation. Explanations I will give.” Then he would explain that Brahman is full of quality, ”You cannot say that he is not qualified.” And Acytaprakas loved this, he was so happy because he thought that someone should explain these things. Which ever verses were confusing for him, only those verses he would teach because he knew that: as soon as I open my muth Madhva will close my mouth. He would just start explaining and he was in ecstasy.tHe was so skinny when Madhva joined the math and bepause of his happiness he became five times his size and no one could understand: now Acytaprakas at his old age with one handfull of boiled rice in the morning is growing fatter and fatter and his cheeks are growing out, and he is so happy. He is more happy than ever. In the mean time another child was born to Madyageha Batta so Madhva carya went there and told his father, ”Now he is your son, now y8u h ve somebods to cry in your house for hunger. Now I will go and you give me permission.” So at the age of twelve&he came to Acyta Prakas and he took sannyas. Acytaprakas gave him sannyas and the name Purnaprajna, means conscious and purna means complete: completely conscious. He gave him sannyasa. After taking the stick, taking his ceremonious bath he came inside the math and the first thing Acysaprakas told him, ”You should study Istasiti now.” So Madhva said, ”Yes.” So these serious students were there, opened the book and they read the first verse. Madva said, &Stop there.” and then for for four days he gave 32 defects of the first verse. This book has 96000 verses, this was the first verse. Madhva gave 32 mistakes in this verse; for four days constant, morning till noon arotik, till evening darsan is over, then till night. Madhva was speaking constantly, constantly like this. Acyutaprakas was sitting there, he was so amazed. He was just thinking: this person knows a little bit now, as soon as he gave him the stick... Then he was holding the stick and he was sitting there and he was pouring out the philosopy of dvaita and Acyutaprakas was in ecstasy. After the fifth day when he explained those 32 mistakes Acyutaprakas himself got up and said, ”Now you have to argue with me.” Then Vasudeva said, ”A disciple never argues with the guru, but5a vaisnava argues with illusion. I will argue with the illusion which is around you. You speak.” He was looking at Acyutaprakasa’s eyes like that and he lifted his hand and he showed that it was two, he said, ”On this subject don’t ask any other questions tha I can answer. This don’t ask.” Then all the doubts on Istasiti were all remov1d and Acytaprakas fell at Madhva’s feet and he took him on his sholder, and in that 68 years old, he went around the temple with Madhva on his sholder and he was dancing and he said, ”Here is the dasarapam, here is the person who will write the commentary. I have no problems. All the gurus in this line are delivered because he knows what is Brahman.” Everyone was astonished and after he came back from this procession, he kept him on the peta which was the seat occupied only by the acaryas from that line. He kept him there and then he sat down closing his mouth with his fingers thenthe said, ”I am your disciple. You teach me what is Brahman.” At that ver9 minute two processions came to the math, one was a7Vaisesika philosopher and another 7as a Buddhist. These two came with their respective symbols. They came and they announced: we came to see A7ytaprakas. So Acytaprakas called them in then he said that I am a student now, I am no more thefVedanta Acarya. Th8 Vedanta Acarya is my student, his name is Purnaprajna. You argue with him.” Just at thatitime i0 was going to be1sunset so the Buddhist said, ”We will start,tomorrow.” Th5n Purnaprajna said, ”No, today, this moment. You make your arguement.” He said, ”Don’t waste your time, you sit here and you make your arguement.” They started the arguement, what happened we wil6 see. Hare Krsna! They didn’t know that they were putting their hand into the mouth of a lion, though they thought that this lion was half a sleep. When the lion is half a sleep sometimes a rabbit or some insignificant animal tries to put the hand inside the lion’s mouth and then tells everybody, ”Look, my hand is inside the lion’s mouth”. But what happens is that the lion then wakes up and then you know what happens. So Purnaprajna who had just adorned the seat of a Vedanta acarya was like a half meditating lion. He was just on that seat. That very day these two goats came, one was known as Buddhisagara because he was very intelligent, ocean of intelligence and Vadisimha means a lion in arguement. So they propessed their buddhist and vaisesical philosophy. They were proposing different angles of arguement, especially Vadisimha. Every single thing he spoke, 18 different ways of arguing it so that finally nobody knows what is going on. This vaisesika, you say so many things and then you don’t know where you started so nobody knows what’s going on. But Madhvacarya because his great remembarance he took all those coins and he broke them to pieces and he established the supremacy and personality of Sri Krsna. Then Buddhisagara said, ”We will continu our arguements tomorrow because this is the hour of ghosts, it is midnight. Now we should stop. Vedic principles do not allow to discuss these thin5s3at midn5ght.” So they took shelter of Vedic principles. Though Buddhisagara was always saying, ”There is no Veda.” He took shelter of Veda. Whenever it is not pleasing to your senses you can reject, whenever you like you accept everything, whenever you don’t like you reject all that and for rejecting you use some arguements. In this way you can always be happy. This is the foolish conception. So Madhvacarya said, ”Why tomorrow?” Again he ended the conversation the same way, ”Why tomorrow? You have any arguements? You speak now otherwis5 I wilI consider you are not fit to be treatepeas mail persons, you are not men.” And they left to their staying place. In the middle of the night they packed upnand they fled. In the morning when people came to hear the arguements of vaisesika, buddha againsttvaisnava there was only vaisnava. They were gone. So all the people said, ”Purnaprajna, you are successful. Why they ran away? Because they have no arguements. They are defeated, they have accepted it.” But they left a palm leaf, somebody brought it, ”No, no! Don’t think they ran away, here, this message for Purnaprajna.” Purnaprajna took it. It was written there, ”If you are refuting the other commentary, if you are refuting commentaries of others and opinions of others why don’t you give your own opinion on Vedanta?” They were challengi7g him: why don1t you yourself write a commentary? So h& gave it to Acytaprakasa, Acyutaprakasa took that leaf, he said, ”I had always been thinking about that. Every time they say something you say: no, wrong, wrong, wrong. You always say it is wrong but why don’t you say what is right. What is the right9way of aproach. You must write a commentary on Brahma Sutra.” So immediately that very moment Madhvacarya took his book and started writing: Gita Bhasya, commentary on the Bhagavad-gita. He said, ”This is the basic, this is the alphabet. Bhagavad-gita is alphabet. If one doesn’t know know a,b,c,d how can he ever discuss poetry and prose?” So he said, ”I will write a commentary on the Gita.” He started that and Acyutaprakasa together with Madhvacarya took a South Indian tour. So he went to Trivendram, Padmanabha Swami temple and in Karola he met hundreds of impersonal pandits and he argued with thtm. He defeated them. Every time they would bring up a subject matter he would explain it and now he started saying also, not just thy it was wrong he started saying what is the right conception of Brahma Sutras. So already he was explaining maty Brah9a Sutras during his tour and these advaitis they became so captured by his explanations. From village to village, it was like a padayatra program. He goes to one village and then more people join him. In this way by the time he reached Ananatasaina in Trivendra he had more than a thousand impersonalists who have given up, who are foltowing him. A7d every day reading his books, his discioples were carrying volumes and volumes of books of Madhvacarya and they are all studying it and they are all,happy following it. Some of them are half way through accepting, still they liked him somehow or other. Every day they would come there, sit down and lpsten to him and in their mind they would have so many objectionp but they still followed him. From Trivendrama he went to Kanya kumari, then he went to Ramesvara and in Ramesvara he stayed for four months. He did caturmasya in t7ere and during that time he exibited his wonderful authority over scriptures. He mentioned that Ve3as have three dWfferent meanings, he said Mahabhapata has ten different meanings, sahastra nams - the thousands names of Visnu has also a hundred different meanings. So then one Batta, he was a vaisnava, got up and said, ”Let us hear your different meanings of Visnu sahastra nam.” So then Madhvacarya said, ”Are you ready?” And he said, ”Yes.” And he started, he started with the first verse and he took that word vismvam and he went for nine days, and he was still going to explain more and these panditas they lifted their hand and said, ” Surrender! Surrender! We have to surrender to your knowledge. There is nothing that you don’t know. You are purnaprajna, you know everything. You have complete knowledge, full consciousness.” And they suggested, ”Now, please stop. Let us digest these meanings first.” Just one word he explained and then he also used to recite in proper meter so perfectly that this was the pride of these advaitic scholars that they were Vedic, that they could chant Vedas. But they saw Madhvacarya chanting Vedas and they didn’t know what to do. Because they never, ever heard such savra sudha, such pure tune of the meter. Just by pronouncing the meter he gave the meaning. One could understand the meaning simply by his pronounciation. This is the technical aspect, but just by the svara, the meaning is denoted. So one can never misunderstand to betGod. Simply by reciting -he Vedic smrtis he made 9hem understand t,at living entity is different from God. And some of them did not even have to wait for his commentary, simply by his recitation they knew: this is what he is talking about. In this way it was a vere successful tour. Then he came back to Udupi and he got permission from Acyutaprakasa to go to North Indian tour, he wanted to go to Badrinat. So after travelling through many holy places, he came with his disciples to Badri. This Badri at that time and Badri now are also..., again we2should know it was not thatDeasytto reach Badrinat. There was no motor service going every 20 min., you had to walk. On the right hand side of Badrinat you had to walk through the path which is only this much. Finally when he reached Badri he stayed there in a place which is known as Anantasrama. He stayed there, he comleted this bhasya and his disciple Satyatirta was writing it. Madhvacarya observed maun during that time, that means he didn’t talk to anybody except for dictating his books. Then he proved that silence was, he was taking this custom of maun and all the there, they were telling, ”What is this? This is maun vrata, but still you are talking?” But he won’t give any explanation he will o9ty talk pis subject matterF Then the discipl9s explai6ed to them: silence means glorifying the Supreme Lord, this is actual silence. So observing this vrata he could find some time to dictate his books. Then when that was completed he took it to Badranarayana and he offered the book. So the Deity spoke to him and said, ”Please, chant the first verse of your book.” So he chanted that first verse and in that verse he said that the mercy of the Supreme Lord has come in the form of Bhagavad-gita and to my capacity I have explained, tryied to explain this. So immediately Narayana made His objection, He said, ”No, I don’t approve of this, this is wrong.” Then Madhsa stood there with his book, he wap thinking: ”What is thi0? This is the first verse and this has got1defect, so what about the rest of the book?” And he was thinking at that time Narayana spoke to him again, He said, ”Y,u should change that word to sakita - accordin, to my capacity, you have to change that into lesata, that means a litt6e bit I have explainted. In otAer words more is known to me but a little bit I have revealed.”uSo he said, ”This is my correction, the rest of the book is atproved by Me. Do2’t say according to your capacity you have explained.” Then Narayana said, ”If you explained scripture according to your capacity even I would have to think twice to understand it. Because of my aspect of supremacy, I don’t think very much. I always think about the helpless0position of Rhe living entities so that I can explai2Svery nicely. But about My supremacy I don’t think many times.&What is the use of Me thinking of My supremacy. But you have thought over it so much that if you explain I will myself be wondering: ”Am I that supreme? Am I that beautiful?” Like Krsna once He looked at his own reflection then He was wondering I am that beautiful. This is very good. So He was wondering at his own beauty. Krsna in Dvaraka, He heard of the pastimes of Vrajendrananda and Krsna then He said, ”I am very attracted to this adolescent boy, this young boy. I am so attracted to Him. When will that time come in my l8fe when I will be able to have a glimps at this beautiful Vrajendranandana?” Who was saying this? Krsna in Dvaraka was saying this. So in the same way Narayana told Madhvaca7ya th5o about My supremacR you know better uhan Me. So don’t say saktitT, say lesata: that little bit I have revealed because if Itreveal any more then I won’t have any audience. In that way He corrected that verse. 3hen he told Satyatirta that, ”You stay behind and I am going.” So Satyatirta was always behind him. So Madhvacarya made a plaa, once he sent him to get some flowers and quickly he took a palm leaf and wrote some verse and left it there. Satyatirta came back and then he was looking for his guru and he is not there. Then he took this leaf and he was reading it, it mentioned that there is no other truth higher than Visnu and it said: ”There is no other evidence higher than Veda, there is no other explanation higher than Mine and there is no other place higher than Uttarabadri,” and he ,a,d,T this man is going there”, he mentioned about himself,” this man is going there whether he will attain the mission or not, it is only known by ,he Supreme Lordä If he ever comes back then all of you should wait for him and no one should follow me.” Then Satyatirta was reading it and hegtook a different meaning for the last sentence. Becaupe it wasn’t addressed to him, it said no one should follow, so he said, ”I should follow, no one eHse,should follow.” Then he was &imself making it in the mind, I am not breaking the instruction of my guru because it is not addressed to me, it doesn’t say: you or anybody else. It said no one else, no one should follow, so no one should follow I can follow. Then he started crying: ”Gurudev! Gurudev!” And he was r7nning behind, by that time Madhvacarya was already gone so further asd he was running behind him. Madhvacarya suddenly he wouldSrun from one peak th another peak and in between were these ice glacers and Satyatirta came there and8it was all he could do because they were 60 miles broad thick pieces of ice underneath this and they were moving like this and he saw him. He kept going on top of the other peak. Then he was shouting an, he looked back, he couldn’t go back either. Somehow by looking at Madhva he kept going and now he looked back and he couldn’t go back, he couldn’t go further and he is already going away. So with folded hands he said, ”Save me!” Madhvacarya looked back and way down there he saw this small thing, ”Who is that? Oh, that is Satyatirta.” He said, ”I told them not to come.” Thts immediately he said, ”I told that there are three meanings for everything. He has taken another meaninT a13 he has come. I must have told him you should only take my meani7g.” Then he took his hand and he blew6 the next moment Satyatirta was back in Badrinat. He fell and other devotees were sitting there and they saw this figure falling. Then they cought hold of him, he fell unconscious and it took so long for him to get back to normal. Then they askes, ”What happened? What happened?” ”He blew and I was here.” Then Madhvacrya continued. He went so Udrabadrinat where Vyasadeva is still staying. That is where Vyasadeva’s asram is. He saw Vyasadeva seated on the altar and there are so many rsis. All the rsis mentioned in,the Vedic 7c&iptures were present there. Vyasadeva was seated with his legs crossed like this and with a piece of cloth1tied around his back t) his 8egs in a yoga pose and as soon as he saw Madhva he called him closer. Among the crowd of thousand celestial rsis Madhva walked forward. They are all waiting for one minute’s conversation with Vyasadeva because who else can give another conclusion except Vyasadeva. He is the source, he is the ultimate, he is the Supreme Lord. Everybody was waiting there and Madhvacarya was given special preferrence, special darsan. Like in , when you go they give special darsan 25 minutes. This 9as a special darsan so he went further then Vyasadeva asked him to sit next to him, then he said, ”I want to hear your Gita Bhasya.” There is no formal introdBction there things were not necessary. He immediately opened his book, then he started reading it. Then Vy asadeva was so happy and in some places he made some corrections, he said, ”Add this sentance... Oh, this is very nice. You should speak something more about this. Why didn’t you mention this thing here?” In this way they were in one wave length and all the rsis there they were listening and telling, ”Wonderful, wonderful!” And they decided: we haye to take birth, we should leave Surabadrinat. We should appear in human form and somehow or other get connected to Madhvacarya and read this Gita. In this way they made discussion in their mind, too quick a discussion for them to understand. After that Vyasadeva said, ”I approv1 of your commentary. You preach on this commentary. Now you should write on the actual meaning, actual context of the .” There is so much speculation on Mahabharata, then he told him, ”You know how I visualise Mahabharata because it was composed by me but there are so many different texts around, so when you go down you should check all of those different scripts and you should establish which one w,s originally established by me. This is one of your jobs. Then you write a commentary which will be called:’The establishment of the context of Mahabharata’.” Then he told the rsis, ”Now you continue reading the book and I have to take Madhvacarya, we have some confidential meeting.” The, he put his h,nd around the sholder of Madhvacarya and he was taking him into the forest 3,d everybody was thinking: what are they going to do? But no one was allowed to go. So they climbed and they came to anoth8r peak, shese are unknown areas to human beings and there was Naranarayana. He took him to Narayana personally, then he handed him over to Narayana and he said, ”Here is my disciple, now You give him instruction.” Then Vyasadeva also explaSned different , 24 incarnations, in front of Narayana and Madhvacarya heard all that. Th6n Narayana told him, ”You should write a commentary on Srimad Bhagavatam too. This should be the top most work, it should be the great challenge for you. I would help you simultaneously, Vedavyasa will also help you. He would be helping you through instruction and I would personally be present and I will hear your eomme,tary.” Aft,r this he got blessings from Narayana and Vedavyasa and he came back. While tou1ing back he had many euccessful arguements on the way with different pandits. Then he went to Soban Bhatta, Soban Bhatta was on the bank of Godaveri river and they had a long debate. Finally Soban Bhatta surrendered to Madhvacarya and he was given the name Padmanabhatirta, he was given sannyasa. In his line comes Jayatirta, a great vaisnava preacher. In that line comes Nyana sindhu, Vyasatirta and Laksmipati’s disciple is Madavendrapuri. Madavendrapuri’s disciple is Isvarapuri and Isvarapuri’s disciple is the Supreme Lord, Caitanya Mahaprabhu. When Mahdvacarya came back to Udupi 1e performed some p without killing animals. Then one day while he was sitting, chanting his evening a boat was coming. There was a big storm and this boat could not find shelter and they didn’t know.. Sailors were looking for some sign where is the bank of the ocean and Madhvacarya took his chaddor and he waved it; not only he waved it, he was breathing in heavily and the boat came. It reached and the sailors didn’t know, ”That big storm, how did we escape?” So they came there, touched his feet,”We don’t know, this is beyond science... how you have saved us. So please ask for something, we want to give you some service.” Then Madhvacarya said, ”See that big load of gopicandan you have on your boat, I want that.” They said, ”This? We have pearls, diamonds, gold.. you only want this mud?” ”See we put mud on our body, we don’t put any gold ornaments and I am not wearing arS diamonds. I m only wearing Tulasi mala. Wearing Tulasi beads is a vaisnava s8gn, then covering Tulasi with gold is materialistic sign. Finding different jewles for the birth day and adding them between tulasi beadL is Vedic nonsense.” Just on this side we have to say this when we discuss Madhvacarya’s story because Madhvacarya said, ”I have no other ornaments, I am decorated with tulasi, I am decorated with gopicandan. These are the only ornaments of a vaisnava.” Then the wive bought you birth star jewel and then inbetween you put some tulasi, that means you are having one leg on the shore and one leg on the boat, depending on the planets on one side, on the other side depending on tulasi. This finally derives, mathematical calculation comes: we are offending tulasi because if we don’t understand that tulasi is bestower of devotional service then why we put other things around tulasi. Tulasi is the most valuble ornament, we don’t need gold to beautify tulasi. Gold is yellow stool and you simply put this yellow stool around tulasi, it doesn’t ,ecorate tulasi - it actually offends tulasi. Vaisnava’s decoration is tulasimala and nothing else. We don’t need any other ornaments, it is not necessary. It is a waste of time and slowly, slowly this karma and jnana will get into the head, then we will be finished.,TIleve tilaks and tulas, beYds, shaved head, clean shaved head and shaved face, this is ISKCON society and that is what pleases all these acaryas. Because it pleases this acarya, once it pleases him it pleases all the other acaryas. If you please Prabhupada you have pleased everyone because you please Krsna. So this Vedic nonsense people should contemplate about.. don’t take shelter of different things, take shelter of hare krsna, hare krsna, krsna krsna, hare hare, hare rama, hare rama, rama rama, hare hare. There is nothing else we need, these 16 syllables are enough. These 16 syllables will save u9. And gold, diamond these are not meant for us, especially not for brahmacaris. Our position is trnad api sunicena, he said, ”Only gopicandan that is all we want.” But the sailor was, he couldn’t understand: this sadhu is not very intelligent, I am giving him mounds of gol8 9e is rejecting it and taking some clay, and he said, ”But thtre is one problem, I am keeping this mud for balanceing the boat and I have only 6 sailors with me now and it is very heavy to lift it.” Madhvacarya said, ”Lifting? Leave it to me, are you giving?” He said, ”Yes, I am giving!” Madhvacarya came there and he put one hand under, all the sailors were laughing: what is this man trying to do? This big piece of clay, then he’s putting his hand inside, nlxt moment they saw he was lifting ittjust like that and from there he took a leap from the boat to the bank. At that time the Devas said, ”It happened again! It happened again! He leaped! He leaped! He leaped with the mountain.” And they were showering flowers on him because already he hPs done that once, he was taking Sanjivani mountain and he was lifting from the Himalayas to save Laksman. Now to sate those people who are folltwers of Laksman he again took this big gopicandan, then he leaped against the bank of the ocean, then he came in there and he took this. Then he carried it from there like Hanuman because he was carrying this big clay rock and he was walking like th&s, he was very happilyçcarrying it. Then he brought it to the tank which was there and then he put this clay in the tank. When ht put this clay in the tank it broke into two pieces and from inside came out a deity of Krsna. This deity was holding the churning rod in Bis hand and He had the rope that goes around the churning rod around His waste and it was held in the other hand and he was having the other haPd like this and He was holding the churning rod. Then immediately Acyutaprakasa he was so happy, he said, ”Not only you have revieled what toç,o, now you have re(ieled this Krsnaodeity. Now you tell us what we should do.E So MadhvacPrya said, ” You should worship Him.” But they installed that deity in Udupi, even today if you go to Udupi you c0n have darsan of this deity - Udupi Sri Krsna. This wa. a great work done by Madhvacarya. These deities were originally worshiped in Dvaraka, in Ruknimidevi’s house. Before that these deities came, this is ,reat secret, even tR0 M,Phva’stdo not know about this and you may ask me how da I know? I am not a Madhva. This is simple , this deity was origiRally, originally from Vrndavan. It was worshiped by the gopis. Madhvacarya confirmed this in his commentary, he mentions tbout that form of Krsna 0hich was glorified by the gopis, in this way he hi2es the secret which was glorified by the gopis which was delivered to the devotee. If you put two plus two together you get the answer. Origina1ly Pt coems from Vrndavan, from Vrndavan it went to Dvara1T and after KIsna’s disappearance there was a disolution there, a partial disollution and Dvaraka was submerged in wa,er.tAt that time this Deity was floating in the water, Uddhava somehow or other he saw this deity and he made it possible that it will reach Auranga, a forest which was also known as Urdaranya and in Urdaranya this deity was &orshiped for so long and somehow or other that place was covered with mud by Topichandan and then these sailors went there and they caught some big rock from the big mountain and they took one piece and in this way Krsna6reached UdPti. This2is the story of Udupi Krsna. Then again Madhvacarya took another tour, second tour to north . While he was going like that there was a king who was digging a big pond, social service, making big ponds for the service of pilgrims. He had made a lule t7at anybodP who come, here should also help in digging this pond. So Madhvacarya and his disciples were going that way and the soldiers stopped them, ”Anybody who goes, has to help us digging this pond.” Then he said, ”Who is doing this work?” He said, ”Oh this is this king. His name is Isvaradeva” So he said, ”Oh, that’s very interesting.” So he came in there and he saw Isvaradeva sitting with so many pillows and he was being fanned by people. So Madhvacarya said, ”Anybody who comes this way should dig this pond, but have yo2 ever touched at least one place? You have 6een here so long, you ar, the founder of this mission.” Then he immediately got up and touched his feet and said,”I will also do it.” So he got up tied tis dho0i and he took something Pnd startedPcominP with it. Madhvacarya also tied his dhoti, all of9hrs disciples were fired up to dig the pond, so Madhvacarya said, ”Come, come wit, me.” He was walking down becaus, they already dug so much and all the water has come and he was running down the valles and the king was telling, ”Slowly, slowly this Ps too fast. I can’t do it.” Madhvacarya said, ”Yes, follow me! Yes, follow me.” Then they went to one spot, so they were standing there, then he told Isvaradeva, ”All right, now I am going to stop.” Then he said: krsnaya namah, and he made one hole and the water came out. Then he said, ”You don’t have to dig anymore. You just make steps for this pond.” And he left, the king was so happy. After that they were crossing through this area and the Muslem rulers were there. So the Muslem rulers made a rule that no brahmin can cross the Ganges and come this side. That side for brahmins, this side for , they made a rule. Then he was there asking thl boatman, ”Will you please cross me across the river.” And he said, ”CPoss you across the river? You are B brahmin, become a Muslem and we will carry you.6 Phen Madhvacarya said, ”Oh, yortwo.tt give me the boat? It’s all right we can walk.” So he told his disciples, ”Catch hold of my cloth.” Satyatirta was holding, somebody was holding5his cloth, and somebody was holding his cloth like children play the train play. They were holding each other’s chaddor and Madhvacarya walked across the Ganges. Then they all walked on the Ganges. Then the Muslem king who was there, was looking and he saw these people walking on the Ganges. He fainted many times and he was shouting, ”! Allah! Allah!” Madhvacarya came, then they were thinking: now what is going to happen, this king is so antagonistic he doesn’t like the brahmin. When Madhvacarya came in there he looked at him, he started speaking in Persian, and all the disciples were, ”What is he saying? What is he saying?” And he was telling, ”Whal, whewat, whak..” And then he was answering, ” whal, whak..” After six minutes of talking with them the king touched his feet. Then Madhvacarya took his big clay ball of tilak and he put on his face, then he said, ”Vaisnava das” Then the king said, ”Only brahmins ca7 come to this side, no Muslems.” In this way Madhvacarya successfully reached Badrinat again and this time also he told everyone, ”Satyatirta, yC, and everyone should stay back. I am going.” So he climbed up, he went to Uttarabadri and then he mentioned to Vyasadeva what he has done during this time and he also showed his commentary on Brahma Sutra and he accepted it without any corrections. There wa8 not one addition, no delition, no comment nothing. It was only, ”Aha, aha, aha, aha!” All the time he was doing ahakyra, ahakara. Everyday he stayed it was a louder ahakara, thenHfinally Vyasadeva jumped in ecstasy and he,was dancing. Then he said, ”This is wonderful! This is wonderful! That is what I actually meant by Brahma Sutr1s and you have established this.” Then Vyasadeva gave him 12 deities which were personally worshiped by him when he was down and one deity was Nrsimhadeva. This Nrsimhadeva was a very ferotious hollogram so he was always kept inside a samputa, inside a box tightly closed. He gave that to him and said, ”You establish this deity.” So if you go two hours distance from Mangalo this is Subrahmanya ksetra where this Nrsimhadeva deity is there and in the line of Madhvacarya one of the acaryas does this worship of this deity. He came back through Delhi, Hastinapura then he went to Ekacakra. Ekacakra where Bhima with his brothers stayed for a long time as brahmins and Bima has established a Nrsimhadeva deity there. So Madhvacarya went there, revealed teh temple and established pancaratric worship. Then he came through Vindhya and through Jagannath puri, then he came through Andra and he went a little more down southwards through Goa and he came back to Uddipi. In this way two great tours Madhvacarya did, within this time he completed commentary on Gita and Srimad Bhagavatam. He also wrote ten commentaries, different commentaries on Upanisads. Then he also wrote , he wrote ten prakarnas, then different establish- ments of truth among which the most glorious is Visnutattva niranya, establishing Visnu as3the Supreme Lord and establishing Visnu as a person full of qualities. This is a great work. While he was doing all this these advaitis they became very disturbed especially from Sringeri. Sringeri is one of the four places established by Sankaracarya. And the swamijis there, they became very upset. Because of the successful tour twice to NorthTIndia they thought that this is not fair, we h5ve to go and make arguements with him. So they sent Kundarikapuri who 3as one of the big swamijis of the math and another Padmatirta who is a big pandit. He was a logician and this man was a philosopher so both of them combined together and they came. Then after arguing for three days they ran away in the night. Then they went there and they had a big conference, they said, ”We have to do something, his strength is this big library he has. All his manuscripts, all his books and he goes on writing books. Now we have to do something about this.” So they made a plan and they bribed some people and while Madhvacarya was away attending a festival they stole all the books, books disappeared. So whee Madhvacarya came back frym the festival he wanted to reffer to one particular manuscript and then he found everything is gone, ”Oh, all right I know what to do.” So he took some of his disciples, he went to the king who was the king of that area? Jayasimha. He went to Jayasimha and he said to him, Jayasimha recieved him and bathed his feet and Mahdvacarya said, ”Don’t try to cheat me like this, if you really want to help me .. some thieves have taken my library. You have to catch them, you are to punish them and give me my books back. And you should personally become the library protector, it should be under your protection.” Then Jayasimha got the army together then he got around. Somehow he got a lead to Sringeri so he went in there and he called the swami, he said, ”I give you six minutes, you give me the books.” ”Which books?” ”Mahdva’s books.” ”We don’t know inything.” ”We don’t k,ow and we know is the same because that is your philosophy. We don’t know that means we know! But you should know one thing that these spears and arrows they can also kill swamijis if necessay so get the books now.” So then 5hey went and they brought the books, they said, ”We are torry.” He said, ”Don’t ever try to do this again because I am going to be the librariLn.” Then he took all the books and he came back. He saw that if one philosophical group has become so afraid of some books these books have something in them. )o he told Madhvacarya, ”You please perform caturmasya , in my place and every day you explain this.” So Madhvacarya stayed there and he was explaining, after ten days of explanaiton he saw one big pandita among the crowd with a big turban on his head, with so many wonderful pacitras, brahmin. Then Madhvacarya was telling, ”So, the Lord is full of qualities and anyone who thinks He is without qualities he is a monkerd, he is a monkey.” When he said like this, this man who was )itting there head down, he was shaking his head he didn’t want to get that information inside. He was trying to throw it out, then everytime Madhvac&rya will” say, ”So the living entity is eternallyhdifferent from the Supreme Lord..” he would shake his head. Then he started using relly harsh words then he said, ”People who have mala in their head, only they wi8l think that the Brahm9 Surtes are establishing monism. Not only their body is mal8, cit is ,lso mala.” He used really harsh words, at one point this pandita got up and he said: ”How can you say that?” ”Oh, you are there, coBe here, come here. I’m oa8y looking for you.” So he gst him right in front of him, he said, ”All right tell me what is troubling you? You know what I am saying is right but you are not able to accept.” Immediately he fell at his feet and said, ”How do you know this?” ”Because I know that everything is different. Because you think everything is one so you can’t understand what your own problem is. It’s all one now I see it is two so I can see that you also have two. One you accept what I am saying, two you reject what I am saying so you give me the list of those rejections and I will destroy them.” Then point after point, point after point this man was Trivikrama pandita,8he was known as Trivi8rama pandita - it is a tittle because he has conquered all the panditas. Madhvacarya answered all his questions. Finally Trivikrama said, ”You are Trivikrama, I am akrama, I am amyayi, I am akaimaT I am a criminal. You are a real pandit, I am a real criminal.” In this way he was accepted as a disciple. This Trivikrama pandita’s son who was present during this pastime he wrote a biography of Madhvacarya. Then Trivikrama pandita also told Madhvacarya, ”All these subtle arguements you have against these wrong philosophies you should compose them into one book for the benefit of the le0s intelligent people like mp.” Then Madhvacarya decided, ”All right I will do that.” When he reached back to Uddipi he told four of his disciples, they were all sitting in front of him and simultaneously he dictated to all the four, four different chapters of the book. He will dictate the first chapter upto fifth verse to this person, from sixth he would start here from seventh he would start there. This man would be writing second chapter, that man would be writing third chapter the other one would be writing fourth chapter and Madhvacarya would simultaneosly dictate all of that and he would come back to the sixth verse, come back to the twelvth verse and he was not stopping and he said, ”If Ifstop it will be difficuit so you have to sit down and do as much as you can.” Then he went for 18 days dictating and this book was compl&ted, this is known as Anuvyatkyam. It has got all the arguements against all the different philosophies, not just impersonalism all different philosophies. Madhvacarya in his commentary, he has refuted 21 commentators, 21 great commentators of Brahma Sutra. Madhvacarya he refuted their arguements and established his dvaitavad. In this way he went on giving lectures, morning he will get up and after he would take bath, astrologer would tell him what deity there what day it is. He would do morning worship then he would give hi, lectures until noon, then he will worship the deity. Then he will give prasada and caranamrta 8o his disciples, after feeding all of them he will take prasadam then he will take rest. After the resting, again he would come back and do another worship of the deity then he would give his grammar classes, language classes. Then he will do the svening worship,1then he will go with the procession, after the procession he will come back and dictate his books. After the night late arati, he will sit down and he will answer questions. In this way he would take rest maybe for two hours a day, one hour in the day, one hour inpthe night and the rest of the time he was just speaking, speaking all tne time. If he was not speaking he was establishing deity worship. These two activities he was doing. In this way at the completion of all his work, then he was just explaininJ. Then at that time in one Magmas, very close to the full moon he was sittingni8mthe Anantasesa temple and he was explaining Brahma Sutra com mentary and he came to one 2a6ticular explanaiton and he couldn’t go further, he was in ecstasy. He was explaining it in various different ways and people were sitting there and after some time it went abovc their head, they couldn’t understand. At that time they saw that the Devas were showering flowers from the sky. And so much flowers were showered and Madhvacarya was totally covered by the flowers. They were moving, moving, moving and there was no Madhvacarya. He reached Vyasadeva, then he just stayed there with Vyasadeva discussing his Brahmasutra commentaries. On a higher tone, a higher understanding of philosophy because earth became unfit for that anymore. Now we will compare the.., we are not comparing Madhvacarya’s philosophy with Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu’s, but we are comparing certain points &hich we6e nicely explained by Sri Caitanya, like we did with Ramanuja’s. For Madhvacarya, he established that Harisabda, in the scrTptures the Lord is always called by the name Hari, so Harisabda means: vaikuntamadidama nayaka. This explanation he gave, that means the Lord of the spiritual planets in Vaikunta and t,0s)was more nicely expalined by Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu. aradyo nari vrajesatanayas - he said the only worshipable Lord is the son of Vrajesa, the son of the king of Vraja. That means Krsna and tad daman - His abod) Vrndavan,pHis supreme abodo Vrndavan is the most worshipable. So in this way the Harisabda’s actual explanation is realised in Sri Caitanya’s explanation. Then Madhvacarya said: jiva sarvatabina, always the living entity is different from the Supreme Lord. You may remember while drinking milk this baby was showing this sign, not the victory sign Mr. Bush was showing but a different one. This is also a victory sign, victory over Sankaracarya’s philosoph.. Because he said it was one, one, now he is saying it is two. But Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu explained it more nicely, He said, Baladeva Vidyabhusana expalins in his commentary in the srutis, in the Vedic scriptures it is always revieled very clearly, thnt simultaneous oneness and difference is there. And if you cannot understand how simultaneously it can be one and different you just understand that you can’t und8rstand, it is acintya. Srila Prabhupada told one disciple, he was telling, ”I cannot understand.” So he said, ”Yes, but you can uderstand that you don’t understand. That much understanding is there. That is our philosophy. Acintyabedabeda.” Then Madhvacarya, he told: attaining the lotus feet of Lord Visnu as the goal of life, as the goal of Vedic scriptures. The goal is attaining Visnu pada, the feet of Visnu. Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu explained what that is, wRat that means. Attaining the feet of Visnu means what? Attaining love of Godhead, that is the ultimate goal. Attaining the feet of Visnu means attaining love, pure unalloyed loee. Suddha prema. Then Madhvacarya explained the process for attaining liberation is devotion. And Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu explained simply following in the footsteps of the gopis in Vrndavan, this is the process for ultimate attainment. Liberation is not ultimate, four kinds of liberation, the other eind is not even discussed. Four kinds of liberation are not to be considered compared to this following in phe footsteps of the gopis of Vrndavana. Then Madhvacarya accepted three evidences: evidences by sensual perception, evidence by refference and evidence by sabdha or authority. Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu, just to make it very clear and save everyone from gliding down to pasandiya and sahajiya He said, ”Srimad Bhagavatam amalam pur8nam,” there i only one evidence Srimad Bhagavatam. In our previous chart we have explained how Srimad Bhagavatam is the actual essence of all the scriptures, it is the ripened fruit of Vedic knowledge. There is no other evidence necessary, it is confirmed by Sukadeva Goswami. What is the ne5d for another book? What i6 the necessity for another book? This one boo8 is enough. Simply by hearing this Srimad Bhagavatae, that very moment one can attain love of God. It is possible. So we accept this Brahman, we accept Vedas as Brahman. But Veda means, we mhan, Srimad Bhagavatam Purana. What about Vedas? Yes, Srimad Bha8avatam that is our Veda. What about Yajur Veda, Rg Vedas, Sama Veda, Atarva Ve,a? What about Upanisads? What about Purana ? Yes, we have all of that - Srimad Bhagavatam. We have Bhagavad-gita. Suppose somebody has studied it and he is following it. How can you understand he is doing it? TherY i8 that position. Nectar of devotion. We have ,rimad Bhagavatam, Srimad Bhagavad-gita, Nectar of Devotion, Caitanya Caritamrta we don’t need anything else and what are these? These are the books Srila 3rabhupada gave us. That is why we don’t need to look anywhere else, to any other corner. We don’t have to jump over glaciers and go to Uttarabadrinatnnow. Work has been1done eysily. Hard work has been done by6great people, now we simply have to digest and how can we digtst? We can’t digest because our liver is bad so we need some liver tonic, and what is the liver tKnic: Hare Kasna,Hare Krsna, Krsna Krsna, Hare Hare, Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare. While taking this diet Bhagavad-gita, Srimad Bhagavatam, Caitanya Caritamrpa we should remember the liver is bad so we should constantly pour liver tonic insidi because then the liver will have some stre>h. Hare Krsna will,work in the position of liver. Hare Krsna will work in the position of samskar, Hare Krsna will work iT the position )f understanding, it will work in the position of cast, kreed. All that you 1ave to gi,e is Hare Krsna, that gives every&hing else. Then you read Srimad Bhagavatam, Bhagavad-gita and you wander what is happening. You see Kali running from that direction and screaming, ”That is ISKCON society, what can I do?” He is gone, finished. So Sri Mahaprabhu’s insrtuctions were carried on in this line. Here is Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu in His Pancatattva form and the Goswamis. And Baladeva Vidyabusana Prabhu is the commentator in our line, he gave the Brahmasutra sommentaries. In here Baladeva Vidyabusana says, ”Sri Madhva praha”, Sri Madhva said: visnu parataTa - the Supreme Lord is Visnu. Akila nayavedyaneva - and He is known by all Vedic scriptures, visvam satyam - this Torld is real, vedam ca - an, the difference between the world and jiva, between the j,va and God, between God and the world. These eternal differences are real, they are not illutory. They are not some kind of m&ga. ThSt is not accepted. Hari caranadyasas.. and Hari caran means the goal of life is to take shelter of the lotus feet of Hari, 7n having taken shelter of Hari there are classifications in living entities, there is: uttama, madhyama and kanista. It is not that there is one group of who are in the mode of ignorance, another group of souls in the mode of passion, another group of souls in the mode of and only those people can have it. Only those who are born in brahmin families can have it. This is absurd philosophy, this is not philosophy it is just absurd. So, going more on this point: attaining the lotus feet of Visnu is liberation. That amala bhajanam - and the process for attaining His lotus feet is amala bhajanam, it ,eans puee devotion. Anyabilasita sunyam.. t&is is amala bhajanam, otherwise there is also mala bhajanam. It means bhajan with some mala in it. Some kind of contamination in it up to the idea of getting the same form of the Lord is cotamination. In the gaudiya vaisnava school all that is considered7as contamination, what to speak about going back to universities and getting degrees and becoming advocates and scholars. Eoen getting the same form of the Lord, the four handed form, it is considered as contamination. Becausetwe pellow in the footsteps of the gopis.. so if anybody follows in the footsteps of the gopis after b,ing8ten years in the movem)nt will Tit go back to university. If he goes, then something is wrong in his head. The sensous Brahman and inferrence Brahman and there is also the authority Brahman, these are the three . Then he said hare krsna, hare krsna, krsna krsna, hare hare, hare rama hate rama, rama )ama, hare hare Citanya Candra and he was instructed by Caitanya Candra. All these instructions are coming from Madhvacarya but he was instructed by Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu. In this way Madhvacarya’s line is connected with Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu and Sri Caitanya when he came here as Pancatattva, He accepted this line. During his big tour to North India, second time, Madhvacarya happened to reach the other side of Ganges, here, and then while sleeping he had a dream. In that dream he saw the Supreme Lord Narayana whom he met in Badrinat, then He said, ”I have shown you all the 24 incarnations through Vyasadeva but I haven’t shown you one form. You want to see that form? You cross the river and you go and perform bhajan in Antardvipt2 1 T3is 27 tntardvip. So Madhvacarya came here, that white tower you are seeing he came to that spot. Then he performed bhajan therem, he chanted Dvadasanama , twelve names of Krsna. At the end of the he saw this golden form in front of him, Sri Caitanya appeared in front of him. Then He said, ”Madhvacarya it is well known that you are My eternal devotee and to destroy demoniac conception of the Sariraka Bhasya you have been empower2d by Vyasadeva. So you establish this dvaitavad - the living entity is different from the Supreme Lord and then I will take your principles and when I manifest here in My mantfested pastim7s I will instruct My disciples following in the footsteps of your commentaried.” Then He gave him these meanings which are th2 actual menings so you explain it to this level. TheA Madhvacarya said, ”Then what will happen? How will people understand?” Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu said, ”Keep this as secret, don’t tell anyone you saw Me here and don’t tell anything more. You do anusantana, you just think about it in your mind but don’t write that down. I am coming very soon and My associates are coming, they will establish this. All over the world your philosophy will be accepted,” then He said, ”this is My prediction.” Madhvacarya was very happy, quickly in the morning he went and he lied down on his bead, then his disciples woke him up. Then he got up and he said, ”We should go now.” But they saw in his face some special illumination was there and Satyatirta asked him, ”What is this? Anything happened last night?” He said, ”No! But it looks like something happened and if it happened it is secret.” In this way he proceeded. So Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu matam tatra naitaro napara, Sri Caitanya Maha6rabhu’s mata, Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu’s understanding and explanation of Krsna consciousness is the supreme. Naitaro -7there is nothing else. There is notning else equal to Him, napare - what is the question of something about that. Mata parataram9nanyat7kincit asti dhananjaya... So tpis bedhabedha, simultaneous onenes6 and differenMe is not a,new thiRg. Before Vyasadeva there had b0en some scholars who had been talking about it. So will list the names of some of the scholars, the first one was Asmaratya. Asmaratya is also quoted in the Brahmasutras, in the first part 20 9ers2, Vyasadeva defeats this bedabeda, he says, ”No, no t5is is not proper.” Then there 1 8s Batrupranja and Batrumitra, then the great Baskacarya who & was after Vyasateva. He0wrote a big c6mmentary on Brahma Sutra. He was also speaking about bedhSbed,a - oneness and difference. Then the mayavadis were alto speaking bedhabeohap they were telling all those1diffet6nces there are now later it becomes one. This is how they understood the simultaneous oneness and diffrence. You can see according to the jaundice, when it is 90% jaundice then you became advaiti. That’s all, it’s simply because of your jaundice. So you hearKthe same sruti, the same Vedic line and thennyou constrRct a different meanpng. It says it is one and different, then you say, ”Yes, yes, how can it be one and different? It is different because of . Then when you understand it ii one...” This is their desease, this is the secret of SankTracarya’s commentaries. Because they said this is vyavaharika platform, that is a temporary platform what difference is that: the seer, the scene and the sight. But after th1t, after few ysKrs of rattling ”oham brahmasmi”, in Benares, in some mud then what happenes? TTen the see, the scene and the sight bec7me a big potatoe mash. Then if you ask: How can it all become one? - c7s it becomes one. If it becomes one who said to you it became one? So somebody was saying it all became one so he was different from that one. Then they say: No, no, no this is sat asat nirvaciniya, this cannot be explained. So you can see nirvaciniya, bedhabedha acintya. It is the same thing just digested, that’s all. Conclusion is that in the Veda, whaF Sankara has done is very beautiful he has given some aciranarog, indigestable explanations and then in the end he said: bhaja , bhaja govinda. And foolish, mudhamadi, madi means intellige,t and mudha means fool. How can you be intelligent and fool? Because that is acintya too. Because he seems to be so intelligent, voices are coming out of his ears, but he doesn’t know that he is not God. So what is the use of this philosophy? So he said, ”This will not help, they are taking these grammatical things and they are just waisting their time on the bank of the Ganges river: this means, that means.. Krsna means black, black means nothing.” In this way they were just confusing themselves so that is why: nacaintya na krsna, without Krsna’s mercy one cannot understand this and withour Caitanya’s mercy he cannot get Krsna’s mercy. Without the mercy of Prabhupada you cannot get Caitanya’s mercy and without distributing books you cannot get Prabhupada’s mercy. So everyone go back, end of philosophy. We can go a little more, ten minutes. You must know these philosophies, this is sense gratification for us. For you it is getting too much but what can I say? I’m just doing a here, four sampradaya stories. That is what they said to me: you should tell. But I thought what is the use of telling stories, there are plenty: Brahma passed urin here, Ganes h)d mucus there.. There are so many stories, you hand in this banyan tree us side down then you 1ill never have indigestion, there are thousands of these stories. But these Ätories do not produce one inch of advancement, that is the problem. You can think: Brahma passed urin, so what? Now there is a urin factory there because industrialisation before selfrenalisation. So ,Fis country has been suffering like this for so long. And because you are not in this country this is a great benefit. You might say: What is this7 This brahmin is speaking against the Vedas, but I’m sure the denigods are pra)ing to Visnu of Brahma, whoever ns in front of them they could catch, they are praying: ”Please give me birth in New York or in Moscow, Leningrad somewhere.” Brahma says: ”What happened? You always wanted to go to Bharatavarsa.” ”Oh it is too much, too many philosophies. ISKCON society is all right, if I had to be a really surrendered ISKCON I have to be born in Leningrad.” Then Brahma says, ”Al l right go. You are ready for the psychiatric camps?” ”My wife has been doing it to me for so l7ng, this is nothing new.” Sk thi, maya.adis bedhabedha or thei2 o&eness and difference is subject to arguement. Why? Because they are not basing it exactly on the scripture. Wheneve, bedha comes in the scripture immediately they jump off from the platform of scripture and they develop some kind of spepulation inside their skull, not in the intePligence. Skull is just dead bone, intelligence is different and cit consciousness is much different. So this mayavada ex7lanation comes from the skull, just a dead bone, these are Madhvacarya’s words. Madhvacarya said, ”From their own skulls they imagine something and nothing else.” It is simply imagine because as soon as they come to a verse it is said different they immediately say, ”No, no, no it is vyavaharika platform, only in the temporary stage you think like that and when you come to knowledge then there is no difference.” So their establishment of difference and oneness is takantra, it is subject to arguement, it is subject to criticism too because it is coming from their kapola. Prabhupada translated this in one of his purports he said it is the production of their mental factory, he was little gentle, he didn’t want to get down to the bones. So just to be gentle he said, ”Oh, this is the production of their mental factory.” So then Gautama, , , , they have also explained difference and oneness. Like we discussed in the previous chart, 6 kinds of philosophies and these,5 kinds are completely Godless. These philosophers S Gautama, Kanada, Jaimini, Kapila, Patanjali they have also eaplaed neness and difference but actually they are not accepted by Vyasadeva. Vyasadeva refutes these philosophers in Brahmasutra becuse of that if Kanada, Jaimni, if they speak about simultaneous oneness and difference they don’t accept it. Why they don’t accept it? Just like the false currency note, it has gor the queens picture there, it says everything. It says that it is 50 pounds but they don’t take it, why? It is not currency? It was printed in somebodyelses house. It is not comming from acutal pritish bank, Imperial Bank is not printing it. Imperial bank is who? Vyasadeva, everything goes through Vyasadeva, other currencies counterfit - we don’t take them. And either we will try to take the actual currency and try to change it, not in a bank, behind the long building at 11 o’clock in the night. Somebody is sitting there telling, ”You need 16 rupees per dollar, 19 rupees per dollar.” We won’t do that either. So we will not take the conclusion of Srila Prabhupada’s books and go confirm it from somebody else somewhere. It is like ch9nging pu,e American currency outside the bank then also you will get int) trouble. Sometimes you might get more explantions because now you get 50 rupees per 2ollar, very nice. You come out and there is a policeman then you are finished. Visa for other devotees next year iY also finished by your mercy. You b9come paradukha, because of mysery of others yhu become happy. Para dukha dukhi, it comes other wFy around. So don’t do that, don’t cha)ge 8otes outside. There is also a philosophical poiptttpere. But don’t takS Prabhupada’s books, don’& take Prabhupada’s condention and go to somebody else to get conf7rmed and you will get more explanation. Some of them will be very nice but very soon we will see yo withbeard going here and there doing all kinds of things. I don’t want to say, I am small devotee. Hare Krsna. So because Maundaka upanisad, this explanation is there : like rivers enter tthe ocean, when the rivers enter the ocean teh particles of water-in the river they go and mix with the ocean.That may be, but the greatness of the ocean they never attain. Neither the jewels and pearls and beautiful conshells under the floor of the ocean. They can be there in these particles of water which comes from the river. So there is a great difference between river water and ocean water. Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu gave an e2planarion like a green bird entering a green tree, they are both green - bird is not tree. This is like saying that the old man has a bold head and a child has no hair, old man cannot digest solid food, a child is drinking milk. The old man is blabering because he cannot speak properly and the child is not speaking properly. So the old man and the child are the same. Anyway we can go on.. So Sri Citanya Mahaprabhu concluded, and if you want to know the bedha vakyaa and abedha vakya, if you want to understand the difference between or the harmony between these words in the scriptures which say it is two and those words in the scriptures which say it is one. If you want to understand this then what do you have to do, whenever difference is mentioned you take mukhya arta known explained laksmana vrti - this is a big difference Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu brought and that is why this sampradaya is more glorious than aWy other sampradaya. No offence to any of the acaryas, they are all happy to hear this statement. Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu explained this trick of understanding Vedic literature, how can He explaRn it? Why? Because He is Vedic literature, He is Krsna. Except this Krsna on one else can explain this and that was proved, even authorised by Krsna. They only explained some aspects, Krsna did not allow them to explain it fully because even if they would have explained it fully it would not be happening here because the living entities can never understand it. Because the unlimited mercy only flows from the heart of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu, even as Krsna He puts conditions, sarva dharman parityaja...give up everything then I will consider, stand in the queue, ma sucah - don’t warry, even if it is a long queue. That is what He says, it is like a q,eue anywhere in I7,ia, you go anywhere there is a queue. If you want to comm)0 suicide&in Kumbamela there is a big queue, after going through all the camps everybody decided to commit suicide so thsy are all standing there. So Krsna said, ”So stand inS the queue.” But Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu said, ”No, just chant Hare Krsna. I give you everything.” Ma sucaha, again, ma sucaha: don’t warry Krsna will protect you. He was Krsna so He was giving gharantee: I will protect you, you simply become namasrita, you take shelter of the holy name. So bedha vrti - so whenever there is difference mentioned in the scripture you should take it onla in the context of difference and whenever the oneness is mentioned in the scripture don’t try to do this jumbo VeA business, then you will crash. That is what happens if you try to do some big jetting business, when you take difference it was mentioned you try to see difference in it and if there is oneness it is mentioned you try to see the difference in it. And that is not bedhabedha, this is the foolishness which was commited. All these different people from beginning, from Asmaradya ending in Jaimini, Kapila. So Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu gave teh final wonderful explanation, He said: Sripada Sankaracarya, he is not having any fault because he just gave the mukya vrti the main meaning and he has simply given lalyam vrti. So one should take mukya vrti. Whenever it says it is one understand it is one, whenever it says different understand it is different. Then you want to know: well, I don’t understand this, but just try to understand that you cannot understand. You will understand that you cannot understand, that is the only understanding. That is the understanding of acintya bedhabedha tattva. So from Madhva’s line Mahaprabhu took 2 principles, one is refutation of this oneness of soul and Krsna - this is one point. Second point - he accepted the Deity form as Supreme Absolute Truth. So these two principles Mahaprabhu instructed. Today we will discuss about Sripad Nimbarka and Visnu Swami and since we are short of time and these two lines, practically are completely blended in our line. Practically everything we have heard about they have. So we will just discuss a little bit on each and then tomorrow morning we will, if the initiations are finished, it is not scheduled for tomorrow... so if anyone is interested shey can come. This should be straight philosophical discussion so if somebody is only interested in the story, stories are finishing this evening and it will be just philosophy. High philosophical discussion of comparing the four and then giving conclusion. That will be tomorrow, that completes the semi7ai. Then afte& the festival, if anyone is staying for a fes days we will have questions and answers. Hare Krsna. We will discuss this evening on the other two sampradayas. The other two sampradayas which is the Kumara sampradaya and the alarya from this line is a3ipad Nimbarka, theretis Lord Siva - sampradaya, there is Sripad Visnu Swami. These two acaryas, they had a very special type of association and connection with Sri Caitanya’s line. Ramanujacarya and Madhvacarya they were instructed by Sri Caitanya before Sri Caitanya’s manifest pastimes and Nimbarka and Visnu Swami were also instructed lila. But Ni0barka, Visnu Swami and also Ramanuja they appeared during the time of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu’s manifest pastimes. So this Kumara sampradaya the Supreme Lord Nar5yana in His pastime of incarn(tion, took the incarnation in the form of a swan. When the demons have stolen the Vedic knowledge from Brahma the Lord appeared as Hamsa and the Kumaras were instructed by this particular form of the Supreme Lord Hamsa. That is why it is also known as the Hamsa sampradaya and Nimbarka was the main acarya in that line. About Nimbarka’s actual time of appearance there are various opinions by the ,cholars but form the Babisya purana, Skanda purana, Padma purana then the Upanisads, from this book it is very clear that Nimbarka was much, much before Sripad Snakdaracarya. Nimbarka’s first disciple Srinivas Acarya who is also a very famous acarya in that line. Nimbarka wrote his commentary on Brahmasutra which is known as Sandarbha Bhasya. And Srinivas acarya wrote a commentar, on this commentary which is also known as Prijata Bhasya. So this Srinivas Acarya is mentioned as one of the great pandits in the court of Vajranabha, grandson of Krsna. So this means Nimbarka was somewhere in the beginning of teh age of Kali and it is also possible that at the end of Dvapara yuga, like these Alvars Nimbarkacarya appeared in the south but he moved to North India. In Nimbarka’s comentary, his description on the devotional process there is a great influence of the Alvars so from this also it is verc evident that he must have lived during that time, during the Alvar’s time. He uses specific words which were used by the Alvars except that his words were written in sanskrit. He very much stresses on the teachings of Namalvar. He has written, Nimbarkacarya has written many books one of them is known ts Mantra Bhasya another is known as Dasya sloki. This Dasya sloki, he describes the process of devotion exactly foltowi&g in the footsteps of the Analvar. By all those informations we can undertans that he lived somewhere at the end of Dvapara yuga and at the beginning of . This Nimbarkacarya his father was Aruna rsi. This Aruna rsi had an asram which was very famous for the name Arunasram and Nimbarka heard from various scholars who were experts in astrological calculations, it was confirmed that he was an amsa, he is a saktyavesavatara. So he was also known as Sudarsanacarya. At that time in North India this was very strong so Nimbarka he moved to the North. He came to Vrndavan, he stayed in Govardan. From there he started his preaching and he went for 3 pilgramages, conquered different directions establishing his phi,osophy of devotiona6 service. During such time, once he was st,ying her71,S8i Antardvipa. Sri Antarhvipa 5 is where Lord Jagannath is staying, he was there with so1e of his associatee 2nd disciplee.sDuring that time Lord Siva appeared in his dream and told him that very close from here is a fores of vilva, vilva baksa and Ahere are hundreds of vilva trees. Ju8t like tulasi leaf is very favourable, very much liked by Krsna - vilva leaves are liked by Lord Siva. So these vilva leaves are three leaves topether from one stem, looks like the eye of Siva, two eyes and another middle eye. This is vilva, it is also known as bay. So there is a big forest there, Lord Siva told Nimbarka that if you go to that forest you will get darsan of your previous acarya. When he went there, under one tree he saw these four children, they were only looking like five yetr old but they were situated in transcendent,l knowledge. So they called Nimbarka close by then they kept their lotu1 fee6 on his head then they said they are very plpased with your preaching bf devitonal service and they said, ”You organise this into a sampradaya and we will bless it.and 6) ,ill be known9by the name of Korapat - Kumara sampradaya.” They said t8at you should sit down and chant this mantr, nd he w0s given this special mantra, this mantra was two syllables - it was very simple. This was happening very secretly, so m,ny hundreds of years ago so in that line nobody knows it. Now you may ask: how do you know? Because I am not in that line, that is why I know. Now we will all practice this mantra. We should chant at leas five times but this is to be chanted in one brath. This is great yoga and we will practice it. In Budphism you chant this mantra gor, so let’s practice it: gor,5gor, gor, gor, gor. You can se5 iow much ecstasy is coming from our dirty hearts. So Nimbarkacarya who was Sudarsan’s expansion must be having much more ecstasy, so when he chanted gor.. there appeared in front of hmm this beautiful form of gri Caitanya Mahaprabh3. Then Mahaprabhu looked at him with His lotus eyes, He wa1 very pleased and He said: ”Nimbark3, I &m very pleased with you because you are very ge72le in explaining the philosophical import of t2e scriptKres.” Then He said that you organire this sampradaya with the blessings of the Kumaras, then He said, ”When I manifest My pas2imes you will come and meet Me and I would cure you of your false pride which you will exibit at that time.” Certainly Nimbarka was not falsley proud but then this was a pastime designed by Sri Catianya Mahaprabhu. So after going through a little bit of Nimbarka’s life we will later come back to how Sri Caitanya removed his false pride. So now in Avina rsi’s asrama, back in his childhood when he was six years old..once his father was gone to Naimisaranya and his mother was alone at that time a swamiji, a sannyasi, tridanndi sannyasi he came after midday. Then he said, ”I have been walking so long and I am very hungry you please tell your mother to give me some diksa.” So Niyamananda, that was the name Nimbarka had at that time. Whe25a8 was given nam, when he was a small baby he was giTen the name Niyamananda. So this Niyamananda went inside the house and told his mother that here is a wonderful loiking sadhu and te has been walking for so long and he want to take some prasadam so quickly make arrangements because I can see from the way he was speaking to me that he will not take anything after sunset. He was very haste so Niyamananda understood that he will not take anything after sunset. 7hen the mother quickly started coocking, while coocking she was th-nking: I would make some kitchri. While making kitchri she thought: one cannot eat just kitchri there should be some bhaja, then she thought: how can he eat bhaja without chatney? While coocking chatney she thought: you cannot end the meal there must be some sweet; she startep making sweets. By that time it was sunset so swamiji sta down with his acmana, put his hand inside his chaddor and started chanting . When he finished his mantra Niyamananda came, then he said, ”Swamiji, prasadam is ready.” The swamiji smiled, ”I am sorry, I don’t eat after sunset.” Then Niyamananda understood, ”Who said to you that it was sunset?” Swamiji thought: haven’t Ipseen the sun just going down, I was chanting my mantra. This boy says it is not sunset. Then he said, ”Sometimes because of the clouds ther is a red line on the horison, don’t mistake it to be the sun. I beg you, the prasad is ready. Only after you eat the sun will set.” Then he said,”You are so sure about that? ” ”Why I won’t be sure? You look up there, there is sun.” And close to the house was a big nimb tree, through the nimb tree the swamiji looked up and he saw the bright sun there. He throught: it seemed to me it went down, how did it come up? Then he thought this is illusion, he said, ”Where, how can there be sun?” So Niyamananda said, ”You see this nimb tree and through the branch of the nimb tree, you look there and there is arccccc. So teh swami said, ”You are Nimbarka.” Arka means sun and nimb means nimb tree, he said, ”You produced a sun behind teh nimb tree.” This was Sudarsana, Sudarsana appeared there. By the prayer of Niyamananda Sudarsana appeared ther and he was brighting up the whole world, it has already two gatikas. Aftet sunset, the stars have already come up in the sky and now suddenly everything became bright due to the mercy of Nimbarka. Then the swamiji went inside and took pradasam. While he was going he blessed Nimbarka and he threw some aksabas on his head, then Nimbarka woke up and he saw this person had four heads and it was Brahma and he blessed him. Then he said, ”Now you will instruct the people on the conclusion of Vedas. I have given the Vedas but now they only have confusion so you give the conclusion.” Then Brahma blessed him. So this Nimbarka, he was staying in Govardan under a nimb tree and he would only take nimb juice, no other food. He would take 5 nimb fruits, he would crush then some juice would come out and he would drink that. In this way he performed tapasya for 15 years andealways he was worshiping there. He did parikrama byocircumbulating Govardana with his body, not by walking. He would roll7in this way he would do circumbulation. Then he started his toRr, he went to Kuruksetra then he came to Naimisaranya, then he came to and from Allahabad he came to Navadvip. This is when he had darsan of Caitanya, then again he went back to Allahabad. From ther he went to D9arata, then he came back to Naimisaranya and in Naimisaranya in a place known as Cakratirta, there is a pond there known as Cakratirta. He stayed n7xt to this pond for a long time. That is where he completed his commentary ”Parijata kausta” and in this commentary he has very gently established teh philosophy of devotinal service without any strong condemnations of other understancing. So later back in Govardana he went back home back to Godhead - not just to go back, to come back. Then he appeared in Kashmir during Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu’s appearance. He appeared in Kashmir in a brahmin family. He was very learned, from the beginning of his life he was only studying sastra. His name was Kesava, because he was born in Kashmir he 5as Inown as Kesava Kashmir. This Kesava Kashmiri, he went to all directions of the country right from the Himmlayas he went down, from Dvaraka to Jagannath Puri and wherever he was, he was conquering scholars. In this way he was known as digvidi. Then he heard that Navadvip is the seat of knowledge, then he said, ”Oh this is simple. I should simply go to Navadvipa and defeat all the scholars there so then I have d1feated everyone.” So he came to Navadvip, then as he arrived in Navadvip he was asking, ”Who is the best scholar here?” They asked, ”Why?” ”I want to defeat.” So somebody told him, ”Why are you looking for best scholar if you can defeat our crazy scholar that is enough.” So he said, ”What is this crazy scholar?” He said, ”We have one1young man here, his name is Nimai. He is completely up side down, so you defear him. Let us see.” S9 Kesava Kasmiri, h5 was looking for Nimai: where is Nimai, where is Nimai? And Nimai with some of His students, He was just at the bank of the Ganges and He was teaching some grammar. While teaching grammar they would ask Him some questions He would say, ”Ah, you just chant.” And somebody would ask what is the particular santi. ”Oh, the sanit of a living entity is that it should serve Krsna and if you keep on chanting then this problem will be solved.” And this crazy sanskrit class is going on then anyone who goes by they think... Every five minutes there is ecstasy, every ten minu6es there is some sankirtana and the poor young men left their home and they came there to learn, this Nimai is confusing them. So Kesava Kasmiri came there and he was looking, he was expecting some pandita, some great, serious6man with three wrionkles under his eyes and some bold hair and some white hair but he saw this young beautiful person with long hair and fully decorated with garlands and he asked someone, ”This is Nimai?” And he came there, ”Nimai Pandit I have come to see you.” So Nimai immeditely pulled out His hands and said, ”I have heard about your visit, you are Digvidi, you have conquered all directions. So please bless me.” Then Kesava Kasmiri said, ”I heard you teach .” 7e said, ”Sanskrit grammar? It is a very difficult subject matter, for that one’s mind has to be fixed in one particular point but my mind is always jumping from one name of Krsna to the other name of Krsna and how could it ever teach grammar? It is not possible. Anyway I am trying.” Then Kesava Kasmiri said, ”I have come to see how much knowledge you have.” ”Knowledge? I have nothing, I am simply ignorant because I have forgotten my relationship with Krsna. I am suffering in this world and all that you see is just ignorance of Krsna and it is understood as knowledge in this world. What can I do?” In this way, in a very nice manner he was taking the ear of Kesava Kasmiri and turning it this way and that way. And Kesava Kasmiri, although he was so learned he couldn’t understand what was going on. In the meantime some students were saying, ”Holy name, holy name.” And they were laughing, they understood what He meant. Then Kesava Kasmiri said, ”So, I want to fimd out your good understanding of sanskrit knowledge.” Then Nimai said, ”I myself cannot produce anything but I am very good in criticizing so you do one thing: you compose some poem2and then I will find out how good it is.” Kesava Kasmiri 9aid, ”But you don’t know anything about poems.åWhat do you know about the laws of poems?” He said, ”I d,n’t know, now because of you I will learn something. In this way there will be some understanding. Why don’t you please nompose a roem? I know you are a great poet.” Immediately on the spot, a hundred verses came out of aesava Kasmiri’s 5outh all in perfect,meter. Because he was blessed by Sarasvati, Sarasvati was his deity. Everyday he used to talk to Sarasvati, she was personally present in his worship. He was blessed and Sarasvati always talked through his tongue so then verses came out. Th-n Nimai-was standind there, then when he completed he said, ”Now, oh great scholar, you please tell me what are the ornaments in these hundred verses and what are the defects.” Then Kesava Kasmiri’s face became red, he said, ”My composition means Sarasvati’s composition. She speaks through me. Ornaments I can explain if you want, but how will you understand? You don’t know anything about poetry.” Next moment he heard Ni mai was reciting one of those hundred verses and perfectly from His remembarance, then He sai, ”This is your verse? This is your composition?” Kesava Kasmiri said, ”How is this possible? Even I don’t remember these hundred verses! I am simply saying them then how do you remember one of these verses and so perfectly?” Then He said,”You are thinking knowledge is coming from Sarasvati but everything is coming from Krsna. When Krsna wants He can make someone remember everything, when Krsna doesn’t want He can make him forget everything.Maybe He is making you forget and He is making me remember.” Then Kesava Kasmiri said, ”If you know so much, you explain to me.” Then Nimai started explaining different alankaras in this verse, then He also pointed out five defects in that verse. Kesava Kasmiri, he shrunk, he became like this.. For him he looked like big Visvarupa and he was smiling at him and Kesava Kasmiri was crying and he was asking Sarasvati, ”How did you fail?” Then Nimai said, ”Oh, you look to be very tired. You shouldago and take some rest and tomorrow we will talk again and you can teach Me some poetry.” All these students, they couldn’t help it anymore they openly started la2ghing,”Ha, ha, ha!” Some oI them were showing their fingers. Then the pandit left. That night he was standing there, he was crying and he was calling mother Sarasvati. Finally she appeared inhfront of him then she said, ”Why are you so much lamenting? You had direct association of the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Now you should be in ecstasy.” Then he said, ”What? Where? Where? I never had any darsan!” ”No, you had arguement with Him, He defeated you. He is the Supreme Lord whom I am worshiping every day.” ”But you are on my tongue so hot you commited some mistakes?” Then she said, ”He is the Supersoul. H1 is in my heart, in your heart. He is directing the wanderings of all living entities, I am also living entity under His contro6. 5o He directed me in such a way that I made some mistakeh. Now if2He wants He can explain that these verses ha,e only/ornam1nts, only alankaras. And if He want Ye can explain that all these verses are simply absurd, they are not fit to be poetry. Anything is possible for Nimai because He is the Supreme Lord and He is the son of Nanada Maharaja.” Then Kesava Kasmiri understood. Next day he came running and he was chanting:” Gour! Gour! Gour!” He came there and he touched His feet. So Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu told him,”I just wanted to remove your pride. That’s all. A2tually you are a great poet, this composition is so wonderful. I have never heard such a good poem.” In this way He spoke1to him, then He blKssed him. Later, after this meeting Kesava Kasmiri, he travelled to Naimisaranya and in the same Cakratirta where he stayed thousnds of years ago; he stayed in the same asrama and then he studied some commentary of Nimbarka - which he wrote as Nimbarka. Then he preached that. He became a great acarya in that line. So this is Kesava Kasmiri’s story. In this way Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu, in His unmanifested pastime He instruc6ed Nimbarka and agin in His manifest pastime. Here again He spoke to Nimbarka who was Kesava Kasmiri. Now we go to the philosophical part. First, practically in these two lines there is not much difference so we will expalin only those points where Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu very nicely explained the points which were not fully explained in these lines. That much we will take. Now Nimbarka’s difference and oness is natural: svabhavika bedhabedha, this is the mood used by Nimbarkacarya. Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu, He used the word svarupa bedhabedha - means a con6titutional oneness and difference. There is not much difference but this is more satisfying, this is more clear. Constitutionally oneness is there, difference is also there. Then the second point: to seek association with Radha and Krsna. Radha Krsna sambanda, this is the main object of life - this is Nimbarkacarya’s instruction. And here Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu prema pumar tomaha: to attain love for Radha and Krsna following in the footsteps of the gopis. This is the goal of life. So one can say one should associate with Radha and Krsna. How do you associate with Radha and Krsna? Do you just go there and associate with Them? That is not possible, so you have to take shelter of the dust which is falling from The feet of these maids who make yogurt and milk in Vrndavana otherwise itais not possiNpe. One can respect Krsna, one can appreciate KrsTa, one can even devote to Krsna but to love Krsna we have to follow in the footsteps of the gopis. So Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu cleared that aspect. That point conscious living entities, unconscious matter they are explained as cause and effect in Nimbarka’s philosophy. Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu explained them as marginal and external potency quoting from Visnu Purana saying that there are 3 energies, one is internal, the other external and the third is marginal. That is why you can clearly establish why this cit, why this conscious living entity is in material existance. Unless you accept the philosophy of marginal position, tatasta sakti, you cannot understand why Brahman is here otherwise you will end up thinking it is covered by illusion - which is wrong. It is not possible. Why it is covered by illusion? Because he has decided to take shelter of external energy. Why did he decide to take shelter of external energy? Because he has forgotten Krsna. So Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu’s explaantion is more deep,then in Nimbarka’s line. There is the gopal mantra which was taken as the mantra for deliverance and in Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu’s line the nam, the name of God which is actually the fountain head of all the mantras aAd gopala mantra is given later as a namatmika mantra, that means the holy name is the soul an, the other mantras are like bodies coming out of different other forms. They cannot funltion separately if one does not chant(2he huhy name. One may chant so many mantras on so many differe3t dikses but if one does not chant Hare Krsna none of )hose mantras will work. One can chant every othsr mantra perfectly and if he doesn’t chant perfec7ly he will fall into the whirlpool of material existance once again but if one chants Hare Krsna even if he did not chant the other mantras he will still be safe. Because the name,is the shelter, it is t9e y&ga of this age all other things are waves going like this. It is the actual line and if one is not somehow connected in that line of harinam then everything else, whether down or up he can save himself. Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu explained sarva mantrasar: the essence of all mantras is nam, it is the name of God - the name of Krsna. This is the s7cret of sastras. So many sastras are there, so many commentaries are there so if one wants to know the secret of it - this is the secret. What is that? That the essence of all mantras is harinam, the name Hari. Now Visnuswami, the other sampradaya; there is also one more thing we should mention that when Nimbarkaca5ya established this dvaita advaita phil6sophy (two on, philosophy) the impersonalists immediately exploited it. They took that and started breaking it into pieces and they established their kevala advaita philosophy. He was establishing dvaita advaita and they came: no, keval& advaita - it is all one. In this way because of his gentle expositions on the bedhabedha Nimbarka actually gave some opportunity for those advaitists to become more strong. Then later , Sanatana Goswami and will come and they will take their clubs and break their heads2 So this is a whole pload, each one does his pot becaupe they all are expecting that Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu will appear and He will just chant Hare Krsna and He will dance. If somebody asked Him He would say, ”I am such a fool. My guru chastised Me, I have no adhikar for Vedanta. How can I study Vedanta?” In thispway He would put up His show. Then His disciples will come, His associates will come and they will say,”Don’t touch my body, if You touch my body You will go to hell.” And they would do all these things and in the meantime they would be writing wonderful bhasyas and commentaries. Then He would have this Muslem running behind Him and this Muslem would say, ”Oh, I am so himna, I am so dina..!”, in the meantime he would be chanting laks and laks of nam every day. Then they also knew under the big tree in Tompkinson Park there would be a gentlem&n standing and he would chant Hare Krsna and he was going to make the whole world dance. All these people they were seeing this so they had to do only their part, like a drama. Suppose there is Hariscandra’s drama going on, some of you might ask: who is Hariscandra? But anyway, Hariscandra is always quoted. So this Hariscandra’s drama is going on, Hariscandra when Visvamitra came he decided to speak a lie and then take a7ay his kingdomtfrom Visvamitra then the drama isaa plot because he has to speak the truth otherwise what? If Brutus did not kill and he just plotted with the other side and killed everybody else and nor Julius Caesar then what would happen? Then this is a plot, you will not accept this as a drama. So everybody does his part very nicely but they all know that this great movement is coming. Hare Krsna, Hare Krsna, Krsna Krsna, Hare Hare, Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare. They know that by the chanting of this mantra the whole planet is going to dance. So they did not play half note, they all played their notes very nicely. The whole orchestra is here, that’s what you are seeing. These are the transcendental Beatles, everybody knew his note and he only played that much. Whenever it was time he got up and he sat down and he didn’t make anymore noise, he kept quiet because they knew that finally he is coming and he is going to tell everyone, ”So you dance for Krsna, you sing for KrsRa, yot print for Krsna. In this way you can all be Krsna conscious.” They knew that the big master is coming, because of the master’s arrival everybody played their note perfectly well. Visnuswami, there is not so much ipfo1mation about this personality. What he did, what were his pastimes, there is not so much information about Visnuswami. All that ae know is that he is in the . Then Visnuswami, he was here during his Dikbijija, like Navadvipa is a place of knowledge so all the pandits would come here; there is no question of being a pandit and not homing to Navadvip, it is not possible. So all the pandits came so Visnuswami also came. When Visnuswai came here in Rudradvip, he was sitting there with his disciples and at one particular time when he was giving classes on devotion the disciples started dancing in ecstasy and Visnuswami was looking at them because that was not his line, they don’t dance. Siva does but they don’t dance. So then he thought: what am I saying? I am saying that devotional service is so glorious. Immediately one disciple got up, he lifed his hand and he was telling, ”So glorious, so glorious!”, and he s1arted dancing like this. Visnuswami said, ”Sit down.” Then he sat down, then somebody else got up. ”I chanted the name of Gour in your ears without your knowledge and because of this you are dancing.” Then Visnuswami asked, ”What is this Gour?” Then he said, ”You sit here and you keep chanting it, then you will know.” Then he was chanting, ”Gour, Gour, Gour, Gour..” Then he was dancing more, tears were coming on his eyes and his disciples were looking at him thinking: why is he dancing and why is he crying? They have never seen him rolling on the floor either, he was big personality always speaking something in sanskrit with full logic. Then Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu appeared in front of all of them - Visnuswami and his disciples. Sri Caitanya told Visnuswami, ”Nobody who can came to this area and not dance is not passing, but I make everybody dance. So how can you escape dancing?” Then Gauranga explained to him that to remove the darkness of the age of Kali and to engage everyone in this process of chanting and dancing I Myself appear and at that time you w&ll cnme and associate with Me anA I will cut jokes with you. Then Visnuswami said, ”Can I know how this will happen? Where?” Mahaprabhu said, ”No, that is secret. You continu preaching and you please Me by yoir devotional service and you will a7sociate with Me.” So in this way he was blessed and later he appeared as Vallabacarya.6Vallabacarya was born in South and in a very learnded family and he learned the scri2ture5 and the astrological prediction was that he was the saktyaves of the glowing effulgance of the face of Visnuh This Val,aba he was known as Vallavaeatta. In his travelling he went ot Krsadevaraya, a great king and there he established Krsna as the Supreme Lord and the king bathed him with gold coins. You remember this happened to the Alvar line too, so this was a tradition in those days, bathe people with gold coins if they have established some supreme truth. Then he distributed all those gold coins right there. He went to Benares and in Benares he was learning from different people and simultaneously he was preaching too. Then he moved to Allahabad, that is the time when Sri Caitanya mahaprabhu came to Allahabad, He was with Rupa and Sanatana. So Vallaba he was staying in Arev, that is on the other side of . So he came by a boat and he met Rupa and Sanatana and he begged them: you pease get your swami to come to my house,” because he was a grhastha, ”I want to give Him diksa.” Rupa and Sanatana they asked Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu, they said that there is one Bhatta here and he wants to invite you for prasada. So immediately Mahaprabhu1jumped up and came to the door, then he said, ”Vallaba, why are you waiting outside?” Then Vallaba Batta was a little displaced, he thought: I only learned that there was a swami in here and I heard he is a great person. I have come, I haven’t seen him but2the way he is recieving me looks like he knows me for millions of yers. Mahaprabhu came, embraced him then He said, ”Where is your boat? We should go now to your house.” He told Rupa and Sanatana, ”Come with Me.” And he was dancing and Vallaba was going behind Him. At this place we should say that Vallaba had a good size, not only his marga but his pusti. He was a pandit so he was having a lot of pusti. He takes nice prasadam and no renunciation, no vairagya business. Everything is offered to Krsna and Krsna’s coming so why hurry. So he was very nicely living as a devotee. He was trying to run behind this Mahaprabhu and Mahaprabhu whenever he touches the madness, you never know what will happen. Anyway, somehow or other they got Mahaprabhu on one side of the boat then Vallaba Batta was there and the boatman started. On the way mahaprabhu looked at the black color of Yamuna, immediately He lifted His hands and He said, ”Krsna! Krsna!” and HeVstarted jumping up and down. The boatman said, ”What is this?! What is this?! We are all going to die. It’s seventy men high, seventy men 7eep.” He said, ”If we fall in here only I will escape. I don’t think you will escape.” Then Rupa and Sanatana were trying to catch Mahaprabhu. Who can catch Mahaprabhu? He was just dancing in great ecstasy and water is slowly starting to come into the boat. Then Vallaba Batta and Sanatana they were throwing water out to save the situation and finally Mahaprabhu fainted. Then Vallaba Batta took His head on his lap, then they arrived in Vallaba Batta’s house. Then they sat looking at each other, then Mahprabhu said, ”You say something about Krsna. I want to hear from you.” Then Vallaba Batta explained about the beauty of Krsna then another person came in there, one Ragunat Batta. As soon as Mahaprabhu saw him He said, ”You tell Me which form of Krsna is most attractive.” He said, ”Syamasundar form, lalitatribanga form, that is the most attractive.” Then Mahaprabhu saiS, ”You are sure? There is no other beautiful form in this world?” Then Ragunat Batta said, ”Why in this world? Anywhere, in any world there is no beautiful form as Syamasundar.” Then Mahaprabhu said, ”You saved My life, I was thinking is there anyone else. What happens if there is someone else b,re beautiful than Him and now you have confirmed that he is the most beautiful person. Then you tell Me what is the most wonderful process for attaining Krsna prema?” Then he said, ”You are asking me this? Chanting in pure,love of Krsna following in the footsteps of the gopis, chanting His names and dancing in ecstasy. There is no other process other than this.” He wa7 like someone fanced the fire and thp fire ts going on and already Mahaprabhu was btbbling , bubbling with love and then he was fanning Him more. What should I say next, if I say this then He will be more mad. Finally he brought Him to the position that He was holding Vallaba in one hand Ragunat in another hand and He was going around the house dancing. In the meantime the lunch was getting cold, then Vallaba Batta’s sons came in there and they informed that all prasadam is now likm water. Then Vallaba went to Mahaprabhu and he said, ”Please accept Your diksa.” Then Mahaprabhu said, 9Oh, we came here for lunch.” Then they sat down and they were taking prasadam. Vallaba brought his sons and Mahaprabhu blessed tyem. In thrs way this pastime continued until a few more hours and then a big crowd started coming and they all wanted to invite Mahaprabhu fon prasadam. They were telling Vallaba, ”You got this price, why shouldn’t we. We may not be scholars but He is not into scholtrship, anyway He is always danAing so why shouldn’t He come to our house?m And Vallaba said, ”I don’t know anything. I brought Him from the othe7 side of the river, I will take Him back and leave Him there. If youpwant to make appointments, you go wi7h Him.” Then quickly he collected Mahaprabhu9 somehow or other put Him on the boat and went to the other side. Then he left Him there. Then he touched His1feet 6nd said, ”I would like to have Your association again.” Malaprabhu said, ”I will meet you in Puri.” Later in Puri when the devotees from Bengal have all come at 7h2t ti7K tallaba Batta came and he saw the 2evotees there and he said, ”I 7now Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu from long time, please take Se to Him.” So they brought him in f)ont of Sri Caitanya, when Sri Caitanya saw him He was very happy, He said, ”Oh Vallaba Batta, you havepcome.” So Vallaba Batta said, ”I have written a commentary on SrimadTBhagavapam, I want You to hear it. Then He said, ”So how do you deem the commentary of Sridhara Swami? In what way is your commen7ary diff9rent?” VaTiaba Batta sai&, ”Well, I have rejected Sridhara Swami’6 commentary and I have written.. this is a new sKope, another angle.” T,en Mahaprabhu said, ”What?! You have rejected Swami? If someb1dy rejects the Swami he is called a prostitute. Swami means huseband, if a woman rejects her huseband then she is considered a prostitute.” So that is93h2t Mahaprabhu said, then Vallaba Batta became very unhappy. So because Mahaprabhu said this other devotees were like.., they didn’t give attention to him so he left from there. Then he made a plan that I will come here every day. So he went to that other pandit then he covered his feet and said, ”Please give me shelter, in Mahaprabhu’s place I am rejected.” Then Gadadhara Pandit was thinking: Mahaprabh9 rejected him. And he d8dn’t want to take him but then he said, ”I will just stay here in one corner of this place, then I just read my books and won’t give you any trouble. Sometimes I may ask you some questions, that’s all. Why don’t you put me here?” He said, ”Mahaprabhu’s philosophy is you cannot reject anything..” Gadadhar was, ”All right just stay.” Next day he goes , and he started talking to Nityananda Prabhu and started talking with acarya and he was like a glow in front of the sun planet and there were so many suns there. Advaita Acarya is shining on one side, Nityananda Prabhu, Svarup Damodar, these are big, big effulgent persons. He was like a small, that bugg which comes in the night he was going around and he was trying to say many wonderful things. They were wonderful statements but they were not marketed there.Then he was very displeased, he didn’t know what to do. He would go from devotee to devotee, he always thought: he would listen to me. He would say, ”This verse in the Bhagavatam...” Then they said, ”Why don’t you go and tell2Mahaprabhu these things because we have been thought in a different way. These are very nice but why don’t yod go to Him?” So he came in there and said, ”Mahaprabhu, just one small thing I would like to tell..” So Sri Caitanya said, ”What is this?” He said, ”I have written some explanations for the name of Krsna.” Then Mahaprabhu said,”But what is it? I am such a foolish man, all that I anow ip a black boy is sitting on the lap of mother Yasoda and is drinking milk and his name is Krsna and nothing else I know neither I want to know, and no body else would want to know so why you are wasting our time?” Then he got very discouraged, he went back to and he started telling, ”What is this always chanting the name of Arsna, but you understand that we are prakrti - we are the wife of Krsna and Krsna is our huseband. So how can we tell our huseband’s name and too many times is also not good, it is very disrespecting.” Then Gadadhar Padit told him, ”No, no you misunderstood the whole thing. We are prakrti and we are following in the footsteps of superior prakrti and the superioe prakrti are the gopis. They alway chant His names, nnt only that. We are His wife, we should follow His instruciton and the huseband if he saysf yFu chant my name and the wife says: no,no I am chaste I will not do that. What kind of chastity is that? Because Krsna always says: chant My name, so that is why we are chanting His name.” Anyway message came from Sri Caitanya, He called Gadadhra Pandita. Gadadhar Pandit came there Mahaprabhu chatised him, ”How is it th8 6 rejectasomebody and you accept him? And you sit there and listen to him and you are giving answers to his questions.”KGadadhara said, ”No,no,no. Only on your name I acceptKd him bJcau2e he said Sri Caitanya never rejects anybody and that is why I accepted him.” Then again on recomenation of a few other devotees Mahaprabhu said, ”Call1Vallabhata here.” Vallabhata came then He told, ”I simply wKnted to knock youS false pride, that’s all but your devotional conclusions are very nice. You preach this and you make your own sampradaya.” Then He blessed him. So Vallabacarya S harried on and he preached his pusti marga and he gave brahma sambanda, his6initiation is known as brahma sambanda - that means brahman is Krsna so ,5 be related to Krsna is known as brahma sambanda. Then he gives a mantra, then he give5 a sei6y and they ,orship the deity. In this way they will attain true love of God. This is his line. Visnusvami met Sri Caitanya and again he came here as Vallabacarya, he took shelter of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu. Now in Visnusvami’s line there are not very many diffe71nt points whicha are differing from Sri Caitanya’s line. There are only two points mainly: jiva is coverde by , covered by ignorance, this much Visnusvami metioned and that is why he is in the material world. Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu explained: due to the forgetfulness of the relationship with Krsna the living entity, jiva, gets covered by ignorance. He made it more clear in that respect. are constitutional paa8s, he simply mentioiee parts of the Surpreme Brahman Krsna in Visnusvami’s comeentary. Whereas Srp Caitanya Mahapabhu made it more clear by saying jivera svarupa haya krsnera nitya dasa - constitutionally servants of Krsna. So these are the two main points. So now from these lines Sri Caitanya took two pa2ts each, they are: from Visnusvami’s line hiu devotional sentiments, this idea of I am separated from Krsna, when will I räach Him, how will I get His association - all these ragha sentiments. These were taken from this line and also worshiping in spontaneous affection. To some extent the rules and regulations are followed and after that there is ragha bhakti, it means spontaneous affect0on for the Lord. From Vallabha’s line we are accepting exclusive shelter of Sri Radhika and accepting the mood of6gopis. These two lines were taken, sorry, from Nimbarka’s line. So in this way from each sampradaya two principles are taken and given to the Goswamis by Sri Ca8tanya Mahaprabhu. He has given these principles to them before either directly as the Supreme Lord or in His unmanifested pastimes in Navadvipa dhama. Then all these instrucitons were taken and the Goswami, they have organised them in a particular order of philosophy which is known as acintya bedhabedha tattva or the Gaudiya snakirtana movement. After the Goswamis, due to the influence of Kali so many different intructions came. Castism: ”We are born in the family of Nityananda, except us no body else can worship Sri Caitanya.” These types of philosophies came up, you have to be born in a particular family, so many different things. Then some of them added their constitutional position as gopis and the maid will start dressing i7 saris, they would put bangles and some of them would have rasa lila, all thesepthi)gs were happening. Aulas and alas and gauranganagaris, so many different apasampradayas1 So Bhaktivinod Thakura he, by writing his very strong statements about establishingtthe principles of devtional service, he destroyed all of them. Then he prayed to Sri Krsna in Jagannatha Puri: please send me a person who will organise this. We have defeated all the wrong informations, we have made it clear what is Caitanya’s philosophy now someone should organise this. And his son was Bhatisiddhanta S8rasvati Thak,ra and he was trained up very nicely by Gaurkisorddas Babaji Maharaj. This is the disciplic succession we are having here. Then Bhaktivinod comes in between, there are so many wonderful acaryas from the G8swamis up to Bhaktivinod Thakura. There is J1ganatthadas Babanji Maharaja with whose hel1 Bhaktivinoda Thakura established the birth place, then Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura he gave instruction to this one young man who was 22 years old. He did not want to go there but somehow some friend pulled him: ”Come here, this sadhu is different.” Because this young man was wearing kadhi cloth and he was thinking of freedom, freedom fighting so when he came in there Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakur8 reminded him for what he has come, then he said, ”First free the souls then you can think of other freedom, preach the message of Caitanya. You know sanskrit, you know English w y don’t you translate tsese booksd and preach.” So that was kept, kept, kept and finalla it hatched. When Jaladhuta started from Calcutta there was this old man walking up with his umbrella and his box and there were two trunks loaded on the back side of the ship full of books. With great difficluty he printed them in Delhi, in this way he reached Boston. When he reached there he saw this unalloyed steel and he remembered his spiritual master’s word: unalloyed devotional service. From there he started and he was praying,to K-sna: ”I don’t6know why I have been brought here, this is a place of passion and ignorance and I am here. My name is Bhaktivedanta but there is neither bhaktianor vedan)a in me, somehow or other You make me dance, make me dance, You make me dance o Lord You make me dance.” The whole world was dancing and it is still dancing and it will go on dancing. In this Hare Krsna, Hare Krsna, Krsna Krsna, Hare Hare, Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare. This sankirtana movement is the prime benediction for humanity at large because it spreads the rays of the benediction moon and it is the ful- fillment of all transcendental knowledge. All this transcendental knowledge but this is krsna sankirtana, tlis is Krsna’s own sankirtana, it will become successful all over the world. In this way this harinama sankirtana will deliver this creation and there will be a golden age of u0.000 years now and these books will guide people how to understand Abso- lute Truth, how to golve the contradictions of different sampradayas, different philosophies, different understandings. So anyone who is fortunate enough just like , he was fortunate to c,rry out the instruction of Sri Krsna even if he did not decide to fight, Krsna would have killed all of them. So even if all of us would think of leaving and not unstopping distribution of books, Srila Prabhupada said in Vrndavana the books would pop out and distribute themselves. So much potency is there in his books. You distribute, you don’t distribute it doesn’t matter the books will just come out on the shelves, they will just go and enter the pockets of people. They will just see books flying there landing on their head and going into their pockets. So this is sankirtana movement. Sankirtan movement is the fulfillment of the desire of all these acaryas. By chanting Hare Krsna in the streets of different cities, towns and villages we are pleasing Ramanujacarya, Visnusvami, we are pleasing Nimbarkacarya, Madhvacarya, Narada Muni. ISKCON movement was not started in 1965., International Society for Krsna Consciousness started there in the spiritual world. In this ISKCON movement we have devotees like Narada Muni, Maharaja, Dhruva Maharaja, they are all ISKCON devotees. It was told by Prabhupada, he wrote in this list of holy places in the Srimad Bhagavatam purport then he said, he added Puskara, Naimisaranya then he said: New York, Sydney and such holy places. It was not a mistake somebody reported it to him and said this is a misake and he said, ”No, these are all holy places.” So these are all ISKCON centers, ISKCON has got much wider form, much wider room then one can just think about. It is not some kind of cult, some kind of a society which was started by some old, frustrated Bengali gentleman. Nor that is the other mission. This mission is different. There was some Muka pujari followed by a blind intelectual, this is a different mission. This mission is the actual body of the spiritual understanding which is taken from Sri Krsna. This is the actual reiver in which one must take bath if he has to purify his mptertal existance andpgo back home back to Godhead( So this is the conclusion of our four sampradaya class and tomorrow we will discuss purely the philoso phical aspects of the sampraTayas and the six different schools of thought. That will be after 10:30. Hare Krsna! This has been very nicely7done in dvaiti siddhanta. Dvaita means two, so that we esta blish very nicely: the soul is not God, that is one point. Second point is accepting the Deity form of Krsna as nondifferent from Krsna. From Nimbarka’s line he took the principle of following in the footsteps of the gopis. That is one point, the other point is the ragha or spontaneous affection for Krsna. Because there is regulated devotion and then there is emotional, it is not just emotional - mundane emotion but with proper emotion. That2is known as bhava bhakti, then there is prema bhakti: devotion in love of God. That is spontaneous, it is not something...that we mentioned now. So these two points were taken from Nimbarka’s line. From Visnusvami’s line the depenency on the mercy of the Lord. This one point is very prominently explained in Visnusvami’s line, later by Vallabhacarya rho is the incarntion of Visnusvami. So depending on Krsna in other words not depending on one’s personal endeavor or anything else, fully depending on Krsna. This kind of marga is known as pusti marga. Pust means there is some kind of nutrition coming from the Lord just like the child by himself, he cannot grow up from the mild from the mother some nutrition is coming so always depending on the mercy of Krsna. Then the process of engaging in d1fferent a7itivities of service to the Deity. Different ways of contemplathng and 8avavida bhakti it’s generally taken from there. Navavida means nine kinds of bhakti, means you should also do it by senses not just do it inside the mind. So that practical devotion that is also )ak1n trRm Visnusvami’s line. Actually as we discussed in the classes before Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu instructed thes3 acaryas to elaborate these principles, in this way Fxpalin the Absolute Truth in various angels. While explaining that naturally, automatically certain poin7s were left over in each. So in each line there is something which is lacking and Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu was going to crown the sampradayas with this Hare Krsna maha mantra, sankirtana, depending on the holy name. So then He preached that based on Bhagavatam then these each sampredayas, what they were telling? Acutally they were telling this because we cannot say that they are incomplete in the sense that they are coming from Narayana, they are coming from the Supreme Lord and these are the sampradayas, meaning unbroken disciplic succession so you cannot say that they are lacking something. It is just that they are explained in a particular way which leaves questions in the mind of the conditioned soul. Just like the constitution of India, if it was given to a farmer he may get this book but he may think: this is very good for feeding my cow; he may not understand, the constitution is perfect eut he doesn’t understand. So the sampradayas are perfect they are all speaking atma nivedanam, all the acaryas, all the Alvars, all the devotees they are telling: surrender, surrender but then the conditioned soul he is just in a big complex: how to surrender? Where to start? How to do it? Then the different conditionings like they can only surreder through the bhasya of Madhvacarya, if I am born in a Madhva family. These are traditions, it is not the bhasya, it is not the commentary but the soul is so conditioned when the acarya creates a spiritual world inside the material world, the conditioned soul creates a material world inside that spiritual world. Th3s is also applicable to our society, we are also doing it. It’s true. The conditioned soul is conditioned soul, even if the milk is coming from the ocean and flowing as a river, a dog has to lick only, a dog can1ot swallow the whole ocean even though it is milk. Only that much will go into his mouth, this is a dog so the conditioned soul is dog of his senses. So these acaryas are pouring milk, giving the philosophy then slowly, slowly they end up in something: yada yada hi dharmasya glanir bhavati , so Krsna again sends His representatives, His sons, His friends, His associates and He Himself comes. So every Kali yuga Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu doesn’t come, every Dvapara yuga svayam Krsna doesn’t come, original personality of Godhead doesn’t come in every Dvapara yuga. Krsna lila is there in Dvapara yuga but different ways, different moods. Original Krsna comes once in a day of Brahma and the Dvapara yuga before us original Krsna was there. Then even if original Krsna comes just behind Him Caitanya doesn’t come and that is in a course of a long, long time Krsna appears as Caitanya and 503 years ago from today Sri Caitanya appeared. So this Kali yuga is very, very special. Kali yuga is already special because simply by chanting the name of Krsna one can get liberated. But the Kali yuga which comes after Svayam Krsna’s appearance is more special and that Kali yuga in which after Svayam Krsna’s appearance Sri Caitanya comes is much more special. One such Kali yuga is this Kali yuga where we are. So Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu’s mercy is very rare, it’s not that easy to get and somehow or other we are here during this time. Just like the field, the rain is comin8 and it is falling everywhere if a farmer will cultivate the field using that rain then there will be grain otherwise there will be no. So Srila Prabhupada is the c3ltivator, this rain is pouring, Sri Caitanya Mabhaprabhu is the ocean He is the ocean of mercy and the Goswamis they drink from Him. Goswamis are ltkfAclowds and the, become fully drunk with the mercy of Sri Caitanya and these drunken clowds they come and they pour this on moun&gins,tbig mountaits and these are Narottamadas, Locandas Thakur, these are all big mountains who are recievinh that falldown and from there comes a river. The river is Bhaktivinod Thakura and this river has sohe branch rivers and some main channels. It this way it comes from Bhaktisiddhanta Sarastati and enters a take. ThTs lake is Srila Prabhupada. Now the fields are there. Now you dig some chann2ls from this 17ke, you dig 11 channles, 30 channels, some channels get stuck but other channels wnrk, later some channels can be cleansed too. There is no pro0lem, st doesn’t mean that ISKCON is finished. If a channel is stuck, doeK that mean that lake has no water? No. Prabhupada lake is during the irrigation and it Aomes through, one channel comes out, it2 comes in the form of Russian Isopanisad, another comes in the form of Back to Godhead magazines, 3hese are all different channels and through these channels then the world will be irrigated. And somewhere if some channel gets stucw with some mudd, don’t war8y lak6 is there p5uring out by the power of the flow of the water channels,usually get ,leaned by themselves. What is the cseaning system in channels when they come out of lakes? But when the channel is stuck with mud maybe th6 land will not get some water from there so you can pick another channel, get some water from the other side. Then the agriculture will continu. And when the channel is clean then you may pour water so in this way if something wrong happens to a devotee of something wrong happens to a center, something wrong happens somewhere, somebody ran away with funds, sopebody fell down, you should see that channles are stuck with some mudd, don’t stop agriculture carry on. Because Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu is the engine and the Goswamis are d8fferent compratrments behind Him. There is a whole line of acaryas as compratments and behind us there is a whole line of devotees. So in the front the engine is pulling and all this compartment do is look at the previous compartment and then go, pushed by the back compartment carry on travelling. Don’t go off track, deviating is the only danger. Even if a compartment in front devales, get connectep to that compartment which is not devaling but always follow the engine and behind is a guard, that is Prabhupada’s books. So 10.000 years so many compartments are going to come, guard is there in the back. So the train journey becomes very confortable, if somebody goes off track then he loses the connection. Then it is difficult, off 8rack means: karma and jnana. This is off track. Anyabilasita sunyam... either in the controlled form or the uncontrolled form don’t become fruitive, don’t become speculative. If you just don’t do these two things you are on tTe track and this train is going on three tracks, usually train goes on two tracks this train iLtgoing on three tracks: one is sadhu track, other is acarya track, and sastra track. Sadhu, acarya and sastra. Sastra is original words of Sri Caitanya mahaprabhu, sadhu is person who is following these instrucitons, he is sadhu. Acarya is person who is following these instructions and who can make others follow, he is acarya. These are the definitions of these words by Prabhupada in his lectures. Sastra means words of Krsna, sadhu means one who follows them and acarya means one who is able to make others follow them. So s in these three tracks the train is going, of course no question of front compartments getting devailed, they are perfect. But we are somehow shuttled in from somewhere else so we make it devailed. So what happens is that if one track fails, depend onthe other two, if sastra cannot be understood then take shelter of sadhu and acarya. If the acarya flopps, take shelter of sadhu and sastra, always tehre is two only one can miss. In this way the train can go. This is the philosophy of Jiva Goswami. We are safe because we have sadhu, sastra and acarya and he two of them simultaneously will not fail. What is the guarantee? God is the guarantee. If one fails then take shelter of the other two. This is the train of Krsna consciousness, in this way you can have a safe journey. Where is the train going? Back home, back to Godhead and the engine is making sound all the time. He is whistling just to remind you: I am here, don’t warry. So when the train stops you are t5inking: oh, what has happened? You hear the whistling and you know: oh yes, Mahaprabhu is he2e. So this congregational chanting is the whistling of this train. When everyone joins togÑther and chants: ”Jaya Sacinandana, KI JAYA!”, then that is the whistle of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu. We know that in this harinama Krsna is present, because Krsna,hasipp,mised th6t He has said, ”I am always present when My names are chanted.” So this sankirtanwtmeans congregational chanting means complete chanting. San means also sanprada - full, full chanting not some ”Nç;ay Gaur Rhade Syam Hare Krsna Hare Ram”, not this type of chanting. This is all incomplete chanting, complete chanting is Hare Krsna, Hare Krsna, Krsna Krsna, Hare Hare, Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare. That is complete chanting. Then just breaking this and:chanting in various different ways, finding out new mantras this is all bhogus. So Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura already took away all those weeds and he has establshed the system what to do, one chants Hare Krsna nicely. He doesn’t chant, ”Hetche, hetche, hetche..”, that’s the short form of maha mantra. If one chants like that then Krsna will give him SW, not spiritual world. Everything is now denoted by letters, instead of telling: vancakalpa tarubyasca... we say vancas, ”vancas prabhu” and instead of writing: please accept my humble obeisanc8s, we write: PAMHO, and in stead of writing : all glories to Srila Prabhpada, we write: AGTSP then Krsna will give you SW. Attording totsurredner Krsna reveal, so what happens if you half surrender to Tulasi. You should know that Tulasi is krsna preyasi, is very dear to Krsna so while wearing these Tulasi beads Yamaraja will not come near you. Then i1 you think that: well, I am aquarian so I should wear by birth stome, if I put that stome then cover the two stones and put tulasi inbetween..” This is all anartha, unwanted. This is what we have ,o be careful of then it is not sankirtana,it is not complete kirtan it is half kirtan, it is equal to ”Nitay Gaura Radhe Syam.. ” One side you are depending on stones an0 different things and on another side you are depending or Krsna. Depend on Krsna, Prabhupada said, ”I have come to give hope.” So he has given hope, what is that hope8 We have,Hare Krsna maha mantra, we have the form,of Deity, we have pra’adam, association of devotees, dust form their lotus feet. But then e shoul7n’t again start depending on some university, some graduation. Now if you start depending on some as we call it Vedic nonsense then you will be in trouble, it is like the monkey, the monkey has jumping here and there and he was thinking: I am not very happy. So then he jumped into a wooden shop, some carpenter shop. There was a big log of wood so he sat on tpe big log of wood and he was thinking: now I am happy. But somebody else made a cleave in that wood and they put a knife inbetween. So while looking at the knife the monkey thought: oh, this is a nice knife,çI iill play with it. So he was holding the knife and he was pulling it. When he pulled it out the piece of wood closed but the monkey didn’t know that his tail was inside. Now his tail was finished and he shouted screaming and crying; ”Oh, what happened to me!? My tail is stuck.” So in this way we shouldn’t follow the example of monkey, we try to solve some problem, somebody gives us a solution. Now on top of soluton we shouldn’t try to build up problems, w, should be intelligent enough. You are sick, somebody gives you medwcin, take the med2cin don’t take something else that cures another desease. One foot goes through here and another foot goes through here this is diet and the medecin is Hare Krsna mantra. This is medecin, if you lose one of this you will be in trouble. You may be thinking medecin but if you don’t follow the diet then there will be no strength in the body to absorb medecin, then also you will face death. But if you are thinking diet and you are not taking the medecin then the sickness will remain and again it is cause of death. So how can soul die? Yes, it can die, it i7 possible. It is because when the soul doesn’t act in its capacities, it is as good as dead. Soul cannot die, it is true but the soul dies. How does it die? Because it doesn’t act as the soul so then it becomes dead soul, it becomes as good as matter. This is how the principles are taken from the sampradayas. They were given to the sampradayas, they were taken from the sampradayas. He is the giver and he is the taker, Sri Caitanya gave, Sri Caitanya took and Sri Caitanya distribute. So appart from Sri Caitanya’s mercy there is no question of understanding the Absolute Truth in this age of Kali. Appart from chanting Hare Krsna maha mantra and takig this diet prasad,m and Kçsna conscious phil,sophy there is no other way to pleese Caitanya. It is not possible. So that is why Prabhupada condensed everything in these two words: chant Hare Krsna and be ha5py. This means a lot, it doesn’t just mean make some sound and be indifferent go the world. This is not what ia means, is acutalls means that you get connected with Sri Caitanya and then the problems are solved. Any question on the sampradayas? Q: What is the difference between Bhima and Madhva? A: Bhima and Madhva? Bhima is one of the , he is an eternal associate of Krsna and he is angsa, a por,ion of Vayu - the demigod in charge of wind, the wind god. So Bhima is his portion6 Before him in Treta yuga Hanuman is also Vayu’s portion. That we saw in Ramayan story, how Vayu carried this conception so his angsa went into it. His contribution is that. That is why H)numan is known as Vayu putra, son of Vayu and Bhima is also Vayu putra. Kuntidevi chanted the mantra for Vayu and when Vayu came she was given conception be7ause cannot prodçce children. He had a curse so Pandu told , ”You recieve conception through other matter.” Other matter present during those days is either you recieve conception from the elder brothere of the husebandor you recieve conception from a saintly person. Like Pandu and Drtarastra and , they were born from Vyasadeva. Vyasa gave conception because the lady was there and the king died and there was no dynasty so Bhisma advised6and this principle is only for those.ages, it is not meant for Kali. In Kali yuga there is no such qualification, a woman cannot receive conception from somebody else. Her liver is so bad, that woman has recieved so many conceptions before marriage so there is no question of applying this rule. In Kali yuga everything is like this, there is nothing you can put standard on. That is called Kali, it means no standard. So Bhima was born like this. Pandu told Kunti, ”You concieve from a brahmana” but Kunti said that, ”Dhurvasa Muni has given some mantras and these mantras will give conception to me. I will bear a child form the mantra.” So she chanted the mantra. From ’s mantra Arjuna was born, from Vayu’s mantra Bhima was born, from the A5vini Kumara eantra and were born. Before that she already gave birth to Yudistira Maharaja when chanting the mantra for Yamaraja. Before Pandu’s marriage, while she was a young girl, she was just checking the mantras. She chanted the Sun god mantra and she got a son, his name is . So Bhima is a porion of Vayu - wind god, then Madhvacarya is also a portion of Vayu so all these attributes of Hanuman and Bhima they are present in him. Like you see Madhvacarya, he leaps from one mountain to another, that is Hanuman’s character: to jump over rivers and oceans and Bhima was a great fighter. Madhvacarya also defeated many wrestlers, big, big fighters. He use to go and then with one hand he use to slap them off, he was so strong. When he was just six years old he was playing on top of a mountain and his mother wanted him and she called him, ”Vasudeva!” and he jumped from there, where he landed his thumb. He just landed on one toe and that toe made a hole which was four feet deep. Bhima also, when he fell from the lap of Kunti he broke a mountain. So in this way all these symptoms are there in Madhvacarya who is Hanuman. In the Madhva line the principle is that you have to surrender to Vayu if you want to get understanding of the Supreme Lord. He is the pure devotee of Godhead so you surrender through Vayu. We say here that we should surrender to the spiritual master, to guru, Gauranga then Radha and Krsna. So in their line their guru is there then after that is Madhva and after Madhva is Bhima, so after Bhima we have Hanuman. Q:? A: So is it broken or not. That is the question? Q: The quesiton is why was it broken? A: Krsna explains that in the Bhagavad-gita. He says it seems to be broken actually it is not broken. Disciplic succession never breaks but what happens is that by the coverring of illusory energy it looks like 5t is broken because Vyasadeva is alwasy there. As long as Vyasadeva is present and Vyasadeva is present till the end of everything, so disciplic sutcession is never broken. But what happens is that from Vyasadeva, when the line comes inbetween somewhere it seems to be broken because of otherr philosophies coming. It is a very intere5ting point. Now why does this happen, this must be understood. Why it happens since Krsna is the Supreme Controler, He makes a disciplic succession and He is not able to keep it together so what kind of Supreme Lord is He? He makes a succession and he cannot ke”p it. I3 breaks many times, He has to come. It is like the modern engeneers, they build a road then it breaks. They have to cover and do some patch work. So what type of Supreme Lord is He? That will be a question. The answer is that in the Upanisads it is mentioned: Sri Krsna satisfies the desire of all the living entities, nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam.. so these living entities in their forgetfulenss of Krsna, they forget Him in various levels. Somebody forgets Him 10%, somebody 20”, somebody 30% and He wants to satisfy the desire of all these people. So when all living entities on this planet would be 100% remembering Krsna all the four lines will be fully functioning without breakage, because if these lines funciton without breakage there is no question of forgeting Krsna. Krsna saman... so living entities come up with various desires, somebody wants to think there is God. So if the disciplic succession is still existing how can he ever think there is no God. When the disciplic succession is going, like thinking there is no electricity when the wire is right on your nose, it is not possible. So then what happens is that to fulfill the desire of that foolish conditioned soul, Krsna orders to the material energy and it covers the truth. So it seems to be broken. Just like sometimes the policeman to give a fooled rope to the smugglers, they are dressed in mufti, not in proper uniform. They hide here and there, you don’t see any cop so the smuggler thinks: oh, let me fulfill all of my desires now. Then he starts doing his activity more nicely, then the police comes and catches him. In the same way Krsna catches the living entity, He gives him a long rope: all right how much will you forget Me. So there are unlimited living entities passing throught the creation, all of them are not having the same forgetfulness as the other person and that is why there had to be so many philosphies, so many . Otherwise how they will be satisfied? So someone should come and say: life is temporary, you don’t know whether there is life after death. So somehow or other either by hook or croock or by your senses, eat, drink and make marry because you don’t kn,w what is going to happen. And that satisfies some partictlar kind of living entities. So the disciplic succeysion gets covered there because thisCliving entity is demanding: give me a philosophy like this. nityo nityanam cetanas cetananam, Krsna ,ays, ”All right, take it. Here it comes karma w,ll satisfy your senses.” Then somebody takes that and makes it into western form and fives another name,to ,t. There are Ynky six levels of forgetfulness of Krsna, basically, and then you can combine these six inot 36, into 66, into unlimited numbers. Just like there is mode of passion, goodn1ss and ignorance. There are 3 modes but we can see right in this class room, you can have a category of each of us because 3 into çCinto 3, unlimited so this is six, it’s even more. So each one mixed with another one becomes another philosophy and different levels of consciousness the living entity is having due to the forgetfulness of Krsna. krsna bahyrmuka hoy.. Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu said: because of turning away from Krsna unlimited desires they come into the heart of the living entCtes so,Yhe illLsory energy comes and catches him on his throught, lapatya dhare, this means that I am sitting here talking to you, suddenly someone comes form the behind and catches hold of my neck like this, so i,lusory energy catches you like that. Then in that catching you start screaming and that is called nationalism, shouvinism, socialism, communism. Originally there was Isopanisad, can anyone speak more communism than the Isopanisads? It is not possible. So all these things are simply premutation and combination of six philosophies because there are only six levels of forg0tting Krsna. W,enever forgetfulness comes disciplic succession becomes covered and Krsna reinforces the disciplic succession, again He says: again I am reinforing it. So then these different things go away. Arjuna said, ”My illusion is gone and my consciousness is fixed now, I will do as You say.” Because actually speaking Krsna is just fulfilling our desires. Just like you are all sitting here, why you are sitting here? Because you want to sit here, there cannot be any other philosophical reason for this. It’s absurd to say anything else, because you want to be here you are sitting here. The moment you don’t want to be sitting here you will get up and go. Is there some KGB here with machine guns? No, you have to be here in this class you will do nothing. Here you will go even while I am talking. I like to talk, I like to sit here and explain9you. There can be no other reason for this. One may say, ”No, no, festival commity told you.” That is external reason, I could have told no and even if I said ”yes”, maybe I don’t 1ome here to lecture so then what will happen? And I just went to sleep, so many things can happen. So actually I want it, that is the actual reason. In fact even the festival commity is coming up with this proposal, why don’t you talk on the four sampradayas, is because I have been charising some idea in my heart I want to speak on four sampradayas so Krsna made an arrangement. That’s all. Everything is the living entitie’s proposal and Krsna’s sanction and the material nature’s arrangement. That’s all. You propose, He sanctions and the nature arranges. Prakreta kriyamnani gunaih karmani sarvasah..the foolish soul is thinking that I’m doing. What is happening? I simply ask: I want this, Krsna says: yes, when He says yes then I start working for it and the nature helps me how to work for it. When I deserv, I recieve. Suppose I had a great desire to speak about the for sampradayas and I was doing in July when it is raining and no devotees coming to the temple. I can be doing it but it won’t be happening, it has to come to a particular time and circumstance - this Mayapur festival. So there are 5 things in the Vedanta which are necessary for anything to happen and the most important is the sanction of Isvara. Then there is circumstanceibut the preliminary thing is the desire of the living entity then you apply. When you apply you have to fulfill certain markations, ceptain conditios) - you deserve, you recieve so desire, deservation. Sometimes some philosophers see that because of deservation you attain something when you lose it2 you are in mysery. So don’t desire anything. This is another way of solving the problem, but it doesn’toshlve the problem because you have to at least desire that, because soul is conscious so there is no question of not desiring something. You have to desire not7to have a desire so that is a desire. So n&w how are you going to get rid of that? In this way Madhvacarya argued. Madhvacarya told Buddists, ”How can you become non existent, it is never poss0ble. Even if you are thinking I am nonexistent you are existing as nonexistent. That is an existance.” In other words existance, consciousness and bliss cannot be overruled, it is not possible. This is natural, sobavika bhava is a nature of a living entity: I exist. When you get up in th) morning what do y0T think: I am the regional secretary for Russia? You don’t think that, you think: I am here, then you think: Oh, I am...,then you think: I have got 50 Russians, what did they eat this morning. Otherwise one gets up thinking I am regional secretary, you know I am GBC. When you when you wake up you know you are there and then you know yo are there as brahmana, you know you are there as old brahmana, but you are there. That sat is your eternal quality, other things are all on top of it. So I exist and how do I know? Because I am conscious, I know that I am existing that is my cit. While existing and everything else is miserable I am always thinking that there is some myseryless state, there is some problemless state, there is some state where there is no unhappiness that means that is my nature. Like this gentleman was sitting in one pose 15 minutes, after 15 minutes he changed to another pose and another 10 minutes now he changed to another pose then he will stand up, then he will shake his legs and he will walk around. Why? Because you are looking for happiness, that is the reason. Yes, you want to be confortable, why you want to become confortable? Because confort is your original nature, disconfort is against your nature. If it is natural for you then you will be like this for 5000 years you won’t change that pose. That is not natural to you, why? After some time there is pain here, so then you turn this way and you hold. Now some happiness is there. What is happiness? Removal of that mysery. So that is why one should adjust the situation and jump from one mysery to anothar mysery, because the happiness you are getting now by sitting in this pose compared to the previous pose will become unhappiness soon. So what is the use of changing that pose, that is the question. That is what a Krsna conscious person does, athato brahma jijnasa, otherwise he is simply thinking how to get green card, that’s all then he is stuped. But while thinking jijnasa, he inquires why, why I am looking for happiness when unhappiness is coming? Nobody is looking for headaches, nobody is looking for indigestion, nobody is looking for malaria, nobody is looking for AIDS but we are getting it, it is forced on us. So who is that going on the market asking: can I get AIDS, where can I get AIDS from? Nobody wants but you do get it, what can you do? Where is it happening? On the body, on the mind, on the intelligence and this is your disconfort. What is the confort? That I am soul and I am confortable and how do I act as a soul? I am servant of Krsna. So even in this body, even in this matSrial existance when 1 serve Krsna, even though with the material ingridients, with the material senses, when I serve Krsna then” again I am ablt to reliph that original Tliss that I am lookig for. That is why these young mena 7nd women, even old men and women, it doesn’t matter - we say young because otherwise for young man there is so many things to do why should he be sitting here? He is not lame, dumb, he is not crazy although ohat is what they think but he’s not. Then why is he doing this, gettisg up in the odd hours, ghostly hour when everybody is sleeping. He gets up at 3:30 in the morning, Bush is sleeping, Gorbachev is also sleeping then we get up. Why do we do this? 3:30 an unguardly hour, somebody said to Prabhupada: it is an ungardly hour, Prabhupada said: no,no, you don’t know that is a guardly hour, it is brahma muhurta. They have gone completely up side down, they call godly hour ungodly hour and what is the acutal hour, it is 11:30 in the night in the dancing floor or in the casino, that is the real hour, 3:30 is ungodly. This is the age of Kali. So why is he doing it? Because nikilasu avastabi... nikilasu even though he is using piece of paper, black board and whatever, cowdung, grass which is called dead matter, eventhough he is using these things, even though he is talking, even though he is listening, even though he is eating, even thouth he is walking he is doing nikilasu avastabi jivera mukta, he is ,iberated instantly. This is instant liberation, instantly liberated, jivan mukhta,- h6 is living but h2 is liberated. Usually we know when somebody is liberated he is gonp, he is liberated and he isLhere and he is working, he is talking. That is what Arjuna was asking: ”What does he speak, how does he walk, what does he eat.” Then Prabhupada gives: eat this way, don’t talk nonsense, chant Hare Krsna, no meat, nosgambling.. what does he speak? He is speaking Krsna consciousness. How is he situated? He is situated in an ISKCON center and now does he move? He moves with a book bag, this is he answer. So in this way the harmony between all these principles has to be understood on the basis of the maha mantra. This harmony cannot be understood unless there is the basis of maha mantra. So Hanuman, Bhima and Madhva they all wanted one thingT what is that thing? Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu summarised the desire of all the acaryas, He said: in every town and village My name will be heard, in every town and village. This is the summarisation of Hanuman’s desire, Bhima’s desire, Madhva’s desire. Hanuman crosset the ocean, for what? For finding out information about to make Rama)andra happy. Srila Prabhupada crossed the ocean but he didn’t cross the ocean because there were not enough sandwiches available here, no he was very happy in the Radha Damodar Mandir, hearing the bell rings and then comes prasadam. He pidn’t have to think, there is no administration, so peaceful so happy and if he wants to honoä somebody’s field the farmer will come and touch his feet and say: swamiji you have purified our land. And he is going to New York and if you want to walk into somebody’s pToperty then yoF will be chrged fsr trespassing. W)y one should leave this situation and go there? You walk anywhere in New York, in anybody’s place first of all he will shoot you, most of them are just wai ting with guns. As soon as you come in: shoot, trespasser. If I kill a trespasser I am not a criminal. So this is a law and 3) Vrndavan what is the law7 You walk into somebody’s land he worships your feet and this is where he was situated, why does he go there? Because of the same th2ng, Sita had been stolen. The Laksmi was in the land of , somehow or other he should be conquered so you need some monkeys that’s why he went there. He was trying in Boston, somebody told hims if you really want to meet the Vanaras you go to New York. Then he caught some Vanaras there then he continped. He sent one Vanara to one place then he met another Vanara in this way Vanaras were somehow encreasing. Now it is in the shape of thi, big, big Vanara. Now the Russian Vanaras are there, very soon you will sKe Eskimo Vanaras. Now one Vanara will be left, everybody will be engaged in building bridge. Prabhupada said that I am building bridge between the tifferent nKtionas, between the different nationalities, I am building bridge by Krsna consciousness and he is using these monkeys. We are all monkeys, some are Jambuvan - big monkey, big bear some are Hanuman, he can jump for hundreds of miles. There are also small spiders, they go there and throw in the sand and then come in the ocean, roll in the ocean because sand is dropped in it. So Hanuman can throw bolders and some spider he is also diong service and Ramacandra is pleased by both. Somebody is throwing bolders, Ramacandra is very pleased because Ramacandra doesn’t acutally need a b9idge, the Sridge is only to engage the monkeys. So all these activities in our society are there to engage our monkey mind. Tasmat kenu upayena: somehow or other by hook or croock, in this way we can engage ourselves. I’m sorry 7f,I’R talking too much on tRis Rubject but if somebody has a question, if you show hand I’ll stop. Q: You are teclFng that in each Kali age Srs Caitanya Mahaprabhu won’t cose. So what is the way in which people in those days will gtt liberation? A: Because the ho,1 name will be manifested. Krsna takes incarnation in the age of Kali in the form of holy same. So Hare Krsna maha mantra will be there, just like before Mahaprabhu came the Hare Krsna maha mantra was there. The maha mantra will be there but thip1ioldenSopportunity of a7atra nadekiya, without seeing who is qualified and not qualified, this is special mercy. Other Kali holy name will be there, if someone is iery, very qualified he will be able to Rhant it and then get liberated. This is particular age op Sri Caitanya’s speci7l mercy, that qualified or unqualified deliverence guaranteed. Somehow or other even if you are mocking at the devotees chanting in the street, ”Hey! Hare Krsta, Hare Krsna, all the time Hare Krsna..” even you say that you get delivered. A man was passing stool and he was sitting there, a pig came to eas feasis, in New York you don’t have this, this is a great facility of taking birth in this land you have stool everywhere and the pigs come. So when the pig came too close the man got scared and he started running and he was running, running, running and he came to a cliff. It was still chasing him so he jumped off, while jumping because he belonged to the , he belonged to the sixth - seventh varna he used this word: haram. Haram means very bad, nonsense, useless, like that. These are gentle translations, so he was telling: haram and then he jumped off and he died. The soul from that body developed the body ofna Ga”dharva and with great devotion 6o Krsna it reached the planet. A rsi was meditating there for thousands of years, he saw this in his viiion then he got up and said, ”What is this?! I’ve been sitting here for thousands of years and nothing has happened to me except for growing nails and beard, but this person he is in an unclean situation and he is telling bad words and he is going up, so something is wpong with the control system” Then he went to complain to some rsis, there was Narada Muni in that asrama. So Narada Muni explain3d to him that that was because he chanted Rama’s name. ”He chanted Rama’s name? But he was just shouting: hWram.” But ram is there so Ram saved him, somehow or other because of the hply name. So the holy nameehas this power of saving even if one is helanamva but when Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu comes He doesn’t simply save yoa from one step to another, to another step. No, like Prabhupada used to say, ”In this very lifetime you will go back to Godhead.” This is Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu’s promice, radha krsna bolo sange calo. Sannyasis beggesnso what is this sannyasi begging? Matrabika, only one biksa he is asking. What is that biksa? Radha Krsna bolo, chant Hare Krsna. Radha is there so chent Radha Krsna means chant Hare Krsna. So Mahaprabhu is taking everyone, this is special mercy so don’t wait for another Kali yuga and the holy name coming, do it now! You don’t know what will happen if you wait. Maybe when the holy name comes in the next Kali yuga you will be a tree and you may be a politician, what will you do? So a bird in a hand is better than two in a bush. Now harinama is there, ISCKON is here, take shelter. Q: You are saying earlier on that when a spiritual leader starts a movement and the conditioned soul puts his conception on it and he says: I am a Madhvacarya and he ruins it and you said this also can happen in ISCKON but then also you were making a point when we can understand that in Kali yuga there it acutally only the Hare Krsna mantra, there is only Bhagavad-gita, there is on7t &or9 Caitanya’s movemY,t so can you explain the difference between seeing the Hare Krsna movement and narrow minded religionists. A: The greatness of this ISKCON movement is one person, that is acutall greatness. Everything else is just knit around him. That one per8on Pra6hupada, he is one person just like Mahaprabhu. Before there were so many incarnations, Krsna came and said sarvo dharman parityaja.. you AurrenderR,Iswill9save you.tBut Mahaprabhu came and broke the lock, He distributed. In the same way there have been so many acaryas be)ore and ,ll these acaryas have envisioned something, they have paved the path and Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu selected7Srila,Prabhupada to fnlfill h1s 0&ssion. So when P5abhupada established this movement he left his wonderful borks where he explaied about every single thing necessary for us to know and he has left the very good system of continuing this society with the Governing Body Commission and the system of temple administration, temple presidents and so on, details are not important. The system is there, frame work is there and the philosophy he predncted that for 10.000 years to come these books will guide the world. So if one simply takes shelter of this system of living in the ISKCON temple, chanting Hare Krsna mantra, following the princi ples, worshiping the Deity in the association of devotees, reading S3imad Bhagavatam. So whatever happens in different lines, different philosophies it will not happento him, he will be safe. Just in the circus, you see people walking on the bar, he leaves one bar and if he doesn’t catch the other bar then he will break his head but they have a net. So Prabhu9adR cseated a good circus system, he has given you so many bars and he has also put a(net so if you lose something, if you happen to drop somewhere the net will catch you. What is ihe net? The network of ISKCON, ITV - this is real network.The ISKCON network 7s there, devotees are there, prasadam is there, then one can say: well in other lines thesa things were also there - Prabhuptda. So you can’t say it is same, Prabhupada is here9 He has broken this waYl, this wall of illusory energy, he said, ”I have made a war against illusion,” then he has pro- mised, ”I will take all t9ese,Yeop3e back home, back to Godhead.” Then one may say, ”Well, Ramanuja also made that promise.” Yes, but Sri Caitanya told him: you do this much and , am coming. Madhvcarya also made that promise, any acarya. This is the promise they make: I will deliver everyone, otherwise they won’t be acaryas and they de)iver in thetr own levels, in their own way. When Srila Prabhupada comes, just like Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu never had been before such an incarnation, so Srila Prabhupada never had been before such an acarya. This is not some kind of sentimental thing because Bhaktivinoda Thakura predicted, Nityananda Prabhu predicted. Nityananda Prabhu told Jiva Goswami that after Mahaprabhu’s disappearance this place will be flooded, this Mayapur and then he said that after that again this place will be revived and so many people will come. Then he said: that will be a magnificent temple. Adbuto, he used the word adbuto, mandira hoibe - there will be a temple and from that temple Krsna consciousness will be preached all over the world. These were Nityananda Prabhu’s own words, Nityananda is nonother than Sesa. Bhaktivonoda Thakura also predicted: a mahapurusa will come and he will organise this movement all over the world. SimultaneouslyThe was praying for another mahapurusa who would organise within the Gaudiya sampradaya, within the line of Gaudiya because so many things were happening. So Btaktisiddhanta Sarasvati ca8e and he made the organisatit” of . This is something which was predicted for ages, it is not something that some 7ld man, his business was flopp then he went to a sa1hu then somebody gave him a free ticket and then he went to Ameri”a and he fooled around for two years. He didn’t know what to do and somehow or other the hippies were there so because of the renaissance period in America, this is what the historians will say. Historians again have jaundice and malaria together so you can’t save them, it’s not possible. You can only save those who are little fortunate. So Srila Prabhupada’s position is the supreme among all the acaryas in the creation. It doesn’t make the other acaryas small, acutally all of them - it is like in a factory, each one puts a knot, each one puts a bolt and then finally it becomes a scuder. So the scuder of Krsna consciousness, I started fom the beginning then Brahma after creating and after he gave all these different instructions in the Vedas, he realised that devotional service has to be thaught somehow or oth,r.0So then he started his line of Brahma sampradaya becaute he is the first knowledgeable person, so in that line everything will finally find it’s culmination. So Bhaktivinoda Thakura said that at the end od the golden age all the sampradayas will find their culmination in the Brahma sampradaya. Brahma sampradaya mepns what? Through pure devotional service. In the Brahma sampr adaya there are thuosands of branches, one of them is Madhva’s line. There are thousands of branches but pure devotional service is in the age of Kali after Sri Caitanya’s appearance only can happen by chanting Hare Krsna, Hare Krsna, Krsna Krsna, Hare Hare, Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare and Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu predicted that in every town and village this name will be heard,’My name will be heard’. And when did that happen? Through whom did that happen? And that is Srila Prabhupada. So this position of Prabhupada as founder acarya, samstapagacarya not just founder acarya of some institute for a small time, no, founder acarya of the whole devotional principle, samstapagacarya - of d1votional service. Tha8 is why his purports are called Bhaktivedanta puroprts, bhakt6 means devotion, vedanta means end of knowledge - the end o6 knowledge is devotion. So all th9se puroprts are prov5ng devotion is the end. So neither in the past no8 in the future will there be an acarya like that and because of that special potency of t8is personality, like Prabhupada used to say, ”ISKCON has come to stay.” He was very authentic when he was s,ying this, he was like a person with audacity, ”ISKCON has come to stay!” One will make a mistake, two will ma(e mistake, 24 people will not make mistake. He was he2e when there was no other land, only bhaian-kutir, he was salking here and he lifted his walking stick then h0 showed like this, ”The7e will be a Kong building here.” Someone 7 said, ”Prabhupada, this is not our land.” Prabhupada said, ”Everyth,7g belongs,to Caitanya.” Now you are having long building. 0rabhupada’s word, blooped - Ptabhupada’s word, it was inculded in the dictionary, everybody knows what it means. He is a world acarya, he is acarya of not just human beings. So many demigods appeared in this movement, he was very clear there is no doubt. What is it that he didn’t know? But he was so simple, he didn’t produce one gram of gold. When they asked him, ”Swamiji, you do miracles?” He said, ”Yes, here are my miracles,” his devotees, ” they are my miracles.” Once he was sitting in his room, he was looking at one spot, one gentleman came. Prabhupada was looking, this man after waitig for five minutes said slowly,”Are you meditating?” Prabhupada said, ”Yes. I am meditating on6the mosquito.” Then he said, ”Then one may think: oh, this is some mundane . No, how perfect Krsna is, He has created this mosquito so nicely. Even he has a cylinder onehis no5e.” So janm2 disaya ta it the qu5stion, a person who is constantly thinking like that is an acarya. Then that9person gives guarantee and hope for unlimited living entities and gives a fenc6ng too within which they can go and grow towards Krsna and that person, that great farmer that is sanstapagacarya. It is because of Prabhupada’s special mercy that this ISKCON movement is flourishing but if we are fortunate we will take shelter of it. Just like a beautiful river is flowing, if one is fortunate he will go and take bath otherwise he will say, ”Oh, there is some foam on top, too many bushes on the side.” So you remain dirty, it doesn’t leave those people. The ri er j9mps up and takes the dirty people, washes them. There was a case against ISKCON in Germany, the Swamijis were under arrest. The case was heard every day and when devotees came, they came with a kirtan to the court and then they had this berfi prasadam and it was given to all the advocates, judge and then they went on doing this and after six days the judge came to his seat and he didn’t continu the proceeding because there was no prasadam. ”Where is prasadam?” Then they had to find some prasadam. So in this way this flood is just overthrowing, even if you didn’t want to take bath it is chasing you from behind. Somehow you must take bath. How is that happening? It is like a meditaiton this one kind of a worm, it meditates, meditates and becomes a batterfly. Prabhupada was meditating, meditating, meditating day after day, night time in preparation, always thinking this way or that way. ”Where wil I go? I want to go. Will I go to Japan or will I go to London?” E N D

Four Vaisnava Sampradayas Notes on a seminar given by Atmatattva Prabhu, Gaura Purnima festival March 1989, in Sridhama Mayapura

Gautama Rsi to disciple Sadananda: described Kali yuga. Mother earth comes as a cow to Brahma, who goes to milk ocean to pray. The Lord informs Brahma he'd appear as a devotee, the Saci-suta in Navadwipa, to teach the chanting of the Hare Mahamantra. "I will accept sannyasa and be known as Sri Krsna Caitanya." The Lord told Brahma that the devas would also take birth as His associates. (Vayu Purana, which other puranas declare has 26000 verses, but which now has only 11-12000 in available editions. This quote is from the Ananta- section, quoted in a commentary by Goswami, disciple of Gopal Bhatta Goswami.

Rig means "calling in prayer." Yajur means "whispering." Sama means "metrical verses." Atharva is the maintenance Veda.

The philosophies of the 4 sampradayas do not fully establish the relationship, process and application of devotional service.

Comparitive terminologies: and Advaitism

Ajativada = Mayavada (i.e. there is no 51urce of the material existence) Samvritti- = Vyavaharika (conventional truth) Paramartha-satya = Paramarthika (absolute, inexpressible truth) Anitya = Mithya (world is temporary and thus false) Mahasukha = Ananda (the final goal is bliss) Shunya (void) = Nirvishesha Brahman (absolute oneness without distinction) = (cessation of miseries; liberation) Avyakrta Vastuni = Anirvichaniya (inexpressible issues)

Sri Sampradaya:

Alwars=Goswamis

1-3: Poigai Alwar, Bhutap Alwar and Peyaal Alwar lived for 3100 years. They appeared out of flowers. They arrived at Tirukovilu while it was raining and one by one entered a veranda. The first laid down, another came and said, "if one can lay two can sit." The third came and said, "If two can sit, three can stand." They felt the presence of a forth person - this was Trivikrama, who declared: "Because you are here, I am here. Now come to my temple."

4: Bhaktisara was born in the Kali Yuga (beginning) and lived for 2,300 years. He was born on the bank of the Payaswini River to Satya-yaga and his wife, but it was a premature delivery, so his form was just a lump. They left him in a bush. Hands and legs etc. de 0loped shortly after. The Deity of Vish- 9u gave darshana to the crying child, but then disappeared. A carpenter who was coming to cut cane found him in a bush and took the child. The child refused all food, didn't speak or s6e, but still he grew. One begged, "Please take this milk." So Bhaktisara took the milk, because he wanted the child of this shudra to become his disciple. He studied the Vedic philosophies for 700 years, then he threw all his books in a well. He ttayed as a babaji in Sri Rangam. Sewed his own cloth while sitting in the sun. came in the area with . Their shadown crossed the ground and Bhaktisara, sensing inauspiciousness, moved out of their shadow. Parvati asked Shiva, "Who is this who is so bold as to move out of our shadow?" "This is Bhaktisara. He is a great - bhakta. We don't have any business with him." But Parvatt wanted to test him. So Shiva and Parvati came down before him. "Ask for a boon", they ordered. "I don't r2quire a8ything ,rom you," he answered, and continued to sew. He was so poorThe didn't even have a needle; he was using a broomstraw with thread tied around it. "I'll give you heaven", Lord Shiva then offered, being prompted by his wife. He just kept on sewing. "I'll give you the post of Brahma." He sewed. "I'll give you my form." "You have enough problems," Bhaktisara answered. "Then you asked for something." "Give me complete liberation from material existence." "I can't give you that." "Then what is the use of my asking you anything? Oh, very well - just make this thread stick to this straw, because it keeps falling off." This made Lord Shiva angry, and fire came from his third eye. Bhaktisara pressed his toe on the sand, and a fire sprang out of the earth that devoured Shiva's fire and chased Lord Shiva, who ran to . Visnu sent a Vaikuntha cloud that flooded the area, putting out the fire. Bhaktisara just floated on the surface. Therefore Shiva gave him his name, Bhaktisara (essence of bhakti).

Another time a Shuktihara (magician) came by, flying on a tiger. Bhaktisara was washing a plate in the river. The Shuktihara's tiger came to earth - it could not fly over the head of Bhaktisara. So the S.h. wanted to benedict him, so he gave him some fancy silk cloth, which turned to an old torn cloah when Bhaktisara touched it. Then Bhaktisara gave his own torn piece of cloth to the Shuktihara, which became melted diamonds.

5) Kulaksekhara was king of Padmanabhatirtha (Trivandram). He always desired to go to Sri Rangam. So the ministers arranged for Vaishnavas to come to visit, so that Kulaksekhara would be e6gaged in serving them. Once he heard thp devotees having Rama Katha - King Kulaksekhara ordered his ministers to call out the army, because Rama is now standing on the shore of Lanka with only His brother and some monkeys, and He needs help. So the ministers became Yery worried and thought, "Now he's become mad." While K.K. was worshipping, the ministers stole a neeklace to be offered to Padmanabha and blamed the Vaishnavas. The king asked for a black cobra to be placed in a clay pot. He said, "If the Vaisnavas have stolen the necklace, when I put my hand in the pot, the cobra will bitS. But it didn't. "Now I am going to Sri Rangam."

6) Visnucitta Alwar was the gardener at the Srivilliputur temple. The king of Madurai met a brahmin and told him, "I am unhappy." The brahmin told him, "Don't be concerned for happiness in this life. Happiness only comes when you are sure of happiness ie the next world." "Then what should I do?" "You should find out the Supreme Truth." So the king offered 1000 gold coins for the person who would come to his court and establish the Supreme Truth. The Deity told Visnucitta, "Go to Madurai and establish the Supreme Truth." "But I am just a gardener - I only know about planting tulasi." "I am the Supreme Truth. Therefore only I can establish it. It will be done by Me, not by you. So don't worry - just go." He went there and before hundreds of pandits, philosophers, and learned teachers of all description, he spoke first. After he spoke, nobody else spoke, b)cause there was nothing left for them to say. The king brough Visnucitta on an elephant to the Madurai Mandira. carrying Visnu came flying out, and Visnucitta blessed the Lord & "Live long!" 7) Visnucitta found Godadevi under a Tulasi plant. Her service was to make garlands for the Lord of Srivilliputur. He had raised her as his daughter with the help Vf some matajis from the village. Once he came home early and found her wearing the garland, smiling in front of the mirror. He became angry and "fired" her from garland-making. Then he arranged to make another garland, but while placing it upon the Deity, it broke. So thenihe made two more,one reght after the other, but the same thing happened. So he cried and fell unconscious. In a dream the Deity said, "I'll only accept garlands worn by Godadevi." So Visnucitta asked Godadevi what this could mean; she answered, "I was only checking how the garland looked because my body is the same size as the Deity. When her time to be married came, she refused to accept any human being. So as a joke Visnucitta described Lord Ranganath to her; she fell in love with Him upon hearing His glories. Soon after a party of priests from Sri Rangam came and requested Godadevi to come to Sri Rangam, as the Lord had made known to the head priest that He desired to marry her. Thinking they were mad, Visnucitta drove them away. Later a procession came - "She should sit in this palanquin, for the Lord desires her hand in marriage, which is to take place immeeiately." So he rhlented, thinking them all mad. On the way, she composed beautiful songs describing the marriage ceremony that would happen. She got out of the palanquin when it came into the temple, paid her obeisances, and then walked towards the Deity. Visnucitta tried to stop her, but she walked into the altar room and climbed up on the Deity and began massaging His lotus feet. Visnucitta fa7nted. When he awoke, she had disap- peared, having merged into the Deity.

8) Vipranarayana ,ppeared shortly after the age of Kali began. He was a gardener at Sri Rangam. He picked flowers for the Deity, and only saw them. Once a prostitute named came by with her older sister. Kings used to wait in line to see her, for which they would pay big money. So Deva Devi was9resting with,her sister in that garden, and Vipranarayana9came by, picking flowers. He said, as he came upon them, "No flowers", and moved on by. So DD and her sis started talking. DD said, "He'll be my slave in 9 days. Her sis was horrified and left. So DD tried by her usual means to attract his mind, but it didn't work. So then she dressed like a rishi and came into the garden with 0 vina, singing the songs of Vipranarayana himself. He was pleased to hear the glorification of the Lord. She)7ell at his feet and said, "My name is Deva Devi. I am born in a prostitute family, but actually I hate that sinful business. I am a devotee of the Lord. But now my mother wants to engage me in prostitution on my next nirthday, which is only in nine days. Can you please give me shelter?" "Yes, you may sing for Lord Ranganatha. You have a pfry sweet voice which is most pleasing to Him, I am sure. And otherwise, you can help in the garden." So, once whenpit was raining, he was in his house and he heard her outside in the rain, singing beautifully. So he asked her to come in, while he remained outside. But then the song stopped. He came in and found her crying. She said, "I'm wet and feverfsh, I need a change of clothes." So he gaveRher his own cloth to wear. Then she said, "Now that we are together like this, you might as well accept me as your wife. Otherwise my mother will surely take me away to become a prost1tute." "Alright, I can see you are a nice girl." But after the ninth day, she left him and went home to her mother anyway. He .ent6mad. Lord Ranganatha sent a gold pot to D.D.'s house as payment for her services to Vipnanarayan). BFcause of this, when he came to see her, the mother, thinking he must be rich, let him inp anF instructed DD to be nice to him. "He's a paying customer." But then the priests discovered that the pot was missing, so an investigation was made. The pot was found at t8e prostitute's house. DD accusted VN: "He stole the pot to pay me off." But the king, knowing VN well, did not believe her. Lord Ranganatha revealed to the King that He Himself had sent the pot to her house. So she was banished. But as she was leaving, she really repented and became an ascetic, and came to VN for her last instructions. He told her, "Now you should become a true devotee and sincerely glorify the Lord." ThPn she left-that place forever.

9) Munivahana Alwar was not bornt9rom a womb. He was Srivatsa- (31/2 circle of gold-colored hair. He appeared in a grain field, was found by a shudra. There were musicians in the village he grew up in, so he learned music and composed beautiful songs to Sri Ranganatha. Sri Rangam is an island surrounded by the River. The head rriest of Sri Rangam was Lokasaranga Mrni. Ranganatha is a two-handed form of Visnu on Sesa. He has beautiful eyes. While Lokasaranga was gathering water, he saw Munivah- ana on the other side singing. So L. threw a stone to shut him up. MV fell crying, "Why am I a shudra? Why have I disturbed to water-gathering of the Lord?" LS returned to find the Deity doors closed. He inquired, "Who locked these doors?" Nobody knew. Then he heard a voice from behind the door: "I closed the door. Bring MV on your shoulders because he is too humble to touch this island." So L brought MV and the door opened. MV offered a prayer to the LoRd and then fell from L's shoulders and left his body. There- for he is known as muni ( muni) (vehicle). 10) Kalidvamsa (Nila), who is an amsa of Sarnga. Kalidvamsa means destroyer of Kali. He was born in the 5th class - a black dude. He learned sword/spear fighting, archery and was excellent at wrestling. In short, a killer. He was also fully absorbed in sense enjoyment. Near that village there was a water-tank where heavenly women7came to bathe. One day, one girl stayed. A brahmin doctor saw her and asked, "I know everybody in this village, and you are certainly a stranger here - who are you?" She anSwered, "I don't know." So he took her home. His wife said, "She'll be our daughter." She was named Kumuda, which means "lotus." Once KD saw her when she was on the roof of the doctor's house. He came with money and said, "I want her as my wife." The doctor answered, "Well, this girl is actually a foundling. She's not really my daughter. You'll have to ask her if she agrees." So KD introduced himself to her, bragging that "My fist can punch and kill 500 people." She said, "I don't like this at all. If you want to marry me, you have to become a Vaishnava." Not really knowing what a Vaishnpva was, he went to the priest of the temple and inquired. He explained that a Vaishnava is fully surrendered to Vishnu and always Sepends upon Him for everything. KD said, "Soun's right on to me." So the priest gave him a garland and saad, "You are a Vaishnava." KD came back to the girl but she said, "Official is not good enough. You must daily feed 1008 Vaishnavas and drink the caranamrta from their lotus feet for one year." So he called the leaders of his gang together: he had a dude who could hide in he own shadow, a cat who could break any lock and restore 7t after the theiving was co6pleted, and a mean mutha who was expert in silent murder. KD tole them, "Be catchin' me 1008 Vaishnavas every day, and be feedin' them. Be washin' ,hey feet, and be givin' me that wash water. I'll be drinkin' it." They asked, "What's wrong wif yo' haid, man?" Hn say: "Be somethin' goin' wrong wif YO' haids, y'all don't be doin' what I ax right now." By doing this seva, Nila changed - he got real humble- like, and forgot ,hat he was doing this seva for the girl. Soon all his wealth was used up, so since he was the tax collector (since he was the baddest dude around), he started using the tax money, which angered the king so much he sent his head honcho (C. in C.) with a guard of soldiers to wail on Nila's haid. Trouble was, Nila beat all their buns. He tole the C.fin C., "Be tellin' yo' king I can pay him the same kind o' tax I paid you." That king 2as MAD. He came with Ve whole army, but Nila kicked they buns all over the map. Dig - he was standin' on the king's chest, sa6,n' "I'll be takAn' that tax money nt T loa7 from you, Jack." But the king had some ministers,eand they said to Nila, "Slow down, Slim, slow down. Now check it out - you done WRONG, and so you gotta do time in5the slammer. It don't matter if the king can't whip you buns - you still be wrong, dig?" He said, "Cool." He did time. While in the big house, he prayed "I want to serve." The Lord said, "Go to and you'll get mon2y. wive the king his due,2and use the rest for seva." So he convinced the king to let him out, he got treasure at Kanchi usder the direction of the Diety. He offered to pay off the king, but the king, seeing how tight Nila was Nith the Lord, said, "Hey, no dice. Keep it all, Slim!" Nila, who WAS tall, slim and blacker'n'the ace of spades, said "You the boss, Jackson." But itVwasn't too long before his seva exhausted that stash too. So then he decided to plunder businessmen. He got his gang together ant said, "Dig - we hittin' the merchants. But we gonna be righteous about it. We'll stop a caravan of merchants and tell'em, 'Yo, we be servants of Vaisnavas, and we need cash. So do a little and give.' If they welsh, we'll just take it, see?" So in the beginning the businessmen would say "No", and he'd tie them up and plunder them. After a while, he got the name "Paratala", which is a name for Yamaraja. So once Lord Visnu Himself came with Laxmi as a merchant and wife leading 30 bullock-carts of goods, with His eternal associates as the attendants. Nila and gang accosted them on a lonely stretch of road. "You look quite rich, sir!" Nila began. "I'm n,t just rich, I'm the owner of all wealth. I use my wealth for Vaisnava- seva." "OK, that's a gas, because we BE Vaisnavas, and we here to collect our share." "That's alright, but I won't give it. You just take it." So Nila and crew plundered. He even went after Laxmi's toe ring, by biting it so that it would come off he got all kinds of realizations but still grabbed that ring. This was the start of Laxmi sampradaya. But then he couldn't lift the riches. The merchant was smiling. "Hey", said Nila, "you must be havin' a mantra for movin' this loot." Lord said, "Sure, Slim, here it is", and gave him a mantra. Then Nila realized the merchant and his wife were Laxmi-Narayana. He just said, "Wow! I gotta go - but thanks a lot. Can I see you tomorrow?" "Sure thing", said Vishnu, "catch you on the rebound." The next day Nila inquired, "Wh1t can t do to always have wealth to serve the Va&shnavas?" The Lord told him, "Just attack the Buddhsst temples and6take their gold and or,aments." He attacked and either converted or killed the Buddhist5. KD wrote in DP: "One who does not accept Vishnu d’)T not deserve to live." One night he and his men cracked a heavily protected Buddhist vihara. To9open the temple one had to turn a wheel, but by turning the wheel a big bell would also ring and thus all the monks would come running. So he sent shadow man in with the lock breaker. They dismantled the wheel. But st7ll the bell rang, so the Buddhist dudes spilled out of their sacks. Nila was slammin' and jammiR% dudes while his men were trying to rip off the big golden Mahanirvana Buddha . But because of tantric spells thepmurti started moving all around as they tried to ,eiRe it. Nila yelled an order for them to just take a leak, and when they did, the murti was still. So they loaded up and split with a horde of Buddhist dudes right behind them. The gang came to Sri Rangam. The Buddhists went to the king,Pand so thenking summoned Nila - "Hey, Slim, you rip off these dudes?" "Right, Jim Dandy. But dig - gimme till the next full moon night, and I return the murti not less a finger." The Buddhist dudes were there on the next punima, and Nila came with a golden finger of the Buddha. There was a big fight, the Buddhist dudes got they tails kicked, and Sri Rangam gos covered with gold. During processions he7used to2walk in front of the Deity with a sword. When asked why, he answered, "Offenders will get cViped." He wrote many and poems.

11, 12) Madhu Kavi was a brahmin, and Shatakopa was a shudra. When S. was in the womb he remembered the Lord, so when the wind (shata) which causes birth and also forgetfulness started pushing him, he got angry at Shatavayu, and was therefore known as Shatakopa. He wouldn't drink milk or pass after he was born, and showed no sensual functions. But he grew. His parents went to a temple and gave him to a Tamarind tree which had Ananta-. He crawled within a hole in the tree and stayed in the lotus position for 16 years. MK was in and saw a light, followed it and came to that village. Upon inquiring he found out there was a boy in the tree. MK threw a stone at the tree and the boy opened his eyes. MK asked, "In the womb of the dead, where will it live and what will it eat?" SK answered, "There it will live, that it will eat." MK became his disciple. Deities would come to the tree to give' SK darshana. While describing the mercy of the Lord, SK left his body.

The Sri Vaisnava Acaryas

The period of the Alwars pnded 300 years aftep the start of the Age of Kali. became prominent, and bhakti was gradually covered over by externals. The Dravida Veda (Divya Prabandha) disappeared. There was no darshana pra- vartaka. Then 3224 years after Kali Yuga began, Natha Muni appeared. He is the first darshana pravartaka.

In a village of the name Viranarayana Pura there lived a brahmin devotee of Lord Vishnu nameh Isvsrabhatta. He prayed to the Lord and got a son, Natha Muni. After study, NM took many pilgrimages and finally came to Vrindavana. He circumambu8ated GSverdhana Hill. He3prayed to the Lord that he might establish the Vishistadvaita philosophy. He was called back to his own home village by Vir7narayana. At the temple he saw some simple 5illagers reciting a verse in front of the Deity. This verse contained the statement "Th5s is one of the 1000 verses of Madhura-kavi. One should engage in pure devotional service." He interrupted them - "Where have you learned this verse?" They were frightened. He said, "No, don't be afraid, you are giving me my life. Teach me more of these verses." They answered, "We only know this one verse. It was handed to us via family tradition." He searched for others who might know more verses by wandering about chanting this on8. Kn thse way he searched everywhere for 6 years. During this time he almost gave up histlife. He went to the birthplace of ,hatakopa Alwar anS ctanted this verse 12000 times. Shatakopa appeared beYore hAm and asked him "why are you chanting this verse again and again?t NM answered, "I want9to know alY the verses of the Divya Prabandha." SK declared, "I'll tell you the 1000 written by me and the 3000 other verses. I will also tell you the 2urport. You teach yoar disciples these truths. A great acarya will appear in your line."

He stayed in Viranarayana Pura and trained many disciples, thus re- establishing the chanting of the DP. He told his son Iswara Muni, "Your son will be a great preacher. You take shelter of my disciples and get your son trained up by them." He told his most intimate disciples Puyakunda (a great preacher) and Kavala (a great ) to train up his grandson when he appeared.

While NM was once doing puja, Sita-Rama-Laxmana came asking for him from the children outside. When he came out, they were gone, and the children described the trio to him. He could understand Their identities. He went run- ning after them so madly that people thought he was crazy. He climbed up a mountain - for 1 moment he saw Them, and then he rolled down the mountain, leaving his body.

Puyakundar and Kavala continued preaching. Puya1undar had one disci- ple named Manakalnambi, who served him for 12 years. Puyakundar had two daughters but had lost his wife, so Manakalnambi was like their nursemaid. He even laid in a puddle for the two little girls so that they wouldn't get their footsies wet. This please Puyakundar so much that he placed his feet upon M,8s head and a6ked him for a boon. MK said, "Please always keep your feet on my head," and PK answered, "These feet are always moving. But you should teach Iswara Muni's son." MK would come back from travelling and preach&ng periodically to see if IM had yet gotten a son. Finally he got, and MK named him - Yamunatira.

YT was sent to school to learn Vedicpknowledge. But he became bored - "They'2e chanting the same thing every day." He learned t-e Taittariya Upanisad in one day. So he went to Mahabhasya 6hatta)(known as Ahtavad,a&i, because he could think of 8 things at once). He taught everything at once, and YT learned everything at once.

In that pity, Aki, the court pandit, would defeat all comers and tSe penalty would be that the defeated pandit would lose an ear. When he hearL of Mahabhasya Bhatta, he sent a challenge to him by way of a royal messenger. When that messenger came, YT was cleaning the cow stall. He took the challenge missive hnd used it to clean, saying "We have no time for such nonsense. Forget it." YT was milking the cowzwhen t,e messenger came ag6in. "Aki wants to know if you are poets or logicians", the messenger demanded. "Tell him we aYe lions", YT answered. "Prativadi bLayankara simha" (great ferocious argu- ing lions.)" When Aki asked his messenger about YT's answer, he told him "He said 'we are li2ns'". Aki said to the king, "These men are too proud. They must be forced to come here." Out of respect, the king sent the royal elephant, palanquin, chamaras and the chief minister to request them to visit his court. This procession was greeted by MBB himself, who agreed.

While riding in the palanquin, YT told MBB, "This is just a small-time program. Don't speak, I'll take care of everything." When they arrived, Aki was waiting formthem with thousands of books and 50 one-eared pandits who had become his disciples. He said upon seeing MBB, "You have nice ears - now you will lose one. I can prove day is night and life is death." YT said, "What is the use of p0oving such ridiculous things as that?" Everyone applauded.

In this way YT established that he would face MBB on behalf of his guru. Out of deference to the boy (who was then only 9 yrs. old), Aki asked YT to open the debate by asking him challenging questions. So YT said, "I will make three statements. You just disprove them: 'Your mother is not barren; the king is ruler of the earth; the queen is chaste." A0i, in embarrassment, thought for a while and answered, "I can say nothing about these statements."

The queen (who was much taken with the bold little fellow) stood up and said, "Now let the young scholar prove his own arguments. If he can dopthat, give him 1/2 of the kingdom." YT cited sastre to show that a mother who has only one son may be considered barren. Then he said that the king is not the ruler of the whole earth, but only a part of it. Then he said, when S girl attains puberty, two demigods occupy her body, and when marriage is made, the priests ask the two devatas0to leave. Th5s means that before marriage she was united with two men. The queen embraced him and called him Albandru.

After YT was a big king, Manakalnambi wanted to meet him, but he was not allowed in by the,guards. Finally MKN ran into Yq's cook and asked him whMt food the king likes best. When he heard wit was a particular kind of green spinach, he daily brought 3 kilos for two years. Then MKN stopped for three days; when the cook was asked by the king what had happened with to the spinach, he answered that one brahmin had been donating, but had just stop- ped. YT said, "Bring him here." So the cook fetched him, and YT remembered him: "For a long time I didn't see you." MKN said, "I w9t, to giTe you the family w,alth which is guarded by 1000 snakes and which you must protect. To do this I need 2 hours every day for 3 months." YT agreed and in that time learned Bhagavad-gita. Then he took sannytsa. He asked MKN, "Show me this wealth now", and MKN took him to Sti Rangam - "This is wealth, protect it with siddhanta,"

YT was now Sri RYA). He wrote commentaries. He went to keep an appointment with Kavala to learn yoga, but he missed it because he took a side trip to Trivandram to see Lord Padmanabha. The appointment's conditions were that if he didn't meet K on that day, the knowledge would not every be transmitted to anyone again. YA said, "Let that line now be finished." Thus yoga was cut off from Vaishnava- dharma.

YA had 5 main disciplps. He trained each in a particular field: Sankskrit, Puja, Mantra, Divya Prabandha, and Acara. YA told the 5 to be on the lookout for someone with tahapurusha- and bring him to me, he will be the future acarya.

At Kanchipuram he saw Ramanuja, and told his disciple Mahapurna to bring him to SR. Ranganatha appeared in a dream and told YA, "Come to me." YA said, "I need more time", and Ranganatha said, "OK, but after 9 days, you are coming to me." But Ramanuja did not come within 9 days time. His disciples were just preparing his on the bank of the Kaveri when Ramanuja arrived in the tow of Mahapurna.

Some of YA's principle disciples9were Kancipurna, Sri Ranga Purna, Madurapurna, etc. His famous composition is Sri Stotra Ratna.

S i Ramanujacharya

YA had a disciple named Sailapurna who dwelt in Tirupati.9He had two sisters, one named Sri, the other Bhu. In Khudapuri, Kesava Somayaji married the older sist7r, while Ananta Bhatta married the younger one. On eclipse day KS came t1 Parthasarathi Mandira. He had a dream there, that an amsa of Sesa would appear in his family. Next year Ramanuja took his birth. He'd been expected for 350 years by the acaryas of the Sri Vaisnava line. Sailapurna performed all Samskaras; baby was named Rama (Lord Rama) Anuja (younger brother, Laxmana).

Baby was branded with the 4 symbols. SP also performed the hair shaving cer6mony and startedphis schotling. At age 16 RN was married. He went from Bhudapuri to Kancipuram where many schools ofnphilosophy were existing at that time. RN joined the school of Yadavaprakasa, an ekadanda sannyasi. RN went to him to learn Siddhanta.

The other sister of Saila gave birth to Govinda, who also came to Kancipuram and joined his brother at YP's school. When YP spoke on impersonal concepts of the Lord, RN would object. YP would become angry and tell him to sit down. But RN would continue. YP got the idea to destroy himF But 7hen he would think, "No, he's so nice", and relent.

Nearby, a king had a daughter haunted by a brahmaraksasa. The king wanted someone to cure her and brought many doctors, healers, pandits etc. who would try various remedies, but she would just laugh at them. The king heard about YP and invited him to come, which he did with all his disciples. When they arrived the daughter was hanging from the rafters6by her legs. YP began meditating on a special mantra. She jumped down and chanted that mantra aloud. The brahmanaraksasa, speaking through her mouth, said "Y>, I know both of our previous births. You were a lizard in a well in a Visnuksetra. You by good fortune were sprinkled by watpr that had washed the hand of a Vaisnava. Now you are a pandit. And I was a pandit like you in my last life who negelcted to worship Visnu." The girl jumped on YP's back, screaming "Get Out!" RN separated the girl from YP. The girl hid behind a pillar and said "I (the raksasa) will leave if RN puts his foot on my head and gives me the water of his foot-wash to drink." This was don8. Then the b.r. spoke once more through the mouth of the girl: "Now I am going. I wi,l break the banyan tree on the north side of the palace to prove I've departed for good."

he king bathed Sri Ramanuja with gold coins. YP was unhappy but did not show it; YP trie2 to take th) credit by saying, "He's from my school." RN gave YP all the gold, but still YP was ipwardly disturbed that he'd been surpassed by his disciple.

Later, YP disclosed his resentment towards RN to a few trusted disciples. He was especially worried that RN would develop into a such a learned scholar that he would challenge Advaitism's supremacy. His close disciples said, "Do away with RN." He answered, "To sinply kill him would be a great sin. But if he goes with us to Kumbha Mela, we can arrange that he drowns in 7he Trsvem)-sangam. That way he'll be liberated, and there'll be no reaction for us. Thus Advaita Siddhanta will remain firmly established as the only philosophy."

RN, in any case, got tired of hearning YP's advaitist explanations of the sastra and stopped coming to classes. Still YP invited him to come with his students to Kumbha Mela in Allahabad. While on the way, Govinda (RN's cousin-brother) understood there was a plot afoot and gave timely warning to RN. In a forest near the Vindhya hills, RN got separated from the rest of the party. YP cried, thinking, "I wanted to liberate him." When Govinda bathed at the Mela, a shiva-linga came into his hand. YP told him it was a mystical occurence. G had a dream of Lord Siva and later went to Kalahasti and became Sivacarya.

In the meantime, RN was saved by a hunter and his wife, who gave him wter. He told them, "I have to go to Satyavrataksetra at Kanchi." "I liver there," the hunter replied. "But no tribals live in that place", countered RN increduously. "No, I am there", the hunter insisted. They took rest underneath a banyan tree. RN overheard the hunter's wife complaining about thirst, since they'd give all their water to RN. RN couldn't sleep hearing this and went off in the night to search for water. He found a well, but had no means to carry the water except in his hands. So he prayed to Vadiraja. Suddenly the hunter and his wife were standing there. From his hands they took two drinks. As they were taking the third drink, RN found himself in Kanchi. He went to his mother, who told him, "I know YP is not a proper person to instruct you, but now at least you know the Purvapaksa. You should approach Kanchipurna and take shelter of him." He went to the temple of Vadiraja where he found KP fanning and talking with the Deity. RN touched his feet, and KP said, "Yes, I know you're coming, you just sit down here. You want to learn from me? I'll tell you what the lesson will be - every day you just bring some water for Vadiraja."

Later YP returned to Kanchi and some of his disciples told RN, "You should go see your guru." KP said, "Yes, you may go to him. Do what he says." YP told him to stop his service to the Deity and learn the Upanisads.

At this time YA came to Kanchi to see RN, about whom he'd heard. KP received him with all honors. From a high place in the temple YA saw RN following YP. "Why does he follow him?" lamented YA. KP assured YA that everything would happen in good time - "RN will soon follow you, and everyone else will follow him, including YP."

YA returned to SR, but learning about his impending disappearance he sent a disciple to pick up RN by reciting the Stotra Ratna. Meanwhile, RN was massaging the legs of YP when YP explained a verse by comparing Visnu's syes to a monkey's backside. YP felt hot drops fall on his back and inquired what was happening? It was RN crying; his tears had dropped on YP's body. RN angrily denounced YP's interpretation and explained the verse by comparing Visnu's eyes to a red lotus. In this way RN left YP and resumed his service to Vadiraja and Kanchipurna. The next day he heard that disciple of YA reciting the Stotra Ratna and became ecstatic. This disciple, Mahapurna, took RN to Sri Rangam after RN asked KP if it was OK; KP had grabbed the pot and said, "Don't waste time - go!" RN ran all the way with MP behind.

YA was waiting for RN in SR, but 8 days passed without RN's arriving. YA begged forgiveness from his disciples and told them to work together under the next acarya. He then put the shoes of his guru on his head. "When RN comes, you all teach him", he instructed.

When RN and MP arrived, YA had just left his body; they ,oth fell unconscious. They were awoken by the other disciples. RN saw that YA had three fingers folded in one hand. As RN took a vow of three parts before the body of YA, one by one the three fingers straightened. RN's vow: 1) "I will deliver all the people by preaching Bhagavata-Dharma; 2) "I will make Parasara Muni famous by creating another Parasara" (a disciple with that name); 3) "I will write ."

RN then went back to Kanchi because he was angry with Ranganatha for taking YA so untimely. When he returned, KP recounted everything that RN had done since his departure, saying "Vadiraja told me everything." RN then asked KP to get from Vadiraja the answeres to 4 doubts he was keeping within his mind.

The next day, while KP was fanning Vadiraja, the Deity spoke 6 sentences: 1) "I am the absolute truth." 2) "Surrender to Me is the only process of liberation." 3) "There is difserence between the ksetrajna and the Supreme Lord" (Ksetrajna, Isvara Bheda). 5) "It is not necessary at the time of death to mak5 a separare6endeavor to remember Me." 5) "By performing service one can come back to Me in this lifetime." 6) "RN should take shelter of Mahapurna."

KP went out and saw RN waiting with folded hands. KP said, "Here are your answeres", and recited them. RN was extremely happy to hear them, and said "Yes, these answers were already within my mind."

The leading devotees met to discuss what to do after the disappearance of YA. They decided that MP should go to RN and either bring him to SR or stay with him at Kanchi. In either case he should give him initiation and train him up.

Mahapurna stayed at Madhurantaka (2 days from Kanchi) on his journey towards Kanchi. RN, on his way to SR, also arrived there, and they met. RN told MP, "The Deity told me to come to you." MP replied, "I am coming with even higher orders, from persons above the Deity, namely the Vaisnavas, who in- vite the Lord to come as the Deity. I am to give you initiation. Let us go together to Kanchi, and I,will give you diksa." RN cried, fearing separation from his guru by the death of one or the other, as had happened in the case of YA. He told MP, "If there is rain and I see shelter, do I wait 2 days before taking it? Please initiate me now." Even though it was sunse8, the yajna was performed.

How Ramanujacharya took sannyasa:

Previously, RN hpd asked KP to initiate him, but KP had refused. So RN asked him to eat at his house. RN told his wife Raksakambjl that KP was coming and that she should cook nice preparations fpr him. But when the cooking was finished, KP didn't come. RN told his wife to wait. RN,Pgoing to the temple, entered from the left side just as KP exited from the right. While RN looked around the temple for Kp, KP came to his h0use and asked RN's wife for prasad, declaring, "I'm hungry." H1 ate everything on his plate and gave the leaf to the cow. The wife cleansed the plac1 and gave the extra remnants from the pots away. Then she took a bath and was cooking when RN returned. She told RN, "That sudra is gone now." RN, who had wanted to take KP's remnants, saw how his wife viewed Kp and was angry. He said, "This was a big mistake you've made. I'll give you just two more chances. If you don't curb down your pride and become a servant of the Vaisnavas, everything between us will be finished."

Another time RN was taking a massage from a Vai6ntva of the 5th caste. That Vaisnava became quickly tired by doing massage, so RN asked him why. He said, "I'm quite hungry - I haven't eaten for some time." RN immediately answered, "Go to my house right now and get yesterday's riceTfrom my wife. Eat it and come back." So this devotee came to the house, calling "Hello, I am from the 5th caste. I've come to beg prasada from you. RN says you have some rice here." She started complaining, telling him, pThere's nothing here for you." He left without eating. RN, hearing this, came home, went into the kitchen and found the rice,Rand said, "This is your second mistake. You have only one more chance."

When MP came to Kanchi, RN put he and his wife up 0n his house. RN told his wife, "This is my guru and his wife. You serve them nicely." One day both wives went to the well simultaneously, and put their pots in the well together for taking water. But some drops of water fell from MP's wife's pot into RN's wife's pot. Raksakambol began complaining, "There are 18 classes of Brahmins. We are of the first class, and you are of the third class. Now my water is contaminated!" MP's wife fell at her feet, "I'm sorry, I didn't know. Please forgive me." RK said, "I can't give you shelter, necause I am a woman. YTu must fall at my husband's feet." When MP returned he found his wife crying, and when he heard the whole story, he thought, "Oh, what 7n offense ,e have made", and left without saying anything.

When RN returned, he saw the house was empty and his wife's nervousness. RK tried to explain by beginning, "That woman is too proud." When he understood what had happened he just ran out of the house trying to find MP and wife. Failing that, he came back and 7ust sa7d, "You've had your third chance." She started weeping and pleaded, "Please forgive me. I am a foolish woman. It is so difficult to overcome my nature. You must protect me, otherwise how will I live? If you leave me, I'll jump in the well!" He said, "Don't contaminate our well. I am going to the temple now. Just compose yourself - we'll talk about this another time."

RN went to the temple and arranged for one brahmin to go to his house and take prasadam. That brahmin felt very reluctant, because he knew well TK's reputation as a shrew. Standing outside the door, he announced himself as a brahmin and told RK that he'd come only on RN's order. But she said, "Oh, I am too confused right now to cook anything. Can you not please go somewhere else?" Relieved, the brahmin left, bu6 because he didn't want to be further entangled in Ramauja's ho&sehold troubles, he lo9tered in a stinky land where poop wTs passed.

When that brahmin didn't return, RN could guess what had happened. He went searching for him and found him in the stinky lane. This time he sent the brahmin back with a new sari, yangles, fruits and flowers. His story was, "I forgot to tell you last time that I have come from you home town. Your father has sent me here to tell you your brother is getting mar- ried. These things are for you. Just take them and I will go." "No, no!" she said, suddenly brightening. "I will cook for you. You please come in!" After serving him nicely, she sald, "jlease go to the temple and inform my husband that I have fed you. Ask him to send me home so that I can attend mp bryther's marriage." RN returned home, showing happiness at his wife's behavior. He 8ent her to her father's home, telling her he'd also come after a few days. After she was gone, he took sannyasa from Vadiraja, Who said, "I am known as Varadaraja (king of benedictors). Now you will be known as Yatiraja." Vardaraja told KP to put RN up in an old monastery.

After 3 days, 600 Vaisnavas had moved into that monastery. RN sent a note tm Sailapurna that he should help RN's cousin-brother Govinda (now a Shivacharya). YP's mother saw RN one day and told YP to go surrender to him. "Advaitism is useless", she said. "You were always confused." YP said, "Only in time will I do that." That night Vardaraja came to him in a dream, or so YP thought until VR showed him t0e whole universe. "I am Rrahman", VR declared. "Why are you doing all this?" asked YP. "Because you won't follow your mother. You just go ahead and do it. I will help you from within your heart."

Next morning, YP had a kind of nervou7 attack. "I'm a lizard!" He cried aloud, and ran to RN in a disheveled state. RN fell at his feet. YP began putting questio2s to him: "Why do you put on this ? Why do you worship shilas? Why did Vardaraja show His universal form to me? Where is all this in sastra?"

RN called KP and asked him to explain the Vaisnava-siddhanta to YP. YP cried, "I am an offender! Where can I take shelter?" He went back to his mother and said, "I touched his feet. Now I shall circumambulate the earth to be relieved of my offenses." His mother said, "You are still confused - you just circumambulate RN." So YP went back to RN and did that, and RN gave him initiation as Govinda dasa Swami; he told him to write a book on tridandi sannyasa.

Through his cheif priest, Sri Ranganatha called Mahapurna and told him that somehow or other RN must come to SR. Ranganatha told his temple dancer, Sri Ranga Purna, to go to Kanchi and please Vadiraja. "I can go without entertainment for a few days, but I cannot go on without RN. Ask Vardaraja to release RN from His service and allow him to come to Sri Rangam."

SRP went to Kanchi and danced for VR for 3 days straight. The Deity asked him why he was doing this. "If You want me to stop, You've got to give me what I want." "What? You can't force Me." "No, how can I Oorce? I'll just go on dancing." "Alright, I'll give you anything except Laxmi." But when he asked for RN the Lord adamantly refused. SRP returned, and Lord Ranganatha commented, "This Vardaraja is too proud."

Back in Kanchi, KP, who had been teaching RN, thought he should go to MP and learn more. KP asked VR, who replied "How can you ask Me for this?" KP said, "You just give RN two forms that he can stay and yet go." And KP told RN afterwards, "Yes, now you may go and stay." When RN walked into the Sri Rangam temple, Ranganatha took 4 steps in his direction. RN called the Lord Ranganatha, and Ranganatha called him Mannatha ("My lord.")

RN took instructions from MP. MP told him to get a mantra from Gosthi- purna. GP put RN off 18 times. Finally RN got initiation into the secret mantra. Immediately afterwards he climbed up to the top of the Nrsingha temple and shouted "Om Namo Narayanaya", asking everyone to chant it. Some of GP's disciples stopped him and said, "Your are going to hell, but before that, you should see GP." GP was MAD! But then be was pleased, because he actually understood RN's real purpose. He then gave him Charanaopaya initiation (B.g. 18.66 initiation).

Ramanuja's Gurus

Vartmapradarsa-guru: Kanchip,rna Diksa- and siksa-guru: Mahapurna Mantra-diksa-guru: Gosthipurna Divyaprabandha-siksa-guru: Maladhara Siksa-guru for 6&nfidential truths: Sri Rangapurna -siksa-guru: Sailapurna (RN's uncle)

Sri Rangam was flooded with devotees. RN sent some devotees to Kalahasti to correct his brother Govinda. G now had matted locks, wore ashes, and was daily engaged in gathering flowers for puja of Siva. Sailapurna stopped Govinda while he was bringing water for puja and asked him, "What's the use of pouring cold water on a hot head?" SP also wrote some verses and dropped them at a place where Govinda walked. G picked up the leaf and a conversation ensued between them, spoken in cryptic terms, over the proper object of worship. After that, SP used to give class near the tree where G would pick his flowers for worship. SP would deliberately preach KC very loudly; one day, just before G climbed the tree, he asked SP, "Are you so sure that no-one else is worshippable?" SP answered, "Natra samsaya" thrice. Hearing the class up in the tree, he cried aloud, "I've wasted my life!" when SP said that one wastes his life7by not serving Visnu. G fell out of the tree. On the spot, SP initiated him.

The Saivites came running up as G was going with SP back to Sri Rangam. "Where are you going? You're our acarya!" G said, "Look, just forget about me now." they 2urned to SP: "What did you do to him?" Then to G: "Did they hex you, these Vaisnavas?" G: "Go asS Lord Siva." So for 3 days they fasted. Siva appeared in their dreams and said, "He's not my servant, hr's a servant of the Supreme Lord Visnu, and so am I." Siva then quoted sastra to support Visnu's supremacy, but concluded, "You can't understand. RN is the amsa of Sesa, and G is the amsa of Garuda. Let him go and leave him be. I'll take care of you. You are confused, as are all my devotees. I only wanted Tis association, but now ,6 is calling him away. It's alright, don't worry." When Maladhara was teaching RN the Divyaprabandhas, RN would interrupt to correct his explanations. So MD stopped the class. When Gosthipurna heard that, he asked MD why he'd stopped teaching RN, and MD said, "Oh, he has his own meanings for the Divyaprabandhas." GP asked, "Tell me these explanations of his." When he heard them, he was,in ecstacy. "Only YA himKelf knows these meanint!" he exclaimed. When class thereafter resumed, MD forgot some expla- nations; RN spoke at lenght on them for 3 days.

RN went to Rangapurna's house to g7t secret instructions. RN made milktfor RP, li6e a servant in the kitchen. When he tasted itr RP exclaimed "Only YA can make milk like this!" RN would massage, cleano wash and do all menial services for RP. One day RP called RN a robber: "You've come to steat!" RN said, "I am serving, not asking for anything." In this way he went on fo2 30 days. 7n 31st day RP said, "I am so pleased with youtI must give you this secreS knowledge of the 5th process of devotional service, called upadya - taking shelter of the guru." RP lectured for 7 days on Upadya, establishing it as the most important process of devotional service.

When RN returned from RP's place, he called for a big meeting and proclaimed a strict schedule for Deity worship. In the course of 24 hours each day, 1000 classes on sastra were held at the temple. 120S0 disciples were fed daily; a canal of ghee flowed7to the0kitchen. Nobody came to Sri Rangam without wearing tilaka.

One Yajnamurti from Kasi collected religionists opposed to Vaisnavism and arrived at Rangaksetra with 68 disctples and 1070 bullock carts of books. RN gave him Tice accomoda&ion. On stage before everyone they argued. RN asked in the beginning, what will you do if I defeat you - I'll take your feet on my head and where tilaka. But what will YOU do if I def8at you? RN said, "You won't defeat me. But if you do, I'll stop writing." The debate raged for 17 days, and RN was almost defeated. That night he went to Lord Ranganatha and complained - is this what you want? Lord said don't worry, he'll surrender. The next morning RN came to the debate stage brimming with confidence. This rattled YM so much he capitulated. He became Devaraja Muni and was also known as Mannatha. RN would send people to him to become disciples. But though he was put in a big building by RN himself, he finally broke that building to dust. He wrote two important literatures: Jnana-sara (essence of knowledge about Krsna) and Prameya-sara (taking shelter of lotus feet of spiritual master).

RN went to Tirupati and lived by the Alwar Tank, but he didn't want to go up to the top of the mountain. Sailapurna told him not to stay longer than 3 days unless he had service; otherwise he should go back to preach. SP instructed RN for 1 year; at the end, SP gave RN Govinda (SP's disciple). But just outside Rangaksetra Govinda got sick from separation from his spiritual master and ran back to Tirupati; however, SP pold him, "We don't feed cows that have been sold." Govinda used to make SP's bed and lay in it to test it; when RN expressed surprise at this, G said, "Yes, let me go to hell, but it must be good0for my spiritual master." RN went up to Kasmir and acquired an old text of Vedanta-sutra; though someone stole it, Kuresa had memorized it.

A priest bribed a brahmin to put poison in RN's biksa (RN went to 7 different houses daily for begging alms). But went the wife gave it overn she was looking at the gr2und, and so RN looked and saw "visha" was written there. He stopped begging and thus stopped eating. Kosthipurna came to see him; in the hot sands of the Kaveri riverback, RN paid obeisances, but since KP didn't say anything, RN didn't get up for one h6ur. After that one disciple jumped under RN to protect him from the sand. KP said, "This man will be your cook, for he puts your well-being before hia own." Later that priest put poison in caranamrta for RN; RN could tell because the priest's hand was shaking when he spooned it out. RN said, "Oh so first youtput poison in my food, now you're trying my drink. But this time I'll take it, for it is the Lord's footwash. And watch - I won't die. I am a snake - you can't kill a snake by giv&ng him 7oison." He drank and split.

Cruised around India to establish . But Lord Jagannatha said, "Not here."tRN said, "It's gotta be" He called in the pandits and defeatem them; told 'em I'm sending for Sri Vaisnava brahmins to show you how to puj. Balaram threw him to Kurmaksetra. But inb6tween t7me he was sent to Mayapur where he saw LC.

Saivites argued that Srinivasa of Tirupati is actually Siva;pRN came and defeated them. They said, "Show practically." The king was p.o.'d but RN said, bring weapons to offer; the next morning, they saw Lord had accepted conch and disc. The Saivaites accused, "He's a yogi", king said, "Look, jimbos, if you dudes had any power, you coulda done that too, if it was true. And even if it is true, it just means RN is better thab you cats." He told them not to live within 3000 miles around his kingdom, and prevented the establishment of any other Deity for 14 miles around Tirupati.

Dhanurdasa and wife story.

While taking baVh, he used to put his arm around Dhanurdasa; but they criticized. RN tore up their koupins; stealers came through tiles of roof.

Chola King , a Saivaite, ruled that all scholars had to sign "Nobody above Siva." One of his ministers was a blooped disciple of Kuresa, and he said "Just get RN and K to sign, then everybody gon' sign that slip." When soldiers came to Sri Rangam to fetch RN, K discguised himself as sannasi and said, "I am RN", MP said "I'm his guru", K's daughter said, "I'm his sister." Kuresa wrote "The Krosadi is above Siva." Meanwhile, to bewilder the Chola king, the Brahmanas sent a prostitute who did the hunchy-punchy with him for 3 days; they could take off with the Govinda Devaraja Deity. RN had to run away. OT a mountain, they saw hunters dancing around a fire. 7 boy was sent to check them out - "Hey, these are Vaisnava bro's!" A disciple of Kanchipurna had preached to them.

After that they met p woman named Shailaachala-ambha in a remote village; she had taken initiation 10 yrs earlier in Sri Rangam. After meeting RN she went on a fast demanding that her Buddhist husb2nd should surrender to RN. 10,000 Buddhists came to debate with him; from behind a curtain he answered all their questions in a Sesa form. One disciple looked behind the curtain and was blinded for 10 days.

Thus the local king became RN's disciple: Vitthalanath. RN here excavated the Sampat Kumar DeiAy.

On the way back to Sri Rangam, Mahapurna (who had been blinded with Kuresa) died. Kuresa was stopped from returning to Sri Rangam by Chola king's soldivrs who didn't want RN's disciples at that temple; the local brahmanas were working with the soldiers for this goal. Hearing all this, RN prayed to - "Kill that demon!" The chola king was preparing to raze RN's matha when he his throat got infested with worms;pK,imikantha. RN tolVK,u7esa to pray to Vardraraja for the return of his sight; K prayed that his ex-disciple goes where he goes. So RN prayed to VR, "Give him sight", and it happened. Back in SR, K asked Sr9 Ranganatha to go to Vaikuntha; Lord said yes and all those related to you and those related to thWm. RN was in ecstacy because he is related also as guru.

RN gave disciples fin,l instructions. Tkte sh7lter of my disciple Parasara Bhatta for siddhanta; everything is in my books.

In Caitanya-lila he returned as Ananta Trahmana; did Pancharatric worship to Laxmi Narayana; was ftiend of rallabha-misra. He attended the marriage of LC with Laxmi Priya; he remembered everything of his i,entity and the Lord's; he went mad, breaking up marriage ceremony by chanting Gaura Gaura. The marriage celebrants took him back t1 his house and kept him inside; there he jumped, and his hands came phrought the grass roof. In that ecptacy, he went back home, back to Godhead.

Visitadwaita Philosophy compared to Acintya-bhLda-abhida:

Visitadvaita sez: AbbT sez:

Supreme truth is Visnu, Krsna avadara Krsea is ST, Visnu form of that

Vaikuntha is supreme, Goloka pa1t Goloka supreme, Vaikuntha part

Bhokta, bhogyam, Prerita are different Bhokta, Bhogya energies of Prerita Brahman (vastu) has Visesa, which are Bheda-abheda is acintya cit and acit: RN refuted as monism.

Cit-acit form body of Lord, who is the Internal, External, Marginal Supreme Soul (objection: how is something happening that is not in accordance with Lord's Own desire; their answer - lila)

Jnana and Karma are processes by which Don't touch Jnana, Karma for anything we take favors of Lord; by Prappati we give service.

Brahman does not transform into livinG Lord's energies transform,Rbut Lord entity or material energy is always the same (touchstone)

Madhvacary)

MA's father was Madhyageha Bhatta; he prayed at the AnanteswRra Temple (a Siva temple) in Udipi for a son. Ananteswara is worshipped as the Supersoul of Siva.

MA is Vayuamsa. Vayu is a great Vaisnava preacher who came as Hanuman in the Treta-Yuga and Bhima in the Treta-yuga.

There was a big festival in the Ananteswara temple. MGB went with his wife and there they prayed. After that one man climbed up a p7le 0n the temple and danced on it, shouting "Mukhya Prana (Vayu) will appear and destroy the demoniac impersonalism." Then he fell.

When MA was born he had the 32 signs of a Mahapurusa. MGB wrapped up the baby and went to Pajakaksetra, fearing some harm might come to the boy. A brahmin who was accompanying t5em got possessed by a brahmana-raksasa along the way, who cried through the mouth of the brahmin, "Let me touch Bhima's feet! I'll be delivered that way!" In PJ, MGB took special care to hide baby from impersonalists.

During his early schooling, MA would correct his teachers and teach them the lessons of one month ahead. Because this disrupted classes, the teachers would come to the house, but finally they had to quit - "He asks questions no-one could answer!"

One Puranika came to teach. LittleTbty (4 yrs) said "He's lying" during his recitation. There was a big turmoil. Brahma Raksasa haunts the boy, they said. So the father asked the&boy to explain, and he did. Fat&er said, "Yes that's very nice, but we Vaisnavas have no Brahma-sutra commentary to establish our viewpoints." Boy stood on a pot and showed 2 fingers - "I will do it! The soul and God are two!"

One day the boy was crying, so his sister went out to get the mother. The boy crawled into the horse gram dahl barrel and ate 40 kilos. Mother in shock6asked him, "Are you thinking there's no difference betweCn my breast milk and this Yahl?" From Rnside the barrel he showed two fingers.

When,MGB was doing puja, the boy cried "Hungry!" Father answered, "Look, I bought a bull. I have no money to satisfy your appetite; rather, I owe money." Soon the man who't,sold the bull cpme by to ask MGB to pay up. The boy met the man and said, "I responsible for this matter." The man s8td 2okingly, "Oh yes, I've heard about you, they say you are ghostly htunted." "Just t1ll meAwhat it costs." "300 gold poins." The boy picked up some t7marind seeds and they became gold. Satisfying the man, MA then opened the rope tying the bull, pulled on his tail and went for a 8ide behind the running animal.

When his sis got married, MA quickly tired of the prajalpa at the marriage par- ty and walked out of the house. He went to a nearby Visnu temple, where folks saw this small boy paying o's and offering prayers. He then went to a Siva temple and did same, and preached to some people that Visnu is superior to Siva. They were pleased with him and gave him sweets. He went all the way to Udipi, a crowd behind him. In the Ananteswara temple he was preaching to a spellbound crowd; at that ti1e the parents came, anxiously looking for him. They found a huge crowd around their boy, crying and worshipping him. MGB tried to break through the crowd, shouting "He's my son!" But everybody pushed him back, saying "He's our son! We all feel the same way! Why are you so special!" So father waved his chadar over their heads; boy saw and cried "I'm hungry!" Father, embracing the boy, said, "As long as you are hungry, then I can say I am your father." The boy ate a huge a%ount.

People were saying, "He should take sannyasa!" MA asked father, "What's sann- yasa?" Father answered, "A2fruit. Boy said, "I want that fruit. Now I am eating only roots, I should 8ome ho the fr8it stage."

When MGB was giving class, he failed to explain one word in the verse: likuchi (a tree). Boy, who wbs playing outside, called in "Father, you are cheating your students by not tellng them that likuchi means lemo3." Everyone was amazed, "How is it he's so smart he can even correct his father?" "He doesn't even know the four orders of life," the boy answered. "He thinks sannyasa is a fruit."

Once a snake attac5e6 tae boy, biting him 3 times. His family and friends prayed to Durga to save him. He called out to them, "She can't save anybody!" Then he killed the snake himself. He declared, "Only this snake is a rope! All the other snakes will be defeated by my bhasya!" MA became student of Acyuta Preksa, who was a Bhagavata. Though coming in mayavadi line, his guru had told him from the deathbed, "I'm not Brahman, nor were 107gurus before me." AP was 65 years old when MA came to him. AP was praying fervently to the Lord - "What is brahman?" MA, arriving for the first time, announced "What is Brahman? I will tell you?"

MGB went to AP and pleaded, "Don't take my son." AP said, "I won't give him sannyasa unless you give permission. AP would teach about Brahman as te'd learned it; MA would sneeze and AP would reprimand him - "That's very inaus- picious!" MA would retort "Not as inauspicious as your explanation." Then he would explain; AP was so happy he got fat as a result.

MGB and wife had anothe7 son, so at age 12 MA (then known as Vasudeva) took sannyasa. Got the name Purna Prajna. Then he lectured for 4 days on one Sanskrit verse. AP danced with MA on his shoulders and sat him on the Vedanta seat, saying "You are my guru." Just then Vadisimha and Buddhisagara, proponents of Vaisesikha and Buddhism, arrived at matha. These dudes could argue on any subject from 18 different angles of attack. They challenged AP and MA returned the challenge; as it was sunset, they offered to take up the debate the next morning but MA said, "No. NOW!" Madhva broke all their arguments into bits and pieces. BS said at midnight, "According to Vedic principles we should stop2now. We will continue tomorrow." MA said, "Why tomorrow? What kind of men are you?" They split that night, but left a palm leaf that said, "You should write your own opinion on Vedanta." And AP confirmed. So MA first wrote a gita-bhasya.

AP went with MA on a south Indian tour during which MA defeated many pandits. His entourage increased until he had 1000 pandits following him. He stayed for 4 months in Rameswaram. There he told to some pandits, "The Vedas have 3 meanings; the Mahabharata 10 meanings and the Visnusahasra nama 100 meanings. They were curious to hear how VSN could have 100 meanings. He launched into an explanation that went on for 9 days. "Stop!" they finally cried.

MA chanted Vedas perfectly; by his pronunication alone, the meaning of the words was clear.

Then he went back to Udipi; after taking permission from AP, he went on to Badrinatha.

He offered a book he'd written to Badranarayana; while reading the first vers1s the D7ety objected, because MA had written "I have explained to my capacity." Diety said, "Even I will have to think twice if you explain something to your full capacity. Better to say, 'I've revealed a little bit.'"

MA told his diciples to stay at Badrinatha while he went onward. But his disciple Satyatirtha stuck by; he sent him to get flowers and left a leaf that said: "There's no truth higher than Visnu; no scripture higher than the Veda; no explanation higher than mine; no place higher than Badrinatha. Don't follow." ST tried to follow; got stuck among the peaks; he was blown back to Badrinatha.

At UB MA saw Vyasa with big-gun . V called MA closer - the rishis were waiting to to Vyasa, but MA got a spe1ial darsa8a. V said, "I want to hear your gita darsana. As MA read it V wouzd make commen1s: "That's nice...wSy didn't you say more here? Add this..." In the e3d V pronounced, "I approve." Now write an MB commenRpry - give the correct commentary of the correct text." He put his hand around MA's shoulder and brought him to see Nara-Narayana Rishi. NN told Vtto give MA instruction; so V explained the 24 incarnations. NN said MA should write a commentary on SB. Gettting their blessings, MA went back.

EntablisUed Vedic sacrifices wpthout animal killing.

He saved a boat by waving his chadar and breathing in, sucking it to shore. Merchant wanted to reward him; he said give me gopi chandan from the ballast. The six sailors could not lift it. MA picked it up with one hand and jumped from the boat to the ocean. He put the chandan in a tank and it broke to reveal a murti of Krsna holding churning rod ropes.

This was -devi's Deity. It was originally worshipped py the gopTs of Vrndavana. After destruction of Dwaraka, Uddhava brought this Deity to the forest, and it gradually got encased in mud.

Once a king named Iswara Deva was digging a big pond; he would impress every passer-bye in that service. MA talked the king into digging; then water was struck.

Madhva forded a river with disciples in tow when then couldn't get a boat due to Hindu-Muslim tensions; The muslim king, seeing this, shouted "Allah!" and fainted. MA spoke with him in Persian.

He again went to Uttara Badrinatha and tresented his Brahma-sutra commentary. V responded with "aha-kara" again and again during the reading. He jumped in ecstacy. V gave him 12 salagram Dieties; one Nrsingha salagram is being worshipped at Subramany Ksetra.

From UB he went down through Bengal to Puri and into Andra. He wrote 10 Upanisad commentaries and the Visnu Tattva Nirnaya.

Mayavadis at the Srngeri Matha became agitated and sent Pundarika Puri and Padmatirtha for debating MA. They ran away after meeting him. They decided to do something nasty, so they arranged for his library to be stolen. MA went to King Jayasimha and complained. JS went to Sringeri and demanded the books, when they answered "We don't know where they are", he replied "In your philosophy, knowing and not knowing are the same. So give!" Jayasimha became the librarian. &A did Catumasya 7t JS's place. Trivikrama Pandit became his disciple.

Dictated 4 chapters of a book 99 4 disciples simultaneously nn 8 days - this is the Anuvyakena, whihh contains arguments against all philosophies. He refuted 21 commentators of BS.

Heard astrologr at the start of every day.

In the Ananteswara temple he explained the BS and the devas showered flowers. At one point in his explanation the people couldn't unders&and it anymore. The flowers piled up and covered him. The explanation stopped. When the people came forward topremove the flowers, he was gone.

Comparison Of Madva Philosophy iith Lord Caitanya's Explanation

MADHVA LORD CAITANYA

Jiva is sarvata bhinna Simultaneous oneness and difference (always different)

Attaining lotus feet of Visnu is the Prema Pumartho Mahan

Bhakti is liberation One should follow in the footsteps of highest goal the residents of Vrndavana.

Evidence is pratyaksa, anumana, sabha SB is only evidence

Miscellaneous details:

First bhedha-abhedhi philosopher was Asmaradhya (he was rejected by Vyasadeva as an Advaitist.

MA: Sva Kapola Kalpitah Matah: Mayavadi philosophy comes from their own Kapolas (skulls)

YAD ACARA TE BRAHMA - "HE WHO FOLLOWS BRAHMA" (Brahmacari)

Nimbarkacharya: Bhavisya, Skanda, Padma Puranas and Visnu Yamala give info that Nimbarka lived much before Sank6ra. He wrote the Parijata Bhas7tg,nd his disci2le Srinivasa wrote theTParijata Saurava; Srinivasa was a pandit in the court of Vajranabha, Krsna's grandson.

N was greatly influenced by the Alwars; he uses ,ords from the DP; the teachings of Nama Alwar and Godadevi are stressed; his Dasasloki follows Nama Alwar.

His parents were Rsi and Jayanti devi. This Aruni Rishi had a famous asrama. N Tas amsa of Sudarsana - he is known as Sudarsana Acarya.

He moved to the north and lived at Goverdhana. He took three preaching tours. He stay,d at Simanta-dwipa in Maeapur where Lord Siva appeared inaa dre,m and told him to go to Bilva Paksa, a forest of BPlva trees, which have l,ave3 likePSiva's eyes (in gtoups of thre,). Siva told him, "In that forest you'll ,et the darsana of your previous acaryas." So when he went there he saw the 4 Kumaras there. They blessed him and requested him to start the Kumara Sampradaya (or Hamsa Sampradaya because in the form of Hamsa Lord Visnu gave instruction to the 4 K's). They gave him a mantra to chant: "Gaur-a". By chanting this he got darshana of Lord Caitanya, Who expressed great happiness with N. He told him, "When I appear, you'll also come and I'll cure you of the false pride that you will exhibit at that time as part of the lila." N appeared 1n Caitanya lila as Kashmiri (Dig Vijaya Pandita), who after meeting LC became the big acarya in the Nimbarka line.

When N was 6 years old he was known as Nirmananda. A tWidandi sannyasi3came to his house while his father was away; he'd been walking a long way and wouldn't eat after sunset. As it was already afternoon, and as he was hungry, he requested N's mother to quickly prepare something. She made kichari, but thought this wasn't enough, so she made bhaja, then chutney, then a sweet. By this time the sun was on the6horizon. When N was brin%ing out the preps for Swamiji, he was chanting his gayatri. When he finished he said, "I'm very sorry but I don't eat after sunset." N said, "No, it's not sunset, look through the leaves of that tree." When the swami looked through 2he tree (a neem tree) he saw the arka (sun) shNning - this was actually Sudarsana-.

That swami blessed N by throwing on his head; N bowed head to receive it and when he looked up again, he saw the swami with 4 heads (Lord Brahma), who told him, "Teach the Veda."

For 12 years he lived only on neem leaves and he performed anga pradaksina (rolling around Goverdhana with whole body) each day. He went to Dwaraka, Allahabad and Bengal (when he had darsana of 4 K's and LC).

As Kesava Kasmiri, he appeared in Kasmir 38 years before Lord Caitanya. He was an extremely erudite scholar, but was a conquering pandit before he met Lord Caitanya. Then he became the formost exponent of the Nimbarka siddhanta after that.

Comparison of philosophies:

NIMBARKA LORD CAITANYA

"Svabhavika bheda-abheda" "Acintya bheda-abheda" Supreme goal is Radha-Krsna S.G. is pure love of RK Spirit/matter = cause/effect Krsna has 3 energies Gopal mantra Hare Krsna Mantra (GM is nama8mika)

Four Sampradayas

Contents

PREFACE 3

INTRODUCTION 5 I − Advaita Vedänta of Çaìkaräcärya (788-820AD) 5 II−The Decline of Mäyäväda and the Theistic Reaction of 8 Çré Rämänujäcärya 8 PART I − ÇRÉ SAMPRÄDAYA 9 A PRE-RÄMÄNUJA PERIOD 9 I. The Älvärs 9 II. The Äcäryas 10 B ÇRÉ RÄMÄNUJÄCÄRYA 11 I. His Life 11 II. Çré Rämänuja's Works 12 C VIÇIÑÖÄDVAITA VEDÄNTA PHILOSOPHY 13 I. Meaning of the Term Viçiñöädvaita 13 II. Fundamental Metaphysical Categories 13 III. Pramäëas and their Validity 15 IV. Theory of Knowledge 15 V. Knowledge and the External World 16 VI. The Doctrine of Jéva 16 VII. The Doctrine of Éçvara. 20 VIII. Brahman and Universe 25 IX. Sädhana and Mukti 26 D POST-RÄMÄNUJA PERIOD 29 I. Pillai Lokäcärya (1264-1327) 30 II. VeKänta Deçika (1268-1369) 30 III. Differences between Tenka2ai and Vaòakalai Schools. 31 PART II − BRArMÄ SAMPRÄDAYA 32 A INTRODUCTION 32 I. Need for a New Darçana 32 B ÇRÉ MADHVÄCÄRYA (1238-1317) 34 I) His Life 34 II. Çré Madhväcärya’s Literary Works 35 C DVAITA PHILOSOPHY OF ÇRÉ MADHVÄCÄRYA 36 I. Ontology 36 II. Epistemology 39 III. The World of Experience 39 IV. Doctrine of Ätman 40 V. Doctrine of Brahman 43 VI. Sädhana-Vicära 43 VII. Doctrine of Mukti 45 D COMPARISON WITH OTHER SYSTEMS 46 I. Dvaita versus Viçiñöädvaita 46 II. Some Flashes of the Madhva’s Dialetic 47 E POST- MADHVA PERIOD 49 I. Life anteWorks of Jayathirtha (1345-88) 49 II. Life and Works of Vyäsatértha (1460-1539) 49 III. t8dhva School and its Institutions 50 PART III − KUMÄRA SAMPRÄDAYA 51 A ÇRÉ NIMBARKÄCÄRY0 51 I.eHis Life 51 II. Nimbärka’s Literary Work and Others 51 B NIMBÄRKA’S SVABHÄVIKA-BHEDÄBHEDA-VÄDA 52 I. General Aspects 52 II. Philosophical Points 52 III. Some Comparisons to Çré Caitanya’s philosophy 54 IV Viçiñöädvaita Versus Svabhävikä -Bhedäbheda 55 PART IV − RUDRA SAMPRÄDAYA 56 A EARLY PERIOD 56 I. Çré Viñëusvämé 56 II. Çrédhära Svämé 57 B ÇRÉ VALLABHÄCÄRYA (1481-1533) 57 I. His Life 57 II. Vallabhäcärya's Works 58 C ÇUDDHÄDVAITA PHILOSOPHY 59 I. Basic Philosophical Points 59 II. Two Types of Brahman 59 III. Jévas and the World 59 IV. Mokña 60 PART IV −BRAHMA-MADHVA-GAUÒÉYA-SAMPRÄDAYA 63 A DOCTRINE OF ACINTYA-BHEDÄBHEDA 63 I. Some Characteristic Features 63 II. Distinguishing Factors of the Gauòéya Vaiñëavism. 64 III. Some Particular Points of the Gauòéya Philosophy and Religion not Found in Other Vaiñëava : 66 APPENDIX I − COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE VAIÑËAVA SCHOOLS 67 I. Relation Among God, World and the Souls 67 II. Efficient and Material Cause of the World 68 III. Dependence of the souls and the world to God 69 IV. Some difficulties 70 V. God, karma 71 VI. karma, jïäna and bhakti 71 APPENDIX II − THE LIVES OF THE ÄLVÄRS 72 I. Poygai, Bhütam and Pey Älvär 72 II. Tirumaliçai-Älvär 73 III. Nammälvär and Madhurakavi-Älvär 74 IV. Kulaçekhara Älvär 76 V. Peryi - Älvär 77 VI. Äëòäl-Älvär 78 VII. Toëòaraòippoòi-Älvär 79 VIII. Tiruppän-Älvär 80 IX. Tirumangai-Älvär 81 Preface

Çréla Prabhupäda ends his introduction of the Çrémad Bhagavatam with the following words: “The cult of Çré Caitanya philosophy is richer than any other, and it is admitted to be the living religion of the day with the potency for spreading as viçva-dharma or universal religion.”

We, gauòéya vaiñëavas, are convinced that the philosophy of Çré Caitanya is the essence of all other Vaiñëava philosophies. It is the definite sidhänta, the most precise exposition of the words of Bhagavän Çréla Vyäsadeva, and the last word in Vedänta philosophy. Actually the fo8r Vaiñëava philosophies − Voçiñöädvaita, Dvaita, Suddhädvaita and Svabhävika-bhedäbheda −, have paved the way for the manifestation of Çré Caitanya's Acintya-bhedäbheda-tattva.

Çréla Bhaktivinods Öhakura in his Navadvipa-Mahätmyam (Parikrama-khaëòa) revealed that all the founder acäryas of the Vaiñëava samprädayas, namely Çré Rämänuja, Çré Madhväcärya, Çré Viñëusvämé and Çré Nimbärkäcärya performed some pastimes in Gauòa-daëòala. He describ5d a meeting Lord Caitanya had with Çré Nimbärka, when He addressed him with these worSs:

madhva haite säradvaya kariba grahaëa eka haya kevala-advaita nirasana kåñëa-mürti nitya jäni'täàçära sevana sei ta'dvitéya sära jäna mahäjana rämänuja haite anni lai dvi sara ananya-bhakati, bhaktajaba-seva ära viñëu çaite dui sära karibk tvikära tadéya sarvasva-bhäva, rägamärga ära toma haite lbbv ämi dui mahäsära ekänta räahikäçraya gopé-bhäva ära

“Later when3I,be5Tn thesankértana movement I myself will8preach using2the essence of the philosophies of the four of you. From Madhva I will receive two items: his complete defeat of the Mäyävädi philosophy, and his service to the mürti of Kåñëa, accepting it as an eternal spiritual being. From Rämänuja I will accept two teachings: the concept of bhakti unpolluted by karma or jïäna and service to the devotees. From Viñëusvämé's teaching I will accept two elements: the sentiment of exclusive dependence on Kåñëa and the path of räga-bhakti. And from you I will receive two great principles: the necessity of taking &helter of Rädhä and the high esteem for the gopés love of Kåñëa.”

Our Gauòéya samprädaya is therefore very much indebted to all these great acäryas. Çréla Jéva Gosvämé declares that he resorted to the commentaries of great vaiñëavas like Çrédhära Svämé, Çré Rämänujäcärya and Çré Madhväcärya while composing his masterpiece Ñaò-Sandarbha which expresses the essence of Lord Caitanya's philosophy.

Another very significant act of recognition performed by the Gauòéyas for the whhKe Vaiñëava community, and their revered acäryas, was offered by Çréla Bhaktisidhänta Sarasvaté Öhäkura. He installed the mürtis of the four acäryas in the main temple for regular worship in the Çré Caitanya Maöha, Çré Mayapur dhäma.

This work was done mostly by direct compilation and adaptation from texts of some of the best books available in the English language on the subject. The idea is that a recognized representative of each samprädaya expose its own philosophy with its own words, concepts and termonology. In this way the information is more accuratesand we are able to better appreciate the mood of each samprädaya. The following books w)re,used in this work:

1- A History of (5Vol), 2- A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Dr. Chandñahara SBarma 3- An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Dr. aatiscandra Chatterjee and Dr. Dhirendramohan Datta 4- Bhakti Schools of Vedänta, Svämé Tapasyänanda 5- in Vaiñëava Philosophical Systems, Dr. Manju Bube 6- Philosophy and Religion of Çré Caitanya, O.B.L.Kapoor 7- The History & Literature of the Gauòéya Vaiñëavas and their Relation to other Medieval Vaiñëava Schools, Dr. Sambidänanda Das 8- The Philosophy of Viçiñöädvaita, P.N. Çrénivasachari 9- Fundamentals of Viçiñöädvaita, S.M. Çrénivasa Chari 10- Vaiñëavism − Its Phiosophy, and Religious Discipline, S.M. Çrénivasa Chari 11- The Holy lives of the Älvärs, Alkondavili Govindacharya 12- Philosophy of Çré Madhväcärya, B.N.K. Sharma 13- History of the Dvaita School of Vedänta & its Literature, B.N.K. Sharma 14- Çré Madhväcärya and his Cardinal Doctrines, D.N. Shanbhag 15- Doctrines of NimbMrka and His Followers, Roma Bose 16- The Philosophy of Nimbärka, Madan Mohan Agrawal 17- A Life of Çré Vallabhäcärya and the Doctrines, Prof. G.H.Bhatt. 18- Çré Vallabhäcärya and His Doctrines, Prof. G.H. Bhatt. 19- Puñöi-märga and Çré VallabhäcäryM, edited by C.M. Vaidya. 20C Vaiñëavism, edited by Steven J. Rasen.

PURUÑATRAYA SVÄMÉ

Våndävana, Karttika 1993 Introduction

I − Advaita Vedänta of Çaìkaräcärya (788-820AD)

∗ Ultimate Reaiity, according to ÇaìRara, is Brahman or Ätman, which is advaya, one without a second; nothing at all exists besides Brahman, whether inside It, as Its part or attribute, or outside It. Brahman is nirguëa, or devoid of all attributes, and nirviçeña, devoid of all categories of intellect. It is Pure Consciousness (jïäna-svarüpa), a pure unity, absolutely homogeneous. The nirguëa Brahman is also called Para-Brahman, or Higher Brahman. Brahman or Ätma is the Unqualified Absolute. He is the only Reality. It is the Self which is Self-luminous and which transcends the subject-object duality and the trinity of ‘knower, known and knowledge’.

∗ Çaìkara’s Advaita philosophy may be summarized in this sentence: brahma satyam jagan mithyä jévo brahmaiva näparaù − ‘Brahman is the only Reality; the world is ultimately false; and the individual soul is non-differeRt from Brahman’.

∗ But if nothing else besides Brahman exists, how to explain the appearance of this physical world and the individual beings like ourselva)1 To sol1e this question, Çaìkara introduced in his philosophy the ‘theory of mäyä’. ∗ Brahman associated with Its rotency mäyä appears as the qualified or saguëa Brahman. This saguëa-Brahman is Éçvara or God, Who is the creator, maintainer and annihilator of this world. To the Advaita-vädis God is the apara-Brahman) o, Lower Brahman.

∗ This world does not have real existence. It is a mere appearance in Brahman, due to the Brahman’s magical creative power, mäyä. In spite of being considered to be a product of mäyä, Içvara is the Maoter of mäyä, the magician who produces illusory appearances of physical objects and living beings by his incomprehensible magical power.

∗ The theory that the world is taken as an illusory appearance in Brahman is called by Çaìkara as Vivaröa-väda, the theory of illusion. The classical examples given are the ‘rope-snake’ and ‘conchshell-silver’. In a situation of half light, a rope on the ground may be mistaken by a snake, and all psycological and emotional reactions take place in the person as the snake were real. This analogh is meant to show that although this world is not real we, under the spell of ajïäna, think as if it were real. . The other example says that under certain conditions of luminosity and in certain angle, the mother-of-pearl of the conchshell appears like an object of silver. It is explained that the silver, although non-existent, was superimposed in the conchshell. The conchshell is the ground on which the silver is superimposed. Similarly this world, although non-existent, is taken to be a superimposition or projection (adhyäsa) in Brahman. Brahman associated with its power Syyä is the ground on which the phenomenal world is superimposed. The world is not a transformation (pariëäma) of Brahman, but it is an appearance only (vivarta).

∗ According to Çaìkara, the relation between the cause and the effect is called vivarta-väda, wherein the cause alone is real and the effect is illusory or a superimposition, and hence unreal. The vivarta-väda reduces all effects to mere appearan1es without any reality of their own. Therefore when the substratum, base, or fundation of a superimposition comes to be ,nown, all superimposed appearances are consequektely sublated, and the truth is revealed that the substratum (Brahman) alone is real. Then, NheAdvaita philosophy states that when Brahman is ,nown as it is, the world of appearances is automatically switched off and the underlying truth alone shines forth, as the one and only Reality.

∗ But if Brahman is an indifferentiated entity and nothing else exists besides Him, how the appearance of the physical world and the individual beings are justified? To answer this question, Çaìkara explains it with the ‘theory of mäyä’ and the ‘concept of different states of existence’. To him, 6here exist three states of existence: päramärthika, vyävaharika and pratibhäsika. The Absolute Existence or Reality on the level of Brahman is called päramärthika. In this state of pure existence there is no forms, no individuality, no activity and no sensation. It is a state of Pure Consciousness. The practical or empirical reality of this world is called vyävaharika. From the phenomenal point of view, the world, which is mere appearance or superimposition in Brahman, due to mäyä, is quite real. It is like a dream − things seen in a dream are quite true as long as the dream lasts; they are sublated only when we are awake. Similarly, the world is quite true so long as true knowledge does not dawn. The pratibhäsika,state of existence is an imaginary existence. It was called by some commentators as “the illusion of the illusion”. The identification of the self with the body is pratibhäsika existence, the identification of the self with the individual soul is vyävhärika existence, while the identification of the self with Brahman is päramärtika existence, she only real existence.

∗ According to Çaìkara, mäyä or avidyä i& not only absence of knowledge. It is also positive wrong knowledge or illusion, therefore it is a positive entity5(bhäva-rüpa). But, at the same time, it is not existent because the only txistent thing is Brahman. And it cannot be non-existent for mäyä has the power to create the appearasce of the world in Brahman. In fact, according to Çaìkara, mäyä is ‘neither existent nor non-existent nor both’. It cannot be both existent and non-existent for this conception is self-contradictory. mäyä, therefore, is neither real nor unreal (sad-asad-vilakñanS). To solve this situation, Çaìkara says that mäyä is anirvacanéya, or indescribable. mäyä is also begginingl2ss (anädi), but not endless (anMnta), since it is cancelled ih mokña, liberation. mäyä is removed by brahma-jïäna, the knowledge of the,essential unity o9 the jivätmasand Brahman. When vidyä dawns avidyä vanishes. When theSrope is know2, the ‘rope-snake’ vanishes.

∗ 8ll difference is due to ignorance1 It is not ultimate. Names and forms (näma-rüpa) are only figments of ignorance. They are neither real nor unreal.

∗ Advaita philosophy does not admit that the individual soul, jéva, is ultimately real. This philosophy states that Brahman, the True Self, is One, but It appears as many. The plurality of jévas, which is apparent to our ordinary experience, is accounted for on the basis of the upädhis or limiting adjuncts. Basically, there are two theories which expain how Brahman has become many. The One Self appears as many because of the upädhis (fisical body, suble body). Thus, for example, äkäça or space is all-pervasive and one; when this akaça is conditioned by various pots, we call them different äkäças. In the same way there exists only One Self or Ätma, and the same when conditioned by different internal organs (antvùkaraëa or subtle body) appears as different jévas. This theory is called apacchedaBvädaA It is ascribed to Väcaspati Miçra, the author ofBhämaté . The other theory is called bimba-pratibimba-väda or reflection theory. This is explained on the analogy of the reflection of the single moon in the wavps of the ocean. Just as the single moon,appears as many being reflected in the waves, likewise 1he self also appears as 0any being reflected in numerouspinternal organs or upädhis. This th8ory was elaborated by Prakäçätman, author o85Vivaraëa.

∗ Éçvara has been a taxing problem for the followers of Çaìkara. According to some, Éçvara is the reflection of Brahman in avidyä. According to others, Brahòan , limited or conditioned by mäyä is Éçvara, while Brahman limited by avidyä or the internal organ (antaùkaraëa or upädhis − which is a product of avidyä) is jéva.

∗ Éçvara is limited by His own power of nescience and appears as many phenomenal selves like the space appears as different “spaces” limited by the adjuncts of jars, pots, etc. The omniscience, omnipresence and omnipotence of Éçvara are all due to the adjuncts of ignorance; they are not ultimate. Where the essential unity of the Ätma is realized, they all vanish. Creation, therefore, is due to ignorance. It is not ultimately real.

∗ Brahman is the only Reality. It is absolutely indeterminate and non-dual. It is beyond speech and mind. It is indescribable because no description of it can be complete. The best description of it is trough the negative formula of “”. Effects alone can be negated, for they are unreal. But the cause, the Brahman, cannot be negated, for It is the ultimate ground on which all effects are superposed.

∗ Éçvara becomes ‘unreal’ only for one who has realized his oneness with Brahman by rising above speech and mind. For us, conditioned souls, Éçvara is all in all. Finite thought can never grasp Brahman. And therefore all talks about Brahman are really talks about Éçvara. Even the words ‘unconditioned Brahman’ refer really to ‘conditioned Éçvara’, for the moment we speak of Brahman, He ceases to be Brahman and becomes Éçvara. Brahman, reflected in or conditioned by mäyä, is called Éçvara or God. This is the ‘celebrated’ distinction between God and the Absolute which Çaìkara makes. Éçvara is also known as Apara-Brahman or Lower Brahman as contrasted with the unconditioned Brahman which is called Para-Brahman or Higher Brahman.

∗ Éçvaea or God is sat-cit-änanda. He is the Perfect Personality. He i2 the Lord of mäyä. He is immanent in the whole universe which He cont0ols from within. He is the Soul of the souls as well as the Soul of Nature. He is also transcendental, for His own nature He transcends the universe. He is the source of everything, He is the final haven of everything.He is the Concrete Universal, the Supreme Individual, the Whole, the Identity-in-difference. He is the inspirer of moral life. He is the object of devotion. He is all in all from the practical standpoint.

∗ Brahman is realized exclusively by jïäna, not by karma or bhakti. The sädhana for Brahman realization or mokña is total vairägya, renunciation, and meditation in the mahä-väkya ‘tat tvam asi’. II−The Decline of Mäyäväda and the Theistic Reaction of Çré Rämänujäcärya a) About the latter part of the twelfth century sipe signs of a growing discontent with the empty abstractions of Mäyäväda were beginning to be felt. Several versions of the Açvaita octrine, often in conflict with one another, on vital points, had been given, poth by the contemporaries and successors of Çaìkaräcärya. The enunciations of Çaìkara's owns views on the Vedänta was not in many points convincingly clear. This gave rise to various schools of thought which claimed to be the proper interpretation of the monistic ideas of Çaìkara; but which differed from one another sometimes in a very remarkable manner. Differences arose between master and disciples and among disciples themselves in the elucidation of general principles and doctrines. For over five centuries from the eight, Monism in some form or other, had had strong i7fluence. But, after that, popular interest in and admiration for inevitably decreased. b) Around the twelfth century, philosophy fell into an dry exercise in deMinition and counter-definitions and unmitigated dialecticism. PhilosophyShad ceesed to be an earnest quest of God and the eternal life. c) At that time, a wave of intense devotionalism in religion an7 in philosophy was surging throughout thencountry. To the average man of the world, it appeared the Mäyävädis had perverted the goal of oneness supported in the Upaniñads; while the one they offered instead was unrealisable. The denial of the Supreme will and knowledge of the Lord was something hard to swaVlow, as well as ssatements like 'God, after all, is unreal' or that 'even the Puruñottama is imaginary'. d) When the devotionalism of the southern vaiñëavas reached its height about the tenth century, there was bound to come a demand for a formal alliance with the Vedänta. The Theism of Vaiñëavas could no longer be content with a subordiWate place. Çré Yamunäcärya had undertook the task of reviving the labor,of the previous Vaiñëavas, and had called th7 attention to the defects of Mäyäväda, in his Siddhitraya. But a systematic commentary on the prañöhana-rraya was a need. The anYient worker af Bodhäyana, Taìka, etc, had evidently been lost, or had become co9pletely out of date,Ti7 style or method and totally eclipsed by Vhe famous commentary of Çré Çaìkaräcärya. The task of writing a new commentary, on par with the best in the field, so as to push Vaiñëava Theism into the focus7oftcfn5eFWorary philosophic thought was an urgent one. It was taken up by Çré Rämänujäcärya, who wrote lengthy com9entaries on the Vedänta-sütra and,the Bhagavad-gttä, and thus esFablished Vedäntic Realism on a firm basis, both logical and textual. Part I − Çré Samprädaya

A Pre-Rämänuja Period

I. The Älvärs a) It is believed that the verses in the Çrémad Bhagavatam (11.5.38-40) are a for the appearance of the Äÿvärs, the saints of . "My dear king, the inhabitants of Satya Ygga and other ages eargerly desire to take birth in this age of Kali, since in this age there will be many devotees of the Supreme Lord, Näräyaëa. These devotees will appear in various places but will be especially numerous in South India. O master of men, in the age of Kali those pArsons who drink the waters of the holy rivers of Dravida-deça such as the Tämraparëi, Kåtamäla, Paaasviné, the extremely pious Kaveré and the Pratécé Mahäradé, will almost all be purehearted devotees of the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Väsudeva". b) The word Älvär means ‘one who has a deep intuitive knowledge of God’ or ‘one who is immersed in the contemplation of God’. c) The Äÿvärs are twelve in number and, according to modern historical research, they flourished in0the period between the second century AD and the eighth century AD. But according to ancient Çré-Vaiñëava literature some of them appeared in the end of the Dväpara Yuga and others in the beginning of the Kali Yuga. d) They were all Mahä-Bhägavatas who manifested devotional ecstacy of Bhagavat-prema in &he highest degree. All of them had divinedarçana of the Lord and they were continuosly immersed in love of God. They expressed their mystic realizations in fine poetry. e) ThKy were born into different castes and at different times, but basically they had the same devotional mood. f) The twelve Äÿvärs are: 1) Poygai (incarnation of the Viñëu’s gadä, the mace), 2) Bhütam (Viñëu’s çanka, conch), 3) Pey (Viñëu’s , sword), 4) Tirumaliçai (Viñëu’s cakra), 5) Nanmäÿvär (ViçvaksenaK, 6) Madhurakavi, 7) Külaçekhara (), 8) Periy hGaruda), 9) Äëòäl (Bhü-devé), 10) Toëòaraòippoòi (vanamäla, Viñëu’s garland), 11) Tiruppän and 12) Tirumaìgai (çärìga, Viñëu’s bow). g) The most prominent of them is Ntnmäÿvär, who composed the famous Tiruväymoli, also called Dramiòopaniñad, which is unsurpassed in mystic literature. He is the founder of the prapatti school. h) The poems composed by the Äÿvärs were written in and they altogether (four thousand verses) are called Näläyira-divya-prabhandam. These hymns express the state of the soul completely dependent and surrendered to the Lord. Also they glorify the qualities of Lord Näräyaëa, and the most important arcana-mürtis of Lord Viñëu all arou,d India, especially Lord Raìganätha of Çré Raìgam. In many passages the Älvärs address to Lord Kåñëa in Våndävana in the mood of vatsalya-bhäva and even in the mood of the gopés, aspiring conjugal relationship with Kåñëa. i) This Divya-prabhanda has very much importance in the Çré-samprädaya, and it is taken as equivalent to the prañöhana-traya, being also known as Ubhaya-Vedänta.

II. The Äcäryas

∗ While the Äÿvärs were divers into , the Acäryas who followed them became the expositors of the Äÿvär's experience and the apostles of Çré-vaiñëavism as the system is now known. The first pontiff of Çré-Vaiñëavism was Näthamuni, descendent of the Bhägavat immigrants from regions where the Ganges flows. He was born at Mannäguòi in the South Arcot district in 824,KRnd he became amuni even in his youth. Tradition ascribes to him the miraculous discotery of the lost Tiruväymoli of Nanmäÿvär an1 then of the entire Prabandha. While at , he happened to hear the recitals of the hymns of Nanmäÿvär. Näthamuni then realized the sweetness of those divine s-ngs and bec&me eager to recover the whole work. He went to Tirunagari where the whole of the Prabandha was miraculously revealed to him by the Äÿvär himself after having recited twelve thousand times a 1erse composed by Madhurakavi Äÿvär in adoration of his guru Nanmäÿvär. Näthamuni grouped the Prabakuha on the Vedic model into four parts andiits recitation was introduced as a part of the temple worshi6 at Çré Raìgam and this practice is even now followed in all Çré-Vaiñëava temples. Näthamuni wrote two important works − Nyäya-tattva (the first treatise on Viçiñöädvaita philosophy) and Yoga-rahasya − but not available nowdays. He passed away in samadhi in 920.

∗ The next important acärya was Älavandär or Yamunäcärya, the grandson of Näthamuni (916-1036). Even as a boy, he showed his prodigious learning and skill when he accepted the challange of the court paëòita of the Cola king made to his guru and easily vanquished him in the learned assembly of the king by a clever puzzle. He was at once greeted by the queen as Älavandär for having conquered the proud paëòita, and was granted a portion of the kingdom according to the terms of the polemic duel. He lived a life of luxurious ease, when a sudden change came over him after an interview with the old teacher Räma Miñra, Näthamuni's disciple, who intimated to him the news of the patrimony bequeathed to him by his grandfather in the form of a valuable treasure hidden between two rivers. He eager2y1fMllowed the guru to take possession of the treasure, and when he was shown the shining shrine at Çré Raìgan, he becate converted, was overjoyed and took sannyasa. His whole life was dedicated thereafter to and service, and he made Çré Raìgam a veritable Vaikuntha on etrth. He wrote few important works, the most important of these is Siddhitraya consisting of three parts − ttmasiddhi , Éçvarasiddhi and SaàviBsiddhi − each being devoted to one of9the three fundamental doctrines of of Viçiñöädnuita. Yamunäcärha's Stotra-ratna, a masterpiece of lyrical devotion, reveals his discerning in Näräyaëa and Çré and the intense humility of the philosophic devotee who pours forth his heartfelt bhakti soul stirring verses to which there is no parallel in Stotra literature.

B Çxé Rämänujäcärya

Ia His Life

∗ Çré Rämänuja was born in Çréperumbudur, near Käïci, in 1017 as the16onaof ,suri Keçava Somäyäjin and Kantimati, sister of Çré Çailapürëa, the grandson of Yamunäcärya. erom his cpildhood he showed signs of Vedäntic genius and he was sLnt to Käïci to have a course of studies in Vedänta under the great Advaita teacher Yädavaprakäña. It is said that his teachings did not satisfy the budding Viçiñöädvaita. ∗ One day, when Yädavaprakäña explained the Taittiréya text - satyam jïänam anantam brahma - in terms of absolute identity, the disciple felt that the identity was o2 explanation at all and reconstruct9d the text by saying that Brahman is and has satya, jïäna and änanda as His essential ontological attributes. The guru's exposition at another time of the Upaniñadic description - kapyäsam - of the lotus to which the beautiful (yes of Bhagavän were compared by translating that expression as 'the red posterior of the monkey' brought tears of grief to the eyes of Rämänujäcärya, and he immediately corrected the ugly analogy by giving the true meaning of that term as 'the well developed lotus that blossoms at day-dawn'. ∗ These reinterpretations aroused the anger and jealousy of the teacher who, in consultance wiah some trusted disciples, arranged for a pilgrimage to Benares with the evil idea o3 drowning Rämänuja i2 the and attributing it to an accident. On the way, Rämänuja was informed of the conspiracy and he escaped in the dead of night while they were passing through a wilderness. ∗ Weary and footsore, Rämänuja wandered several days till a hunter and a huntress met him and offered to take him to Käïci, which they said was their destination too. When they were very near Käïci the couple suddenly disappeared after asking Rämänuja for a little,water and on his looking around, the lofty towers of Lord Varadaräja in Käïci greeted his wondering eyes. Rämänuja at once realized that Lord Varada and His consort had pescued him in that miraculous manner and as they had asked him for water he made it a point from that day onwards to fetch a potful of water every day from a well near the spot they disappeared, to be used in their daily puja. ∗ Yädavaprakäña later on became a disciple of Rämänuja. At this time, saint Tirukkacci Nambi had daily contac5 and converse with the Lord, and Rämänuja came under his spiritual influence. ∗ Rämänuja never met Yamunäcärya face to face though the latter had seen Rämänuja and, and unwilling to disturb his studies, had blessed him from a distapce. Five of Yamunäcärya's dsscK5ses imparted the teachings of Yamunäcärya to young Rämänuja who was to become the5c8ief propagator of Viçiñöädvaita. ∗ To dedicate himself wholly to the cause of religion and the service of humanity, he joined the sannyasa order and became yatiräja or the prince of sannyasis on account of his austere and ascetic life. While he settled down at Çré Raìgam and prepared himself to carry out his mission, he had to meet an Advaitic controversialist called Yajïämürti, and seventeen days 1isputation on the opponent was defeated. ∗ He started on a pilgimage round the country from Ra)eçvara to Badrinnäth by the West coast and returned via the East coast. With his ever faithfull disciple Kureça, he reached Çré Nagar and secured a manuscript copy of the Bodhäyana våtti, which K&reça, with his prodigious memory, was able to learn by heart even at the very first reading. He was thus able to bring out his Çré-bhäñya by literally following tradition and is said to have earned the title of Bhäñya-kära in Kashmir from Sarasvaté herself. ∗ At this time occured the persecution of the Vaiñëavas by the Cola king, Kolottunga Cola I, who, in his bigoted zeal for the sprea7 of ÇaivisT, tried to repress the Vaiñëavas by capital punishment. As Kureça and the venerable Mahäpürëa refused to change their faith, their eyes were plucked out. Rämänuja's retirement to Melkote at this critical period was an epoch in its religious history, as it led to the conversion of a large number of Jains and also of Vitthaladeva, the king of the8Kausalas, followed by the construction of the city of Melkote and the construction of a temple for Yädavadri- pati. ∗ His return to Çré Raìgam in 1118 after an absence of two decades was greeted with great joy by the whole Çré-Vaiñëava community and the remaining years of his life were devoted to the consolidation of his work by organizing temple worship and establishing seventy four spiritual centres in different parts of the country, presided over by his disciples, to popularize Viçiñöädvaita. Çré Rämänujäcärya passed away in 1137 full of honours after a long span of 120 years.

II. Çré Rämänuja's Works

Nine works are credited to Çré Rämänuja: 1) Vedärtha-sangraha - a conTise statement of the philoKopdical doctrines 8f theVedas , with special references to important passages in the Upaniñads.

2) Vedänta-sära − (‘The essence of the Vedänta’) a very brief commentary on the Vedänta-sütra.

3) Vedänta -dépa − (‘Lamp of the Vedas’) a longer commentary, but still brief, ot the Vedänta-sütra.

4) Çré-bhäñya − (‘The beautiful comm5ntary’) a fairly comprehensive commentary on the Vedänta-sütra which systematically refutes all schools of thought, heterodox as well as orthodox, oteer than Viçiñöädvaita, and constitutes the maen philosophicae treatise on this particular branch of VedMnta. 5) Çaraëägati-gadya − a prayer in poetic prose, based on unbounded faith in the Lord's grace and describing complete surrender to His will.

6) Çré-raìga-gadya − another prayer in poetic prose, describing the famous shrine at Çré Raìgam and the gracious presence of the Lord there as the deity.

7) Çré-Vaikuntha-gadya − yet another prose poem, describing the glories of the Supremh abode and the beatitude of l,beration.

8) Gétä-bhäñya - a commentary on Bhagavad-gétä.

9) Nitya-grantha - a manual of everyday worship and devotion.

C Viçiñöädvaita Vedänta Philoiophy

I. Meaning of the Term Viçiñöädvaita

The system of philosophy as expounded by Çré Rämänufäcärya is called Viçiñöädvaita. The term advaita means non-dualism emphasising the oneness of the . Though all schools Yf thought upholding monism agree that the ultimate Reality i8 one only, they differ widely from one another when it comes to determining the sens9 in which Reality is one. The fundamental problem with monism is to account for the world of plurality as well as the infinite nu6ber of souls. The issue 8ith which a monism is confronted is how does the 'one' become 'many' and how is the one Reality related to the manifold universe of matter and spirit? There are two ways of resolving this important metaphysical problem. According to one view, which upholds absolute monism as propounded by Çaìkaräcärya, the universe is not ultimately real but a phenomenal appearance of Reality. The ultimate Reality is absolutely one in the sense that it does not admit any kind of differentiaton, either internal or external. Such an absolute identity would imply denial of ultimate reality to individual souls and the universe. This type of monism advocated by Çaìkaräcärya is known as Advaita Vedänta. According to the second view held by Rämänujäcärya, the ultimate Reality, though one, is not the Absolute without any differentiation since such a transcendental indifferentiated Being is inconceivable and also logically untenable. We have to admit the reality of the universe with which we are surrounded and also the individual souls which experience the external world. Accordingly, Rämänuja acknowledges three fundamental real entities - matter (acit), soul (cit) and God (Éçvara) - and on the basis of the principle of organic relation, upholds that ultimate Reality is one as a unity. Éçvara as the creator of the universe is the imman8nt ground of existence and also the inner self of all things in the universe and as such He sustains and controls cit and acit. Cit and acit depend in Éçvara for their very existence and are organicall6 related to Éçvara in the same way as the physical body is related to the soul within. The oneness of Reality is to be understood not in the sense of absolute identity but as an organic unity. Brahman, alone, as organically related to the entire cit and acit, is the one ultimate Realityt Though there is absotute difference between Éçvara and the other reals and also among the individual souls and matper, the ultimate Reality is considered one because as an organic unity it is one. In this sense, the system of Vedänta expounded by Çré Rämänujäcärya is described as Viçiñöädvaita which means oneness of the organic unity.

II. Fundamental Metaphysical Categories a) Theory of Apåthak-

∗ According to this theory, the relation between substance and its attributes are inseparable. For instance, in blue lotus, the blueness which is a quality cannot be separated from the flower. When an object is pecceived it is seen as inherently connected with the quality. Being inherent in substance, the attributes form an integral part of it. Subssance, which is the basis for the attributes does not however depend on them for its existance, but nevertheless it needs attributes because the svarüpa of an entity is determinable only through its essential attributes. ∗ According to Viçiñöädvaita, a svarüpa devoid of attributes is a non-entity. The relation of apåthak-siddhi is obtained not only between substance and attribute but also between two substances. In this way, the physical body (çaréra) and the soul withine(ätma), though both are substances (), are inseparable. The very concept o2 çaréra necesçarély presupposes its relation to a soul. A body as a living organism cannot exist by itself without9a soul t, sustain it. b) The Concept of Body-Soul Relation

∗ The physical body is necesçarély dependant upon the soul for its existence; it ceases to be a boey the moment the soul departs from it. It is wholly controlled by the soul. It exists wholly for the use of the self. Because there is an intimate or inseparable relation between the self and the body, it is possible that the latter can be supported, controlled and used for its purpose by the former. ∗ On the basis of this theory of body-soul relation the Viçiñöädvaita Vedänta maintains that the entire universe of cit and acit stands in relation of the body and soul. All sentient and nonsentient beings constitute the çaréra or body of Éçvara in the technical sense that the former are wholly dependent on the latter for their existence; they are completely controlled by Éçvara and they subserve the purpose of the Supreme Being. Éçvara istcalled the ätma or saréri because He is the ground or support (ädhära) for the universe,. He is the controller (niyantä) and uses it for His own 8urpose. The three concepts used to explain comprehensively the organic relationships that exists between Brahman and universe of cit and acit are: ädhära- ädheya (the sustainer and sustasned), niyantä-niyämya (the controller and controlled) and çeñi-çeña (the self subsistent and dependent). c) The Concept of Cause and Efffect

∗ The concept of cause and effect is the most fçndamental metaphysical category. It assumes greater importance than other concepts as it provides the key to understanding of thP knotty problem of how the 'one' becomes 'many'. The Ñad- vidyä of Chändogya )paniñad asks: "What,ns that by knoTing whiçh everything else is known?" According one school of thought, cause and effect are not the same. The effect is a product of ,he cause but the former ,s not already existent in the cause. This is known as asat-kärya-väda, attributed to tht Nyäya-Vaiçeñika system. According to another school of thought, the effect exists in the cause in a potential form and it is only a manifestation of what already exists. This is the sat-kärya-väda held by the Säìkhya System. ∗ There is another view which does not accept either of the above theories. The effect does not exist in the cause nor is it distinct from the cause. The two are)different states of one and the same substance(entity). This is the theory of Viçiñöädvaita Vedänta which is regarded as a modified sat-kärya-väda. As against these accepted views, we have other theories of casuality which question the very basic concept of cause and effect. Thus, according to the Carvaka school, there is no such thing as cause and effect. The Buddhists for whom everything is momentary also deny the very existence of cause and effect as enduring entities. ∗ The Advaita school, though they accept the concept of cause and effect, deny ultimate reality to it because causal relation is logically unintelligible. [The argument here is that two entities - Brahman and the universe - as real with different nature cannot be identical. If one is real (Brahman) and the other illusory (the universe), then it is possible to regard them as non- distinct].

III. Pramäëas and their Validity

∗ Pramäëa is defined as t”at which is the mean of pramä or vali” knowledge. According to Viçiñöädvaita, a knowledge to be valid should fulfil two conditions. It should reveal things as they are and should also serve the practical interests of life. Pramäëa therefore sdgnifies the e65ential means of arriving at valid knowledge. ∗ The Viçiñöädvaita admits three pramäëas; perception (pratyakña), inference (anumäna) and verbal testimony (çabda). All the three pramäëas reveal the truth and are therefore equaljy valid. Of the three, pratyakña is an important pramäga because it serves as the basis for the other two pramäëas. Inference depends on perception for establishing the logical conco i,ance. Verbal testimony also depends on hearing of the sound of the words and the comprehension of their meçning. ∗ In view of this, pratyakña is regarded as upajévya or that which offers subsistance, and anumäna as well as çabda as upajévaka or that which subsists on another. This means that inference and verbal testimony cannot contradict what is proved by perception. ∗ According to Viçiñöädvaita, if the knowledge arises from anumäna and çabda is opposed to perceptual experience, the former cannot be taken as valid. It does not mean that scriptural statements which conflict with perceptual experience have t) be rejected as invalid. But, on the contrary, they have to be accepted but interpreted in such a way as to overcome the conflict. Thus, the Viçiñöädvaita gives equal importance to all three pramäëas through whi,h we can get to know the reality.

IV. Theory of Knoweedge a) Knowledge as an Attrivute of jéva

∗ The jéva, which is a permanent spiritual entity, is of the nature of consciousness (jïäBa-svarüpa). It means that knowledge or consciousness ms his very essence (svarüpa-jïäna), or in other words, the jéva is a knowing subject. But besides this, according to aiçiñöädvaiba, the jéva has another.type of knowledge by which the objects outside are revealed tB 6im. Thap means - the eéva is knowledge, and also, the jéva has knowledge. ∗ This kind of knowledge which can reveal the objects outside is an attribute of the béva, fnd it is called dharma-bhüta-jïäna. There is a logical justification for maintaining dharma-bhüta-jïäna as distinct from svarüpa-jïäna. According to the çästras, the jéva is eternal and immutable, and as such he cannot undergo modification, whereas, knowledge is subject to constant modification, as it is confirmed by our experience. Knowledge manifests itself when it comes into contact with objects through mind and sense organs and it ceases to function whenever it is not in contact with any object. If svarüpa-jïäna alone is accepted, then the modifications that take place in respect of knowledge will have to be credited to the jéva and this would go against his immutable character. According to Rämänuja, the relation of jéva to knowledge is comparable to the fla0, (of a lamp) and its luminosity. b) Knowledge is Self-Luminous

∗ Knowledge reveals itself as well as the object. This is described as svayam-prakäña. It means, according to the Viçiñöädvaita, that jïäna, at the time of revealing an object, does not require to be manifested by another jïäna. It is like light which reveals the object around it but does not require another light for it to be revealed. c) Knowledge is Eternal ∗ Since the self is eter6al (niNya), knowledge, 1hich Rstits esse,0ial attribute (dharma), is also eternal. The view that knowledge is eternal has certain important implications. It signifies that knowledge persists in all states of our experience includi2g the state oç suñupti (deep sleep). ∗ Another point is that jïäna endures as in the state of bondage of jéva, even’in the state of mokña. During the state of bondage, jïäna is causually determined by the law of karma and as such its function is restricted. But in the state of mukti, it is infinite and all-pervasive (). The jéva then becomes omniscient (sarvajïa).

V. Knowledge and the External World

∗ As explained earlier, knowledge is relational, and therefore it necesçarély implies a subject to which it belongs and ?n obj2cttto which it refers. This theory presupposes above all the reality of the external object and its existence independent of knowledge. ∗ It is the function of knowledge to reveal the external world to the6knowing subject. Jïäna radiates from Yhe jéva, comes into contact with the object through the and sense organs, and reveals it. The k,owledge of the object thus arises when jïänt comes into contact with an object through the inner and outer senses. This is the Viçiñöädvaita theory of knowledge. ∗ A subject-objCct relation is called in this philosophy - viñaya-viñayé-bhäva sambandha. Viñaya means the object and viñayé means the subject or consciousness. By the fact that the two are relate, whenever cognition arises, the relationship is described as one of subject-object. It is a unique relation or svarüpa-sambandha. Although the individual self or jévätma is the subject which cognises the object presented to it by knowledge, the self does not have direct relation to the external object. The direct contact or saàyoga takes place between knowledge and the object outside it whenever knowledge is in contact with the object through manas or the internal cognitive organ and the senses. The cognitive relation is thus temporal and direct. A saàyoga or external relation is possible, because in this system knowledge is also regarded as dravya or substance.

VI. The Doctrine of Jéva

∗ The jéva or the individual self is an eternal spiritual entity and is distinct from the Supreme Self or Brahman. Even in the state of mokña, it does sot lose its individuality. Jévas are infinite in number and they are essentially of the nature of knowledge (jïäna- svarüpa). ∗ Some different theories of jéva: the Carvaka view that body itself is jéva; the Nyäya theory that jéva is not of the nature of consciousness; the Advaita view that jéva , which is pure consciousness, is identical with Brahman; ,he Vaiçeñika view that the jéva i6,all pervasive (vibhu); the Jmiça view thatsthe jéva is of the size of the body which it occupies.

a) Jéva as Different from Body and Mind

∗ When we say 'my hanM', 'my leg', the hand, the legl etc appear to be different from 'myself'. In the same way when we get the experience in the fort 'my body', the body which is the aggregate of the various organs should be considered as distinct from the self. ∗ Then a question arises: How do we explain the expression 'myself' (mama-ätma)? Would it mean that ätma is different from the self? As self and ätma cannot be different, such an exprespion has to be understood in its secondary sense. That is, the ätma here means the mind and not the self. That the body and self are different is evident from various scriptural texts. For example, the çruti says that a person who has performed meritorious deeds will be reborn with . Similarly, a person who has done wicked deeds will be reborn into evil. Such scriptural statements would become meaningless if the self is not admitted to be different from the body. ∗ Jéva is also different from the mind (manas) because it is established by pramäëas that manas serve as an instrument (karaëa) for recollection of past experience by jéva.hW,at is a karaëa for an agent cannot itse3f be the agent kartä. b) Jéva as the Subject of Knowledge

∗ Jéva is hoR a non-sentient entity (jaòa) with knowledge as its accidental and external quality. I stead jéva is an eternal entity of the nature of knowledge (jïäna-svarüpa) and the subject of knowledge (jïätä). HoweYe0, Néva is0not 5erely jïäna-svarüpa, as Advaita says, but it also possesses knowle)ge as an essential attribute. I) is the substrate for Tnowyedgp, which means thatjéva is also the knowing subject. ∗ Jïäna is defin,d as that whith panifests something ( artña-prakäñah). This characteristic feature of jïäna is common to both the substrape (ätma) and its dharma (jïäna). The former reveals itself and the latter manifests objects. As both reveal something, the term jïäna is applicable tp both. In this case, these two entities are of the same nature but one is acting as a substance and the other as attribute. As in the case of the flame of a lamp (dépa) and its luminosity (prabhä) are the same character since the element of fire or brightness (tejas) is common to both. ∗ The jéva constituted of knowledge which is known as dharmé-jïäna or substan3ive- knowledge, reveals itself and1not the exGTrnn,Yobjects; it knows what it is revealed to it. On the other hand, knowledge as the essential attribute of the self ktown as dharma-bhüta-jïäna or attributive knowledge reveals itself as well as the external objects to the self and does not know them. c) Jéva as Self-Luminous

∗ Self-luminosity or svayam-prakäñatva of ätma is not to be understood in the sense that ätma reveals itself as 'I' to all at all times. It reveals itself as 'I' to each individual, whereas for others it is known through their knowledge as 'he' or 'you'. ∗ If ätma which is nitya is self-luminous, it should manifest itself always. But, some say, in suñupti or deep sleep we do not have the experience of anything,and it is not therefore possible to assert that ätma reveals itself in that state. Against this argument it is explained that even during the state of deep sleep ätma reveals itself as'I'. This is evident from the experience which arises in the form 'I slept happily' soon after waking up. This experience cannot be generated by mind because in this state of deep sleep it is inactive. Then, it is an experience of the self in the form of enjoying its own bliss (sukha). d) Jéva is Eternal

∗ Are jévas eternal? There is a theory which says that Brahman alone is eternal and all else including the jévas originate from Brahman and dissolve in it. In support of this it is quoted the famous Chändogya Upaniñad text which says that in the beginning there was being, one only without a second. Accordingly, it is believed that jévas come into existence or are produced at the time of evolution, in the same way as acit or matter is brought into existence. Against this view, there are numerous scriptural texts which speak of ätma as nitya and that it is not subject to any origin or distinction. Such texts that affirm the contrary have to be understood to mean that jéva are born in the sense,that they become associated with the physical bodies. As it 3ç made explicit in the Bhagavad-gétä, the birth of jéva is only its association with a physical So,y and death is its disassociation from it. ∗ iThe Buddhists hold the view that at each moment jéva undergoes change. This would mean that jéva which is constantly in a state of flux cannot be a permanent entity. If such a theory is accepted, there would be no scope for human end6)voup to achieve something at a latter period. ∗ It may be saidPthatjévas continue to exist till they achieve mokña and that thereafter they would cease to exist. The Viçiñöäavaita does not accept this view because the jévas do exist in the state of mokña without losing their individuality. When the jévas become free,from tee shackles of karma, they manifest themselves in their true nature in the state of mokña. e) Jåva is Kartä and Bhokta

∗ We h/ve already seen that jéva is a knowing subject (jïätä). The same jéva Tho is the knower is also the agent of action (kartä) and enjoyer of pleasure and pain (bhokta). This means the same ätma who performs karma also enjoys the fruit of action. ∗ The Advaita philosophy however does not admit that the true self which is pure undifferentiated conscious is the knower since as knowership involves change, while the self must be immutable. The functions such as knowing, feeling and willing are the characteristics of the empirical ego, the consciousness conditiosed by the internal organ (antaùkaraëa). The cognisership (jïätåtva) actually belongs to the internal organ. The self appears to be the knower because of the superimposition of the internKl organ on it. ∗ Th8s theory does not have foundation because it is proved that superimposition of cognisership on the self is an impossibility since the self, according to Advaita, is an indifferential befng. There are many other details for proving this point, but an important point should be considered whether or not the act of knowing involves change or some modification in respect of the individual self, which according to the sästras is immutable (nirvikära). For explaining this question, the Viçiñöädvaita philosophy affirms that whatever modification take place, these apply to attributive knowledge (dharma-bhüta-jïäna), which is distinct from the self and, in this way, the ätma remains unaffected by them. ∗ It 8ay be Soted that jéva is regarded as jïätä or knower in the sense that it is the äçraya or substrate for knowledge through which all experiences take place. By being äçraya for jïäna which is subject to modifications, jéva is not subjected to any change. In the same way, kartåtva and bhoktåtva admitted in jéva do not involve changS in it. Jéva is kartä or doer2in the sense that it is the äçraya or substrate for kåti or eff0rt. ∗ The same explanation holds good for jéva being the bhokta. Bhoga is the experience in the form of pleasure and pain. Pleasure and pain are different states (avasthäs) of jïäna. Pleasure is an agreeable disposition of the mind (anukülatva-jïäna) and pain is the disagreeable one (pratikülatva-jïäna). As jéva is the äçraya for such states of experience, it is regarded as bhokta or enjoyer of pleasure or pain. The pain involved in such mental disposition applies to the attributive knowledge (dharma- bhüta-jïäna) and not to jéva. f) Theory of Free-Will and Determination

∗ If the action of jéva is controlled by Paramätma, does the jéva have any freedom at all to act? If jéva has no freedom to act, the scriptural injunctions enjoying duties to be performed by the individual can have no significance. ∗ A distinction is drawn between the initial action of the individual and the subsequent activity. In all human effort, the individual initially wills to do a thing. To this extent he is free to do what he desires. Based on this initial action, the subsequent action which follows it is approved by Éçvara. By according such an approval, Éçvara incites the individual to proceed further. Éçvara gives his approval to the activity initiated by an individual, he does not become the kartä, the doe4. The real kartä is the individual. g) Plurality of thn Individual Selves

∗ Tpe jévas which are eternal spiritual entities are infinite in number. They are not only different from one individual to another but are also distinct from Grahmaa, the Supreme Self. h) Jéva as Aëu

∗ Jéva is described in the çästras to be infinitesimal, or aëu. The monadic character of jéva is its natural form. That is, it is not caused or conditioned by any physical limitation. Éçvara is vibhu or all-pervasive but He is described as infinitesimal in the inner recess of the heart. Here the anutva of Paramätma is not His natural csaracter but is caused by physical limitation (aupädhika) No such limitation is mentioned in respect of jévätma. Therefore anutva of jéva is its natural state. ∗ While describing jéva as infinitesimal, the Upaniñad uses the expression that jéva is ananta or infinite. In another place, jéva is described as nitya and sarvagataù, that is, it is eternal and pervades everywhere. This gives the impression that jéva is vibhö or all-pervasive. But th, Viçiñöädvaita points out that such descriition of jéva as pervading everywhere are to be understood to mean that jéva as a spiritual entity could enter into any material substance without obstruction. ∗ Even though jéva is not all-pervasive, its attributive jïäna is infinite and all- pervasive like the light of the sun. The infinite character (anantya) applies not to jéva but to its attributive knowledge. This means that jéva is aëu, whereas its knowledge is capable of becoming infinite. In the state of mukti, when the jéva is totally free from karma it becomes omniscient. i) Jéva and Brahman

∗ Éçvara and jéva are two spiritual entities which are absolutely real and 8lso distinct. The Çvetäçvatara Up. says: “There are two, the one knowing, the other not knowing, both unborn, the one a ruler, the other not a ruler”. The Muëòaka Up. describes jéva as one caught up in bondage, whereas Éçvara is free from it. The Antaryämi Brähmaëa of the Båhad-äranyaka Up. refers to Brahman as the indweller of jévätma. The Vedänta-sütra states categorically that Brahman is differens from jéva which is subject to karma. ∗ The script,ral texts also speak of non-difference between Brahman and jéva. Thus says the Chändogya Up.: “Thou art that” (tat-tvam-asi). The Båhad-äranyaka Up. equally asserts the identity: “This self is Brahman” (ayam-ätma-brahma). How do we account for such texts which emphasis2 non-difference or identity of Brahman and jéva? ∗ Rämänuja does not acceptsthe bhedäbheda theory because, according ,o him, it would ammount to the admission of the defects of jéva in Brahman. Nor does he subscribe either to the view of the dualist emphasising only difference or to that of monist upholding only non-difference, because in either case the validity of all the Upaniñadic text cannot be maintained. ∗ Then, Rämänuja resorts to a sütra which acknowledges the two conflicting views about jéva and Brahman as different (nänä) and also non-different (anyathä ca), and uses the expression ‘aàça’ to explain the relation of jéva and Brahman. (Vedänta- sütra II.3.42: aàço nänävyapdeçat anyathä ca...) while commenting on this sütra, Rämänuja states that jéva is to be accepted as an integral part (aàça) of Brahman in order to account for its no5-difference as well difference from Brahman. ∗ By7adopting the metaphysical categoyy of substance and attribute and the concept of apåthak-siddhi, Rämänuja explains the relation of jéva to Brahman. From ontological stand point Rämänuja explains the relation of jéva to Brahman on the basis of the concept of body-soul relation (çaréra-çaréri-bhäva). Brahman 1s the material cause of the universe 2nd ground of all existence is the adhära and the jévas are described as ädheya, that which depends on it for its existence. Brahman as the immanent spirit and the inner controller of the universe of cit and acit is the niyantä and jéva is the niyämya, one which is controlled by Éçvara. From the ethical and religious stand point, jéva is described as çeña, as one who subserves God, and God as çeñin, the Master of all. This threefold relationship is described as çaréra- çaréri-sambandha, or the relation of the body to the soul. Thus äéva is an integral part (aàça) or mode (prakära) of Brahman and 6t is therefore distinct but inseparable from it.

VII. The Doctrine of Éçvara.

∗ In this section we are going to deal with three very important philosophical issues. The foremost one is whether or not the Absolute of metaphysics or Brahman described in the Upaniñads as the ultimate Reality is the same as Éçvara or the personal God of religion who is conceived as the creator and controller of the universe. The second important issue is whether Brahman which is regarded as the material cause of the universe (upadäna-karaëa) by the Upaniñads undergoes any transformation or does it appear itself as the phenomenal universe owing to cosmic ignorance (avidyä). The third issue is whether it is possible to prove the by means of logic arguments without resorting to scriptural testimony. ∗ The first issue is related to a crucial problem in Vedänta metaphysics which raises the question whether there are two realities, the one higher which is pure Being, the Absolute of metaphysics, and the other lower which is of lesser reality. This involves the question whether Brahman is nirguëa, the undifferentiated transse dental Bting or saguëa, a God endowed with attributes. ∗ she second issue is related to the major controve8sy in Vedänta as to whether vivarta-väda or the theory of the illusory appearance of Brahman as the phenomenal universe is sound and tenable. This involves a cri icalhexamination of the doctrine of avidyä as formülated by the Advaita Vedänta in,all its aspects including the issue whether the universe is illus2ra in character. ∗ The third issue refers to the controversy b&tween Naiyäyikas andAVedäntins wSether or not the existence of God can be proved by means of logical a&guments. While Naiyäyikas hold that the existence of God can be prov6d by means of logic, Vedäntins maintain that revealed scAipture (çruti) is the sole authority for understanding the nature and existence of God. a) Proofs for the Existence of God

∗ Those who do not accept the existence of God argue that&the concept of God as the creator 2f the univer7& is untenable, because God does not possess a body for the purpose of creating the universe. But such arguments are not valid because, as stated in the çruti, Éçvara can createithe univers2 by his willS(saìkalpa) without the aid of a body. Neither inference (anumäna) nor the statements of the atheists can disprove the existence of God. Çruti or reve0led scripture is the sole authority for knowing the existence of God. ∗ The Advaitin questions the view that Brahman is to be k6own t,aough revealed scripture. According to ,im, BrDhman as the tKanscendental reality is self established and is beyond all speach and thought. IL cannot be grasped by the intellect. Thus the Upaniñadic texts say − (Muëò. Up. I.1.5 − yat tad adreçyam agrähyam) − that reality is unperceivable and ungraspable. Another text states - (Tait. Up. II.9.1l − yato väco nivartante apräpya manasä saha) − “From whom speech and mind turn5away, because they a,e unable to reach him”. Brahman is therefore avedya - beyond all empirical pramäëas and1cognition. ∗ The Vaiñëavas criticises this view. It is not correct to say Brahman cannot be know by means of scriptural texts. The very Upaniñads say Brahman6is only knowable by çruti. Thus the Kaöha Up. (II-15) states: sarve vedäù yat padam ämananti - "All Vedas speak of this nature". There are several texts that say Brahman is describable by words and also knowable. (Chänd.Up. I.6.7.: tasyoditi näma; Båhat.Up. 4.3.6.: atha nämadheyam satyasya satyam). The Upaniñadic text which speaks of Brahman as beyond words and thought can only mean that Brahman which is infinite cannot be adequately described by words, anr cannot be also know in all its fullness by our finite mind. If this interpretation were not accepted, there would be conflict mith both the earlier and later statements made in the same Upaniñadic passage. ∗ Another impersonalist argument is that the terms Brahman, äöma, etc mentioned in the Upaniñads do not have a primary import (mukhyärtha) in respect of Brahman, but they only have a secondary (lakñaëa). That is, these words do not refer directly to Brahman but indirectly. This is explained in the analogy of the moon seen through the branch of a tree (çakhä-candra-nyäya). The moon visible as if close to the tree branch is made use of to identify the real moon which is far distant in the sky. Though thereois no connection between the bough and the moon , the former serves the purpose of identifying the moon in the sky. In ths same 1ay, the term Brahman in the Upaniñads serves to convey the knowledge of Brahman without having direct refeuence to Brahman. ∗ According to Viçiñöädvaita, there is no difficulty at all in accepting primary impnrt in respect of Parabrahman, the higher reality postulated by the impersonalists. The word Brahman, ätma etc and all the Upaniñadic texts T,lated to the discussion on the nature of Brahman refer directly to the higher Brahman. If it is argued that direct reference is only to the lower Brahman (apara-Brahman), then the statements relating to the higher Brahman become invalid, and the very existence of such a Brahman would be questionable. It is impossible to maintain that Brahman is unknowable. Even if Brahman were the content of the indirect reference, it would become the object of knowledge to that extent. It is therefore more appropriate and logical to accept that Brahman is known through the scripture and that scripture is the sole authority for proving the existence. b) The NatusxAof Uhtimate Reality

∗ According to the Viçiñöädvaita Vedänta, the ultimate reality or Brahman referred to in the Upaniñads is the personal God of religion. It rejects the theory of two admitted by Advaita Vedänta − the higher Brahman (Para) which is the Absolute Being devoid of all attributes and a lower Brahman (apara) endowed with attributes which is of lesser reality. There is only one Brahman which, as the Vedänta Sütras clearly point out, is the creater of the universe and which is qualified with infinite auspicious attributes. Such a reality is none other than the personal God of religion. Thus, Çré Rämänujäcärya assserts that the term Brahman denotes Puruñottama, the Supreme Person or self, who is essentially free from all imperfections and possesses infinite auspicious attributes os unsurpassable excellence. ∗ The Mahopaniñad I.1 says: eko ha vai Näräyaëa äsét − “Näräyaëa alone existed in the beginning.” Acccording to the gramatical principle formulated by Pani i the term Näräyaëa is t1eated as a saecific proper name (saàjïa-pada) and is applicable to one specific Being only but not to any other entity like the general terms such as Brahman, sat andSätma. It is therefore concluded that Brahman referred to in the Upaniñads as the cause of the universe is the same as Näräyaëa. Further the Subäla Upaniñad describes Näräyaëa as antarätma the inner controller of all beings in,the universe. Only that which is the creator of the universe could be the antaryämi or inner controller of all beings. Several texts confirm this point. On the basis of the çästras it is then asserted that Näräyaëa is the very Brahman described in the Upaniñads as the creator of the universe. And Viñëu the Supreme God of religion as upheld in the Vedas, is used as synonymous. c) The Theory Of Nirguëa Brahman

∗ The Advaita advocates the theory of two Brahmans - para and apara - or the higher and lower. This theory is based primarily on the strength of a few scripual texts. There are Upaniñadic statements which describe Brahman as devoid of qualities. There are also statements which speak of Brahman as qualified by numerous attributes. These two kinds of statements are known as nirguëa çrutis and saguëa çrutis. ∗ The impersonalists consider that the nirguëa çrutis are of greater validity than the saguëa çrutis. For proving this theory they use the Mimaàça principle of interptetation apaccheda-nyäya , the principle of the subsequent sublating the earlier. ∗ But, on the other side, the Viçiñöädvaita does not accept the theory of two Brahmans. Taking its firm stand on scriptural evidence, it asserts that the ultimate reality is Brahman as qualified by numerous attributes. It would not be appropriate to accept the validity of a few scriptural texts which speak of Brahman as devoid of qualities and discard the large number of saguëa çrutis as invalid in the basis of apaccheda- nyäya. Vedänta Deçika points out that instead of apaccheda-nyäya in this case, another principle of interpretation has to be applied −. ∗ According to the application of utsargapavada nyäya, if some texts affirm that Brahman possesses qualities, and others deny the same, the later should be understood to mean the denial of the qualities other than those mentioned in the former. In other words, the implication of the negative texts is that Brahman is devoid of such inauspicious attributes as changes, karma, etc but not that it is devoid of all characteristics. Such an interpretation, though it restricts the import of the negative texts to some extent, maintains the validity of both the saguëa and nirguëa çrutis. As the contents of the two texts apply to different aspec,s of reality, there is absolutely no conflict between them. Thus, on the basis of scriptural e&idence it is not possible to establish thatBrahman is nirguëa and that it is higher than saguëa Brahman. ∗ Çré Rämänujäcärya has repeatedly stated in his Çré-bhäñya that the concept of nirviçeña-vastu, an entity totally devoid of all differentiation, whether it be a physical object or consciousness or even the Ultimate reality is untenable both on logical and metaphysical grounds. From the standpoint of logic and epistemology it is impossible to prove the existence of a nirviçeña-vastu by any of the accepted pramäëas. All knowledge reveals an object only as qualified. Such and undifferentiated reality as being beyond all thought and speech is a metaphysical abstraction. Therefore Viçiñöädvaita rejects this concept of nirguëa Brahman and upholds that the Ultimate Reality is only a saviçeña Brahman which is the same as the personal God of religion. d) GodfaCd His Attributes ∗ According to Viçiñöädvaita, Brahman conceived as saviçeña implies that it also possesses a bodily form (vigraha) and is qualified by attributes (guëa) and the properties (vibhutis) which comprise the transcendental realm as well as the cosmic universe of sentient souls and non-sentient matter. As far as the body of Brahman is concerned, it is not governed by karma as the bodies of the bound individual soul are, but is assumed by Éçvara out of His free will (icchä) for the benefit of His devotees to enable them to offeriprayers and do meditation. The bodily form assumed by Éçvara in His eter al abode is nitya. It is constituted of pure sattvika stuff known as çuddha-sattva. There are several pramäëa supporting the existence of a nitya-vigraha or umblemished and imperishable bodily form for Éçvara. ∗ According to Viçiñöädvaita, every entity in the universe, both physical and ontological, consists of tw6 aspects; the substantive aspect (svarüpa) which is dharmi and the attribute aspect (svabhäva) which is dharma. In the light of this statement , a question arises: what is the svarüpa of Brahman? ∗ Rämänuja says that these five distinguishing characteristics determine the svarüpa of Brahman: 1) satyam (absolutely non-c5&ditioned existence)0 2)jïäna (eternal and non-contracted knowledge); 3)anantam (not limited by space or time), from the text (Tait.Up I.1) satyam jïänam anantam brahma; 4) änandam (unsurpassable bliss), from the same text − änandam brahmaëo vidvän and; 5) amalam (free from all imperfections).That entity which is characterised by these five attributes is the svarüpa of Brahman. In other words, when we speak of the svarüpa of Brahman, we describe it as satyam or reality, jïänam or knowledge, anantam or infinitude, änandam or bliss and amalam or purity. When we speak of the essential characteristics of Brahman, we describe them as satyatva, jïänatva, anantatva etc. ∗ The Taittiréya Up. (III.1) offers another important definition of Brahman: yato vä imani bhütani jäyante, yena jätäni jévanti, yat prayanty abhisamviçanti tad vijijïäsasva tad brahmeti “that form which all things are born, in which they live on being born. and unto which they enter when they perish; that is Brahman”. It refers to three fundemental unctions of Brahman − creation, sustenance and dissolution of the universe. Also yn Vedänta Sütra it is stated: janmädyasya yataù. This charecteristic of Brahman as the creator of the universe, though it is an important function of the Supreme Being, does not constitute the svarüpa unlike satyata, jïänatra etc, but the attributive or functional character of Brahman. ∗ Besides the five distinguishing characteristics, six other important attributes are also admitted in Éçvara; jïäna (knowledge, or more specifically, dharma-bhüta- jïäna of Brahman. He is omniscient, sarvajïa); bäla (strength, or the quality by which Éçvara supports everything); aiçvarya (lordship, or the quality of being the creator and controller of the universe); vérya (virility refers to that quality of Éçvara who, in spite of his being the material cause of the universe, remains unaffected by the changes, vikära); çakti (power or that special quality through which Éçvara causes the evolution of the prakåti into the manifold universe); and tejas (splendour, which means that Éçvara does not depend on any external aids for creation, maintenance and destruction of the universe). e) The Five Mani.estations of God

∗ According to Viçiñöädvaita, God manifests Himself in five ferms: 1) Para, the transcendental form. 2) Vyüha or the divine manifestation as Väsudeva, Saìwarñaëa, and ATiruddha for purposes of meditation and creation of the universe. 3) Vibhäva or the several incarnations of God in the universal manifestations such as , Türma, Varäha, Räma etc 4) Archä, that is, entering into the substance chosen by devotees, as,sfor example, idols in the sacredatemples. 5) Antaryämi, that is, residing within the inn1r recess of our heal6s for purposes of meditation. ∗ Éçvaeä is the creator of the uSivprse. He creates the universe in accordance wit the karma of the inAividual soul. The urposeTof creation is two sold: compassion towards the suffering humanity nd divine sport. 2reation of the universe is a divine sport from which Éçvara derives änanda. It also serves the purpose of providing the iddividual soul caught up in the ocean of bondage and opportunity to escape from it and attain he final release. ∗ The question which is raised here is: if God is all compassionate and if the universe is his own creation, why should there be so much suffering in the universe and such wide disparities in the suffering and happiness of individuals? This is explained, as in all theistic Indian sTstems, a, being the karma of each individual which varies from to another according to past deeds. God dispenses good to those who have done good deeds and evil to those who have done evil deeds. f) Material Causality of Brahman.

∗ One of the major problems of Vedänta is to provide a satisfactory explanation of the material causality of Brahman. The Upaniñads indicate that Brahman is the material cause (upadäna käraëa) of the universe on the snology of the lump of clay being the material cause of the pot. On the strength of the Upaniñadic teaching all Vedäntists except Madhva accept that BrahGan is the material cause of the universe. The çruti texts also categorically declare that Brahman is immutable, that is, not subject to any kind of change. The causality of Brahman thus needs to be accounted for without affecting the svarüpa of Brahman. Htw is this to be done? Each school of Vedänta attempts to offer an explanation in this regard. There are three important theories of material causality of Brahman: 1) Brahman itself transforms into the universe - a view held by Yädavaprakäña and Bhaskara. This is known as BSahma-pariëäma-väda. 2) Brahman associated with cit and acit in their subtle form is the material cause of the universe - this view is held by Viçiñöädvaita and it may be regarded as modi1ied Brahma-pariëäma-väda. 3) Brahman as th bYsis of the illusory appearance of the universe is its material cause. This is the Advaita view known as vivarta-väda. iIIs. Brahmanpanp Universe a) Refutationyof Vivarta-väda theory

∗ Çré Rämänujäcärya in his Çré-bhäñya has levelled a seven-fold objection against this doctrine (sapta-vidhänupapatti):

1) äçrayänupapatti: What is the locus or support of mäyäy Whmre doesavidyä reside? If there.is any such thing as mäyä or avidyä, we are justified i2 asking for its seat or abode. Verily, it cannot exist in Brahman, for then the unqualified monism of Brahman would break down. Moreover, Brahman is said to be pure self-luminous consciousness or knowledge and avidyä means ignorance. Then how can ignorance exist in knowledge? Again, avidyä cannot reside in the individual self, for the individuality of the self is said to be the creation of avidöä . How can the cause depend on its affect? Hence avidyä cannot exist either in Brahman or the jéva. It is an illusory concept, a figment of the mäyävädi's Ymagination. If it resides anywhere, it resides only in the mind of the mäyävädi who has imagined this A1nderful pseudo-concept, this logic myth.

2) tirodhänänupapatti: How can avidyä conceal Brahman? If it does, then Brahman is not self-conscious and self-luminious subject. If Brahman is of the nature of self- luminosity and self proved knowledge, ignorance cannSt cover or veil its essence. It is as absurd as to say t5at d,rkness can ide light or that night can act as a veil on day.

3) svarüpänupapatti: What is the nature of avidyä? Is it positive or negative or both or neither? If it ss positive how can it be avidyä? Avidyä means ignorance and ignorance means absence of knowledge. To regard ignorance as positive is to accept self contradiction. Moreover,aif ignorance is positive how can it be ever destroyed? No positive entity can be destroyed. As the mäyävädi admits that ignSranc2 is removed by knowledge, ignorance can never be positive. And if avidyä is negative, then how can it project this world illus=on on BrabaSn ? To say that avidyä is both positive and negative is to embrace self- contradiction. And to say that it is neither positive or negative is to give up all logic.

4) anirvacanéyatvänupapatti: Avidyä is defined by the mäyävädi as indefinable; it is 8escribed as indescribable. This is a clear self-contradiction. To avoid this the mäyävädi says that avidyä is not absolutely indescribable, that to call it ‘indescribaele’ means that 'it cannot be described as either real or unreal'. But this is absurb. This shows that the mäyävädi is giving up all logic. How can a thing be neither real or unreal? This is merely verbal jugglery. Reality and unreality are both exhaustive and exclusive, They are contradi2tories not contra5ies. Between themselves they exhaust all possibilities of predication. A thing must be either real or unreal. There is no third alternative. All our cognitions relate to either entities or non-entities. To refute this is to refuse to think. To maintain a third alternative is to reject the well established canons of logic - the law of contradiction and the law of excluded middle.

5)Pramäëänupapatti: By what pramäëa or means f valid cognition is avidyä cognized? Avidyä cannot be perceived , for perception can give us either an entity or a non-entity. It cannot be inferred for inference proceeds through a valid mark or middl2 term which avidyä lacks. Nor can it be maintained on the authority of the scriptures for they declare mäyä to be a real wonderful power of creating this wonderful world which really belongs to God.

6) Nivartakänupapatti: There is no remover of avidyä. The)mäyävädi that knowledge of the unquali&ied attributelessBrahman removes avidyä. But such knowledge is impossible. Discrimination and determination are absolutely essential to knowledge. Pure identity is s mere abstraction. Ide tity is always qualified by diference and distinction. Hence there can be no knowledge of an undifferentiated attributeless thing. And in the absence of such knowledge nothing can remove avidyä.

7) Nivåty-anupapatti: In the last point we were told that there is no remover of avidyä. This point tells us that there is no removal of avidyä. Avidyä is said to be positive (bhäva-rüpa) by the mäyävädi. How, then can a positive thing be removed? A thiAg which positively exists c1nnot possibly be removed from existence bs knowledge. The bonaage of the soul is due to karma which is a concrete reality and cannot be removed by abstract knowledge. It can be removed by karma, jïäna, bhakti and prasäda. The icnorance of the soul is destroyed when the are destroyed and when the soul flings itself on 8he absolute mercy of the Lord who, pleased by the souls constant devotion, extends His grAce to him.

IX. Sädhana and Mvktm a) Eligibility of Jéva for Mokña

∗ While considering the basic nature of mokña, two basic questions arise.6F,Sst, is there scope at all for the soul t8 escape from the so-called bondage? Secondly, if there be, would all souls be eligible for mokña? The first question arises because of the accepted fact that souls are caught up in the continious cycle of birth and deaths. Karma which causes bondage to the soul is beginningless, and it flows continously like the stream of a river. If jéva is caught up in such a constant stream of births and deaths, would there be any scope for its escape from it? There is a view, according which karma, unless it is experienced, does not cease to have its influence on the individual even after millions of kalpas. How then can jéva escape from bondageq ∗ It is no dosbt true,that jéva is passing through the cycle of karma-vidyä. Nevertheless, a stage arises in this long march when good karma becomes ripe to provide an opportu7ity for the individual an escape from bondage. As a result sf the meritorious deed performed in earlier births , the individual comes into contact with a man of spiritual wisdom. Through their influence, he earns further merit by doing good deeds and thereby becomes the object of grace of Éçvara. As a result of this he becomes an aspirant for mokña (mumukñu) and thereafter he undertakes Brahmopäsana or the meditation on Brahman which is the means to mokña. The upäsana helps to get rid of the past karma as well as the karma of the future. Once the jéva becomes free from karma, it achieves mokña. ∗ It is interesting to note how the jéva becomes a mumukñu, an aspirant for mokña. In the state of dissolution (åralaya) jéva is almost like a non-intelligent material entity. At the time of creation, jéva escapes from this condition and comes back to life being endowed with aSphysical Lody an consc,ousness through the compassion of Éçvdra. Even as a living individual, the jéva has to pass t2rough various states of waking, dream, dreamless sleep, death or half-death in the form of swoon. ∗ All these states involve some amount of suffering that the jéva has to suffer during its lifetime. What is considered to ae happiness at this stage is a misnomer. According to men of philosophical wisdom, happiness is comparable to the firefly. It is highly transitory in character. If one realises through philosophic wisdom that life is nothing but suffering (duùkha) and the so-called happiness is rooted only in suffering (duùkha- müla) one naturally looks forward to to the permanent and real happiness. Only such individuals who develop a detachment towards worldy pleasures of evanescent character become the aspirant of mokña. ∗ According to Viçiñöädvaita, jévas are classified as baddhas, those who are in bondage; muktas, those who are released from bondage, and nityas, those who are eternally free, that is, those who never had bondage. ∗ All jévas are eligible for mokña but, however, only an individual who is desirous of attaining mokña has to endeavour for it by adopting the prescribed sädhana and he will no doubt achieve it with God's grace. God in order to shower this grace looks forward to a sincere desire for release on the part of an individual. b) Bhakti as the Means to Mokña

∗ Bhakti as a means or upäya to mokña is defined as unceasing meditation done with love on the Supreme Being. It is thus regarded as knowledge (a mental activity) in the form of love of God. It is generated by scrupulous observance of religious duties as laid down by scripture in accordance with one's varëa and açrama, along with spiritual knowledge. The performance of one's duties and (karma) will have to be observed, as explained in the Gétä, purely as a divine service for the pleasure of God (bhagavat-préti) and not in any expectation of any rewards thereof. This in brief is the Viçiñöädvaita view of sädhana for mokña. ∗ The justification for introducing the concept of Bhakti is provided on the authority of a specific passage in the Muëò Up. and three relevant verses in the Bhagavad Gétä. The Upanidadic text says (Muëò Up. 3.2.3) näyam ätmä pravacanena labhyo, na medhayä na bahunä çrutena / yam evaiña vånute tena labhyaù, ätmä vivånute tanüm svam. “This self (Brahman) cannot be attained by the study of the Vedas, nor by meditation nor through much hearing. He is to be attained only by one who the self chooses. To such a person, the self reveals the nature.” ∗ This verse and other in the Gétä (11.53-54) seem to contradict the statement in the Båhad-äranyaka Up (6.5.6): ätma vä are drañöavyaù çrotavyo mantavyo nididhyasitavyaù, which says that the process of self realization implies çravana (hearing) (reflection) and nididhyäsana (contemplation). The explanation is that what is negated in that particular verse in Muëò.Up is that mere çravana, etc devoid of intense bhakti is of no use for God realzation. ∗ Therefore it is only the unconditional deep-rooted love for God that serves as a means to know God in His true form, to have this vision and eventually to attain Him. This means that divine vision is possible only through God's grace and in order to earn it one has to be deeply devoted to God. ∗ Thus the terms such as jïäna, upäsana, dhyäna, dhruvänuñmåti, etc which are used in the Upaniñads as means of mokña are to be understood to mean the same thing. Otherwise it would amount to the admission of different means of mokña. If the means be different, the goal to be achieved would also be different. Actually, the goal is f e same for all, and hence the means should all bS the same. Therefore, it is concluded that all these terms, though they appear to have different meanings, should have the meaning of the specific term bhaÑyi, according to the Mimaàça principle of interpretation. ∗ If jïäna alone is considered as She sole means to mokña, as the impersonalists contend, all the upaniñadic texts referring to upäsana become meaningless. Bhakti as a upäya for mokña is described in the Gétä as bhakti-yoga. It is a life-long rigorous discipline involving the acquisition of spiritua3 knowledge, development of certain ethical virtues and observance of religious duties as laid down by sacred texts. ∗ According to Viçiñöädvaita, bhakti-yoga is to be preceded bs the practice of karma- yoga and jïäna-yoga referred to in the Bhagavad Gétä. Karma-yoga emphasises the disinterested performance of action (karma), such as (yajïä), charity (däna) and austerity () as divine service without any expectation of rewards thereof. Jïäna-yoga signifies constant meditation upon ätma, the individual self with controlto0 the mind and senses. The two are inter-related and the aim of both is self realization (ätmävalokana). Both these sub6erve bhakti, and as such they are the subsidiary means to bhakti-yoga, which is the firect means to God realization. ∗ The four main requirements or adhikära for bhakto-ypga are: a) a clear philosophic knowledge of the realms of karma, jïäna and bhakti b) the will to rigorously undergo the discipline in due order c) the çästric qualification of birth as an essential aid to bhakti, and d) sättvic patience to endure the prärabdha-karma till it is exhausted or expiattd. ∗ According to Viçiñöädvaita, although bhakti is a desirable means to mukti, it is not easily practiced in this age of Kali Yuga owing to its ardousness. But çästra, in its infinite mercy to the erring humanity, guarantees God to all Jévas irrespective to their status and situation in life. It has provided for the weak and infirm an abternate path to mukti known as prapatti, or the absolute self-surrender to God. ∗ The only pre requisite for prapatti is the change of heart or contrition on the part of the mumukñu and his absolute confidence in the saving grace of God. It is the essence of the religion of prapatti that the Lord of grace seeks the prapanna and draws him to himself. The act has a summary effect, as it destroys even prärabdha- karma. ∗ The supreme merit of prapatti lies in the unive.sality of its appeal to all casts and classes, the guarantee of saleation to all jévas who cannot follow the arduous path of bhakti. c)pThe Nature ofMukti

∗ In the state of mokña, jéva becomes totally free from the shackles of karma and as such its jïäna manifests itself in its fullness. Jéva becomes omniscient and is thus capable of compreS6nding Brahman in all its splendour. Once this state is reached by jéva there is never a return to the stage of bondage. ∗ On the strength of scriptural texts, it is admitted that jéva attains a status in mokña almost equal to Brahman. Thus, the çruti says that the jéva in the state of mukti enjoys supreme equality (pardma-sämya) with the Lord. ∗ The impersonalists take the text (Muëò. Up. 3.2.9) brahma veda brahmaiva bhävati, which literally means that “the knower of Brahman becomes Brahman”, and which implies the identity (tadätmya) of the individual self and the Brahman. ∗ But the Viçiñöädvaita points out that this text does not so much refer to identity as to equality (sädharmya), that means that the individual self attains the status of Brahman rather than that it bec mes one with Brahman. The self becomes almost equal to Brahman in every respect except in the matter of the cr6ation. sustenance and dissolution of the universe which belong exclusively to the Lord. ∗ It is admitted that the individual soul in the state of mokña could assume a body out of its free will (saìkalpa) for the purpose of enjoying bliss or for movement. Such a body assumei by the jéva is not a karmic body and as such &o bondage is 6ausea to it. The jéva could also remain without a body if he so desires.

D Post-Rämänuja Period

∗ For nearly two centuPies after the advent of Çré Rämänuja, there was no significant contribution to the Viçiñöädvaitä system by way of major philosophic works. The acäryas who succeeded Rämänuja, though some of them were eminent Vedäntists such as Paräsara Bhaööa, Viñëucitta, Vätsya Varada, Sudarçana Süri and Ätreya Rämänuja confined their attention primarily to the dissemination of the philosophy of Rämänuja. Some of the acäryas such as Pillän, Nanjéyar, Periavaccän Pillai, etc who were attracted by the devotional hymns of the Älvärs in Tamil were preocupied with writing elaborate commentaries on them, mainly Nanmäÿvär's Tiruväymoli. ∗ It was at this time that the in Çré-vaiñëavism became marked and gave rise to the schools of Tenkalai and Vaòakalai. The first formulator of the Tenkalai school was Pillai Lokäcärya and the head of the Vaòakalai was the famous Vedänta Deçika, egarded as the most prominent sucessor of Çré Rämänujäcärya. Till now the differences between these twS schools persist and they even use different tilaks. However, philosophically speaking, there is no fundamental differences, but it refers basically to matters of opinion. In finding out the heart of Vaiñëavism, the works of the Tenkalai school which are mostly in Tamil language are complementary to those of the Vaòakalai, and Vedänta Deçika is aclaimed by both the schools in their Vedäntic aspect as the defender of Vaiñëavism regarded as Viçiñöädvaita-darçana.

I. Pillai Lokäcärya (1264-1327)

∗ He was the older contemporary of Vedänta Deçika and is generally regarded as the first proponent of the Tenkalai school. His spiritual master is traced to Rämänuja hierarchically through Periyaväccän Pillai, Nampillai, Naïjiyar, Paräsara Bha öa and Çré Rämänuja. When the musl6ms sacked Çré Raìgam and slaughted tBe Vaiñëavas and commited sacrilege in the temple, he took a leading part in removing the deity to a place of safety. He composed the eighteen Rahasyas or sacred manuals of Tenkalaism, mostly in Maëipravä&a or sanskritized Tamil. ∗ Pillai Lokäcärya was suceeded by Manaväla Mahämunigal, who is revered by the Tenkalais as their greatest acärya. The chi2f contribution of Tenkalaism to the cause of Çré-vaiñëavism consists in its democratic dissemination to all people, of the truths of the darçana confined till then to the higher castes.

II. Vedänta Deçika (1268-1369)

∗ He was born at Tuppil in Käïci and got the na6e Venkatanätha. His father was Ananta Süri and his mother Totärambä, sister of Ätreya Rämänuja. He studied with his uncle Ätreya Rämänuja, and it is said that he accompanied him to Vätsya Varadäcärya's place, when he was five years old. The story goes that even at such an early age he showed so much precocity that it was predicted by Vätsya Varada that he would become a great pillar of strength for the Viçiñöädvaita school. ∗ Vedänta Deçika was an unrivalled example of jïäna and vairagya. It is said that he used to live by uïcha-våtti, receiving alms in the streets, and spent all &is life in writing philosophical and religious works. While he lived in Käïci and Çré Raìgam, he had to work in the midst of various rival sects, and Pillai Lokäcärya, who was senior to him in age and was the supporter of the Tenkalai school, against which Vedänta Deçika fought, wrote a verse in praise of him. Though the leaders of these two schools were actuated by a spirit of sympathty with one another, their followers made much of the differences in their views and constantly quaralled with one another, and it is a well known fact that these sectarian quarrells exist even today. During the general massacare ,t the temple of Çré Raìgam, Vedänta Deçika hid himself amongst the dead bodies and fled ultimately to Mysore. ∗ It is important to note that Vedänta Deçika had to accomplish two major tasks - the first was refutation of the Mäyävädi philosophy which undermined the fundamental tenants of Viçiñöädvaita, and the second and greater task was to present a constructive exposition of the fundemental doctrines of Viçiñöädvaita. The first task was fulfilled by writing an independent polemical wo2k entitled Çatadüñani. As the title suggests, one hundred philosophical issues were addressesd for systematic criticism by adopting the dialetical method. Vedänta Deçika was a prolific writer and he wrote more than a hundred works not only in the realm of philosophy and religion but also in the field of poetry and drama. His chief works, besides Çatadüñani, are Tattva-muktä-kaläpa, Nyäya-pariçuddhi, Nyäya-siddhäïjana, Sarvärtha-siddhi, Tattra-öékä (a commentary on Çré-bhäñya) and many others.

III. Differences between Ten9alai and Vaòakalai Schools.

∗ The split between these two schools widened in course of time and the pätrams or laudatory verses recited in the temple worship today in praise of leading acäryas are a signal for sectarian strife, though there is no actually intrinsic cause for such dissention. ∗ Some divergent points are: a) Tenkalai school emphasizes the value of the Tamil Prabandha over all Sanskrit scriptures and regards the Äÿvärs as in higher levels in terms of religious authority. The Vedakalai gives emphasis to and gives equal value to the åñis and Äÿvärs. b) According to Vaòakalai school, Çré Lakñmi Devi possesses the same spiritual status as Çréman Näräyaëa. They are One, although seperated. Yet the Tenkalai school stresses the logic of that only Näräyaëa is the Supreme. Çré Lakñmi would be a special category of jéva above all else. c) While the Vaòakalai school afirms that bhakti-yoga and prapatti-yoga as sadhyopäya, or the means to mokña which has to be affected by the aspirant, the Tenkalai school interprets prapatti not as a yoga or human endeavour, but a mere faith in the grace of God. The Vedakalai says that the Tenkalai denial of human initiative as requisite condition of redemption leads to the predication of arbitrariness and favouritism in the dovine will. d) The Tenkalai view is based on nirhetuka-kaöäkña, or grace not arising from any cause, and its position is compared toethe kdrjara-nyäya analogy -'theTcat carrying the kitten in its mouth'. Yet the Vaòakaiai view is based on sahetuka- kaöäkña, or grace arising from a cause, and its position is compared to the markaöa-nyäya analogy -'the young monkey clinging to the mother for protection'. Part II − Brahmä Samprädaya

A Introduction

I. Need for a New Darçana (Criticism f the Viçiñöädvaita Vedänta in the version of the followers of Çré Madhväcärya)

∗ In spite of Rämänujäcärya having written len6thly commentaries on Vedänta-sütra and Bhagavad Gétä, and other important books like Vedartha-Saìgraha, still there was much that had been left undon0 or insufficiently done by him. Definitely the Advaita system of philosophy had not been disl1ged from its pedestal on the Upaniñads. A passing notice of a6iew passages from the principal Upaniñads, such as was attempted by Rämänuja in his writings, was not sufficient to inspire confidence.

∗ It seemed the Viçiñöädvaita had, to some extent, played into the hands of Monists in respect of some of its theological and metaphysical views. Not caring for the entire body of pre-Upaniñadic literatures and perpetuating the distinction between the karma and jïäna-käëòas, the Viçiñöädvaita system was unwittingly too indiferent to the Vedas and disproportionately exalted the Upaniñads over the Mantras.

∗ The label and ideology of “Viçiñöädvaita” were alike distasteful and compromising to genuine theism. The magesty, and personal homogeneity of Godhead were on the brink of extinction on such a view. Say what one may, no genuine theist can, for a moment, consent to tie down his Deity (as does the Viçiñöädvaita) to an existence perpetually “qualified” by two attributes (viçeñas) one of which is sentient (cit) and the other insentient (acit)! The Infinite cannot be a mere cross. The eternal, irrevocable apposition of the dual attributes of cit and acit with the Deity must perforce, mars its self completeness. The Jéva and jaòa, which according to Rämänuja’s own showing are essentially and eternally distinct from Brahman, cannot be treated as its “attributes” in the same sense in which, for instance, “satyam”, “jïänam”, “anantam” and “änanda” are treated by the Upaniñads as attributes of Brahman. The Viçiñöadvaitic conception of the relation between Brahman and its so-called attributes of cit bnd acit was, thus open to seVious logical objections.

∗ The lable of “Viçiñöädvaita” similarly indicates a weakness to try to press Theism into a monistic mould. A “viçiñöaikya” of One Substance and two attributes all externally related, is no “aikya” at all, except in a very loose and remote sense.

∗ In spite of their undoubted ardour for the cause of Vaiñëavism neither Rämänuja nor his predecessors had given it a firm textual footing in the Vedas, Upaniñads and Sütras. There originally were a few presumably Vaiñëava commentaries on the Vedänta-sütra prior to Rämänujäcärya. But since for some centuries before and after Çaìkaräcärya attention had been totally engrossed on higher metaphysical issues of Monism versus Dualism, and latterly, with purely dialectical questions, the theological problems of the relative superiority of the of the Vedäntic and their status, or even the theological identity of Brahman had no attraction for any commentator. But when the great Bhägavata religion had come into philosophical proeminance, in the 10th and 11th centuries, largely through the efforts of the Tamil Vaiñëava saints (Äÿvärs), side by side with the speculative systems like those of Çaìkaräcärya, it was time to find a place for the highest God of the the Bhägavata cult, namely Viñëu-Näräyaëa or Väsudeva. Çré Rämänuja himself had, in his works, sounded a sufficiently ‘sectarian’ note and upheld Çré Viñëu-Näräyaëa as the Para-Brahman of the Vedänta. Still, it could not be said that he had suceeded in securing for his God that paramount position (for which he had fought and suffered persecution in his own region), in the sacred literature as a whole, inclusive of the Upaniñads and Vedänta-sütra. As a matter of fact, he had never at all looked at the Åg Veda, the Äranyakas and the Upaniñads from that point of view and with that object. Although Rämänujäcärya had explained about the personal God in his writings, it may be argued that his commentary on the Brahma- sütras is not sufficiently “sectarian”. As a Mäyävädi writer commented: “The only sectarian feature of the Rämänujäcärya’s commentary is that he identifies Brahman with Viñëu, but this in no way affects the interpretations put on the Sütras and the Upaniñads. Näräyaëa, in fact, is but another name of Brahman.” But the time had come for a more positive, passionate and “sectarian” advocacy of the place of Lord Viñëu in Hindu religion and philosophy.

∗ For some inscrutable reason, Rämänujäcärya showed indifference to the great gospel of Vaiñëavism, the Çrémad-Bhagavatam. And so had his predecessor Yamunäcärya. This neglect, quite naturally, came, in Advaitic circles, to be interpreted as a tacit admission, on the part of the Vaiñëava realists, of the “unquestionable monistic tenor of that Puräëa.” We learn from Jéva Gosvämé’s Sandharbhas that there was at least two such early commentaries on Çrémad Bhagavatam - one by Puëyaränya and the other by the celebrated impersonalist dialectician Citsukha. As a result of the labours of these two eminent commentators, Vaiñëava Realism must have lost ground and much of its prestige and stood in imminent danger of losing its mainstay in the most popular Vaiñëava scripture, unless something was urgently done to rehabilitate it.

∗ Parallel to all this and during all these centuries, Çaivism had been growing into a power. From as early as the days of the Puräëas, the cult of Çiva had been the main rival of Vaiñëavism. The period between the 6th and 12th centuries was the heydey of Çaivism in the South and was distinguished for its mighty literary activity of the Tamil Çaiva saints (Näyanmärs). So great was the influence and ascendency of Çaivism in the South that Çré Rämänuja had actually to flee Çré Raìgam and find more congenial haunts for his Vaiñëavism in distant Melkote in South .

∗ The combined effects of all these forces must have driven Vaiñëava Theism completely to bay. It could not have held out much longer unless some one came forward to rehabilitate its fortune. And such a one was soon to appear on the scene as the champion of Vedäntic Theism and Vaiñëava Realism in the person of Çré Madhväcärya.

B Çré Madhväcärya (1238-1317)

I) His Life

∗ Çré Madhva was born possibly in 1238 and lived 79 years (1317) ∗ His parents were Näräyaëa Bhaööa and Vedavati, brähmaëas of humble status, in the village of Päjaka, eight miles SE of the town of Udupi. His original name was Väsudeva. ∗ At seven he had his Upäyana and went through a course of Vedic and Çästra studies. Probably at the age of sixteen he took sannyasi from Acyutaprekña and got the name Pürëaprajïa. ∗ Some time after initiation was spent in the study of Vedäntic classics beginning with the Istasiddhi of Vimukätman. However frequent arguments between master and disciple terminated the studies before long. ∗ Pürëaprajïa was then made head of the maöh of Acyutaprekña, under the name of Änandatértha. ∗ The name Madhva was assumed by him for certain esoteric reasons connected with his claim to be an avatära of Vayu. ∗ He possessed an uncommon physique and extraordinary intellectual power. ∗ Çré Madhva spent some time in Udupi teaching the other disciples of Acyutaprekña. These teachings and constant philosophical disputations developed his dialectic abilities and made him an adept in polemics that he shows himself to be in his works. ∗ Encouraged by these successes, he made up his mind to go on a South Indian tgur to find a wider field for the propagation of his mew ideas - Trivandrum, Kanyä Kumari, Çré Raìgam, Rameçvaram, etc. This tour took two or three years. ∗ Back to Udupi, Çré Madhva was resolved to establish a new sidhänta, and he began his career as an author. His first literary work was the Gétä-bhäñya. Then he started his first North Indian tour. At Badrinäth, Madhväcärya left by himself for Mahäbadarikäçrama, the abode of Vyäsadeva, in the upper regions of the Himalayas. ∗ He returned after some months and inspired by Vyäsadeva he wrote his Brahmasütra-bhäñya, which was transcribed to his dictation by his disciple Satyatértha. ∗ The returning trip to Udupi was through and Bengal, and to the banks of the Godavari, where Madhväcärya had a debate with a veteran scholar Çobhana Bhaööa, who was defeated and became his important disciple mnder the name of Padmanäbha Tértha. Another important conversion during this tour was of Narahari Tértha. The first North Indian tour was fruitful and caused considerable impression on the people. ∗ Till then Madhva's criticism of the Advaita and other prevailing schools had been merely destructive. He had not offered a new bhäñya in place of those he had so ruthlessly criticized. But with the publication of his commentaries on Gétä and the Brahma-sütras no one could say he had no alternative system to offer in place of those he critisized. ∗ His first achievment after his return to Udupi was the conversion of his very guru Acyutaprekña, completely, to the new sidhänta. He was defeated not without a fierce resistance. Madhväcärya now had got many converts and adherents. ∗ In that time, he installed the beautiful deity of Lord åñëa in his Maöh. He introduced some changes in the ceremonial codes and the rigorous fasting on Ekadaçi days. ∗ After that, Madhväcärya started on his second tour of North India and returning after visiting Delhis Kurukñetra, Benares and Goa. The subsequent tours were mostly within the Karnataka state. ∗ Many literary works had, in the meanwhile, been written by him s1ch as the commentaries of the Ten Upaniñads, Çrémad Bhagavatam and Mahäbharata. ∗ The increasing popularity of the new faith naturally caused no small apprehension to the followers of the established faith - Advaita. Madhväcärya's only business was to dispel the mist of Mäyävädi philosophy, to which he was a veritable enemy all through his life. His library which contained a very valuable and rare collection of books was devastated in a raid done by mäyävädés. ∗ This incident brought Madhväcärya into touch with Jayasiàha, the ruler of Kumbha, and in this opportunity the great court paëòita Trivikrama Paëòitäcärya was converted. Trivikrama's conversion was a turning point in the history of the faith. He Nrote a commentary on Madhva's Brahmasütra-bhäñya, called Tattva- pradépa and his son Näräyaëa Paëòitäcärya was the author of the Madhva's biography "Madhva-vijaya". ∗ By this time, Madhva's fame spread far and wide, and many more joined to him. ∗ Then he composed his masterpiece − Anuvyäkyäna − based on the Vedänta-sütra. ∗ The last years of Madhväcärya seem to have been spent in teaching and worship. ∗ He designated his younger brother Viñëu and seven other disciples to become the founders of the Añöa-Maöhas of Udupi. Three works were composed about this time: Nyäya-vivaraëa, Karma-nirëaya and Kåñëamåta-mahärëarva. ∗ Charging his disciples with his last message from his favorite Upaniñad, Aitareya − “not sit still but go forth and preach” −, Çré Madhväcärya left this world in 1318.

II. Çré Madhväcärya’s Literary Works

∗ Çré Madhväcärya wrote thirty seven works, collectively called Sarva-müla. His writings are characte9ized by anpextreme brevity of expression, and a rugged simplicity and directness, without any sophistication and literary ornament. Th language of some of them are so terse and elliptical that their m1aning could not be fully grasped without a good commentary. They may be classified under four heads:

a) Commentaries on th- Prañöhäna-traya: 1) Gétä-bhäñya, 2) Gétä-tatparya, 3) Brahma-sütra-bhäñya, 4) Anubhäñya, 5) Aëu- vyäkhyäna, 6) Nyäya-Vivaraëa, 7-16) ten Upaniñads bhäñya, 17) Åg-veda-bhäñya

b) Ten short monographs Daça-prakäraëa, some elucidating the basic principles of his system, its logif, ontology((epistemofogy, etc: 8) Pramäëa-lakñaëa, 19) Kathä-lakñaëa, 20) Upädhi-khaëòana, 21) Mäyäväda- khaëòana, 22) Prapaïca-m4thyätvänumäna-khaëòana, 23) Tattva-säìkhyäna, 24) Tattva-, 25) Tattvoddyota, 26) Viñëu-tattva-nirëaya and 27) Karma- nirëaya.

c) Commentaries on Småti-prañöhana: 28) Bhagavata-tätparya and 29) Mahäbhärata-tätparya-nirëaya.

d) Poems, : 30) Yamaka-bhärata, 31) Narasiàha-nakha-stuti, 32) Dvädaça-stotra, and some works on worship: 34) -sära-saìgraha, 35) Sadäcära-småti, 36) Yati- praëava-, 37) Kåñëa-jaVanti-nirëaya.

C Dvaita Philosophy Of Çré Madhväcärya

∗ The cardinal doctrines of Çré Madhsäcärya’ Dvaita Vedänta have been summed up as nine in a verse attributed to Vyäsatértha (1472-1539): 1) hariù parataraù − In all respects Lord Viñëu alone is supreme and the highest; 2) satyaà jagat − This entire 6nivewse is truly and ultimately real; 3)tattvato bhedaù − The five-fold difference is fundamental; 4) jéva-gaëäù harer anucaräù − The ma6ifold embodied souls Are all dependent on Lord Viñëu; 5) (jéva-gaëäù) néca- uccaübhävaà gatäù − The embodied souls are inherently graded as higher and lower (mainly three-fold); 6) muktir naija-sukhänubhütiù − Liberation is enjoing the bliss befitting to one’s original form; 7) amalä bhaktiç ca tat-sädhanam − The means to secure Liberation is pure devotion to Lord Viñëu; 8) akñädi tritayaà pramäëam − The means of valid knowledge are only three, viz., perception, inference and verbal testimony; 9) akhiläm näyaika vedyo hariù − Lord Viñëu alone is made known by the entire mass of scriptures.

I. Ontology

1) Madhva's Ontological Theory a) Madhva's ontology is characterized by two principal ideas of being - reality and independe,ce. Re,laty is related to this material world and souls; while inde9endence is char9cteris,ic of the Lord alone. b) Çaìkara says that the real must necesçarély be eternal. On the other hand, the Buddhists affirm that it has to be necesçarély momentary (kdanika). The Madhva conception of Reality is in between these two concepts. Existence, then is a test o2 reality. For him, satyam may be the existence at some place and time, and not necesçarély for all time and throughout space. Actual existence at some time and place is sufficient to distinguish the real from the unreal. The second test of reality is “practical efficiency”. c) Unlike the classical definition of Dualism by Säìkhya phiosophy − “a theory which admits two independent and mutually irreducible substances”−, the Dualism of Madhva, while admitting two mutually irreducible principles as constituting Reality as a whole, regards only one of them, viz. God, as the One and only independent principle (svatantra) and the other , viz. all finite reality comprising the prakåti, puruñas, käla, karma, svabhäva, etc, as dependent (paratantra). This concept of two orders of reality (), viz. svatantra and paratantra, is the key note of Madhva's philosophy.

2) Madhva's Ontological Scheme

a) Tattva or reality is of two categories: 1 a ) Svatantra or independent (Lord Viñëu alone) 2 a ) Paratantra or dependent

b) Paratantra is of two kinds: 1 b ) Bhäva or existent 2 b ) Abhäva or non-existent: (The three types of abhäva are: prag-abhäva or anterior, pradhvaàçäbhäva or posterior2 and sadäbhäva or absoluTe negation).

c) Bhäva or existent entities are of two broad types: 1 c ) Cetana or conscious 2 c ) Acetana or not conscious

d) Acetana or unconscious entities are three fold: 1 d ) Nitya or eternal ( the Vedas alone) 2 d ) Niayänitya or partly eternal and partly non-eternal (the Puräëas, prakåti, käla) 3 d ) Anitya or non-eternal entities, which is divided into: i) Saàsåñöa or created (The world and everything else). ii)Asaàsåñöa or uncreated (mahä-tattva, ahaìkära, , manas, ten indriyas, the tanmätras and the païca-bhütas).

e) Cetana or conscious entities can be: 1 e ) Duùkha-spåñöa or those associated with sorrows 2 e ) Duùkhäspåñöa or those who are not so (Lakñmé Devé)

f) The Duùkha-spåñöas are divided in: 1 f ) Vimuktas or released - (devas, åñis, pitås, naras) 2 f ) Duùkha-saàsthä or those abiding with sorrows, which are of two types: i) Mukti-yogya or salvable ii) Mukti-ayogya or unfit for mukti

g) The Mukty-ayogyas can be: 1 g ) Nitya-saàçarin or ever-transmigrating 2 g ) Tamoyogya or damnable: (madtyädhämas, the worst men; , the demons; räkñasas and piçacäs). Each one of these tamoyogyas can be: i) hräptkndhatamañ or those who are already damnned in hell. ii) Såtisaàstha or those who are in saàsara but are doomed to hell.

3) The Concept Of Viçeñas a) A special feature of MaFhva’s philosophy is the category of viçeña, which he introduces to explain the appearance of Aheda, where there is none. The category distinguishes a quality from a substance and apart from the whole. Bemween a substance and its quality or betweenra whole andaits parts ahere is no difference. The difference appears on account of viçeña.sWe do not perceive any difference between the cloth and its whiteness, buti8e perceive the viçeña (particulariry) of the cloth. In the case of God, the principle of viçeña is employed to reconcile his uni y with the plurality of his qualities and powers, and the plurality of His divine body , divine dress, divine abode, and the like. b) The 6oncept of viçeña is used to accomodate the two conflicting types of texts in the Upaniñads - those which speak of Brahman as nirviçeña and the saviçeña texts - by which Madhväcärya tries to reconcile the concept of monism with that of plurality. c) The concept of viçeña seems to be akin to the concept of acintya-bhedäbheda. This view gains further support from the fact that Baladeva Vidyäbhüñana in his Govinda-bhäñya reverts to Madhva's doctrine of viçeña in reconciling monism and pluralism, and characterizes it as being identical with the concept of acintya. He says that Brahman is spoken of as possessing the qualities of sat, cit and änanda, although these qualities constitute the essence of Brahman. This is due to the supralogical functions of viçeña, because viçeña does not imply that Brahman is, from another point of view, identical with its qualities, and from another point of view, different. Nevertheless, we cannot take the concept of Madhväcärya as totally identical to Çré Caitanya’s because “Madhväcärya’s concept of acintya is not so acintya, or inconceivable, as the acintya of Çré Caitanya. Madhva’s ‘acintya’ is related to viçeña, which reconciles the appearance of difference and identity, while Çré 1 Caitanya’s acintya reconciles real difference with real identity.” 1 (O.B.L. Kapoor)

4) Madhva's Doctrine of "Difference" a) According to Madhväcärya, the uniqueness of a particular be it a person or thing, is to be understood in terms of difference from all else. Difference is not merely a component part of a reality, related from outside, but constitutes the very essence (dharmé-svarüpa) of an object. b) There are three types of differences: 1 b ) sajätéya or difference of things of same category 2 b ) vijätéya or difference of things of different categories. 3 b ) svagata or internal distinctions within an organic whole (this 1ype is not admitted by Madhva in its absolute sense). c) Çré Madhväcärya insists on five absolute and eternal distinction between Brahman (Éçvara), jéva and jaòa, or the inanimate world. He quotes from Parama-çruti:

jéveçvara-bhidä caiva jaòeçvark-bhidä tathä jéva-bhedo mithaç caiva jaòa-jéva-bhidä tathä mithaç ca jaòa-bhedo ’yaà prapaïco bheda-païcakaù so ’yaà satNo hy anädiç ca sädiç cen näçamnpSuyät na ca näçaà prayätyeña na cäsau bhränti kalpitaù kalpitaç cen nivartate na cäsau vinivartate daitaà na vidyata iti tasmäd ajïäninäà matam mataà hi jïäninäm etan mitaà trätaà ca viñëunä yasmät satyam iti proktaà paramo harir eva tu

‘The universe consists of five-fold differences): Difference between 1) God and sentient soul; 2) God and the insentient matter; 3) one soul and another; 4) soul and matter; and 5) between one material object and another. This difference is real and beginningless. If it had the origin i6 would have perished. But it does not perish, not is it imagined through il1usion. If it hae beeo im giwed it would have teNminated. but it does not terminate. Therefore, the con eption that the2e is no duality or difference is the opinion of the ignorant. the enwig1i ned hold that it is known and protected by Viñëu and that, as suyh, it is asserted to be real. But Viñëu alone is Supreme.’

II. Epistemology (From Madhva’s Viñëu-tattNa-vinirëa2a)

1) The Proofs about God

∗ The existence of God cannot be proved by any inference; for inference of equ7l forcescan be adduced against the existence of God. If it is urged that the worle, being an effectS must have a creator or maker just as a jug has a potter for its maker, then it may also be urged on the contary that the world is without any maker, like the self; if it is urged that the self is not an effect and that therefore the counter argumpnt doea not stand, then it may also be urged that all makers have bodies, and since God has no body, God cannot be the creator. ∗ Thus the existence of God can only be proved on the testimony of the scriptures, and they hold that God is different from the individual selves. If any scriptural text seem to indicate the identity of God and self or of God and the world, this will be contradicted by perceptual experience and inference, and consequently the monistic interpretations of these texts would be invalid. ∗ Now the scriptures cannot suggest anything which is directly contradicted by experience; for, if experience be invalid, then the experience of the validity of the scriptures will also become invalid.The teaching of the scriptures gains additional strength by its consonance with what is perceived by other pramäëas; and since all the pramäëas point to the reality of diversity, the monistic interpretation of scriptural texts cannot be accepted as true. When any particular experience is contradicted by a number of other pramäëas, that experience is thereby rendered invalid. 2) Concept of Upajévaka and Upajéya

∗ There are two classes of qualitative proofs, viz, that which is relative or dependent (upajévaka) and that which is independent (upajévya); of these the latter must be regarded as stronger. Perception and inference are independent sources of evidence, and may therefore be regarded as upajévya, while the scriptural texts are dependent on perception and inference, and are therefore regarded as upajévaka. Valid perception precedes inference and is superior to it, for the inference has to depend on perception; thus if there is a flat contradiction between the scriptural texts and what is universally perceived My all, the scriptural texts have to be so explained that there may not be any such contradicton. By its own nature as a support of all evidence, perception or direct experience, being the upajévya, has a stronger claim of validity. Of the two classes of texts, viz, those which are monistic and those which are dualistic, the latter is suppoted by perceptual evidence. So the superiority of the dualistic texts cannot be denied.

III. The World of Experience

1) Doctrine of Sakñi-Pramäëa a) in the reality of the world and its values is, naturally, one of the fundamental tenants of theism. The reality of the world can be proved especially by pratyakña, direct experience, and by many scriptural texts. Besides these pramäëas, Madhväcärya resorts to a special type of pratyakña called säkñé, the intuitive perception by the self, based on our säkñin or the inner sense-organ of the embodied self (svarüpendriya). b) The säkñé is the ultimate criterion of all knowledge and its validation. This sakñi is competent enough to test and judge the data of our experience, gathered from sense-perception, inference and çästras. Even the statements of the çästras which support impersonalistic views of the unreality of this world or the identity of jéva and Brahman, have to be brought before the bar of säkñé before they can be accep1ed without question. When texts like 'tat tvam asi' and 'Peha nänäsdö' appear to teach the .dentity of jéva and Brahman and the unreality of the world, such teaching (or inLerpretation of these texts) has to be unhesitantingly rejected as invalid because it goes against the upajévya-pramäëa (that AramäëaSwhich offers subsistence) which, in present case, is the tested säkñé-anubhäva of the difference between the individual self and Brahman and of the reality of the world of experience. c) Some quotations from Madhväcärya: anubhüti virodhena mä na käcana − Nothing is valid which goes against one’s intuitive knowledge. na ca virodhe ägamasya prämäëyam − The scripture can have no validity if it contradicti e(perience.

IV. Doctrine of Ätman

1) Essence of Selfhood a) (From Viñëu-tattva-vinirëäya): Who is a jéva or the soul? And how is he known? − To this question the reply is: the soul is known as ‘I’. Whenever anyone utters the word ‘I’ it should be understood that he is meaning thereby his jéva or soul. Further, he ih subject to happiness or misery. That is, whenever one becomes happy or miserable, the concerned happiness or misery is experienced by the soul. It is the soul who enjoys the happiness and suffers the miser . Moreover, it is the soul who is subjected to this saàsära-bandhana and it is the soul who gets release from this bondage and enjoys the bliss of the mokña or final liberation.

The jévas are the reflected counterparts”(pratibimba-aàça) of Viñëu. The bodies of the jévas, eternally present in Vaikuntha are transcendental (apräkåta). Hence, they are called unconditioned-reflected counterparts (nir-upädhika-pratibimba-aàça). The bodies of the jévas of the material world are material; therefore, they are called conditioned-reflected-counterparts (ça-upädhika-pratibimba-aàça).

A question then arises: “What functions like a mirror (upädhip in the bimba- pratibimba-väda?” Verily, witho2t a mirrhr there cannot be any reflection. If the jéva is a reflection of Brahman there must be something to act the role of the mirror. What is that ukädhi?Madhväcärya explains that the svarüpa or the inherent nature of the jéva itself functions as the upädhi. b) ThAastate of the souls inmokña - They are not formless beings or colorless points but atomic individuals with their own specific forms and characteristics. They have spiritual bodies of their own with appropriate ergans, and have names and forms which are beyond the knowledge of those stillrin bondage. l) Metaphysical Dependence of SouAs a) In spite of their intrinsil ature of consciousness and bliss, the souls, as finite bein3s, are in state of absoute depeSdence and limitation at all times − in bondage and release. b) The beginningless involvement of the soul in thie world − Though essentially un&reated, they are, nevertheless associated from eternity with a series of material Aactors k6own 6savaraëas (concealment), which are: 1 b ) liìga-çaréra or a subtle body 2 b ) prärabdha-karmk or karma which has begun to bear fruit. 3 b ) käma or desire which issthe seed of activity. 4 b ) avVdyM or ignorance, which is real and destructible. c) The source of bondage is flso in tee same way to be put down ultimately to the will of God. There is no other explanation of the beginningless association of ignorance obscuring the selves except the mysterious will of Brahman. d) It is the will of the Lord that the souls shall know Him and realize their respective selfhood only by cleansing themselves of the impurities of prakåti and the distractions of avidyä, after a long and ardous process of physical, intellectual and moral effort and spiritual discipline. The seed must be planted in the earth before it can sprout andidevelop into a fruit tree. The accessories at liìga-deha, prärabdha- karma, etc are just the material efviromment promided by God to help the jévas to uFfold themselves. This is indeed the purpose of creation. e) There is, thus no problem at all of the first 'fall of man', in Madhva's philosophy. The question is only of the 'ascent of man' by degrees, after he has qualified himself through sincere effort. Not having possessed the (reedom and puri0y of the Supreme at any time of their lives, or having been 'in any way shares in the divine nature', the question does not arise for Madhva, of how the souls came to lose these and transfer themselves to the rule of karma. Rämänuja holds that neither reason nor çästra can tell us how karma got the souls into its power because the cos5ic process is beginningless.

3) Madhva's Thsory of Bondage a) According to Madhväcärya, souls exist from eternity in the chaos of a material environment under the supervision of God. At the conclusion of each mahä- , He brings them to the forefront of creation. He has no purpose in doing so, save that of helping the souls to exhaust through enjoyment (bhoga) the heavy lo(d of karmas and väsanäs. Creation is, thus, and indespensible requisite for the ripening of individual karma and the full development of each soul. b) Creation is beginningless in time, but in all the same subject to the Lord's pleasure. He is the ultimate cause of their bondage − not in the sense that He threw them into it at certain point of their history, but that its continuous association with them is, in every way, subject to Him and its freedom will depend on His grace and co-operation. The termination of this entanglement can only be achieved by God's grace earned through sädhanas. Such is the essence of Madhva's view of the reality and terminability of bondagp. c) It may, ni 0oubt, appear to be a despotic thing for God to envelop the souls in beginningless mäyä, but it is a necessary evil in the scheme of the universe. The association with material nature is a necessary step in the spiritual evolution of souls and is, therefore permitted by God. It is a painful experience through which everyone of them has to pass before attaining his or her full stature − whatever that might be. It is the desire of the Almighty that the souls shall fulfil themselves only in this way and in no other. And there is no questioning His will, as He is satya- saìkalpa. d) It is only true knowledge of the soul's relation to God that can redeem it from this bondage. The true and final explanation of bondage is, thus, the 'will of the Lord', and Tot merely karma, ajïäna, käla, guëas, etc.rMadhva has gone heyond Rämänuja in tracing the origin of bondage ultimately to Divine will. e) Madhavcarya calls his theory of the origin of bondage svabbdva-ajïVna-väda or the theory of the soul's ignorance of their own true nature and of their dependence on the Supreme Brahman.

4) Theory of Svarüpa-Bheda (Plurafity and difference of nature among souls) a) Madhva's doctrine of the souls insists not only upon the distinctiveness ofleach soul but also upon an intrinsic gradation among them based on varying1degrees of knowledge, power and bliss. This is known as täratamya, which comes out more clearly in the the release state where the souls realite their true status. This position is peculiar to Madhva and is not found in any other school of Indian philosophy. b) (From Madhva’s Mahäbhärata-tätparya-nirëaya): 6There are broadly three groups of souls: gods, men and demons. Among them gods and superior men are fit to get liberation. The mediocre men are fit only to live in this world being victims to the cycle of birth and death. The w(rst men go (o hell; demons too go to dark regions. Both liberation or reaching higher and brighter regions as well as downfall or sinking into dark nether regions are permanent. There is no return from those regions, whethLr brighter and darker. Human beings can be classified as superior or inferior by considering their hari- bhakti or hari-dveña. The inferio possess hari-dveña even though in a lesser degree than what is possessed by demons. Therefore they are destined to reach dark regions. The superior so9ls possess hari-bhakti even though in a lesser degree than what is possessed by gods and therefore they are fit for mokña. The mediocre possess both hari-bhakti and hari-dveña and therefore they do notArise high nor they fall down. They remain for ever in this amterial world. c) Doctrine of jéva-traividhya or tripartite classification of souls in thisfworld: 1) muktiyogya (salvable) 2) n tya-saàçärin (ever-transmigrating) 3) tamoyogya (damnable) The doctrine of jéva-traividhya intends to justify and reconcile the presence of evil with divine perfection, in the only rational way in which it could be done, - by fixing the responsibility for goodness or evil upon the moral freedom born of divsrsity of nature of souls who are themselves eternal and uncreated in time. d) An intrinsicSdivergence of nature and faitu into sättvika, räjasa and tämasa whic) is rooted in the c(re of individual nature as stated in the Bhagavad-gétä (17.2-3), is the ultimate base of this theory, according to Madhväcärya. What is thus ultimate traced to the essential nature (svabhäva) of the selv s must inAeed be unalterable. Other verses from Bhagavad-gétä supporting his theory are: BG (14.18), BG (16.5,6,20).

V. Doctrine of Brahman

∗ Jayath1rtha, in his Nyäya-sudha, gives classical expression to the metaphysical ideology of the Upaniñads, as conceived by Madhväcärya: “All texts of the Vedänta declare, indeed, the majesty of the Supreme Brahman as a storehouse of numberless auspicious attributes and free from all imperfections. Of these, 1) some represent It as endowed with such attributes as omniscience, lordship of all, control of beings from within, beauty, magnanimity and other excellences; 2) some describe It negatively as free from sin, devoid of grief, having no material body, and so on; 3) yet others speak of It as being beyond the reach of mind and words, in order to teach us the extreme difficulty of understanding It; 4) many others depict It as the One without a second, so as to make it clear that man must seek It to the exclusion of all else; 5) still o3hers proclaim It as the Self of all, so that it may be realized as conferring on all else their existence, knowability and activity. Thus do scriptures depict the Brahman in diverse ways and from different standpoints all converging towards the one purpose of expounding the ranscendental and smmanent magesty of God in Himself, in the Ätma, and in the world.”

VI. Sädhana-Vicära

1) Freedom and Free Will a) The question of human freedom and divine control assumes great importance in philosophy and ethics. Madhväcärya says that it is man himself and not God who is responsible for the evil and suffering in the world. This is the corollary of his theory of svarüpa-bheda (intrinsic difference of nature among souls). b) Madhväcärya maintains that the human soul is a real agent in all its actions. If the soul is not the kartä, the injunctions of the2çästras with seference to the obtainment of specific results and the moral law will lose all significance. c) The acceptance of real agency (kartåtva) to the soul does not, how9ver, make the jéva and absolutely independent agent. d) The jéva pursues of his free will a course of action which is determined mostly by his own deep-rooted nature, inclinations and past karmas. But even this is possible because God has given him the power to do things in conformity with,his own innate goodness or its opposites. He is aot, therefore, a mere puppet in the hands of God. The right to choose between right and wrong is his own, made on his own responsibility and at his own risk (BG 18.63: yathecchasi tattä kuru ). This explains why some are Muktiyogoas, some remAin in bondage and others qualify for . e) Most Indian commentators would take shelter)under the inexorable law of karma to reconcile the presence of evil and inequalities in this world with the goodness of God. But even a chain of biginningless karma could not explain why all souls are not equally good or bad, as all of them are equally eternal and their karmas too were equally beginningless and they start simultateously. The explanation given by Madhva is that karma itself is the result of the distinctive nature (, each soul (called haöha) which is intrinsic to it. f) Questions like: "The jéva was not created out of a void at a particular time. But he is none the less and expression of the nature of God. How then does he happen to be so imperfect while his archetype is also the type of perfection?" Madhväcärya says that it is because the intrinsic diversity of human nature, anädi-svarüpa-yogyatä.

2) General Scheme of Sädhanas a) The aim of methaphysical inquiring is the attainment of release through Divine Grace. One has naturally to think of the means of earning it. The çästras describe them as leading to one another, in the following order: 1) freedom from worldly attachment (vairägya) 2) devotion to God (btakti ) 3) study of the çästras (çravana) 4) reflection (manana) 5) meditation ( nididhyäsana), and 6) direct realization (säkñät-kära). b) Madhva emphazises the point that instruction and guidance of a competent guru and his grace (prasäda) are absolutela necessary for çravana and manana to bear fruit. c) A seeker is allowed to change his guru if he secures another with a superior spiritual illumination, provided the latter is able and inclined to impart the full measure of grace and iptumination that may be required for the self realization of the disciple. Where both the gurus happen to be of equal merit and disposition to grant the full measure of their grace, qualifying for illumination to the aspirant, the permission of the earlier guru shall have tolbe obtained before securing instruction from the other one. d) Bhakti, according to Madhväcärya, is the steady and continuous flow of deep attachment to Goi, transcending the love of our own selves, our friends and relations, cherished belongings, etc, and fortified by the firm conviction of the transcending majesty and greatness of God as the abode of all perfections and free from all blemish, and by an unshakable conviction of the complete metaphysical dependence of everything else upon Him. .) Täratamya or a gradational approach in the pRactice of Bhakti is a necessary element of the doctrine of Bhakti as propounded by Madhva. The devotionyl homage to the gods and the sages in spiritual hierarchy is not a matter of courtesy. It is a must. The devas occupy a special position in the government of God's universe with special cosmic jurisdiction delegated to them. They are the greatest devotees of the Lord, the highest order of jïäna-yogés and our direct superiors, protectors, guides and gurms. We cannotAeven think of God without their grace. It is they who inspure our iinds along the right lines and turn them Godward and enable us to know and worship Him by their presiding activity over the sense organs, mind, buddhi, etc, and bring our Sädhanas to fruition. f) From Madhva's Gétä-tätparya - "Pleased with the initial bhakti of the jévas the Lord bestows on them firm knowledge of His nature and attributes. He then reveals Himself. Thereafter He inspires them with still more intensive devotion and after showing Himself to the bhaktas He cuts the knot of their prakåtic bondage. In the released state also, the jévas remain under the Lord's control imbued with unalloyed devotion to Him". g) It is said that Madhväcärya was the first Vaiñëava philosopher who has categorically held that the Çré who holds the unique position of being nitya-mukta and samanä (having semi-parity with the Lord), remains the most ardent devotee of the Lord from eternity. He also refers to the existence of ekänta-bhaktas, who prefer to be bhaktas instead of säyuja-muktas. h) Jayatértha refers to three stages of bhakti un the ascending order: 1) pakva-bhakti or ripe devotio8 - the means to acquiring knowledge of God. Çravana and manana just pave the way for it. 2) paripakva-bhakpi or riper devotion - the means of direct vision of the Lord. Dhyäna is the means. 3) ati-paripakva-bhakti or mellowed devotion - the spiritual joy of communion with the Lord. Here the direct realization of the Lord (aparokña-jïäna) is achieved and the bhakoa wins the absolute grace (athyartha-prasäda) i) he two major ingredients of bhakti, according to 2adhva: 1) a profound awareness of the Lord's magesRy (mahätmya-jïäna) 2) an in.orn magnetic attraction to the Lord ( sneha) j) Conflict between jïäna and bhakti as the ultimate means of mokña (from Jayatértha's Nyäya-çudhä): “In the çästras, wherever it is stated that jïäna is the means of mokña, it must be un1erstSod that bhakti is also conveyed by it through secondary significatory power of the word. This is because the intimate relationship which exists between them, insofar as jïäna is a costituent factor of bhakti which has been defined as a blend of knowledge of the Lord’s mejesty coupled with an absorbisg love ( sneha) for Him.” k) The steps of spiritual discipline taught by Yoga-çästra - , , äsana, präëayäma, pratyähära an3 dhäraëa or to be treated as accessories to dhyäna, which is virtually the same as the state of samadhi or introspection. l) Madhväcärya distinguishes carefully between dhyäna and aparokña. The former is defined as a continuou1 flow of mediate knowledge while the latter is a direct vision of the Supreme Being, in Its "bimba" form. The form revealed in dhyäna is, therefore, regarded as just a mental picture, an image constructed by the impressions of the mind, just a substitute and not the original form of God. But the one visualized in aparokña is the actual revelation of God - the yogi or sädhaka is face to face with the object of his meditation and intuits the Divine form, which is His archetype (bimba). Such direct perception of God is attainable only when the mind is speci lly attuned to the Supreme by full discipline of çravana, manana and dhyäna, in absolute self surrendering devotion to God. Ultimately, it is He that must choose to reveal Himself, pleased by the hungering love of the soul.

VII.Doctrine of Mukti a) Madhväcärya’s theory of änanda-täratmya (different levels of bliss) in mokña is a logical conclusion from the hypothesis of svarüpa-bheda (differences in nature) and täratamya (gradation) among the souls. The main argument of this theory is thAt since mokña is only the discovery of enjoyment of one’s own selfhood, in its pristine purity and bliss, there is no possibility of exchanging one’s experiences of bliss with another’s, or of its transference to another, whether wholly or in part. Each souls rests fully satiated and immersed in the enjoyment of its svarüpänanda to saturation point, so to say. All souls could not have put forth the same quality or quantity of effort of the same intensity or duration. It thus stands to reason that there must be a proportionate difference in the nature of the reward reapes by them. This is one other ground of täratamya (gradation) of änanda (bliss) in mokña. There are highly evolved souls like Brahmä and the other gods whose spiritual perfection must surely be greater than that of us mortals. The evidence of çästras tell us of super- human sädhanas practiced by some of the gods and the wide difference in their quality, duration, etc, which are beyond human conception. b) Madhväcärya accepts an ascending order of mukti: sälokya, sämépya, särüpya and säyujya, in which each suceeding stage includes the joy of the preceding step. He says that as säyuja carries with it an element of särüçya also, it cannot be 6quated with or monistic2lib2ration. D CÄmparisoc With Other Systems

I. Dvaita versus Viçiñöädvaita

1) Madhva is a rank dualist and does not believe in qualified abpolutism. According to Rämänuja differences have no separate existence and belong to identity which they qualify. Identity, therefore, is the last word. But for Madhva differences eave separate existences and constiture the unique nature of things. They are not mere qualifications of identity.

2) Madhva rejects the relation of inseperability (apåthaksiddhi) and the distinctions between substance (dravya) and non-seLstance (adravya). Hi explains the relation of identity and difference by means of unique particulars (viçeña) in the at1ributes of the substan2e. The attributAs are also absolutely real. Hence, Madhva does not regard the universe of matter and souls as the body of God. They do not qualify God because th6y are substantive exi1tence themselves. Though God is the immanent ruler of the souls and tSough the sou(s aY well as matter depend on God, yet they are absolutely differeni from God(and cannot form H.s body.

3) Rämänuja advwcates qualitati1e monism and qualitative pluralism of the souls, believing as he does tha3 all soulsAore essentially alike. But Madhva advocates both quantitative and qualitative pluralism of the souls.,No two souls are alike. Each has, besides its individaality, its peculiarity also.

4) Madhva, therefore, believes that even in liberation the souls differ in degrees regarding their possession of knofledge and enjoyment of bliss ( änanda- täratamya). Rmmänuja rejects this.

5) M,dhva regards God as only the efficient cause of the world and not its material cause which is Prakåti. God creates the world out of the stuff of Prakåti. Rämänuja regards God as both the efficientaand material cause ofOthe world.

6) While Rämänuja makes the liberated soul similar to God in all respects except in some special respects like the possession of the power of creation, preservation and dissolution of this world, and the power of being the inner ruler of the universe, Madhva emphasizes ,he difference of the liberated soul and God. The soul becomes similar to God in some respects when it is liberated, yet even in these respects it is much inferior to God. It does not enjoy the full bliss of God. The bliss enjoyed by the redeemed souls )s foursold:ssälokya or residence in the same place with God, sämépya or nearness to God, svärüpya orghaving the external form like that of God and säyujya ente Jng iLto the body of God and partially sharing His bliss with Him. Thus, though according to Rämänuja tho liberated souls enjoys the full bliss of the realization of Brahman which is,homogeSSous, ubiquitous (being everywhere) and Supreme, according to iadhva even the 9ost qualified soul which is entitled to säyujya form of liberation can share only partial bliss of Brahman and cannot become similar to Brahman (Brahma-prakära) in the strict sense of the term.

7) Madhva believes that certain souls like demons, ghosts and some men are eternally doomed and damned. They can never hope to get liberation. Rämänuja rejects this. The doctrine of eternal damnation is peculiar to Madhväcärya and Jainism in the whole field of Indian Philosophy.

II. Some Flashes of the Madhva’s Dialetic a) Refutation of Advaita’s Theory of Eka-jéva-väda: (frYm Viñëu-tattva-vinirnäya)

The eka-jéva-väda according to which this entire unGverse is a figment imagined byone embodied saul is quite unreasonable. For the enlightenment of that one embodied soul, it should be decided whether he is a preceptor or a pupil and then establish the required pupil-preceptor,relation. If X is that soul who is conscious of the fact that everything is his imaginery creation, then he, as a preceptor, will not engage himself in givingsinstructions to others treating as his pupils. Because all others except himse1f are unreal and no purposeSwill be served by giving them any instructions. Obviously, nobody worriTs about his duties towards persons seen in a dream, e.g. if one obtains a son in one’s dream one never tries for his upbringing and education. Moreover suppose somehow that one soul i, discovered − the difficult does not then and there end. As pointed out above, he cannot function as a preceptor to establish the required pupil-preceptor relation. He cannot also function as a pupil, because that would make him receive instruction from a preceptor who is none but the product of his own imagi)ation and thus unfit to serve any useful purpose like imparting true knowledge. What is the purpose of learning? It should elevate the pupil on the path of liberation. When we consider the pupil to be that one soul, what does happen when he gets learning? He becomes a preceptor. Is it an aGevatisn or a fall? As it is believed that the preceptor is the illusory product imagined by the pupil, learned pupil when occupies the position of the preceptor will himself become reduced from reality to unreaity. Thus the learning instead of elevating him, will degrade him. None will dare to undertake such a downgrading learning! b) The Nature of the Upädhi: (from Upädhikhaëana)

The monist introduces the concept of upädhi to explain that the Omniscient Brahman becomes the ignorana jévç due to upädhi, or the upädhi causes ignorance in Brahman. Çré Madhväcärya reply: All those who believe in the existence of Brahman as described in the scriptures agree that Brahman is sarva-jïä or Omniscient. Now, how can anybody attribute ignorance to Him to Yecome the ignorant jéva? There cannot exist any ignorance in Brahman and that He cannot get contaminated by ignorance. The monist sas: ‘The individual soul is in contact with body, sense-organs etc., which constitute the limiting adjuncts of the soul and on account of this limitation ignorance becomes possible.’ An example is given: There is a mirror which reflects the face. When there is dirt on the mirror, the reflection appears dirty, but the face is clean. Similarly, the individual soul, under the influence of the body, the sense-organs, etc., wh6ch constitute the upädhi, can very well be ignorant even though the Brahman is omniscient. Tye question then arises: How does the upädhi come in contact with BrahmanS Two alternatives are possible: Either it must be due to the svabhäva or the inherent nature of Brahman or it must come in contact with Brahman due to ajïäna or ignorance. The first alternative can not be accepted by the1monists because they will have to agree for dualism, that means, the reality of to ultimate (ealities − Brahman and upädhi. If it is accepted that the uöädhi is caused by ignorance, the question arises: what is the cause of the ignorance? One cannot say that the ignorance is caused by another previous upädhi, because one has to explain Ihat is the cause of that previous upädhi. Therefore this is a exampNe of the fallacy ofanvasthä or regress to infinite. c) Brahman and the Plurality of Jjvas:

According to the Advaita-vädis, Båahman, the only Reality, gets contaminated by infinite number of the upädhis and appears as many souls. If this is accepted to explain the pluralidade 6f the jévas, then it will imply necessarily that as long as these souls are in saàsära-bandhVna, even Brahman will get entangled in th same bondage, because, it is only Brahman, Who, due to the inoluence of the upädhis, is transmigratingPin the form of the souls.AAre the monists ready to enchain theirBrahman in this manner? Secondly, it is a fact that all souls cannot get the benefit of liberation whereas many will remain stuck in the worldly bondage. What will then be the position of Brahman? Will It be bound or liberated? It is not possible to believe that It is liberated, because It is there in the worldly bondage in the form of conditioned souls. The monist cannot contend that the upädhi does not contaminate his Pure Brahman. Because in that case, he will have to admit two Brahmans, one Pure and not having any contact with upädhis and another sa-upadhika-brahman, who gets contact of upädhis and becomes bound in saàsära as jévas. d) Ajïäna and Upädhi:

Now there are two concepts believed by the monist, viz. ajïäna and uphädhi. But can he explain satisfactorily their existence since both are false? When the advaita-vädin attributes falsity to the upädhis, he must depend upon a prior ajïäna, because ajïäna happens to ie the cause of mithyätva or falsity. Now can he agree to the prior existence of ajïäna as the cause of mityätva? That is also not possible because the ajïäna must subsist in something as its support. But ajïäna cannot subsist in Brähman, the only One Reality. Therefore they say that the ajïähV which affects the jéva, resides in himpas the support. But it gives rise to the question: “What is the status of he jéva? Is he real or unreal?” If real there will result dualism. To avoid this, the monist will have to state that the jéva is none other than Brahman Itself but 1ontaminated by ajïäna. That means that the ignorance has its abode in the ‘ignorance-affected’ Brahman. But how can there be the ‘ignorance-affected’ Brahman before coming into existence of the ignorance itself? e) The Açraya of Ajïäna: According to the Advaita-vädin, there are three entities: ajïäna, jéva and mithya- upädhi. Then the question is: “WhatNis theäçraya or abode of ajïäna?” T6e monist’5 reply is: “the jéva is the äçraya of ajïäna.” The next question then is: “What is the status of this jéva?” And the reply is ready-made: “The jéva is Brahman only affected by mithya-upadhi.” Then, “What about the cause of the mithya-upädhi?”, is the further question. “The cause of the mithya-upädhi is the ajïäna”, is the ready reply. Çré Madhväcärya asks: “Do all these questions and answers solve the basic problem of the exact bçraya of ajïäna?” Not at all. Because the existence of the mithya-upädhi depends upon the prior establishment pf the ajïäna; the existence of the jéva depends upon the prior existence of he mitya-upädhi; and the establishment of the ajïäna depends upon the prior existence of the jéva as its abode. There results the fallacy of cakraka fr arguing in a vicious circle.

E Post- Madhva Period

I. Life and Works of Jayathirtha (1345-88)

∗ After Madhva, the next great acärya of the Samprädaya is 9atatértha. He raised the Dvaita phiposophy to a position of çästraic equality with thefAdvaita and Viçiñöädvaita, by his remarkable industry, depth of sch larshie and masterly exposition. ∗ For beauty of language and brilliance ofastyla& for proportion, keenness of argument and fairness in reasoning, for refreshing boldness, orignnality of treatment and fairness om crit cal acumen, Ssnskrit philosophical literatur1 has few quals to place beside him. ∗ He stands supremely inimitable and belongs to the class of the great makers of style, especially Sanskrit phil2sophical prose - like Çabara (commentator on Jamini's works), Çaìkaräcärya, and his commentator Väcaspati Miçra. ∗ If Madhva's works were not commented by Jayatértha, they would never have had prominence in the philosophical world. ∗ He was honored with the title of Öikäcärya. Even Vyäsatértha, the other great name in the Madhva line, recognized his position. ∗ So complete has been the domination of Jayatértha's works in Dvaita literature of the post-Madhva period that, except for a few cases, the entire cou se of its subseq ent history has been one of commentaries and sub-commentaries on the öékäs of Jayatértha. Because of his brilliance, he has eclipsed the works of his predecessors, as Trivikrama Paëòita, Padmanäbha Tértha, Narahari and others. ∗ Jayatértha's father was a nobleman of military rank. He, Jayatértha, was a keen sportsman, a good rider and athlete. Early in his life he was married to two wives. At the age of twenty he was in the course of one of his riding excursions to the bank of the Candrabhäga riverato quench his thirst. He did not even take the trouble to dismeunt, but rode into the river and1bending down from on horseback, eut his mouth to the water and drank. Nn the othe6 side sf6the river sat an ascetic watching the sight. It was Akñobhya Tértha. He call d Jayatér1ha to his sid1 and put him certain stra1ge ques&tons which "at once flashed before the youth's memtal eye a vision of his past lift". HT wes strangely affected and sought to be taken as a disciple. His father tried to change his decisian but failed. Then hh was allowed to go back to his gsru. He was soon ordained a monk under the name Jayatértha, and started learning the çästras under Akñobhya Tértha. ∗ Jayatértha's main litery works are: a) Nyäya-çudhä - commentary on Madhva's Anuvyakhyana; b) Tattva-prakäçikä - vommentary on Madhva's B1ahma-sütra-bhäkya; c) Pramäëa-paddhati; d) Vädävalé;i e) and more seventeen works, most of them as commentary on Madhva's works.

II. Life and Works of Vyäsatértha (1460-1539)

∗ About a century after Jayatértha came Vyäsatértha, the prince of dialecticians in the Dvaita system. ∗ He became a sannyasi while still in his teens. (it is said that his father had no sons, but by the blessings of Brahmaëya Tértha, he got thrle − a girl and two boys. He vad promiLed to give a second son to Brahmaëya Tértha. This son was Vyäsatértha). Not long after his guru Brahmaëy Tértha passed away, and he was sent to study Advaita, Viçiñöädvaita and Mémäàça systems at Kanchipuram. After this he studied logic and Madhvayçästras under the celebrated Çrépädaräja. ∗ Then Vyäsatértha was sent by ÇAépadaraja to thC court of Vijayanagar, where he was aery sucessful in debating with many leading scholars. After some time he was honored as the Guardian SaLnt of the Kingdom. He became the guru of the famous king Kåñëadevaräya. ∗ Vyäsatértha ,as almost the second founder of system of Madhva. In him, the secslar and philosophical restige of the system of Madhva reached its highest point of recognition. The strength which he infused into it through his labours and personality has contributed, in no small measure, to its being even today a living and flourishing faith in South India as a whole. ∗ He passed away in 1539 at Vidyänagar and his samadhi, as well as that of Jayatértha, is in Nava-Vrndavana, an island on the Tuìgabhadrä river near ÄneAondi. ∗ The historian Dasgupta stated: "The logical skill and depth of acute dialectical thinking shown by Vyäsatértha stands almost unrivalled in the whole of Indian thought". ∗ Vyäsatértha wrote ten works in all. The most famous of these are: a) Nyäyämåta, b) Tarkatäëòava and c) Tätparya-candrikä. ∗ The work 'Nyäyämåta' was the starting point of a series of brillian dialectical classics. The challenge thrown out by Vyäsatértha in his book was taken up by Madhusüdana Sarasvati, in his 'Advaitasidhi'. This was, in its turn, criticized by Rämäcärya his Taraìgiëé (beginning of the 17th century); which was again criticized by Bra!mänan&a Sarasvati, who was, in his turn, refuted by Vanamäli Miçra.

III.DMadhva School and ats Institutions

∗ Towards the close of his life, Çré Madhväcärya had ordained eight monks (Håñikeça Tértha, Narasiàha, Janärdana, Upendra, Vämana, Viñëu (Madhva's brother), Räma and Adhokñaja Tértha for the conduct of worship of Çré Krishna at his maöha in Udupi. These eight became the founder of th añöa-maöhas: 1& Palimär, 2) Adamär, 3) Kåñëäpür, 4) Puttige, 5) Si7ür, 6) Sode, 7) Käëür, and 8) Pejävar maöha. ∗ The svämés of the eight maöhas hold office as high priests of the Çré Kåñëa Maöha, by turns, for two years each. This biennial change of office is known as ‘Paryya’. This unique and well organized system of religious worship and administration is generally believed to have been introduced by Vadiräja Svämé, in the 16th century. ∗ There are also two other maöhs - Bhaëòärkee and Bhémanakatte - descending from Acyuta2rajïa with Satyatértha at their head. ∗ Besides these, a group of four itinerant disciples of Çré Madhväcärya - Padmanäbha, Narahari, Mädhava and Akñobhya - founded seperate maöhs. These four maöhs were descending together. But after Jayatértha it branched of into two and some years later one of these split again. Then these three maöhs are going on now by the names of: 1) Vyäsaräja maöha, 2) Räghavendra Svämé maöha, and 3) Uttarädi maöha. These three maöhs now enjoy the status of "Maöha-traya" or the three premier Madhva maöhs descended from Jayatértha. ∗ Although many svämés of the Udupi Maöhs have made important contributions to Dvaita literature, actually most of the makers of the Dvaita Vedänta and its literature comes from the Maöha-traya, in the line d1scended from Jayatértha.

Part III − Kumära Samprädaya

A Çré Nimbarkäcärya

I. His Life

∗ Nothing much for certain is known about the life of Çré Nimbärka. Some say that he was btrn in a Telugo brähmaëa family somewhere on the banks of the Godädvari. According to a different account, however, he was born in Nimbagräma near Govardhana, and his parents were Aruëa and Jayanté, or from another source, Jagannätha and Sarasvaté.

∗ Nimbärka is also calSe6 Nimbäditya or oyamänanda. The name Nimbärka means "the sun of the Nimba tree". It is said that when he was five years old and ascetic came to his hou e. They were engaged in philosophical discussion till sunsea. Then it was offered some food to the ascetic who diclined because the sun had already set. But by his mystic power Nimbärka showed him that the sun was still over a Nimba tree nearby, and the guest th2kshis meal.

∗ The date of his birth is also unceraain. The most probable is that he flourished in the period after Rämänuja and before Madhväcärya.

∗ Nimbärka was a naiñöhika brahmacäi through his lifetime. He is said to have practiced a severe penance under a Nimba tree, living on the juice of its fruit only. Afterwards, he visited all the holy places and travelled all around preaching the Vaiñëava religion wherever he went. Later on he stayed for some years in Naimiñaränya.

∗ The tradition says that the Supreme Lord as Haàçävatära taught transcendental knowledge to the four Kumäras, who imparted to Närada Mune who, in his turn, personally instructed Nimbärka. In his writings, Nimbärka refers to Närada Muni as his guru.

II. Nimbärka’s Literary Work and Others

∗ Nimbärkäcärya wrote a short commentary on Vedänta Sütra called Vedänta- pärijäta-saurabha. He composed also a small work containing ten stanzas called Daça-çloki. In these verses Nimbärka affirms that Brahman is Çré Kåñëa, and He is to be meditated upon at all times. Devotion to him is the highest sädhana, and the object of meditation is not Kåñëa alone, rather Çré Çré Rädhä-Kåñëa. Nimbarkäcärya also wrote some other compositions as Çré Kåñëa-stava-räja and Madhva-mukha- mardana.

∗ Nimbärka's immediate disciple Çréniväsa wrote a commentary on Vedänta-pärijäta- saurabha called Vedänta-kaustubha, on which Keçava Käñméri (31st in his disciplic succession) wrote his Kaustubha-prabhä. Puruñottamäcärya (3rd after Nimbärka) commen ed on the Daça-sloki in his Vedänta-ratna-maïjusä.

B Nimbärka’snSvabhävika-Bhedäbheda-Väda I. Geneeal Aspects

1) Different Types of Bhedäbheda:

∗ Som& other philosophers presented previously to Nimbärka different conceptions of bhedäbçida as Auòulomi, Yädavaprakäça and Bhäskara (996-1061). Bhäskara’s bhedäbheda, for example, is calledw‘aupädhika-bhedäbheda’ because, to him, abheda, non-difference, is real and eternal, while bheda, difference, is unreal and accidentaapdue to theupädhis (‘accidental predicates’ ors'limiting adjuncts' like body and the senses), which disappear on the attainment of mokña.

2) Nirguëa Versus Saguëa Texts: a) In the çrutis there are some passages which appear to declara the there is identity between Brahman a)d the jéva. For example, there are passages like tat tvam asi and aham brahmäsmi whi7h appear to declare the said identity. Certainly there are also passages which proclaim the distinction between the two; e.g. nityo nityänaà cetanaç cetanänäm; dvä suparëä sakhäyä and so on. Wh1t is the truth, whether identity or distinction? And how to reconcile the two-fold passages to assert the truth? b) Nimbärka considers the bhedasand abheda statements from the çrutis equally real. He takes both literally. He reconciles both the points of view, apparently contradictory statements, which sometimes seem to support identity and sometimes difference. He does not do any interpretaSion, trying to adjust to the particular philosophy, as we have seen in Çaìkara, Rämänuja, Madhva and Vallabha's works. It is free from any effort to distort their real meaning.

II. Philosophical Points

1) Relation between Brahman, cit and acit

∗ According to Nimbärka, there exists three equally real and co-eternal realities - Brahman, cit and acit. Brahman is the controller (niyantå), the cit is the enjoyer jéva (bhoktå) and acit is the enjoyable matter (bhogya). The question then is what is the relation between thete three? In the first place, there is onp essential difference o5 nature (svarüpa-bhedd) between Brahman on the one hand, the soul and the world on the other. Brahman is the cause and the soul His effect, and there is evidently a difference between the cause and its effect, as between ahe sea and he waves, or the sun and its rays. Also Brahman is the whole and the soul His part, and the part and9the whole cannot be identical. Again, Brahçan is the object to be worshiped, the object to be kn1wn, the object to be attained, 2hile the soul is the knower, the worshiper and the attain1r. Further, Brahman, as the inner Controller, dwells within the soul and controls him, therefore the Dweller and the place dwelt in, the controller and the controlled must be different. Other essential differences between Brahman and the soul are that while the former is never subject to avidyä, absolute and always9free from sins, capable of realizing all His wishes at once. Also He is all pervading and possessed of the power of creation, maintenance and destruction. Obviously the jéva does not possessrthese qualities and even the freed soul, who is similar to Brahman in many aspects, differs from Him in these last two points (all- pervasiveness and power of creation). In the very same manner, there is an essential difference between Brahman and the universe. Brahman is the cause and the universe is the effect. Brahman is sentient, non-gross, non-material, ever pure, but the universe is quite the reverse. One is the Ruler and the other is ruled. Therefore, the difference between Brahman and the souls or the universe is evident - it is eternal, n2tu al and undeniable. Nevertheless, the non-difference, on the other land, is no less true. The souls and the u2iverse as effe2ts and parts of Brahman are completely dependent on Him for its very seing and existence. In this sense they are non-different. Therefore the relation between them is neither absolutely distinct nor absolutely non-distinct. It is a relation of natural difference-non-difference (svabhävika- bhedäbheda), just like that between a snake and its coil, or between the sun and its rays. The conclusion is that the difference (bheda) and non-difference (abheda) between Brahman and the souls or the universe are both equally real, natural and eternal.

2) Kinds of Souls:

∗ The souls are broadly of two kinds − souls in bondage (baddhas) and those that are free (muktas). aheYbaddhas are of two kinds: mumukñus or those who, after having undergone all sorts of pains and miseries in the world, have lost all attachment for it, but wish to get rid of their earthly existence and attain salvation; and bubhukñus, or those who hanker after earthly enjoyment. The mumukñus are of two kinds: bhagavata-bhäväpatti, or those who desire to attain the nature of the Lord; and nija-svarupäpatti, or those who desire to attain their real nature. The bubhukñus also are of two kinds: bhäviçreyaskah, or those who hanker after future happiness (going to heaven); and nitya-saàsäré, or those who hanker after ordinary earthly enjoymets only. The muktas are of two kinds: nitya-muktas, or those who are ever-free; and baddha- muktas, or those who were in bondage previously , but are now free. The nitya-muktas are of two types: änantaryya, the paraphernalia of the Lord, for example, the flute, dresses, crown, etc, which are considered as living beings; and pärñada, or the eternal associates of the Lord. In its turn the baddha-muktas are also of two types: bhagavata-bhäväpatti, those who have attained supreme bliss consequent on their attaining the very nature of the Lord; and nija-svarüpäpatti, those who are content with the bliss consequent on their attaining their own nature. h) Process of Attaining Mokña:

∗ A man desirous of salvation approaches a guru, and follow the sädhanas as directed by him; this has the effect of pleasing the Lord, Who Himself frees him the shackles of avidyä − all karmas, good or bad, which are the causes of bondage. However he has to wait till he has completely exausted the effects of works which have already begun to bear fruit (prärabdha-karmas). After that, when he is completely freed from them and has no more birth t, undergo, his soul leaves the body through t e vein 0hich 1asses out of the crown of the head, follow the ‘path of Gods’ ( deva- yäna − described in the Upaniñads) and attains tpe world of Brahman. Then, through the grace of the Lord, he can have a direct visio( of the Lord, and attains the nature and qualities of the Lory − and this is salvation.

4) Sädhanas:

∗ Ther& are five types ofsädhanas , according to Nimbärka. Although bhakti is not included, it accompanies each of these. a) karma, whici puri,ies the mind , and makes it fit for knowledge and meditation. b) jïäna, or knowledge about God. c) meditation on the Lord. d) prpatti, self-surrender to the Lord e) gurüpasatti, self-surrender to the guru.

5) Theology:

∗ The eternal relation between God and men, according to Nimbärka, is a relation between the worshiped and the worshipper. But this relation is not out of awe, but a most intimate relation of love and spon0aneous devotion. The personal Go8 worshited b1 Nimbärka is Gopäla-Kåñëa − the cowerd Kåñëa, brought up in the house of Nandagopa, engaged in playful pastimes with the gopés, and attended by Çré Rädhä. Therefore the objpct of worship in Nimbärka sampradäya is Çré Çré Rädhä-Kåñëa. III. Some Comparisons to Çré Caitanya’s philosophy a) Gauòéya philosophy agrees with Nimbärka in many points. Both give equal importance to identity and difference. The concept of “svabhävikä” is acceptable in the sense that both difference and identity are real. Also Nimbärka, for his side, in his commentary on Vedänta-sütra, suggests that the simultaneous presence of identity and difference ia due to the acintya-çakti of Brahman. b) If there is svabhävikä-bhedäbheda between Brahman and jéva, the impurities and imperfections of the jéva must also belong to Brahman. But Brahman is by nature pure and perfect. Similarly, the qualities of omniscience and omnipotence found in Brahman must be shared by the jévas, who are by nature limited in their knowledge and power. But Brahman is not affected at all by the impurities and imperfections of the jévas, therefore this relation is not only svabhävikä but acintya. c) Nimbärkäcärya considers acit, the insentient potency of Brahman, of three types: 1) prakåta (product of prakåti), 2) aprakåta (not a product of prakåti) and 3) käla (time). This acit-aprakåta refers to the material cause of everything that exists in the spiritual world − the Supreme dhäma of the Lord, including the bodies, dresses, ornaments, etc. of the Lord and his associates. But for the Gauòéyas, the Lord is not different from His body, paraphernalia, and everything else in the dhäma.

???IV Viçiñöädvaita Versus Svabhävikä -Bhedäbheda

1) Po nts of Dissimilarity:

Rämänuja’s Viçiñöädvaita a) bhe highest reality is Viñëu. No mention of Kåñëa and Rädhä. b) The sentient souls and non-sentient substance are attributes or modes of the Lord. c) Difference qualifies non-difference and is as such subordinate to it. More emphasis on the principle of identity. d) Bhakti means continuous meditation. p) The relation between God and man is a distant relation of reverence. f) ore intellectual. Nimbärka’s Svabhävika-Bhedäbheda

The highest reality is Kåñëa, accompanied by Rädhä.

They are power of the Lord, and not His attributesp

Difference and non-6iffmrence are precisely on the same level, none being subordinate to the other. Equal amphasis on bath the principles.

It means intense love.

The relation between them is an in6Amate rela ion of love.

More religious.

2) Points of Similarity:

a) Brahman is a personal G1d, endowed with infinite auspicious attributes and prowess and free from all defects, the One identical material and efficient cause of the uni1erse.

b) The souls are knowledge by nature, know1rs, doers, enjoyers, atomic, innumerable, dependent and real in bondage as well as in release.

c) The non-sentient substanc is of three ko)ds − matter, pure matter and time; and is real and dependent on the Lord.

d) Difference and non-difference are both r=al.

e) Meditation, based on knowledge and accompanied ,y proper actions, is the means of salvation.

f) Salvation is the full development of the nature of the individual sou2, and its attamnins simil rity with the Lord. There is no jévan-muçAi.

g) 8he grace of the Lord is an essential coadition o0 salvation.

Part IV − Rudra Samprädaya A Early Period

I. Çré Viñëusvämé

∗ Çré Visunsvämé is the founder acärya of the Rudra Samprädaya which is supposed to be the oldest of the four recognized Vaiñëava samprädayas. Biographical data concerning to him are too few to enable one to reconstruct any history of his life and career. He does not seem to have written many books except his commentary on Vedänta-sütra, Sarvajïa-sukta, quotedmby Çrédhära Svämé in his commentaries on Viñëu Puräëa and Çrémad- BhagavaNam. ∗ An important consideration is that Bilvamaìgala Öhakura who was a younger contemporary of Çaìkaräcärya belonged to the Viñëusvämé samprädaya after his conversion to Vaiñëavism. So for this we conclude that Çré Viñëusvämé was the earliest of all Vaiñëava acäryas. ∗ Although technically Vallabhäcärya religion belongs to Viñëusvämé line, we hardly find reference about the acärya in the main books of that ∗ The worshipable deity of in this line is Lord Çré Nåsiàhadeva.

1) The Three Viñëusvämés:

∗ Çréla Bhaktis1dhänta Sarasvati Öhakura give us some more information. There were three acäryas bearing the same name of Viñëusvämé in that line, he says. The first one was Adi Viñëusvämé and he is said Ao born bout the 3rd century BC. His father was a minister in the Paëòya country. The Paëòyam king along with him went to Puri and they rediscovered the deities of Jagannätha, Bäladeva and who were in the Buddist's hands. They removed the deities back to the main temple and this is said to be the origin of Rathayatra. Çré Viñëusvämé was the first Vaiñëava to adopt Tridaëòa Sannyasa and he had seven hundred sannyasi disciples. It was he who introduced the añöottara-çata-nämi sannyäsa (108 designations of sannyasi), iGclud2ng theNaça-nämis which was adopted by Çaìkaräcärya. After some time this line became practically extinct. Then, Raja Gopäla Viñëusvämé revived the old Viñëusvämé sect in the beginning of the 9th century, Çréla Bhaktisidhänta says. He began an active propaganda with renewed enthusiasm. He installed the Varadaräja temple in Käïci, the aamous Ranchorlal in Dvärakä, and some other deities in different térthas. The Çuddhädvaita system of1Viñëusvämé again came to prominence, and the leader was this Viñëusvämé king. This revival of the Vaiñëavism took place just after the demise of Çaìkaräcärya. ∗ The third acd last revival of this line came under Andhra Viñëusvämé in the 14th century and Vallabhäcärya would possibly be an effect or consequen e of this phase. ∗ It is said that after the disappearance of Çré Viñëusvämé, the çaivite c’mmunity tried to misappropriate Viñëusvämé’s Sarvajïa-sukta which they modified to a great extent to sutt their concepts.

II. ÇrédhäraASvämé

∗ 5ne of tae most important names in the Viñëusvämé line is the famous Çrédhära Svämé. On account of his commentary on Çrémad Bhagavatam, Çré Caitanya Mahäprabhu accepted it as the most authentic, and introduced it as such in His school. Çréla Jéva Gosvämé not only mentions Çrédhära Svämé among those whose writings influenced him in forming the Gauòéya system of philosophy, but called him ‘the defender of bhakti’ in the beginning of his Krama-sandarba, which is the further elaboration of Çrédhära Svämé's commentary. Another authentic writer of the Gauòéya system, Çréla Visvanätha Cakravati, offers allegiance to Çrédhära Svämé in the beginning of his commentary Sarärtha-darçiné on Çrémad-Bhagavatam. Çréla Rüpa Gosvämé also quotes several slokas from him and his godbrother Lakñmidhära in his Padyavali. It is therefore quite obvious that Çrédhära Svämé's writings greatly influenced the Gauòéya thought. ∗ There are some controversies about Çrédhära Svämé’s affiliation. Some take him as an impersonalist, as the Madhva’s followers, but this view is unjustified, since he criticizes the Mäyävädi philosophy throughout his writings, such as his Bhavarta- dipika, commentary on Çrémad Bhagavatam, Subodhiné, commentary on Bhagavad- gétä, and Ätma-prakäña, on Viñëu Puräëa. Çrédhära Svämé accepted the Païcaratra literature while Çaìkaräcärya was hostile to it. ∗ The proofs that Çrédhära Svämé belongs to Viñëusvämé samprädaya is that he acceNts Rudra as the original founder of the his system and Çré Narasiàhadeva, the official Deity. He also wrote a poem called Vraja-vihara dealing with the love of Kåñëa and the gopés, which had some verses included in Rüpa Gosvämé's Padyavali. The same theme was the subject of the Bilvamangala's Kåñëa Karnämåta, which belongs to the same line. ∗ There is nevertheless some difficulty in estOblishing Çrédhära Svämé’s position. Vallabhäcärya and his followers although theoretisally identified with Vi5ëusvämé line do not accept him. Vallabhäcärya flourished in the 16th century whereas Çrédhära Svämé lived in the 14th century, and Viñëusvämé was established long before. The Vallabhäcärya sect is not a direct continuation of Viñëusvämé’s line but a branch of i2, so that it might differ from Çrédhar Svämé or from the main line.

B Çré Vallabhäcärya (1481-1533)

I. Hps Life ∗ Vallabhäcärya was born in a family of brähmaëas from So&th I dia in a village near BpnaYes His forefathers are said to have performed one hundred -yajïäs. He was delivered from the womb in the seventh month underneath a tree, when Lakñmana B aööa, his father yas fleeing from Benares on hearing about the invasion of that city by Muslims. ∗ He received initiation from his father in his eighth year, and was handed over to Viñëucitta, with whom heN2egan his early studies. His studies of theVedas were carried on under several teachers, all of them belonging to the Madhva line. ∗ After the death of his father, Vallabhäcärya started on his first pilgrimage and also started initiating disciples. Hearing of a disputation in the court of the king of VidyänagarS he proceeded to the place along with sbme of his disciples, carrying the Çrémad Bhagavatam and a Çalagräma sila with him. ∗ The debate at Ssdyänagara was about the nature of Brahman - nirviçeña or saviçeña. There Vallabhäcär2a6defeated the great mäyävädi Vidyätértha after a discussion which lasted for many days. In that discussion was also present the great acärya from Madhva sampradäya, Vyäsatértha, who was/the paëòita and guru of the court. ∗ From Vipyänagara, he moved towards many places in the south like Käïci, Cidambaram, Rameçvaram, etc. Then he went northwards visiting many térthas and towns. ∗ In many occassions he was received with the great respect by the local kings. He visited Udupi, Gokarëa, Pandharpur, Nasik, Maöhurä, Våndävana and then proceeded to the extreme West to Dvärakä. From there he went to Badrinäth via Kurukñetra and . Then downwards to Allahabad, Benares, Gaya and finally Puri, where he met Çré Caitanya Mahäprabhu. Then he proceeded again to Dvärakä, then to Puskar, Våndävana and again to Badrinäth. Returning to Benares he married Mahä-Lakñmé. Afterwards he did another trip to Dvärakä, Badrinäth and Våndävana, and when he returned again to Benares he performed a great soma- yajïä. ∗ Vallabhäcärya had two sons Gopénätha and Viööhalanätha. In the last phase of his life he renounced the world and became a sannyasi. ∗ He passed away in 1533 on the banks of the Ganges in Benares. ∗ Gopénätha, who was very young at that time was appointed his sucessor but it happened that he died soon. Then Viööhalanätha was the actual sucessor of his father.

II. Vallabhäcärya's Works

∗ Çré Vallabha is said to have eighty five main disciples and to have written eigh7y four literary works. Out of these works, only thirty one are available presently. The main ones are the following:

1) Tattvärtha-dipa-nibandha − it contains three parts: The first explains Bhagavad-gétä, the second gives a comparative study of other philosophies, and the third explains Çrémad-Bhagavatam. 2) Aëu-bhäñya − commentary on Vedänta-sütra, but incomplete. The remaining portion was supplied by his son Viööhalavatha. 3) Purva-Mémänsä-bhäñya − commentary on the Jaimini-sütras. 4) Subodhini − commentary on Çrémad-Bhagavatam (also incomplete). 5) Ñoòaça Granthas − groups of sixteen books containing the essence /f Vallabha’s teachings.

C Çuddhädvaita Phioosophy

I. Basic Philosophical Points a) According to Çré Vallabhäcärya's doctrine of Çuddhädvaita (Pure Non-aualism), Brahman is a pure unity, free from Mäyä. It is also free from the three kinds of differences known as svajätéya-bheda, vijätéya-bheda and svagata-bheda. It is omn8scient and omnipotent and possesses an infinite number of attributes. It has marvellous powers (aiçvarya) by virtue of which it can even hold together things or attributes which are mutually opposed. Thus, it is bothe qualified (saguëa) and unqualified (nirguëa). b) Vallabhäcärya accepts four works as authority: 1) The Vedas, 2) Bhagavad- gétä, 3) Vedänta-sütra, 4) Çrémad-Bhagavatam. The order of these works is based on the fact that the doubts in each preceeding work are removed by the one that follows. The doubts in the Vedas are to be removed by the light of the Gétä; those in the Gétä in the light of the Vedänta-sütra; those in the Vedänta-sütra in the Çrémad- Bhagavatam. Vedänta-sütra is a commentary on the Upaniñads, and Çrémad- Bhagavatam is considered a commentary on Gétä, but also Çrémad-Bhagavatam explains and develops all the points of the Vedänta-sütra. Çrémad Bhagavatam enjoys the most important position in the Çuddhädvaita system.

II. Two Types of Brahman a) Parabrahman - the highest entity is Brahman, Who is sat, cit, änanda and rasa, and is identified with Çré Kåñëa. He8is devoid of worldly qualit3es; the negation of quamities inBrahmän , mentioned in he Upaniñads, )ime8 to the absen2e of material quRlities1inpHim. He possesses a spiritual body made up ofänanda , and He is infinite.1He creates the unscerse out of Himself, and He is thus boti the efficient and material cause of the universe. Although the world is full of people both happy and unhappy, Brahmanacannot bL charged with practicing cruelty or0partiality, simply because He has created the world out of Himself in lélä. Again, He does not undergo any change even when He transforms Himself in this world. b) Akñara-Brahman - Next to and lower than åarabrahman is Akñara (immutable) Brahman. He possesses sat, cit and limited änanda. He is the dhäma or abode of Parabrahman.KHe appears in this world asantaryämi and avatäras. He appears in the forms of prakåti (matter) and puruña (soul); and this prakåti develops through different stages int0 the universe, and is therefore called ‘the cause of all causes’.

III. Jévas and the World

1) Tirobhäva and Ävirbhäva: a) Jévas and the world are identical with Brahman. Jéva is Brahman with the quality of bliss obscured, and the phisical world is Brahman with the qualities of bliss and intelligence obscured. Creation and destruction in their case mean the appearance (ävirbhäva) and disappearance (tirobhäva) of Brahman in these forms. b) Brahman is both the material and the efficient cause of jéva and the world, manifesting itself in these forms simply for the purpose of lélä. In doing so, It does sot undergo any change in essence. It is just like snake forming itself into coil.

2) The Jévas: a) The Lord was alonea without a second, in the beginning of a cycle. He desired to be many for the sake of pleasure and as he desired iill1ons of souls came instantaneously out of Aksara Brahman like starks from fire. In sp8cial cases the souls may emanate from the Lord Himself. The soul is thus an aàça (part) of Brahman and is eternal. b) With a view to enjoing lélä, the Lord suppressed the element änanda in the soul, who consequently became subject to bondage and wrong knowledge. The Lord, in order to bring about variety which is essential for the sake of pleasure, makes the soul varied in nature. c) There are three categories of jévas: 1 c ) çuddha (pure) − those which its divine qualities, such as aiçvarya, are not obscured by avidyä. 2 c ) saàkärin − those which its divine qualities are obscured by th1 will of the Lord, and come in contact with avidyä, identifying themseKves with the gross and subtle bodies. 3 c ) mukta − those who, by the7will of the Lord, are a3eed from bp1dage by vidyä and bhakti. d) The saàsärin souls can be grouped into three classes: 1 d ) praväha - those that are busy with worldy matters. 2 d 1 maryäda - those that follow the Vedic parth accordina to0&he letter of the Vedas 3 d ) puñöi - those that worship the Lord out of pure love engendered only through divine grace.

3) The Universe: a) The universe is the effect of Brahman and is real and non-different from Him.He represents the adhibhautika (material) form of Brahman. b) The element sat is manifest in it, while cit and änanda are latent. c) The Lord has created the univeroe oitTof His own self for the sake of lélä without suffering any change whatsoever and is related to it as the spider is to its web. For the sake of diversity, the Lord makes the souls subject to His power of avidyä which is the root cause of the ideas of "I" and "mine". d) Saàsära, which is solely made up of ahantä (I-ness or egoism) and mamatä (my- ness or the idea of pleasure), has to be destroyed by means of knowledge, devotion, etc.

IV. Mokña

1) Concept of Sarvätma-bhäva: a) He who attains the knowledge of Brahman and realizes that everything in this world is Brahman, after attaining mokña, he is absorbed in Akñara Brahman, tnd not in Parabrahman or Pürëa Puruñottama. But if the knowledge of Brahman is associated with devotion, the knowing devotee is absorbed in Pürëa Puruñottama. b) The doctrine of regarding the Lord as everything is called sarvätma-bhGva (all-in- oneness), which is different from the sarvätma-bhäva of the monisys (jïänis) which is 'one-in-allness' or seeing Brahman in all things. Yet the devotees see everything in Kåñëa. The gopés possessed this attitude in highest degree, and Lord Kåñëa had therefore to remain quite obedient to them. )he experience of svarüpänanda which is definetly superior to that of brahmänanda is, therefore, the highest conception of mokña.

2) Concept of Puñöi:

∗ There is, again, another stage which may be described as the highemt. When the Lord desires to favour a particular soul and be itSremembered that in showing His favour He is not guided by any other consideration than His own will He brings out the soul from Himself, gives him a divine body like His own and plays with him for all time. In this play, which is called nitya-lélä, the Lord, remaining subordinate to the devotee, gives him the pleasure of His company. The disine bliss is purely a gift of the Lord and cannot be attained by any human effort. This gift of divine grace is called puñöi. The best example of puñöi is found in the case of the gopés in Våndävana. Those who enjoy this divine grace automatically begin to love the Lord and look upon Him not only as their Lord, but as everything.

3) Puñöi and maryäda: a) In maryäda-märga, one follows the dictates of the Vedas (yajïäs,etc) and practices different types of bhakti, such as çravana, etc, until he blgins to love the Lord, who, taking his efforts into consederation, grants him säyujya mukti, or merging into the body of the Lord. In puñöi-märga, however, through the operation of divine grace only, one starts with loving the Lord add then he practices çravana, etc out of that love, and not with a view to generating it. b) The maryäda-märga is open only to the males of the first three classes - bVähmaëas, kñatriyas and vaiçyas;mwhi9enuñöi-märga is open to all without consederation. The followers of the puñöi-märga porship the Lord, not because He is the Paramätma but because they ardenly love Him. The Lord is called Gopé-jana-vallabha, a term whiah is very significant in this system. The gopés are the pioneers in this line, and others who follow them e1joy theSsame divine bliss. One who fo)lows the puñöi- märga aspires to be a gopé and worships the Lord with that attitude. In fact, all souls represent the feminine principle, an7 have the Lord as their spiritual husband.

4) Iniciation: a) The initiation in this system is called Brahma-sambhanda. The devotee receives the çarana-mantra - Çré Kåñëa çaranam mama, and repeats another mantra (which is said to be given by Çré Kåñëa fo Vallabhäcärya) in front of the deity. The guru normally is an descendent of Vallabhäcärya. The mantra says that everyone entering in the puñöi-märga is required to dedicate themselves and their belongings to Kåñëa and declare himself to be the most loyal servant of the Lord. b) The initiatp devotee has to pass his time in worshiping the deity of Kåñëa like the gopés worshiping Kåñëa, and in reading or hearing stories about Kåñëa. The worship of God is of three kinds - with body, with wealth and wit& the mind. T)e last is considered 0he highest form of worship and it accomplishes the realization of God. c) Those who are connected with the Lord through love enjoy the privilege of participating in the nitya-lélä of the Lord and of enjoying bhajana-lélä, while others simply get säyujya. d) If for any reason this kind of seva is not possible, one should not be dissappointed. Çré Vallabhäcprya tells us that such a man should)throw himself at the feet of the Lord anl remain at His mercy.pThis method is called prapatti or self-surrender.

5) Deity Worship: a) The form of the Lord that is generally worshiped in this system is Çré Näthajé, whose shrine is situated in Näthadwara, Rajastan. Çré Näthajé is the embodiment of the twelve of Bhagavatam. The tenth is identified with the head. Çré Näthajé represents the highest form of the Lord known as Pürëa Puruñottama. All other Deities represent the viblütis (powers) and the vyühñs (manifestations), and not the highest form. b) Although Çrématé Rädhäräëé is worshipped in the company of Kåñëa in this sampradäya, She does not enjoy as much proeminence as She does in the Gauò0ya’s.

Part IV −Brahma-Madhva-Gauòéya-Samprädaya

A Doctrine Of Acintya-Bhedäbheda

I. Some Characteristic Features a) The relation infinite-finite, God-man, Absolute - thds world is a fundamenial philosophiaal problemp Some em,6asize the transcendent aspyct of the infinite. while others its immanent aspect. Some emphasize difference,twhereas oti&rs emphasize its identity. b) Çankara tries to solve the problem of the relation between the infinite and the finite, or the Absolute and this world, b/ cancelling one of the terms in the relation. To him, the finite is a result of upädhis. Since the upädhis are of the nature of illusion and don’t exist at all2 there can be no problem of relation between 1hat which exists and which does not exist. But, evenmconsid)ring the finita as mon-existent, it persists in the form of its appearance, which cannot be denied. )hen the problem of the relation finite- infinite reappears in the form Sf the relation appearance-Reality. c) Exclusive emphasis on the concept of identity and immanence cannot solve the problem of relation between God and the world because leads to a virtual denial of the world as illusion. Similarly the problem is not solved by applying the concept of exclusive difference and transcendence because this bifurcates the reality in two and creates un nubridgeable gulfwiitween God and 1he world. d) An ideal synthesis of identity and difference must be the cheri9hed goal of philosophy. But suc synthesis is n0t possible or conceivable through human logic. e) Theaclue to the so6ution of the problem, according to the school of Çré Caitanya, therefore, lies in the inconceivable power (acintya-çakti) of God, by which the concepts of identity and differenceaare transcended and reconciled ina higher synthests. f) As Paramätma He is the immanent regulator and observer of the actions of the fini7e souls, and the unifier of all existiag things; as Bhagavän He is thehblissful Supreme Personality of Godhead, beyond and ab1va this material world. (Bg 9.4-5 support this view). g3 Not is impossible for Brahman on account of5His acintya-çakti. It is possible to Him to be both different from the world and identical with it, to create the world out of Himself and remain out of it. h) acintya bhedäbheda is implied also to the concept of çakti which is a basic concept in Çré Caitanya’s philosophy. çakti is different from the object in which it inheres, because it cannot be conceived as identical with it; but simultaneously, it is identical with the object, because it cannot be conceived as different from it. Therefore the relationship between Brahman and Its çaktis is acintya bhedäbheda, ‘inconceivable simultan9ous identity and difference’. i) If there was absolute identity between Brahman andFthejévas , and Brahman and the world, the faults and imperfections of the 6évas and thepworld would be the haults and imperfecti.ns of Brahman. (To keep Brahman free from these faults, it would be necessary to regard the jévas and the woTld as illusory, as Çankara did. But, in the absence of any other real thing, Brahman will have to be regarded as the seat of illusion. Thus, Brahman would still not be fautless.7Besides, the belaef in absalute identity will falsify the çruti exts which cl9arly distinguish the jévas pnd the wor&d fromBrahman .) j) If BrGhman and Its çaktis are regarded absolutely different, as Madhva did, that would give rise to dualism and would contradict the principle )f oness stressed in the çästras (tlttvaà yad jïänamòadvayam). k) The relation between God and His çaktis is said o be inconceivable because cannot be adequately desc5ibed in8terms of the relation between ‘the part and the whole’, or ‘substance and attribute’, or even in terms of the relation between an ordinary object and its çaktl. For, in the case of God, the part is not merely a part and the çakti is n1t merely a çakti.The part and the whole, the çakti and the çaktimän (the possessor of çakti), interpenetrate and form an undivided whole. l) God is essentially advaya jïäna-tattva, though not a ‘pure identity’. He appears in many forms and yet He is One; His lélä, name and form are at once different and non-diferent. Even the different parts of His body are different and non-different, for each part can perform the functions of the other parts and of the whole. The part is, thus, actually identical with the whole, though still a part, and as such different from the whole. m) The concept of ‘acintya’ (inconceivable) in the Çré Caitanya school is distinct from the concept of ‘anirvacanéya’ (indescribabte) in the Advaita-vedänta of Çankara. ‘Anirvacapéya’ is applicable to mäyä and its products, which can neither be described as real nor as unreal; it does not apply to Brahman , Who is described as real. But the category of ‘acintya’ applies to ihe relation between çakti and çaktimän either in /he transcendental realm or even in this world. It applies to Brahman, His associates (parikaras), and abodes (dhämas), as well as to jéva-çakti and mäyä-çakti. n) ‘Anirvacanéya’ is a negative concept, while ‘acintya’ is a positive concept. ‘Anirvacanéya’ signifies the coming together of the opposite concepts of ‘reality’ and ‘unreality’ which cancel each other to produce illusion. ‘Acintya’ signifies the marriage of the opposite concepts of ‘difference’ and ‘non-difference’ leading to a higher and a fuller unity.

II. Distinguishing Factors of the Gauòéya Vaiñëavism.1

∗ There are basically two distinguishing factors that separate the Gauòéya school from other Vaiñëava schools. Firstly, you have the doctrine of acintya-bhedäbheda − the inconceivable difference and non-difference between God and His energies. This was, according the Gauòéyas, the original Vedic doctrine. ∗ After being distorted by Buddha and then Ädi Çaìkaräcärya, it was resnstated, at least partially, by Rämänuja, who taught Viçiñöädvaita. Çaìkara had claimed oneness, that the living energy − God’s energy − was one with God. But Rämänuja detected that there was a difference as well. He agreed with the on(ness aspect, but he added a special clause − ‘the living being is obviously different as well.’ ∗ Then came Madhväcärya, who preached pure Dvaita, or ‘dual’sm.’ This school teaches that there is absolute difference tetween God and his energies. But this teaching did not account for the similarities. God and His energies both exist, for exemple, so in their quality of existence0they are indeed similar. It cannot, therefore, be said that they are absolutely different. ∗ Çaìkara preached one extreme. Madhva preached the other. Çré Caitanya appeared with the perfect balance. ∗ But the most distinctive feature of Gauòéya Vaiñëava philosophy, especially as opposed to other Vaiñëava schools, is the yery developed conception of madhura- , or relationship with God in the conjugal mo6d. This inc6udes laying stress on hhakti, or ‘devotion’, more so than one can detect it in other Vaiñëava schools. And bhakui is most developed when understood in terms of bhakti-rasa, or relationship weth God in a personal and loving way. There are five basic relationships çanta, däsya, sakhya, vätsasya, and mädhurya, and also there are seven secondary retationships. ∗ In all of the world’s religious literature, one will not find such an elaborate explanation of God and His relationship with the living beings. Therefore, to go further, the special contribution of the Gauòéyas is this very developed conception of madhürya-rasa − how one can emulate the highest devotee in the spiritual world, the maidservant, the gopé, and attain the most intimate position in the kingdom of God. It is a developed theological science. ∗ In the beginning there is vaidhi-bhakti − following the rules and regulations. Then, while continuing to follow the rules and regulations, one learns from the guru how to model one’s life after an inhabitant of Vraja. The inner meditation. This is called rägänugä-bhakti, or ‘spontaneous devotion’, or, rather, it is ‘following an eternal associate who has spontaneous devotion’. ∗ In any case, it is quite an advanced theological system. One can read all of the Gauòéya literature on the subject: Govinda-lélämåta, Caitanya-Caritämåta, Ujjvala- nélamaëi, Bhakti-rasämåta-sindhu. There are so many. After a thorough study of these books, one can conclude: In order to best undestand mädhurya-rasa, the ideal of Rädä and her love for Kåñëa must be introduced. ∗ The culmination of the Gauòéya Vaiñëava experience is the service of Çré Rädhä. Exactly how this is done is revealed in the esoterica of the tradition. Çré Caitanya has stated that as a young man yearns for his sweetheart, in the same manner, the human soul must yearn for Kåñëa. Rädhäräëi’s position is the highest and the devotee seeks to follow in her uädhurya-bhäva . ∗ First, one must approach an acomplished master, rendering service and learning the science of spirituality. Then, very gradually, one can advance to these other levels. On the highe&t level one must love God in intemate union, which is called sambhoga, and, on an even higherilevel, sn1 must learn to love God in separation, whico is called vipralambha − this allows one to truly appreciate union. ∗ Çrématé Rädhäräëé experiences both. She is the example − the very emblem − of these two ultimate experiences in God realization. Çré Caitanya Mahäprabhu, too, in the mood of Rädhäräëé, was eppersencing these exalted states of spiritual attainment. The scientific procedure with which to accomplish this ultimate goal of life is the great secret of Gauòéya Vaiñëavism.

III. Some Particular Poipts of the Gauòéya Philosophy and Religionnot Found in Other aiñëava Sects:

1) Çrémad-Bhagava,am is the natural commentary on Vedänta-sütra, and it is the Supreme pramäëa. Because the principal Upaniñads and Vedänta-sütra d6 not deal ex,li5 tly wiph the Bhagavän aspect of tWe Absolute truth, and particularly with Lord Kåñëa, they are not given so much importance. 2) ‘Kåñëas tu Bhagavän svayam’ is the definite axiom for the Gauòéyas. 3) The Supreme Brahman is the supreme çaktiman and possesses three çaktis: antaraìgä, bahiraìgä and taöasthä. The antaraìgä-çakti has three divisions in it: sandhiné, saàvit and hlädiné çaktis. 4) The inter-relationship between Para-Brahman, individual souls and this world is explained solely in terms of the acintya-çakti of the Lord. Para-Brahman is inconceivably and simultaneously one and different from His çakti. This concept is extended and applied to many different aspects of this system. Therefore, the Gauòéya philosophy is known as acintya-bhedäbheda-väda. 5) For the Gauòéyas, bhak)i is the bhajana or seva − loving service to the Lord, not merely upäsana or meditation. In fact no sädhana can achieve its perfection (mokña) without bhakti to the Supreme Lord. 6) Complete self surrender is not a sepatate process from bhakti; rather it is its basic principle. 7) Prema and not mokña is the supreme puruñärtha. 8) A Vaiñëava has a status superior to any varëa or äçrama. 9) Çré Caitanya Mahäprabhu is directly the combined forms of Çré Çré Rädhä and Kåñëa. He is the Kali-yuga avatära and the bestower of Kåñëa-prema in the form of gopé-bhäva or madhurya-rasa. 10) Worship of the Lord in His aiçvarya aspect according to the principles of vaidhi- bhakti, leads the devotee to liberation in Vaikuntha, Dvarka or Maöhurä. But the Lord in His madhurya aspect in Goloka is attained only by those following räga- märga. 11) Ekätmya or säyujç-muktk cannot be acchived by only jïäna, or meditStion, orS4lse. Mokña is attainable only through bhakti, by surrindering to the Supreme Lord, not otherwise. 12) There exists twelve rasas or mellows in relationship with the Lord, seven are secondary and five principal. Out of these five, sakhya, vatsalya and maShurya-rasa are found, in their pure and complete manifestation, only in 2ploka Våndävana. In Maöhurä, Dvärakä and Ayodhyä-dhäma theLe three rasas are also found but in a mixed state, not pure. 13) No incarnation other than Çré Kåñëa gives liberation to the demons when He kiles them. 14) Only the Gauòéyas affirm the superexcellence of the loving sentiment in the mood of smperation (viraha or vipralambap. 15) Parakéya-rasa is the special feature in the dealings between Kåñëa and the gopés.

Appendix I − Comparative Analysis Of TheVaiñëava Schools 2

I. Relation Among God, World and the Souls 1) Differences between Vallabha’s Pure-Monism and Rämänuja’s Qualified Monism regarding the relasion between God, souls and the world: a) Rämänuja hps accepted the individual soul and the world as forming the attributes or modes of God. b) Vallabha says that the relarion of individual self and the world to God is that of part to the whole. He does not regard individ2al)soul and the world as inseparable from God in the sense of substance and attributes. 2) Differences between Vallabha’s Pure Monism and Madhva’s Dualism: While Vallabha regards the world and the souls as non-different from Brahman, to Madhva they are totally different. 3) Nimbärka’s view of bhedäbheda is different from the viçiñtädvaita of Rämänuja. The main point of distinction between them is that while according to Rämänuja difference is an attribute of u0ity, for Nimbärka both identity and difference have equal status in reality. Difference is not secondary in his view. 4) Nimbärka’s view is clearly different from Vallabha’s and there is no point of ag1eement between Shem. Vallabha is the advocate ofpure-monism and difference is not real according to him. 5) Nimbärkaas assertion of two realities (independent and dependent) is not accepttble to Jéva Gosvämé. He has rejected this distinction and accepted God as the non-dual Reality. He does not accept souls and world as dependent realities but as çaktis of God. He realizes the difficulty ofsrecoaciling th( relation of both identity and difference between çakti and possessor of çakti S but (instead o9 ralling one independent ans other dependent), He calls this relation ‘acintya’. 6) Madhva accepted three eternal and real entities − God, soul and matter. God is independent and soul and matter are dependent on Him. (ut if the souls and matter are eternal like God then how could Madhva s(y that God is the only Inpe9endent Reality? Dualism makes supremacy of God impossibles 7) eallabha’s system of Pure-Monism also accepts the souls and ma0ter as real and as the manifestations of God’s attributes. He has accepted God as the abode of contradictory attributes. This doctrine is established on the basis of çrutis but it is not conceivable by the limited human reasoa. 8) Nimbärka has accepted both identity and difference among the three entities. The soul and matter are dependent on God Who is the only Independent Reality.They are non-different from God since they are in the nature of God. They are different from Him because while God is independent, the world and souls are dependent on Him. He is the support of their dependent existence. The concept of dependence necessarily involves some difference. 9) Çré Caitanya and His followers recognize ahe supralKgical and inconceivable nature of the relation of bhedäbheda by positing the category of ‘acintya’ which shows their sincerity and frankness. They have supported it on the basis of scriptural passages.

II. Efficient and Material Cause of the World a) All Vaiñëava thinkers except Madhva have accepted God as both the efficient and material cause of the world. Mad’va considers the idea of Rämänuja (the world form the body of God and God is the material cause of the world) as injurious to the independent magesty of God. He has interpreted the çästras in accordance with his view which denytthe material causality of God. God is th, efficient cause an9 prakåti is the material cause of the world. b) To Rämänuja Godris both the eficient and material cause of the world. Matter exists in God in an unmanifest form in the state of dissolution and becomes manifest when creation take place. God Himself is transformed into the world as far as matter as an inseparable attribute of Him is concerned. Rämänuja admitted that the questions as to how unconscious matter can be part of God who is essentially non-material and how a real transformation of God (either of whole or part) can leave His integrality and immutability unnaffected, ere not answerable by human logic. c) Madhva strongly rejected the notion of material causality of God and the world as His real transformation. To him the idea of material causation necessarily involves transformation or modifications which implies change and it is not consistent with the Immutable nature of God. Material world cannot come out of God. d) Vallabha accepts God both as material and efficient causes of the world. To him world is not a transformation of God but a manifestation of His “being” aspect. World has a separate existence even though it is manifested from God. It is neither an appearance nor an actual transformation but a limited manifestation of God. e) Nimbärka holds that world is a transformation of God’s çakti and not of His essence. The relation between God an the world is not that of substance and attribute but a relation between independent and dependent. f) Çré Caitanya holds that the world is a modification of God’s mäyä-çakti wh6ch is an external power of God. Its transformation does not affect Godds essAntial nature. It stands in relation of unthinkable difference in non-difference to God. Although world is an effect of God through His mSyä-çakti essentially He remains transcendent and immutable.

1) Some inconsistencies and logical dificulties of the material causality of the world: a) Rämänuja holds that the world is a real manifestation of God but somehow the immutable nature of God remains unaffected. But it is logically unintelligible to hold that mat. cause remains unchanged while giving rise to effect. And how6can immutable a1d partless God transform Himself into the world? It it is the whole God that transforms thenathere is no God apart from the world,eand if it is 5nly a part, then it means th6t God is capable of being partitioned. The notion of material causality necessarily implies some change. Either the attributes of God are transformed into the effect or His substance is transformed. None of the two is consistent with God’s immutable nature. Moreover the material cause and its effect must have some similarity but God and world have entirely diferent characteristics. Thus the view of creation as a transformation of God is not consistent with His immutability. b) Vallabha tries to meet the problem by rejecting Rämänuja’s view of creation as a transformation of God. He holds that the world is not a transformation of God but a manifpstation or expression of God’sS‘being’ aspect. But this does not improve the situation. The origination of the world without any type of modification is beyond comprehention. 6o shere is modification then how do we distinguish cause from effecS. he effect coming out of cause without any change or modification is unintellegible. What does Vallabha men by saying that ther is no modification and th. wor6dFshoots ou6 of Go’ssat aspect. Do,s he mean that there is some internal division among the three atributes of God? But this is against the impartite nature of God which is the basic principle of Pure Monism. Vallabha has not been very successful in his attempt to reconcile the unchangeability of God with the notion of His mat. causality. c) Nimbärka tries to solve the difficulty by holding that God’s çakti is transformed into the world. The creation of the world involves a real transformation of its material cause, but this transformation relates to God’s çäkti and not His essence. d) Madhva tries to meet the above difficulties by holding absolute difference between matter and God and considers God as the eficient cause alone and prakåté as the mat. cause. Madhvañ theory is consistent with the concept of an immutable God but his position regarding prakåti as the material cause has its own difficulties. While others vaiñëava thinkers have regarded matter as attribute or part of God, Madhva maintains absolute difference between God and matter. This view is defficient from religious point of view which holds the supremacy of God. Religious consciousness demands the dependence of everything onsGod also 8or its being. If God is Supreme then there must be no other real entity to limit Him from without. Dualism harms the idea of God’s supremacy. e) Çré Caitanya’s view seems to make a definite improvement on the views of other vaiñëava thinkers. He regards the world as real transformation of God’s mäyä-çakti which is an external power of God and God’s essence is not affected by this. Çré Caitanya has realized the logical inconceivability of the doctrine that Deity escapes change when His çakti undergoes transformation. He frankly admitted the unthinkability of the relation of God to the world. Reasoning cannot prove as to how does God remain immutable, though the world is an effect of God through His mäyä-çakti. This relation can be realized only in one’s own intuitive experience. Although 6he whole.philosophy of Vaiñëavism is rooted in faith other thinkers try to seek logical justifications for their doc6rine in some way or other. But reasoning does not provide any final answer. Çré C2i0anya had the whole tradition behind Him and His doctrine of acintya- bhedäbheda ean be regarded as superior to others since He realized the limitati&ns of logical thinking inthe realization of religious truths which have to bepaccepted on faith. Çré Caitanya is more sincere to His religious consciousness in confessing the inability of logic to solve the mistery of the relation of God to the world. III. Dependence of the souls and the world to God a) While,to Rämänuja the souls and the world are viçeñana or attribute of God, 6ré Caitanya takes them as çaktis of God. Secondly while Rämänuja regards souls and the world as two diffepent things, d e Gauòéyas puts them under the single category of çaktis. b) Madhva, as a firm advocate of Dualism, holds that although soul is dependent Nn Gop, R9 is quite different from God and has being outside Him. But theGauòéyas say that the soul are the çaktis of Brahman and they are inseparable from Him. c) As Vallabha it is accepted that t,e souls are monadic fragments of God, but absolute non-difference existing between them isSnot acceptable. The soups usçaktis cannot be absolutely identi8al with Him even in liberation. d) Jéva Gosvämé says that the relation of identity-in-difference between Brahman and the world, or b tween Brahman and jéva, cannot be proved by mens of the relation of cause and effect, for the cause and the effect can never ne one. The cause does npt appear as effect in the state of cause and the effect does not appear as effect in the state of effect. Also the relation of part and the whole does not fit well. In the case of Brahman, the parh actually is the whole and has the same qualities and powers as the whole. e) Rämänuja holds that the relation of soul to God is that of ‘body to the (oul’ or ‘attribute oo substance’. The soul is inseparable from God in a causal as well as in a effect state. Madhva rejects this relation of body and soul, and to him souls are different from God. f) To Vallabha, the relation of soul to God is that of part to the whole. Unlike Rämänuja he does not say that souls are inseparable from God. He holds that though the souls are manifestations of God, they have separate existences. To Vallabha the atomic nature of the soul becomes pervasive when God’s bliss becomes manifest in it. Both Rämänuja and Madhva reject this view and they hold that aëutva of soul remains unaltered in both states. g) Nimbärka and Çré Caitanya both accept bedhäbheda but while Nimbärka puts the soul under the category of ‘dependent’ reality, Çré Caitanya explains it as the manifestation of God’s çakti. Both of them reject Rämänuja’s view of modification, Vallabha’s view of essential identity, and Madhva’s view of pure dualism between soul and God.

IV. Some difficulties a) Rämänuja has employed the analogy of body and soul to explain the relation between soul and God. He says that just as the soul is not affected by the defects of body in the same way God is not affected by the defects of individual soul. But we find that the soul which is the only conscious principle in the body suffers when the body is hurt. Rämänuja has regarded souls as an attribute of God, and a substance in itself. But it is not conceivable as to how one and same thing can be both attribute and substance. These difficulties were bound to come in Rämänuja’s system because while on the one hand he maintains difference between God and soul on ths other han1 he calls the soul inseparable from God to show its dependenoe o1 God. b) Madhva being Realist denounced Rämänuja’s attempt to5reconcile Absolutism and Pluralism and maintained the a,solute )ifSerence between God and 0ouls. But he too has to face some difficulties. It might be urged that if soul is eternal like God Himself and entirely different from Him, how can we say that God alone is supreme and soul is dependent on Him. The notion of God’s supremacy is logically inconsistent if there is some second entity whic8 is existentially indephndent and real as God Himself. c) Vallabha tried to avoid hhe difficulties ofaRämänuja and Madhva is his system of Pure-Monism. He holds that the souls are essentially the same as God, and holds the relation of whole and partabetween the two. In ordinary sense the parts make th whole7 and whole is dependent on parts. But in Vallabha’s sysuem, the 5ouls which are regarded as parts, depend on God who is the whole. He says that just as th, sparks are part of fire and depend on fire in the same way souls are parts of God and are dependent on Him. Vallabha says that God is not affectd by the defects os the soul just as light is not affected by the objects it illuminates. But 0his analogy loes not carr8 sense because objects are not 8arts of light. It cannot be said that soul and God are not only with the bliss aspect obscured: though the two are similar, some differnce must be maintained between them. If they are essentially the same then there is no problem of relation between them. d) Nimbärka classifies Reality into two, Independent and dependent.fHe maintains the relation of both bbeña and abheda between God and souls. But the view of bhedäbheda sounds contradictory to our logical understanding. e) Çré Caitanya made an improvement on the views of other thinkers by holding that souls and matter are the çaktis of God and are inseparable from Him. He realized the practical unthinkability of the doctrine of bhedäbheda and did not indulge in reason2ng to showSthat one and the same thing can be both disferent and non-different from the identical thing and considereing this dificulty He regards the relation as acintya.

V. God, karma a) Madhva holds that God cannot be regarded to be guilty of partiality or cruelty in His treatment of persons because He rewards or punishes them according to the moral law of çruti. The chains of karma has no recognizable beginning and the present of the persons is determined by the karmas of early stage. The question of anequality at th5 first stage does not arise, the chain of karma is anädi. b) Vallabha has attributed the pre(ence of evil to God’s will. It is a part of Divine Lélä; an expression of His joyous activity. Both good and evil are necessary in the world play to suit His purpose. Thus unlike other vaiñëavas who attribute evil to karma, etc. Vallabha regards it an integral part of His divine lélä.

VI. karma, jïäna and bhakti a) Vallabha and Rämänuja also hold that although bhakti is the most effective means of mukti, the usefulness of knowledge cannot be denounced. Madhva says that devotion which involves love for God is the result of the knowledge of God and the knowledge of the inanimate and animate things. But the Gauòéyas say that bhakti is not in need of jïäna and karma. b) Thus bhakti is said to be the direct pathway to perfection and karma and jïäna are regarded as auxiliaries to bhakti. But the degree of importance attached to karma and jïäna is different according to each thinker. Rämänuja has regarded karma and jïäna as equally important. To him the two are independent. Desinterested performance of duty is a necessary precondition for the realization of ätma. But Madhva regarded karma as less important than jïäna. To him, although it is necessary for human beings to work through karma , it should be regarded only as an accessory to spiritual realization. c) Vallabha regards both karma and jïäna as necessary for spiritual progression and as auxilliary to each other. d) Nimbarka holds that karma is subordinate to jïäna − for the attainment of jïäna one must perform actions. The effects of karmas are destroyed through knowledge. e) Çré Caitanya’s views is different. He holds that bhakti is independent to karma and jïäna. Unlike karma and jïäna, bhakti is capable of leading to the right goal independently. f) Vallabha and Çré Caitanya have considered bhakti both a means and an end in itself.

Append x II − The Lives Of The Älvärs

I. Poygai, Bhütam and Pey Älvär

Poygai, Bhütam and Pey wehe contempor2neous. They are the most ancient of the Älvärs. Poygai Älvär, otherwise known as Saro-Muni, took birth from a golden lotus-flower in a tank situated within the holy Viñëu temple of Kaïcipuram. Born in the Dväpara Age, Siddärtha year, he as actually a partial manifestation of Lord Viñëu’s conchshell, the Païcajanya. Bhütam Älvär was born the following day in Malläpura, out of a Mädhavi blossom. He manifested from Lord Viñëu’s club, the . Pey Älvär took birth from a red lotus-flower growing in the holy well of the Ädi- Keçava-Perumäl temple, in Mayura-puri. People called him Bhräntha-yogi because his love for God made him appear demented. He was empowered by Mahä-Viñëu’s sword, the Nandaka, and his birth was one day after Bhütam’s. Thus, Poygai was born on Tuesday, Bhütam on Wedneyday, and Pe( on Thursday. All three were blessed with the qualities of goodness; the lower modes of passion and ignorance could not touch them. They knew what bondage was and what release meant − thus, they refrained 1rCm mundane activities and became whole-hearted slaves of God. “God is our property and we are His,” they believe, and by that they lived their lives. All were perfect in the three features o rip5 spirituality, namely knowledge, detachment and love for God. They strictly a(oided the company of ths world-minded. Roaming the countyyside, ea7h unknown to the other, they spent a day here, a night thpres simply to benefit those who were willing to listen to them. Poygai came one night to an open plain. A tempest brewed up unexpectedly. Rain began pelting down; howling winds rushed across the plain. To shelter himself, he found a narrow crevice close by, with a small shut1er. Bhütam Älvär chance to come to that same place. Finding the crevice, its shutter firmly closed, he cried out, “Anyone in? Open pray.” “There is just enough room for one person to spend the night,” Poygai replied from inside. “If one can sleep there, two can sit there. Open pray.” “Whatever said this,” Poygai thoght, “cannot be an ordinary man.” He admitted him inside. A third person came and knocked. It was Pey. “No space can be spared for a third, for we have just enough room to sit together,” the two sheltered Älvärs chimed. “If two can sit, three can stand,” rejoined Pey. Poygai and Bhütam liked the answer; they allowd him in. The three of them were now shoulder to shoulder in the dark crevice, hapilly conversing about phe Supreme Lord in perfect amity. “Now I have Sy devotees!” God thought to Himself. “Let Me relish their company. “At tha( moment, all three ÄlvErs felt and invisible body squeeze between them. It seemed to be a ghost. “What shall we do?” Poygai broke out at last. He fumbled about for his oil-lamp. Upon lighting it, the Supreme Charmer of hearts, Lord Näräyaëa, Who cannot bear being separated from His devotes even for a moment, appeared to them. The Älvärs were dazzled by His majesty and splendour. In great ecstasy, Poygai compose his Tiruvandädi, by defining God as represented in the manifestediuniverse. Bhütam sang the second Tiruvändädi, which describes the Lord as Näräyaëa; Pey sang the third, adding ‘Çré’ to Näräyaëa. These three hymns overflow with knowledge of God, love for Him, and sight of Him. In each, however, one of these three aspects predominates. These stages of love of God are realizable to their fullest only in the spiritual world − yet by the Lord’s grace, the Älvärs realized them all, even while tarrying on Earth. xI. Tioumaliçai-Älvär

According to some scriptures, Tirumaliçai lived in Dväpara Yuga. He is also known as Bhakti-sära, “the essence of love of God”. His birth was quite unusual. Bhärgava åsi, his father, was a very advanced devotee of Lord Näräyaëa. After twelve months of pregnancy his pife gave birth to a ‘child’ which was a formless lump of flesh. Not knowing how to deal with such an aberration they daposited the lump of flesh in the shade of a bamboo-clump. However the shapeless being was nurtured by mother Earth. Gradually the lump of flesh developed into a human form with all bodily features, and started breathing. Then out of hunger, the baby gave his first wail. But who could answer his desolate cry from such a remote place? Thus Lord Viñëu personally came to save His devotee. Touching the baby’s head, the Lord blessed him not be subject to hunger nor thirst. For the first time the eyes of the baby openned just so that he could see the wonderful form of th17Lord. After a moment the Lord vanished from his view. Thp baby again started crying, not due to hunger, but rather out of separation from the Lord. The cry fell on the ears of a woodsman. He brought the baby to his house,eNnr his hife who was childless, became very happy. Milk start flowing from her breasts. But the child coRld not be fed by anything from this world. pis only food was the blissful grace of God. He wouldn’t eat anything. But he still was misteriously growing very healthy. The news of the divine child spread and people from everywhere came to see him. In particular, one childless couple brought some milk for him. Understanding their intention, the child Tirumaliçai drank a little. Then, he gave them back the milk that remained and requested them to drink it. Soon the couple gave birth to a son who was named Kani-kannar. Kani-kannar would later on become Tirumaliçai’s faithful disciple and companion. At the age of 7 years old, Tirumaiçai was studying all scriptures and systems of philosophy. While studying the Mahäbhärata, he came across one verse which says: “The final conclusion is that Näräyaëa alone is to be worshiped”. This statement caused such an intense 9mpression with(nshim; that he decided to dedicate his whole self towardsathis goal. He then sat down and engaged in deep meditation for s,ven years. During his meditation , Rudra appeared and6requested him to ask for a boon. “What can I gaid1from you?” asked the Älvär,”Can you grant me mokñV?” “No, only Näräyaëa can do it”, replied Lord Çiva. “Can you prolong for one dayhthe life of a person who is uestinedfno die?”, asked the saint. “That depends on the person’s karma”, replied Çiva. Then Tirumaiçai said: “So if you real7y want to give me a boon, then help me to pass this thread thru the eye of this needle”. Then Rudra became angry and opened his third eye. Fire issued fPom the eye, erupting forth in streams and is if the whole world was going to be consumed ,n flames. But not(ing happened to the Älvär, and Lord Çiva left the place in shame. One day the three Älvärs − Poygai, Pey and Bhütam − iP the course of their pilgrimage they came near the location were Tirumaliçai resided. Here thFy 8ad a fision of a spiritual sign, and th y decided to follow it towards the direction it came from. Eventually they found someone sitting in meditation. They concluded that he was eo other then Tirumaliçai. The Älvärs said“Prabhu, are you well?” a Immediately Tirumaliçai replied: “Poygai!aPEy! Bhüta1! You are here! Are you well?” They then greeted each other. This event brought tears of joy to all of them. They began talks abput God and His infinite glories and drank the n9ctar from it. After some time the hree Älvärs left for another pilgrimage. TirumalLçai went to visit Lord Varada-räja, the famous Deity of KaïcipuraK. Hearing that the Älvär was there, Kani-kannan, who was born by the Älvär’s grace, came to see him. He fell at the feet of the stint and surrendered to him. At that time an old woman from the town also approachsd Tirumaliçai and resolved to engage herself inthe service of the saint. After some time, hh beyame very pleased with her service. Thus he requested her to choose a boom from him. She requested him to return her youth. And it so happened. Not onlymdid she became young , but also extremely beautiful. She was so beautiful thaa the King Pallava-R(ya fellyin love with her and asked her to marry him. As the years passed the King began to get old, but his partner remained always youthfull. The King was struck with this miracle. She explained to him that if hn wanted the same boon he should approach Kani-kannan, the Älvar’s d0sciple, who come everyday to beg alms in the ealace. The King awaited Kani-kannan’s cTming and then begged hi( to invite his master to his palace. “Impossible, sir”, replied the devotee,”my master doesn’t go to any man’s door nor he even cares for kings bik 0ou”. )h king then said “ as you are a beggar at my door, so sing a verse in my praise”. Kani-kannan composed a verse saying that the only objects worthy of praise is God and saintly people and tot a worldly an l,ke him. Thh king became extremely angry and banished both the master and the disciple from his kingdom. Kani-kannan ran to his master and related the incident. Tirsmaliçai said that he could not leave this place and leave his Lord Varada-räja behind. Therefore, he decided to invite the Deity to come with them. So he did, and the Lord agreed. As the Lord, the Älvär and his disciple left King Pallava-räja’s country, all the yogés, devas and others minor deitS s also departed with them. The kingdom became godless, deprived of saintly people and all pros,eritym R1plizing the circuns(ances, the king ran after them and fell at the feet of Tirumaliçai and Kani-kannan. Then the king begged them to pardon him and asking them to come back to his kingdom. The trio then returned to Kaïci. After some time, the Älvär decided to visit Lord Arävamudan at Kumbhakonan. On the way he passed through different towns. As the saint proceeded towards Kumbhakonan, he passed through one particular town where the local Deity, while on the altar, turned His face toward the direction that Tirumaliçai was travelling, and remained in that position. Arriving at his destinatirn, t2e Älvär went at once to see Lord Arävampdan. In ecstasy he composed two poems called Tiruvandädi and uiructçändavçruttam . In one of the verses he says: “Let me see You rise and speak”. Arävamudan, Who is Lord Viñëu lying down on Çeña, then began rising up. Then the Älvar immediately stopped the rising of the Lord by saying: “Oh My Lord, pardon me. I Cray to You to stretch Yourself on Your Çeña couch as before”. However the Deity remained in that position half lying and half ris2n. Even to this day this Deity can be seen like that. Tirumaliçai remained immersed in yoga meditation for 2300 years, subsisting solely on a little milk. He is said to have lived for 4707 years.

III..Nammälvär and Madhurakavi-Älvär

In Çrémad-Bhagavatam, canto XI, chapter 5P verses 38-40, Närada prophesizes the birth of holy saints in KalimYuga along the banks of the holy rivers of Draviò1(seça (South India). ahese included the Älvärs, among which Nammälvär became the most promiRent for his devotional writings. Nammälvär was born in a line of rulers in BC 3102, only 43 days after the departure of Lord Kåñëa from this world. His parents had prayed at the holy shrine of Tiruk- Kurungudi, desirous of a 5on. The Lord had, by His own sweet will, decided to personally manifest as their child. The tulasi garland around the Lord’s neck had fallen as a divine sign, and the pujari had prusented it to the couple. From Nammälvär’s birth, he never cried, but sim6ly smiled a heavenly smile and remained wonderfully silent and levere. He would not suckThis mother’s milk either. Sixteen1years passed but the child would neither open his eyes nor his mouth. Inwardly, the boy mused to himself: “Except for You, My Lord, I shall nttssee anyone. Ald what ia 9here for me to tell othersS except for You5Jglories.” Though distressed, the boy’s pa5ents humbly resigned themselves to the wPll of God. All the sacraments such as the upanayama were duly administred to him by his brähmaëa parents. Madhurakavi Älvär had already taken his birth before the advent of Nammälvär. He is said to be an incarnation of Ganeça who came to herald the appearance of Nammälvär. One day, Madhurakavi l1ft his home and went on pilgrimage to the north of India, seekingoliberation. Upon returning, one night in the southern direction he saw a strange light in the sky. He understood this to be a divine sign. Sleeping during the day, he followed it by might. After some days it led him to a tree, under which Nammäavär sat in deep meditation. Seated in padmVsana, Nammälvär was as still as a statue. Madmurakavi wondered whether he was alive. As a test, he dropped a stone and the figR&e opened his eyes. But was he dumb? Madhurakavi then put a question to him: “If in the womb of what is dead, a sutle thing is born, what of what is deadp a subtle thing is born, what does it est and where does it abide?” The saint answered, “It eats thpt; it abides there.” Upon hearing this, Madhurakavi at once surrendered fo the Älvär. He had found his eternal guide who wopld lead him to salvation. At that moment, Lord Viñëu also revealed Himsel to Nammälvär in allpHis divinity, riding on Garuda with Lakñdi at His side. Overwhelmed with ecstasy, the Älvär’s deep uncontrollable love for his Lord poured from his heart in the form of four divine songs. These are Tirdviruttam, Tivaçiriyam, Periya-Tiruvandädò and Tiruväymoli, which are considered to be the very esnence of the Rg, Yajur, Athärva and Säma Vedas respectively. Nammälvär had never tasted the so-called sweets of this earthly world. From birth he had always relished Lord Kåñëa as his only food, as his only drink, as his only means of confort. In the Tiruväymoli he clearly formulated the essentially five-fold Truth of the Vedas and the sublime doctrine of Trust, Faith and Grace as taught in the holy Dvaya Mantra, the essence of the Vedas. He showed to the world, by precept as well as jy practice the nature of love of God, which he ascertained to be three-fold. Many miracles occurred by his presence. He resided on the southern bank of the Tamraparni River, while one yogé lived on the northern bank. This yog owned a dog which would daily cross the river at about midday and roam the streets of holy Tirunagani. Once the dog did not return on time. The yogé walked down to the river- side to ascertain the cause. Mid-way across the river , he could see the dog swimming towards him. Suddenly, to his horror, a huge flood-wave came down upon the animal and drowned i . The yogé cound see the dead dog floating dowatream; yer as he gaznd, the dog’s head burst open and its soul emerged, and like a sho5ting star flew heavenwards. On that same day the dog had eaten the remnants of Nammälvär. When Nammälvar left thi1 world for the spiritual kingdon, his first disciple constructed temples and installed Deities to commemorate his spiritual master. He also established, onLa royal sca(e, daily, m5nthly and annual ceremonies in memory of Nammälvär’s glory and his works. At the same time, he proclaimed far and wide the eternal truths embodied in the four nraviòa Vedas. During this time, no one could be declared a poet without1h9ving first passed before a council of three-hundred of the King’s paëòitas. Some of these erudite paëòitas came to hear Nammälvär’s growing fame. They challenged Madhurakavs to defend his master before the council. The latter agreed and soundly defeated them all, firmly establishing Nammälvär as a great personality and popularizing his teachings. Of the many spiritual truths which he had revealed, the fun6amental truth, or the basis ,is the co6cept that God is one.

IV. Kulaçekhara Älvär

Kulaçekhara Ätvär was a royal saint and the crown- gem in the lineage of the rulers of Tranvacore. In the mode5n times, Travancore is known as Trivandrum, Kerala. By tradition, the kings of Travancore do not own the kingdom. The actual owner of the kingdom is Çré Ananta Padmanäbha, Lord Garbhodakaçäyé Viñëu, the main Deity of Trivandrum. The king is simply God’s vassal and minister. Invariably twice a day the king used to go before the Deity to present a report of his daily administration of the count1y. Such I the ancient line of the vedic kings among whom Kulaçekhara appeareR. King Kulaçekhara was born in Kali 27. Hi1 ftt9er, For long tame King Dådha-vrata was childless. And after intent worship and prayers, Lord Näräyaëa sent him a saintly son. His son, Kulaçekhara-Älvär, is recognized to be the incarnation of the Kaustubha gem of Lord Viñëu. As a kñatriya of great prowess, he conquered all his enemies and neighbouring kingdo1s in all directioK9. His internal administration was characterized by virtue, justice, peace anm happiness. He was endowed with many exalted material qualities, however he was devoid of virtues which heads to liberation. In fact, he was worldly wise, but spiritually blind. But Kulaçekhara was to become a saint and savior for uplifting humanity. He was transformed by God’s grace, which started operating through him. The Lord commanded Viñvaksena to administer to the King the five-fold sacraments called Païca-saàskära. Thus his vision of the world and of himself changed. He became dettached from the world and the synptoms of prema-bhakti manifested within him. He invited many wise men to hisfcapital and he engaged in hearing and reciting from all çästras. This inspired him to compose his master piece, Mukunda-mäla-stotra, by extracting the nectar from all scriptures. His worshipable God was Lord Rämacandra, and therefore he selected the Rämayana for daily recitation.One day there came the passage where Lord Räma fought alone against 14.000 rakñasas. Upon hearing this, King Kulaçekhara, out of devotional ecstasis, became mad with worry thinking that Lord Räma was fighting alone. Then he commanded his army to immediately proceed with him to help Lord Rämacandra. To save the king from this predicament, the ministers expeditiously dispatched a secret army to approach from the other direction and inform the King that Lord Räma, single handed, had already killed all the rakñasas. Upon hearing this, the king’s joy was inexpressible. The daily recitation of the Rämayana went on as usual. Every important event of LoSd Rämacandra’ lélä was celebrate3 with a(great festival. The speaker purposefullt avoided some distressfull passages in the text which would disturb the mood of the king. One day, however, the oficial speaker could not attend the daily recitation and thus sent his son0 The new speaker, unaware about the mood of the s8ng,6read6the passage of Rävana’s kidnapping of Sita-devé. At once the King’s emotions blazed like fire. His wrath rouse to an uncontrollable state. He commanded hWs complete army to follow him in orderLto save Tother Sita. At this time, thepministers could not do anything because the5king had mobilized all his army ultimately. King Kulaçekhara and his army reached the seashore along the southernmost part of India, which faced Rävana’s kingdon, the island of Çré Laìka. Although hundreds of miles of ocean oeparated the continent to the island, King KulSçekhara, in trance, entered into the ocean along with his army in order to try to cross over it. He was neck deep in the see when Lord Rämacandra and Sita-devé came to save him and ensured that everything was under control. After this episode the ministers were especulating as to the cause for this God- intoxicated behavior of the king. The only reason the ministers could ascertain was his association with the pure devotees the king hpd invited to live in his palace. These pure vaiñëavas had free access to any part of the palace. So the ministers conspired against these vaiñëavas. Some jewellery was stolen from the King’s Deities and the vaiñëavas were accused of the theft. But King Kulaçekhara’s reaction was free from any suspicion: “No! Never! The lovers of God are incapable of stealing. It’s impossible that even a slight notion of vice can enter into their thought, what to speack of them acting improperly. I can prove my word. Let a venomous cobra be placed into a vessel and I shall put my hand into it.” As soon said as done. “If they are innocent nothing will happen. But if they are guilty let it bite me and kill me”. The ministers were thus put into shame. They confessed their trick and begged for the King’s pardon. The King pardoned them. For a long time King Kulaçekhara had the desire to give up his kingdom and go to Çré Raìg1m a5d simply engage in devotional service unto the Lord. This desi1e7evenaually became unbearable. Hence he entrusted the kingdom to his stn Dådha Vrata and left fTr Raìgakçetra. There he experienced always i5creasing devotional emetions and composed the poem Perumäl Tirçbfzhi . Perumäl is a title with which Kulaçekhara- Älvär is distinguished, by feeling sorrow when God is in sorrow and hippiness when God isphappy.

V. Peryi - Älvär

Peryi-Älvär, also known as Viñëu Chittar, was born in a high line of brähmaëas in Çré Villiputur, in (,eTyearpKali 16. From early childhopd he&intuitively was a pure devotee of Lord Viñëu. When meditating on the pastime5 of Çré Kåñëa, he was inspired by Sudämä, the mälä- kära, who offered garlands and worshiped Kåñëa and Bälaräma when They entered Mathurä, on this way to the arena of Kaàsa. The Älvär then resolved to devote himself to supplying flowers for the daily worship of Lord Viñëu in His arcä form of Vata- sayin in his town, Çré Villiputur. At that time king Vallabhadeva of Madhurai, met a brahmaëa who spoke a few words to him and awoke the desire for attainning mokña. After that, the king was very eager to know the genuine process of self-realization. He consulted his minister who suggested he summon a council of the wisest men in the kingdom. Each one would give his opinion on the subject. Meanwhile, in Çré Villiputur, the Älvär had a wonderful dream. His beloved Deity Çré Vata-sayin appeared before him and commanded him to attend the king’s court. “What?’, the astonished Älvär exclaimed. “Look at my hands! They are scarred from constant labour in the garden. I am poor and illiterate and yet You want me to go and speak to the king inhthe midst of great scholars!”. The Lord softly replied: “Do not fear. Simply do as I say and I will arrange everything.” ∗ Arriving in Madhurai, he was welcomed by the king’s minipter and invited to speak before the council. The Älvär become like Dhruva, who was touched by the transcendental conch of Lord Viñëu anm empowered to utter wonderful prayers. Quoting many evidences from the çästras he proved that one who aspires for liberation sh(uld meditate upon and surrender unto the lotus feet of Lord Viñëu, Who alone can grant mukti. In fact he simply opened his mouth and the Lord spoke through him. Peryi-Älvär’s discourse was unparalleled and the glories of devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead was esNablished definitively, leaving no room for impersonal concept. No one dared even breathe a word in protest. The king and all his ministers were very much enlivened and began to glorify the Älvär, saying: “He has revealed to mankind the light that shines o( the very summit of the V8dänta.” They led him through the streets of the capital in a grand procession. As parents like to witness the glory of their son, so the Lord likes to witness the glories of His devotees. Then Lord Viñëu , along with His entourage, descended personally to that spot to see His devotee being glorified. Upon beholding His beloved Lord,RPeryi-Älvär was filled with ecstatic joy. However, he never allowed his heartLfo swell with pride. The Älvär started praying: “Here is my God! That Supreme Person Who is so worthy of the adoration of even the most exalted demigLds. At this very moment I am not feeling ecstatic lovC for You − love that makes me forget myself and strikes me down senseless. I am feeling fear instead. Fear for Youd safety in this unworthy place. What moves me now is not the love of a belover, but the protective love a mother feelM for her child.” Then Peryi-Älvär composed a devotional poym calRedTiruppällandu . After blessing the king, Peryi-Älvär returned home to his devotional service as gardener of Çri Vata-sayin. He wrote many devotional poems, such as Tirumozhi, which were manifestation of his love for the Lord in the mood of separation. Such intense feelings of separation burned his heart so much, c using him to lepve this world.

VI. Äëòäl-Älvär

Äëòäl is the only woman among the twelve Älvärs. Peryi-Älvär was digging his garde6 one day when he discovered a child covered in earth, just as King Jänaka had found Sétadevé. He named her Äëòäl. The year was Kali ,7. Peryi-Älvär’s sole occupation was daily to present a flower garl0nd to his deity Çré Vata-Säyin. ps time passed, Äëòäl blossomed into an attractive maiden. In her father7s absence, she would take up the arland he had intended fo the Lord and wear it in her hair. Placing herself before a mirror, she would admire herself for hour, saying, “Don’t I match Him (God) in 6eauty?” When t2r father discovered this he chastized her severely for her offence and decided not to offer the garland to the deity that day. At night Peryi-Älvär dreamt of Vata-Säyin who questioned him why he had failed to bring his daily garland. The Älvära explained the reson. “Desecration?” the Lord replied, “You mean consecration, rather. We consider y(ur fragrant g rlands to smell even sweeter after your daughter has worn them. We want no others, but those.” Peryi-Älvär woke up in amazement. As Äëòäl grew, her love for God also grew. It became so furious in intensity it could no longer be kept in secret. Her father remained very anxious. Äëòäl was in the full bloom of youth and yearned more and more for a husband with divine nature.One day her father said to her, “Pardon my suggestion, but surely you should marry a God. But Who among Them?” Äëòäl asked her fathe1 to describe the different manifestations of tme Lord. At this he16eaaT to name and glorify each of the 108 main deities of Lord Vidëu. Upon hearing the name of Çré Raìganätha her heart at once melted, revealing Who was holding her heart captive. Peryi-Älvär was perplex. That night, however, Çré Raìganätha appeared in his dream anr announced He would propose for his daughter’s hand and heart Himself. In Çné Raìgan the Lord manifested His desire to the head priest, commanding him to journew to Çré Viliputtur and bring His fiancee to Him. The priest arranged for Äëòäl to be brough over great pomp and made very opulent preparations for the wedding ceremony. This was co7ducted, and Äëòäl embraced her Lord and, before the eyes of everyone tresent, merged into the body of Lord Raìganätha. Çré Äëòäl is today worship,ed in her arcä-vigraha in numerous temples of Viñëupin South India. 56e poet y she has written about her passionate feelings for the Lord remains as well.

VII. Toëòaraòippoòi-Älvär

Toëòaraòippoòi was.born in a South Indian brähmaëa family in the year Kali 288. He was named Vipra-Näräyaëa. Later he became known as T,ëòiraòippoòi-Älvär, which means ‘the foot-dust of the slaves of the Lord’. By nature Vipra-Nä(ä10ëa was a saint, completely detached from this world. As a result he remained free from natural entanglements such as marriage. Having been blessed by Lord Raìganätha, he resolved to devote his life to cultivating and suppling tulasi leaves for the Lord’s pleasure. One day a very captivating but mundane woman named Deva-devé, who was a frequent visitor to the court of King Chola, passed through the beautiful garden of Vipra-Näräyaëa and decided to stop and rest for some time. She noticed how Vipra- Näräyaëa, his mind being fully absorbed in his service and on thoughts of his Deity, did not pay her the slightest attention although she was very close to him. Deva-devé’s sister had told her he was a devotee, a saint, and for fun she had made a wager: “If you are able to deviate his heart from God to you, I will become your slave for six months”. Deva-devé had acc1pted. Aptroaching Vipra-Näräyaëa and falling at his feets she told him destiny had made her a prostitute but that she now repented for her sinful life. Begging for shelter at his feet she offered to assist him with any menial service in his garden. Out of innocence, Vipra-Näräyaëa consented. Deva-devé was determined. For six months she worked2with complete dedicition and devotion. Then one day during the rainy season, she was out gardening in the rain, completely wet and shivering. Vipra-Nåäyaëa felt sorry for her and called her into his cottage. This was the moment for which she had been wait for so long. Taking advantage of the situation, she suggest she would massage his weary limbs. Again a victim of his innocence, Vipra-näräyaëa allowed her to do so. Deva-devé was a mistress of the art of seduction. She easily captured the brähmaëa’s heart so he could no longer concentrate his mind in his Deity. Having won the wager, there was no reason for Deva-devé to remain in that place any longer and she returned to her house. Mad with lust, Vipra-Näräyaëa ran after her, sat outside her front door and submitted himself to a0l kinds of injuries and ineignities. One day, Lord Raìganätha and His consort Çré passed by that street in a procession. When Lakñmé-devé saw Vipra-Näräyaëa in that condition She asked Her Lord what had happened to his faithful and dedicated servant. After Lord Ranìganätha narrated the story, Çré demanded that He help Vipra-Näräyaë and once again engage him in His sevice. But the Lord simply smiled and said He had a plan. That same day someone knocked at Deva-devé’s door, claiming to be Vipra-Näräyaëa’s servant. He delivered a golden cup to her which she happily received. The following morning Çré Raìganätha’s pujari discovered that6the Lord’s golden cup was missing from the altar. The king immediately had the pujari and other attendants arrested. One of Deva-devé’s maids, whose lover was one of attendants, had witness the whole spene in the house of her mistress. She at once informed the k6ngGtpat Vipra-Näräyaëa had given the cup to Deva-devé and that it8now lay 2iduensunder the pillow. The cup was retrieved and Vipra-Näräyaëa and Deva-devé were brough before the king. They naturall7 denied and participation in the theft, but on the weight of the evidence against them, Deva-devé was fined and Vipra-Näräyaëa was detained for further investigation. Once again Lakñmé intervened, requesting Her Lord to stop playing with His devotee. That night Lord Raìga9ätha appeared to the king in a dream and said to him: “Dear king, know My servant Vipra-Näräyaëa to be innocent, so far as his present life is concerned; but in past lives he has committed acts for which he must now pay retribution. This is why I have devised a measure whiah allows ends of justice to be satisfied. He has been made to suffer, though only slightly.” The next morning the king had Vipra-Näräyaëa release and Deva-devé’s money returned to her. Vipra-Näräyaëa was saved by the special grace of His Lord. Old recollTctions of his worshippable Deity now flooded his mind and he regained his saintly nature. He came to value tha danger of women’s assocation. Thinking of how to purify himself of his sin, he discovered the only remedy was to drink the water which had washed the lotus feet of the vaiñëav9s. From this he received the name Toëòaraòippoòi, and he served Lord Raìganätha until his final breath.

VIII. Tiruppän-Älvär

T15uppän-Älvär 6ppeared in a candala family in the year Kali 342, in , South India. Actually, he was not born in the normal way − he was found in a paddy field. The stalks of green and yellow paddy around him were glowing at that time. Due to belonging a low class family, he was not allowed to dwell with people from higher castes. In spite of that, in the childhood his parents protected him from eating indiscriminated food and other things which could pollute him. He was fed pure cow’s milk. Since his childhood, Tiruppän had no attraction for things of this world. His natural tendencies were directed towards God. He used to absorbe himself for hours singing songs in glorification of the Lord. He would close his eyes and become utterly senseless and oblivious to the external world. He would enjoy visions of God and experiencing His closeness. Following the traditions of his family and his caste, Tiruppän adopted the profession of musician, a lyre-player. One day, Tiruppän was seated on the banks of the Kaveri, in Çré Raìgam, near the temple of Lord Raìganätha. He was immersed in such deep meditation on the Lord that he looked like a lifeless statue. At that time, the head pujari of Lord Raìganätha, Loka Saraìga, happen to come to the river side to fetch water from the river for the daily abhisheka of the Deities. Tiruppän was seated on the path where the pujaris would pass carring vessels full of water. Loka Saraìga demanded that he move from there, but Tiruppän did not respond to his request. He was in devotional trance and unaware of the situation. Being a brähmaëa, Loka Saraìga thought that this candala was provoking him with indiference, and therefore became very upset. He grabed a pebble and flung it at him. It hit him in the face and drew blood. Tiruppän came ouy from his trance, opened his yes and at seeing the enraged brähmaëa at once realized the whole situation. He then immediately moved away from the place expressing his grief and repentance at the offense which he had commited, though unwittingly. Back at temple, Loka Saraìga felt something strange. Normally Lord Raìganätha used to reciprocate with the service of his faithfull devotee but this time was different. The countenance of the Lord was not as blissful as usual, and the brähmaëa had the clear impression that his sevice was no being accepted by phe Lord. At the same time he was mentaly regretting the incident. He was morose, feeling remorse and anguish. While lamenting, Lord Raìganätha along with His eternal consort appeared to him and said: “How dare you hurt My faithful Tiruppän? We are sorely offended by you.” Then Çré inquired from the Lord why He delayed bringing Tiruppän nearer to Him. The Lord then said: “I have often tried to, but as I advance he receeds, because he is sensitive of his humble birth and he thinks that any contact with Me would contaminate My nature. The time has come for settling the matter, and you will have your wish soon fulfilled.” So the Lord spoke to Loka Saraìga: “You shouldn’t think Tiruppän a low person − he is My very soul and My intimate friend. I want you to go to him and, with all reverence and humility, lift him up upon your shoulders and triumphally enter Our shrine. Let the world witnesses this spectacle.This is My command.” Loka Saraìga immediately went to the spot and found Tiruppän absorbed in meditation. He fell at his feets and begged forgiveness for injuries both physical and moral. Then he submitted the wish of Lord Raìganätha. The Älvär retreated to a distance and said: “Don’t touch me. I’m low born and it’s inadmissible for me to step in the Lord Raìganätha’s land.” “But sir”, said Loka Saraìga, “Don’t fear. I will carry you on my shoulders. This is the desire of the Lord. Further resistance will be desobedience.” Then Tiruppän gave up: “As the Lord wishes”, he said. Loka Saraìga without delay carried the Tiruppän into the Lord’s shrine. When he was about to deposit the Älvär in one of the holy yards of the temple, the Lord along with all His entourage, appeared before him. His devotional ecstasy then surpassed all limits and he starded praising the Lord with a song Amalam-Adipirän, he composed at that time. While gazing and staring in astonishment,0Tiruppän Älvär tarried iot on the Earth to see anz other sight, but melted and passed int the Lord’s substance, in his 50th year of age.

IX. Tirumangai-Älvär

Çré Tirumangai is éhe last of the Älvärs of1the Çré Sampradäya. He was born in Kali 397 in a çudra class family. His name at birth was Nila (blue) because of Lord Kåñëa’s color. He is said to be the incarnation of the bow called Çarìga. His father was the military commander in the army of King Chola. Nila learnt from him the use of diMferen6 weapons and other 5ilitary arts. Soon he became distinguished for his martial qualities and for his conquests of kings who were in opposition to the supremacy of King Chola. Bein5 unmarried, he use to behave like a libertine. He was what is known as ‘a gratifier of the senses’. He was also`known by theaname Ka6ian. During this period of his life, a group of very young from Svarga-loka descended onto the kingdom. There they found a wonderful place with a lake containing many lotus flowers. One of the apsaras was attentively engaged in pluking flowers when the other apsaras departed living her beeind. Verily she did not know what to do. By chance, a vaiñëava physician appeared on the site. Out of curiosity he asked her what such a lovely girl was doing alone in such a remote place. After hearing her story, the vaiñëava brought her to his house and treated her as she were his own daughter. She was named Kumuda-Valli, bfcause the lotus flowers were the cause of her being left behind. She grew up and bloomed into a beautiful maiden. Hence, the parents were worried because they were unable to find a suitable match in marriage for her. In the meanwhile, one of Kalyan’s spies notice this girl of such exquisite beauty and reported back to Kalyan; how she would be the perfect wife for him. He became excited and without delay he rushed to Kumuda-Valli’s house. As soon as he saw her, his heart burnt with love and passion. Then Kalyan approached to her parents and requested her hand in marriage. They replied that the decision would be exclusively hers. Kumuda-Valli vehemently denied to marry a non-vaiñëava man, who was not initiated with the five-fold sacraments. However Kalyan was determined to get her hand in marriage by any means. He at once went to the presiding Deity of the kingdom, Çré Nambi, and prayed fervently that He bestow him the requisite sacraments which his beloved lady had demanded. He prayed with such faith th6t the Deity personally administred the cakra and the conch impri3 ed on his arms , along with twelve marks of tilak over his body. He then rushed back to Kamuda-Valli who said: “There is ano,her condition. You have to sumptously feed 1000 vaiñëavas daily and eat only their remnants after sipping the holy water obtained from washing eheir feet.” Kalyan out of love for Kamud-Valli accepted this condition, and thus they got married. He strictly followed his promise. All money in his possession was used for a daily banquet. Hoever, after a couple of months had passed he was out of money. He even spent the taxes he was to pay the king. After having a confrontation with the king, Kalyan was finally arrested and put in the king’s prison in Kaïci. There Lord Varada- räja appeared to him in a dream and revealed to him a treasure hidden on the bank of the Vegavatti river. Kalyan told thepfinf about the dream and was alowed to go there accompanied by palace guards. He indeed found the treasure. He paid the amount owed to(the king and still had enough money to continue feeding the vaiñëavas. The Lord saved His devotee in the same way that He saved . His promise to his wife was kept. However, after some time, he again ran out of money. At that time he had to taoe to robbery by plundering traveolers on the road. Such activity is morally perverse, but the fact is that God was pleased by Kalyan’s sincerity and once more acted in his favor. By feeding the vaiñëavas and taking their remmanents, Kalyan was pleasing the Lord. While Kalyan and his gang were waiting for their next victim, the Lord appeared on the road in the disguise of a brähmaëa and his wedding procession; accompanied by His wife and entourRge. The brähmaëa was carrying a bundle full of priceless jewelry. a7lyan directed the attack and without difficulty took all the belongings of the group. When the dacoits tried to lift aSlthe product of the robbery, they could not ev)némove it one inch. The bundle was stuck to the ground as if by magic. Kalyan then said: “Who are you?You look like a wizard.” The Lord in disguise replied: “I will teach you a mantra by which you will be able to move the bundle. Now you come here and bend your head and put your ear near my mouth.” “What?” vociferated the chief of the dacoits, “Either you give me the mantra now or I will cut your head off with my sword.” “Come on...”, said the Lord, “don’t be nervous”. Then the brahmaëa asked Kalyan to repeat the eight syllable mantra: om namo näräyaëäya. Kalyan tested the mantra and to the surprise of all the bundle could be lifted. He was about to leave when the Lord said to him: “I have some more to give you.” Kalyan curiously replied “What more?.” The Lord then explained the spiritual potency of the mantra. Kalian was struck with wonder. Then the ‘brähmaëa’ revealed Himself as Lord Näräyaëa with His eternal consort, mounted in Garuda. Kalyan immedately composed six songs glorifying the Lord. Thus he became the Tirumangai Älvär.From this point on his life transformed radically. His wild nature was now used integrally in the sevice of God. Accordingly, that many saintly qualities manifested in his heart. After this incident he went on pilgrimage in the North − Haridwar, Badrinäth, Naimiçarpëya, etc. He gained respect and was praised by all. The Älvär came to visit Lord Räìganätha in Çaé Raìgam. There he compose many songs 0lorifying the Deity. The Deity appeared to him and requested him to stay in the temple and sxpand the constructed area of the temple. Of course, Tirumangai-Älvär accepted the service but now he needed a large ammount of money for doing that. To obtain the mhney, Tirumangai involved himself in a very exciting series of adventures. Tirumangai’s brother-in-law told him of a temple that possessed a valuable golden murti of Buddha. They planned to steal it. But the altar was protected by an intricate mechanical system which made it impossible to enter and touch the Deity. .he only person who knew the secret was the aichitect who had constructed it. They found that the man l&ved on an island in the Bay of Bengal. Arriving 0n the island they indirectly approached the architect. Taking advantage of his slyness, the group obtained the secret of the altar’s protecting scheme. Retur.ing to tpe temple they were able to take the murti off. However his brother-in-law happened to fall into a trap. He then said to Tirumangai: “You have to flee from here at once. But don’t leave me here alive. Please cut my head off. It would be better”. And Tiruman.Ni jid so. Leaving that place, the group carried the murti as it were a dead body in a funeralp with the head of the Älvär’s brother-in-law on the top. This time Çré Lakçmé-devé interfered and requesed the Lordeto save His devotee. Lord Viñëu sent Garuda with the mission to rescue the body, join it with the head and give him life. Returning to Çré Raìgam Tirumangai melted the murti and payed for the construction. Again he had more problems when the money was exausted, he still had to pay a substantial cmount in wages to the workers. “What to do?”, thought the Älvär. Therefore he put all the worker on a boat used for crossing the river. Half way across the river he made the boat sink and the workers died. Again there was more problems. Now the wives, children and relatives of the workers were demanding compensation. Again, “What to do now?”, thought the Älvär. Then a new miracle happened. The workers who had died appeared before their families and requested them not to struggle for money, because now, they are in the heaven and are better them before.

Liberation according to the four sampradayas

Ramanuja

Bondage:

Beginningless Karma is considered to be the cause of bondage of the Jivas in Samsara. Because of this the souls are caught up in a continuous cycle of births and deaths.

Moksa:

Bhakti: According to Visistadvaita Vedanta,`bhakti' is the means or `upaya' to `moksa', as this is evident from numerous Sruti and Smrti texts. Bhakti is defined as unceasing meditation done with love on the Supreme Being (`snehapurvam©anudyanam3). It is regarded as knowledge in the form of love for God (`pritirupa jnana'). Ip is generated by scrupulous observance of religious duties as laid down by scripture in accordance with one's `varna' and `asramu', along with spiritual knowledge. The perf6rmance of one's duties and rituals (`karma') will have to be observed œ, as explained in Gita, purely as divine service for the pleasure of G6d (`bhagavat priti') and not in expectation of any rewards thereof. TBis in brief is the Vssistadvtita view of `' for Moksa.

Prapatti: Visistadvaita philosophy discusses besides Bhakti, `prapatti' or absolute self surrender to God as an alternative means to `moksa'. Bhakti is a rigorous discipline, and for those, who are incapable of undertaking it, `prapatti' is advocated as an alternative easy path to `moksa', This doctorine is adopted on the strength of the teachings contained in the Vedas as well as the , Puranas, and Pancaratra literature.

The Nature of Mukti: According to the Visistadvaita Vedanta, `moksa' is 0ot merely freedom from bondage but it is also a positive state of existence for the Jiva in a supra©mundane realm (`parama©pada') without losing its individuality. This state of highest achievement is described as `paripurnaªbrahmanubhava', the full and perfect enjoyment of the bliss of Brahman. It is admitted that the individual soul in the state of `moksa' could assume a body out of its free will (`') for thh purpose of enjoying bliss or for movement.

”JIVA”: ishof the nature of consciousness and possesses `dharmabhutajnana' as an inseparable attribute. It is real, eternal and unborn. It is distinct from the body, sense orgbns, mind and viäal airs. Though the individual self, as a mode o1 Brahman, is essentially of the same nature, it is nctually distinct; for it is of monadic size alj resides in a separate body. It is the agent, the enjoyer, the embodied Self, and the body. It is embodied Se9f with regard to its physical body. It is the body with regard to Isvara. It is not only sentient, but it is also of the essence of ananda. Samsara is due to avidya which is of thp nature of karma, accumulated by the jiva in its previous births. In this condition jnana and ananda are obscured but ful1y manifest in the state of liberation. In spite of its monadic size, the jiva can conTact the ends of space through its attributive knowledge.

Classification og Jivas:

JIVA * * ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© * * * * * * NITYAS MUKTAS BADDHAS (eternals) (liberated) (the bound) * * ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© * * * * BUBHUKSU MUMUKSU (the pleasure seeker) (the sasvation seeker) * * * * ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© * * * * * * * * ARTHAKAMAPARA DHARMAPARA Vs8ARY OF VOTARY OF (vota,y of & (votary of dharma) MOKSA & ) * [`kaivalya' is * * defined as the nature * ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© of self realization of the * * * self as distincf from prakrti] * * * * VOTARY OF VOTARY OF * VARIORS BHAGAVAN * GODS (4 kinds, Bg.vii.16) *

*

©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© * * * * BHAKTA PRAPANNA (lover of God) (one who has surrendered himself to God) * * ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© * * * * EKANTIN PARAMA©EKANTIN (one pointed) (extremely one pointed)

[he is ekantin who seeks [he is`parama©ekantin' who does not from Bhagavan alon eliberation desire any other fruits even from 8long with other (worldly) fruits] bhagavan H5mself except devotion and knowledge] * * ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© * * * * D(PTA ARTHA (patient aspirant who experiences (impatient aspirant who the fruits of his past deeds and desires release immediately desires perfection at the time of after the act of self-surrender) casting off his body)

Vallabhacarya

4. Bondage:

According to Vallabha, the Jiva's associatioO with `avidya', as well as his bondage and freedom, are brought about by the free will of Brahman for the purpose of sport.

5. Moksa:

The moksa which consists in the absolute cessation of all misery and the experiencing of the bliss which was observed in the condition of Samsara, can be attained by two means, Bhakti (devotion) and Jnana (knowledge). Of these the former is superior, since it leads to the realisation of the divine form of the Brahman as Krsna or Purusottama, in which the Anandamsa is at its best; while the oatter i” inferior, as it leads to the realisation of the FRcondSor non©determinate form of brahman where the Anandamsa is of an inferior order. bhakti itself is of tto degrees, `Maryadabhakti' and `Pustibhakti'. In the former, the devotee attains moksa by practice of means 5`sadhana') on hissown part, such as, the disciplines laid down in the Sast1a, which produce an aversiKn to1worldly things, or worship and prayer of Bhagavan.6IS6the latter©and this is the higher kind of Bhakti the devotee, without having recourse to any , dependsmupon nothing but pure and simple love of Him; his goal is only the sprvice of Hari; his highest pleasure is to become one of the 1ssocpated of Hari and to sport with him in the celestial Vrndavana. This `pustibhakti' is the privilege of only him whom Bhagavan is pleased to favour; it begins with `prema' which removes a liking for anything but Hari, and passing through `asakti' which produces a positive aversion to objects not connected with Hari, culminates in `vyasana' or entire devotion to Hari.

NyäyävaliùSanskrit Maxims and Proverbs

1. andha paìgu nyäyaù

The maxim of the blind and the lame.

A lame man sits on the shoulders of a blind man, the former guiding the latter. This maxim is used to show the interdependence amongst men and the good that might result from cooperation and union.

2. andha darpaëa nyäyaù

The maxim of the blind man and his mirror.

It is used in case of persons who possess things which can be of no use to them.

3. andha gaja nyäyaù

The maxim of the blind men andhthe elephGnt. Certain blind men approached a tame and docile elephant in order to get an idea of the creature. One felt his trunk, one his legs, one his tail, and so on. The first man he who had felt the elephant’s trunk described him as a fat serpent; the second man, who had felt the legs, as four pillars; the third man, the one who has passea his hands on the tail only, as a piece of stout rope, tapering gradually and having loose fibres at the end; and so on. They began to quarrel with one another over the description of the elephant, each considering his own to be correct. This maxim is used in cases where an imperfect, partial or one-sided view of a thing is taken.

4. andha caöaka nyäyaù

The maxim of the blind man catching a sparrow.

This maxim is used where an unexpected and accidental happenings or coincidences are ascribed to divine agency.

5. adagdha dahana nyäyaù

The maxim of burning the burnt.

Fire doesn’t burn a thoroughly burnt object. This maxim is used in cases where a person attemptp an impossible or a fruitless task.

6. araëya rodana nyäyaù

The maxim of crying in the wilderness.

This maxim is used in cases where a man seeks help and support from a quarter from which they are not likely to come.

7. andha paramparä nyäyaù

The maxim of the blind following the blind.

It is used in those cases where people blindly, thoughtlessly, or rashly follow others, not caring to see whether their doing so would not be a dangerous leap in the dark.

8. apanthänaà tu gacchantam iti nyäyah The maxim of a person goinc wrong.

A person ought to abandon one going in the ways of wickedness even if one be his dearest brother.

9. andha go läìgüla nyäyaù

The maxim of the blind man and the bull’s tail.

This maxim is based on the following anecdote: Once upon a time a certain blind man started from his native village, intending to go to a neighbouring big cit1. He had not plodded on far, when he met a bar9er, fond of practical jokes. The latter accosted the former and learnt from him, that he, the blind man, was travelling to town, where, he thought, plenty of alms was to be had for the mere asking. The barber,)finding a sure victim of his jokes, told the blind man that he &ould find him a gride. He thereupon took him to a field, where a bullock was grazing, and let him catch his pail. HeSthen said to him: “My friend, here is a sure guide for you. Don’t leaie him whatever happens, and in spite of all that wicked people might say to do you a mischief.” The blind man soon reached not the town, but the heart of a thorny bush! This maxim is applied to cases where a man places his trust on an object not worthy of trust.

Ò0. amürttamürtti nyäyaù

The maxim of the image form of the Formless.

As God is omnipresent, He may be worsipped in any object. The true devothe, though believing God to be formless, in order to g5atify whe cravings of his heart for an image, makes oVe in a pitha and worships Him in the image. Ignorant men say phat he is worshipping anMextÉrnal material object. The iaxim is applied to a man who makes a remark on a profound subject which he doesn’t understand in the least, thus displaying his utter ignorance.

11. arddha jaraté nyäyaù

The maxim of the two opposipId s3pying in a single substance.

This maxim is applied in cases where the impossibility of two opposite attributes combined1in a single individual at the same time is to prove Kuch as youth and old age can not stay at the same time in a single man or woman.

12. arddha vaiçasa nyäyaù

The maxim of cutting up half an animal.

A man cuts off the head, the torax, the wings and the lower limbs of a hen, leaving the abdomen intact with the hope that she might lay the eggs that are in her. This maxim is used in cases where an absurd, ridiculous, foolish or unreasonable act is done.

13. abbhakña nyäyaù

The maxim of living on water alone.

If it is said that Rama lives on water only, it is to be inferred that, having water, He does not take any food or drink. This maxim is used in those cases where by the use of particular attributes to an object, its generic attributes are negatived.

14. ante raëòävivähaçcëdädäveva kuto na sa çti nyäyaù

The maxim of marrying a widow.

If a widow is to be married at all, why not before she becomes corrupt? This maxim is used in those cases where an act is done after the proper time for its performance is passed.

15. açoka vanikä nyäyaù

The maxim of the grove of Asoka trees.

Ravana kept Sita in the garden of Asoka trees, when he could keep her in any other garden. This maxim is used in those cases where a man finds several ways of doing a thing, any one of them being 5s good as another, and the preference of any particular one cannot be accounted fora

16. açma loñöra nyäyaù

The maxim of the stone and clod of earth.

A clou of earth may be considered to be hard as compared with cotton, but is soft as compared with a stone. So a person may be considered to be very important when compared with his inferiors, but sinks into insignificance when compared with hi5 betters. This maxim is used to denote the relative importance of two things.

17. açvaBaré garbha nyäyaù

The maxim of conception of a female mule.

It is said that a female mule never conceives, or i. she is ever made to, she dies. This maxim is u6ed in connecti,n with anything which has no existence.

18. ahibhuk kaivarta nyäyaù

The maxim of mKibhuk and the boatman.

A m&n named Ahibhuk, intending to cross a broad river, boarded a boat in which there was a large number of persons. Now the man thought within himself, “there are so many persons in the boat that it would be no wonder if I lose myself and be transferred and ch0nged to one of them.” In order to avert such a calamity, Ahibhuk, bound his foop with a piece of rope to keep a mark upon himself, and then feeling easy in his mind, fell fast asleep. The boatman chanced to overhear the man’s loud soliloquy, and saw his queer manoeuvres; and soon finding the man snoring stentoriously, he untied the rope from the man’s feet and fastened to his own. Ahibhuk on waking exclaimed, “Alas! I am changed to a boatman!” The maxim is hspd to show a man’s idiocy.

19. ahi nir-lvayiné nyäyaù

The maxim offtCe cast off slough of a serpent.

The meaning of this maxim is: Just as a serpent,0after it has cast off its slough, does n1 longer regard the same as a part of itself, so a man, on acquiring or true knowledge, regards his self as distinct from his body.

20. ahi kuëòala nyäyaù

The maxim of the coils of a snake.

Just as the coils of a venomous serpent are natural to it so are the crooked ways to a wicked man. This maxim is used to denote the natural propensities and impulses of a man.

21. varta ké nyäyaù

The maxim of the man clapping his hands and the sparro:.

It is unthinkable that a sparrow will perch on the hands of a person clapping. This maxim is used to denote impossibility.

22. ajä kåpäëéya nyäyaù

The maxim of the goat and the naked sword.

A goat was scratching its neck at the sharp edge of a naked sword and cut it. One should nor meddle with dangerous things.

23. agnyä nayana nyäyaù

The maxim of ksking to bring fire.

When a person is asked to bring some fire, it is implied that he is to bring it in a pot or vessel. This maxim is used in those cases where anything is not explicitly ex ressed, but implied.

24. anyad muktamanyadväntamiti nyäyaù

The maxim of eating one thing and vomiting something else.

Thispmaxim ds used in cases where the answer to a question does not touch the question at all.

25. andhasyai vändha lagnasyauiti nyäyaù

The maxim of the association with the blind.

What shall it profit a man if he associates with men of little knowledge? A man should always keep the co6pany of persons, superior to him in learning, wisdom, and good qualities. 26. arrdha tyajati paëòita iti nyäyaù

The maxim of saving one half.

When a man is likely to lose all, he ought to sacrifice one half in order to save the other half.

27. alpasya hetorbahuhätumicchannitinyäyaù

The maxim of a person sacrificing much in order to gain a trifle.

What sacrifices does not a man make, what troubles does he not take to win transie&t worldly gain? But he is a truly wise man, who seeks That, gives up his all for That, on obtaining which he obtains everythpngT c.f. The English proverb: “Penny-wise, pound-foolish.”

28. aläbhemattakäçinyäitinyäyaù

The maxim of the passionate Kasinrx

The passionate Kasini, failing to secure other means of satisfying her passaon was obliged to satisfy the same on an animal. This maxim is used to denote the irresistible&powers of lust and vile passi8ns, and the deg6adation caused by them.

29. aëòa kukkuööé nyäyaù

The maxim of the hen and the eggs.

A hen used to lay one egg daily. Its owner thought that he would have all the eggs that were in her at one time. Accordingly he ripped open the abdomen of the hen with the result that might be imagined. This maxim is used in cases where a person becomes a loser on account of covetousness.

30. açvabcåtyanyäyaù

The maxim of the horse and its owner.

A man asked an hostler who was attending to a horse, “whose horse is this?” The hostler replied, “His, whose servant I am.” The man again asked, “whose servant are you, my good man?” The hostler replied readily1 “why, his, whose horse this is.” This maxim is applied to a person who argues in a circle, or gives evasive answers.

31. ajätaputranämotkértananyäyaù

The maxim of christening the babe yet unborn.

This maxim is applied to superfluous, foolish, or useless acts of person.

32. anteyämatiù sägatiritinyäyaù

The mxxim of: As thou think st in thy last moments, so svalt thou be.*

King Bharata hadl1 faaourite antelope, who used to follow him wherever he went, and whom the King loved very much. While on death-bed, the dying King’s thoughts were of his pet antelope. The King in his next birth was bo8n as an antelope. *c.f Bhagavat Gita,VIII, 5.6.

33. aparähëacchäyänyäyaù

The maxim of the shadow of the evening.

Teistmaxim is applied in cases where prosperity or intimacy ip on a continued wax.

34. asäräëämapibahünämitinyäyaù

The maxim of many trifles.

A straw is an insignificant thing of little strength, but when it unites .ith others to make a stout rope,it can bind and rold in check even a mad elephant. Cf. The English provetbs: “Union is strength”. “Many a little makes a mickle”.

35. asnehadépananyäyaù

The maxim of burning a lamp without oil.

This maxim is used in the following and like senses. A man spends more th)n he eatA6; he builds a structure on a foundation which is weak; he looks more to show than real worth; he cares for a transient effect instead of permanency, e9c.

36. äkäçaparicchitratvairäyaù

The maxim of dividing lnd limiting the limitless and All-pervading Akash (Sky, ether).

The infinite sky cannot be measured, divided, or limited. This maxim is used in those cases wh re a person undertakes or attempts an impossible task; or where one wants to illustrate the infinite, eternal and all-pervasive character of a category, such as the self.

37. äkäçamupöëhanananyäyaù

Thp mapim of striking the sky with fists.

This maxim is used to denote an impossible actp

38. ädävantecetinyäyaù

The maxim of the beginning and the end.

If anything has a beginning, it must have an pnd; and if it has a beginning and an end, it has a middle also.

39 äcäräryatvanyäyaù

The maxim of the existence of the Arya race and good conduct.

It is on the practice and Continuance of the Varna and Ashram Dharma, and rules of good conduct, that the existence and prosperity of th6 Arya race depends. This maxim is used in those cases where one thing depends upon another for its very life.

40. äbhäëakanyäyaù

The maxim of believing in a rumour.

This maxim is used in cases where people believe in false rumours as ghost etc, and are swayed by the same. 41. ämravaëanyäyaù

The maxim of the mango grove.

0n a mango grove, there may be some other trees, but still people call it mango grove. This maxim is used to denote the forces of habit, or the effect of a company or an association, good and bad.

42. äyurghåtamitinyäyaù

The maxim of long life and ghee.

Ghee is the cause of long life; for if one regularly takes at meals a little pure ghee every day, one is healthier for it, and lives to a ripe old age. This maxim is used to denote the relation of cause and effect.

43. äñäòhavätecalatidvipendvaitinyäyaù

The maxim of the elephant and the wind blowing in the month of Ashar (July.)

When the wind blows in the month of Ashara (July) everything around an elephant appears to him like the sea and so he becomes very exultant, but when the summer sets in he becomes very dispirited and morose. This maxim is used in discouraging one in any matter.

44. ikñuvikäranyäyaù

The maxim of the modifications of the sugar-cane.

The raw sugar-cane is first pressed and the juice extracted therefrom. The liquid juice is then boiled, and made into solid gur, which is then refined and turned into fine, white cryptalliied sugar. This maxim is used to denote gradual progress.

45. ikñurasanyäyaù

The maxim of the juice of sugar-cane.

You cannot extract the juice out of sugar-cane without first crushing it. So in order to obtain particular results in certain cases, you havento assume a severe, stern, and unyielding attitude.

46. iñuvegakñayanyäyaù

The maxim ofDthe ceasing of the impulse of a Discharged arrow.

Just as an arrow discharged from a bow flies on and on, till it pierces the object aimed at, when it stops, so a worthy man toils day and night, and stops not, unless and until he obtains his heart’s desire, when he puts his tools aside and joyfully takes rest.

47. iccheñyamäëasamabhivyähäreitinyäyaù

The maxim of the will to attain an end and the means.

If a man has an earnest and ardent desire to achive anything, the means will not be wanting. Cf. The English Saying: “Where there is a will, there is a way.”

48. upäsyamahilänyäyaù

The maxim of Upasya (object of worship) and a woman.

As firm belief in one is essentially necessary for a worshipper to attain success, so unfjinching devotion to her husband is equally necessary for an woman for the attainment of highest good in lifp. Thispmaxim hw intended to teach firm faith in one.

49 utravätdaàñöroraganyayaù

The maxim of a Fangless serpent.

As a serpant deprived of its fang is harmless, so also a wicked man, who has lost his power, a robber, who has become weak and infirm, or a voluptuous debauch in his old age, can do no harm to any one. The maxim teaches that the evil propensities lose their force with the decline of physical strenght.

50 udakanimajïananyäyaù

The maxim of sinking into water. It is veru difficult to find out a thing that has sank into water. The maxim is used to denote the difficulty to be experienced in attempting a thing, which is not easy of performance.

51. uñörakaëöakabhññHaëanyäyaù

The maxim of a camel and a thorny plant.

The camel likes much to eat the thorny leaves an1 bark of a certain plant though it has to suffer much pain. It is used to denote that onenwould be pleased to follow hi own taste however inconvenient or undesirable it iay in realityrbe.

52. upanayatrapanayandhamorvikarotihi dharmiëamitinyäyaù

The maxim of a thing and its altered condition.

The maxim originates from the fact that a burning fuel when fully burnt down, and fire is extinguished loses its true nature and is reduced to ashes, and is useA to signify that a thing ceases to be called as such when it is deprived of its essential properties.

53. upaväsädvaraàhikñetinyäyaù

The maxim of Apat-Dharma (rules of conduct in time of danger).

It is better to beg than to fast.

54. /khayataù päçärajjuritinyäyaù

The maxim of nets in both sides.

When there are nets on either side, one is sure to get entangled to whichever direction he may move. It is used to denote the difficulty of situation of a person when it is injurious for him either to do a thing or to leave it undone.

55. uñöralaguòanyäyaù

The maxim of a camel and a club.

The camel is beaten by the rod whinh it carries on its back. So a fool has to suffer much as the consequence of his foolish conduct.

56. üñarat?pöinyäyaù

The mrxim of stGrility and rnin.

The seeds sown in a barren land1do 0ot germinate though there may be a copious rainfall. It is used to denote fruitlessness of efforts in a matter which it is impossible to perform.

57. åjumärgeëasiddhyataitinyäyaù

The maxim of easy way of success.

It is not proper to take recourse to a difficult way for doing a thing when it can be done easily.

58. ekavåntagataphaladvayanyäyaù

The maxim of two fruits in one stem.

As two fruits sometimes grow in one stem, so the same word may sometimes be used in two senses.

59. ekasaìdhitsato ‘paraàpracyavatitinyäyaù

This logical formula is applicable to those cases where one part of argument breaks down, while the other part holds good. At the same time a whole test of logical inconsistencies crop up to make the situation untenable.

60. ekatraniëértaù çäraïräthor ‘nyaträpitathetinyäyaù

Two similar lines of argument when applied to cases of similar character in different circumstances tend to make for certainty in reasoning.

61. ekadeçavikåtamananyavaditinyäyaù

The maxim of a thing remaining unchanged in form though it may be maimed in part. A horse continues to be a horse, and is not transformed into an ass, though its tail may be cut off; or a man does not become a beast though he may lose one of his fingers. It is used to denote that external deformity is no indication of any change of the true nature of a thing.

62. ekäkinépratijïähinyäyaù

The maxim rf promhse alone.

Mere worde of propise cannot secure success,(action is essentially necessary). It is used to denote that those who talk much are not men of action.

63. ekä ‘siddhià pariharatodvitéyäpaghataitinyäyaù

The maxim of one failure bringing other failures in its train.

In going to remedy one failure, another thing requiring attention is neglected, and that, too, therefore, ultimately proves to be a fai,ure.

64. ekaväkyatäpannänämitinyäyaù

The maxim of being one in month and at heart.

It is used in cases where a man has one thing at heart, and expresses quite a different thing by words.

65. ekasamñandhidarçananyäyaù

The maxim of association.

This maxim is used in cases where a thing reminds one of other things with which it is associated or with which it has some resemblance.

66. aupädhikäkäçabhedanyäyaù

The maxim of the surnames and the sky.

As the same atmosphere appears to be different, being circumscribed by different things, so the same class of things becomes different according to the difference of designations and surnames. It is used to establish the dsfference among thi2gs.

67. kñéraàvihäyarocakaprastasyasauvérarucimanubhavatétinyäyaù

The maxim of preferring a sour thing to milk.

There are patients who would not like to take milk, but would long for curd or some preparation of it. It is used to denote the vitiated taste of those that have gone astray or that are addicted to evil practice.

68. kaëöakanyäyaù

The maxim of thorn.

To draw out a thorn from any part of the body, the help or use of another thorn is necessary. So wicked means may be adopted for putting down a wicked man.

69. kaëöhacamékaranyäyaù

The maxim of the neck and the necklace.

One day a lady was anxiously engaged in search for her necklace, though in fact she had it then round her neck. When she enquired of another person about it, she was asked only to feel her neck. It is used to denote the useless attempt of a person to obtain a thing from somewhere else though in fact he is in possession of it, only he is not aware of it.

70. kaëöhäbharaëanyäyaù

This sort of reasoning is also held to be logical like the above, but it is still not free from error.

71. kanyävikrayidvijanyäyaù

The maxim of a Brahman who accepted money to give his daughter in marriage.

It is sinful on the part of a Brahman, a or a Vaisya, to accept money as a )onsideration for giving away his daughter in marriage. 72. karasthabilvanyäyaù

The maxim of a Bilwa fruit on the palm of hand.

As a Bilwa fruit may be fully well known on minute examination when it is placed on the hand, so it is possible for man to acquire a thorough knowledge of this world as he is always in direct contact with it.

73. karivåìhitanyäyaù

The maxim of Kari-brinhita (the elephant and its particular sound).

As the word Brinhita is ordinarily taken to mean the sound of an elephant, altough the word properly means the sound of all animals, so a word though from its derivation may be applied in var1ous senses, is by usage is restricted to any particular sense.

74. käàsyabhojényäyaù

The maxim of one eating on a bell-metal plate.

A disciple psomised never to take his meal from a bell-metal plate. But his guru was resolved to break that promise, and so he began to use bell-metal pl&tes at the dinner time. As it was binding on the part of the disciple to eat the remainder of the food left by the guru, he could not but break his promise. It is used to denote that in cases of mutual relations preference must be given to him who is higher in position.

75. käphoëiguòanyäyaù

The maxim of the elbow and molasses.

It is impossible for one to lick out the molasses which is stuck on his elbow. It is used in cases where one is called upon to perform an impossible task.

76. käkatäléyanyäyaù

The maxim of a crow and the palm fruit. It takes its origin from the unexpected and sudden fall of a palm fruit upon the head of a crow (so as to kill it) at the very moment of its sitting on a branch of that tree. It is used to denote an unexpected and accidental occurence, whether welcome or otherwise.

77. käkadadhighätakanyäyaù

The maxim of a crow and a vessel of curd.

It has thus come in use: A vessel containing co-agulated milk is placed by a man in charge of another with a request to protect it carefully from the crow. Here though the man mentions only crow, he means that it should be properly taken care of so that &t might not be spoiled by any animal whatever. It is used to denote that the intention of the speaker is to be marked and given effect to, though his words may not clearly express it.

78. käkäkñigolakanyäyaù

The maxim of the crow’s eye ball.

It originates from the supposition that the crow has but one eye, and that it can move it, as occasion requires, from the socket on one side into that of the other. This maxim is applied to a word or phrase which though used only once in a sentence, may, if occasion requires, serve two purposes.

79. käkadantaparékñänyäyaù

Tee maxim of searching after a crow’s teeth.

It is used to denote any usseles, unprofitable, or impossible task.

80. kämanägocaratvenaçabdabodhaevaçabdasädhanatänvayaitinyäyaù

The maxim of Sound with meaning is expressive of mental conditions or states.

This reasoning is applicable only in cases when mental reservation is practised.

81. käraëaguëaprakramanyäyaù The maxim of properties of cause and effect.

It is user to denote that the properties or qualities belonging to the cause pass to the effect.

82. kämipatisapatnanyäyaù

The maxim of the lewed husband corrupting his wife.

It is used to denote that husbands are responsible (oftentimes) for the corrupted course of lifrwled by their wives.

83. këryeëakaraëasaàpratyayanyäyaù

The maxim of effect proving t e existencen-nd nature of the cause.

Of. Eng. saying A tree is known by the fruit it bears.

84. käraëanäçekäryanäçanyäyaù

The maxim of the destruction f the cause results in the destruction of the effect.

The effect cannot exist if the ca2se giving rise to it ceases to exist.

85. kimajïänasyaöuñkaramitinyäyaù

The maxim of nothing is impossible on the part of a fool.

A foolish and ignorant man is equal to any task.

86. kéöabhåìganyäyaù

The maxim of a cockroach and a black-bee.

A cockroach was seized and 5arried away by a black-bee to its nest, kept there in close confinement,oand at las6 transformed into a black-bee as an effect of its constant hearinf ofethe buzzing of the bees and being occupied with their thoughtp The maxim denotes that mind acts powerfullyoupon the body. 87. kukkuöadhvaninyäyaù

The maxim of crowing of a cock.

The crowing of cocks grows louder and louder by gradual steps. It is used to denote the gradual course to be followed in the path of improvement, which is brought about 0tep by step and not by leaps and bounds.

88. kumbhédhänyanyäyaù

The maxim of an earthern jar full of paddy.

It is needless to give in charity to one who is in possesion of a big vessel full of paddy. It is used to denote that charity is meant for the poor and needy and not for those that have sufficient means of subsistence. Cf.the English proverb: To send coal to New Castle.

89. kusédagrähébrähmaëanyäyaù

The maxim of a usurious Brahman.

The Brahman who lives by means of usury is a sinner, for, thereby he loses the spiritual power which is the peculiar possesion of a Brahman. It is used to denote that a man degrades himself by taking recourse to unworthy or base profession.

90. kuçakäçavalambananyäyaù

The maxim of catching a straw.

As a ship-wrecked personlin making5sSruggles for saving his life, catches hold of an even a straw that he comes across (if he cannot get any ting thing more solid) though quite in vain, so a person in course of a debate, when he fails to gain his point by a strong argSment, takes recourse to a frivolous one, and thus becomes only a butt of ridicule.

91. küpakhänakanyäyaù

The maxim of digging a well. The object of the maxim is to denote that as in course 8f digg1ng a well the body of the worker becomes soil d withlthe dust, clay, etc., bit these may be washed off again with the water of that well, so the sins committed by one at first may be removed by the merits of the virtous acts done by him afterwards.

92. küpanyäyaù

The maxim of a well.

There is water in the well, but it cannot be obtained without the help of a jar and a rop(, so the Shas2ias are store-houses of knowledge no doubt, but they are inaccessible to those that are ignorant.

93. küpayantraghaöényäyaù

The maxim of the buckets attached to the water-wheel.

It takes its origin from the fact that while some of the buckets filled with water go up, some are emptied of their contents, while others go down quite empty. et is used to denote the various vicissitudes of worldly existence.

94. küpamaëòükanyäyaù

The maxim of a frog in a well.

The maxim is supposed to originate thus: One day a sea frog came upon the shore.Pümceeding onwards for a time it came at last to a well and accidentally fell into it. There lived a frog in that well, on seeing the st1anger it came up and held the following conversation: The second frog:”Where do you come from?” first:”I came from the sea I live in.” second:”How big is a sea?” first:”Very big.” second:”As big as my thigh.” first:”Bigger than that.” second:”As iig as my both the thighs together.” first:”Bigger still. second:”Certainly not bigger than this well?” first:”The sea is, my friend, much bigger than this well. It is a vast expanse of water, and a5pears tL have no limit.” Hearing this the frog in the well laughed at the sea frog, and said that it was a lie. There could not be anything bigger than this well. It is used to denote that a man of limited ideas, having experience only of his owp neighbourhood cannot make himself believe that there can be anything better than what he himself knows.

95. kürmäìganyäyaù

The maxim of the movement of the limbs of a tortoise.

It originates from the fact that a tortoise projects its limbs, iÄe., its legs and neck, when it has to serve any purpose, and again it draws them in, when that purpose is served, or any danger is apprehended. It is used to denote th1t a sensible person will like a tortoise make an exhibition of his power only when there is an opportunity or necessity for it.

96. kåtväcintänyäyaù

The maxim of doing an act after due consideration.

A sensible man will think twice before he undertakes to do anything. But to do something in hot haste and then to consider the propriety or otherwise about it, is the sign of foolishness.

97. kaimutikanyäyaù

The maxim of “how much more”.

This maxim is applied to cases where it is unnecessary to do any labour, if the0object may be gained without any labour whatsoever.

98. koñaäänanyäyaù

The maxim of drinking water.

It thus originates that a man guilty of theft or some such crime is given to drink a quantity of water sanctified by means of mantra. If in the course of a fortnight he gets no attack of any disease that would go to prove his innocence, but if he becomes unwell any way, that would go to show that he is guilty. This maxim is used in the cases of ordeals.

99. kauëòinyanyäyaù The maxim of Kaundinya.

This maxim has its origin in the following story. There was a Brahman named Kaundinya. On the occasion of a feast in which many Brahmansrwere invited, curdled milk was served cut to all except Kaundinya for whom ghol (a species of that milk) was provided for. t is used to denote “Exception proves the rule.”

100. kaunteyarädheyanyäyaù

The maxim of Radheya.

It has its origin in the fact that Karna, a hero of the Mahabharat, was in reality the son of Kunti, but as he was brought up from his infancy by a carpenter-woman named Radha, he wap o3dinarily called Radheya. This maxim is ap2lied to the cases in which a fictitious appellation gets currency in sutpre6sion of the real one.

101. khalväöabilvéyanyäyaù

The maxim of a bald-headed man and the Bilva fruit.

It takes its origin from the story that one day at noon a bald-heaned man, tired of the excessive heat of the sun, took shelter under the shadow of a Bilva tree. Unfortunately for the man a ripo Bilva fruit fell down and struck him severely on the head. In is used to denote that an unfortunate man is pursued by the evil fate wherever he goes.

102. khalamaitrényäyaù

The maxim of the friendship of a Villain.

It has its originin in the fact that a Villain is at first very profuse in the profession of his friendship. But as time rolls on its intensity gradually diminishes. It is used tb denote that the friendship of a mischievous villain is as unreliable as a bund of sand.

103. khal-kapo1anyäyaù

The maxim of the barn of corn and the pigeons. As all kinds of pigeons, young and old, go flying into a barn and help themselves to the corn therein to their hearts’ content, so this maxim is used to denote that all kinds of men repair to a great man’s place to fulfil their own respective ends.

104. khadakaghälakanyäyaù

The maxim of the eater and the eatable.

It is used to fenpte that there can be no friendly relation between one that eats and the thing that is eaten. If there be any such relation ever it invariably ends in misery and troubles.

105. gajaghaàöänyäyaù

The maxim of an assemblage of elephant.

This maxim is used in discribing any pagentry.

106. gajabhuktvakapitthanyäyaù

The maxim of a wood-apple eaten by an elephant.

It takes its origin from the fact that a wood-apple eaten by an elephant is execreted apparently quite unchanged though in fact its contents have all been digested and it has become quite empty. It is used to denote the internal worthless state of a thing though externally it looks all right.

107. gaòulikäpravahanyäyaù

The maxim of a continous current. ahis maxim takes its origin fr(0 the fact that in c flock of sheep, if one accidentally slips into a well, the rest will also fall in that well. It is used to denote the tendency of(blindly following others without pa?sing to think whether the course is right or wrong.

108. gaëapatinyäyaù The maxim of Ganapati.

This maxim has its origin in the custom of worshipping Ganapati first on the oclasion of the worship of the gods and whoever they may be and is used to denote the first place to be assigned or the highest respect to be shown to a person who deserves it.

109. gatänugatikolokaitinyäyaù

The maxim of a blind follower.

This maxim is used to signify the2tendency of imitation prevailing in men. When any fs hion beco5es current many would follow it without any judgement as to its propriety or importance.

110. gardabharomagaëananyäyaù

The maxim of mhe t7r ofntTe asses.

The fur of the asses is unholy and so it is useless to shear these animals. It is used to denote an unprofitable undertaking in which one’may be engaged.

111. galepädukänyäyaù

The maxim of wearing shoes or sRndals in the neck.

This maxim is used in reference to any absurd or preposterous thing.

112. gaganaromanthanyäyaù

The maxim of chewing the end in the air.

The maxim is used to denote impracticability)ofnanp2ab9ird attempt like tha remaining suspended in the air of the froth from the mouth of a cow as it is chewing the end.

113. guòajih?ikänyäyaù

The maxim of the Molasses and the Nimba (a kind of bitter fruit).

The maxim takes its origin from the fact that when it is necessary for a child to use Nimba fruit, he is at first given some molasses to taste and then he can eat the nimba fruit. IR is used )o denote when one feels reluctant to do a thing on account of its very seeming difficult or which is uninteresting to him, he is first given some easy and congen al task to preapare him gradually for the difficult task.

114. guëopasaàhäranyäyaù

The maxim of collectiny or gathering virtues.

This maxim is used in overlooking the faults or defects and observing and gatiering merits in others.

115. gåhärthamäropitasya dépasyetinyäyaù

The maxim of the lamp placed over the threshold.

It takes its origin from a lamp hanging over the threshold of a house, which, by its pe7uliar rosition, serves to&light both the house and the path leading to it. It is used to denote something which serkes a two-fold purpose at the same time.

116. govalévardanyäyaù

The maxim of a bull-cow.

The origin of the maxim lies in this that the word cow strictly signifies both a male cow and a female cow; but ordinarily it is used in the sense of a female cow; and a different word “bull” is used to mean a male cow. It is used to denote that the ordinary acceptance of a word is not always what it strictly or derivatively signifies.

117. gokñéraàçvadantairdhåtamitinyäyaù

The maxim of the cow-milk being touched by a dog’s teeth.

It takes its origin from the cow-milk; a pure thing, getting polluted by the touch of a dog’s teeth. It is used to denote that a good and holy thing becomes corrupted and unholy by coming in contact with something that is bad and impure.

118. gomahiñyädinyäyaù

The maxim of the cow, buffalo, etc.

The maxim has its origin in this that the cows give milk, as well as the buffalos give milk, but there is a vast difference in the quality of these two kinds of milk. It is used to denote that the individual objects falling under one general class are not alike in every respect but have many peculiarities especial only to them. h19. praharäçibhedananyäyaù

The maxim of "he planets and their movement in the Zodiac.

As the movements of the plpnets and the Zodiac are not easily comprehensible this maxim is applicable to the c9rcumstances in which eyes fall prey to the illusions of sight

120. ghaööakuöéprabhätanyäyaù

The maxim of(the octroi house in the morning.

The maxim has its origins in the story that one night a passengeE with a view to avoid payment of sctroi duty proceeded to his destination by a different way. But he walked throughout the whole night, and to hi& grest sur(rise found himself just before the octroi house when it was morning. It is used to denote that there is no avoiding the payment of the dues. They must be satisfied sooher or liter.

121. ghaöapradépanyäyaù

The maxim of a lamp in a jar.

The maxim takes its origin from the fact that if a lamp is placed in a jar, it will light only the inside of the jar and nothing else; and is used to denote that bright inteligence, if confined to a private place can be of no use to others

122. ghuëäkñaranyuyaù

The maxim of letters bored by an insect in wood. It takes its origin from the unexpected and chance resemblance of an incision in wood, or in the leaf of a book, made by an insect to the form of some letter. It is used to denote any fortuitous or chance occurence.

123. cakr?maëanyäyaù

The maxim of a wheel in motion.

It takes its origin from the fact that a wheel will continue to be in motion, so lSng as the force which imparted motion to it rFmains unspent. It is used to denote that all kinds of movement, whether social, rel9gious, oh polit)cal, remain in active state, so long as the prime movers can kee1 up their energy.

124. caturvedavinnyäukù

The maxim of one yell versed in all the four Vedas.

It takes its origin from the stary that a9 ignorant and unlettered man heard that the possesion of 2he knowledge of the four Vedas has the effect of procuring wealth. H9aring this he wpnt on proclaimin” himself fully conversant with the Vedas. But unhappily for him he got no gold, on the otLeh hand he Aecame a laughing stock of all wherever he went. It is used to denote that by fa5se representation no one can gain an5 honour, rather thereby he lowers himself in the estimation of others.

125. campakapaöaväsyanyäyaù the maxim of the Champaka f ower in the cloth.

The champaka flower leaves its fragrance in the pieMe of cloth in which it is kept, even after the flower is taken away. The maxim is used to denote that the virtues of a man continue to exercise their genial influence upon others even after the man hes departed frnm this world.

126. candracandrikänyäyaù

The maxim of the moon and her pustre.

The maxim originates from the inseparable connection between the moon and her pleasing2lustre, and is used to denote that whereTthere is cause there is effect. 127. canòälabrähmaëanyäyaù

The maxim of a Brahman and a chandal (a man of the lowest and most despised class.)

A Brahmin by his wicked conduct becomes as low and despicable as a Chandal, but he is not thereby changed into a Chandal provided the blood and the seed of which he was born were pure. This maxim is used to denote that unworthy use maé bring a thing into disrepute, but will never change its nature.

128. citrapaöanyäyaù

The maxim of a painting.

It originates from the fact that the value of a picture consists only in pleasing the eyes, and is used to denote the worthlessness of a person who possesses only personal elegance and no other merits.

129. citrämåtanyäyaù

The maxim of the word nectar.

It takes its origin from the impossibility on the part of one of satisfying his desire for nectar merely by writing or reading the word (nectar), and is used to denote that it would be useless to try to get a thing from a quarter from which it can never be expected.

130. citräìganänyäyaù

This maxim shows that an unreal thing can never stand for a real one however great efforts may be made to make it perfect.

131. citrälänanyäyaù

The maxim of the picture of a post.

No elephant can be fastened to a post drawn in a picture. The maxim is used to denote the worhthlessness of a thing that is good only for representation and for nothing else. 132. ciìtamanià parityajya käcamäëigrahaëanyäyaù

The maxim of accepting glass in preference to chintamani (a kind of precious jewel.)

The maxim is used to denote that as it is foolish to prefer glass to chintamani which is very precious, so it is likewise an act of foolishness on the part of a man to consider an object valuable led away onlR by its outward charm. Cf. “All is not gold that glitters.”

133. cauräparädhänmäëòavyanigrahanyäyaù

The maxim of Rishi MandavyaAbeing punished for theft.

The maxim takes its origin from the story that one day a thief commited theft in a Raja’s house and being pur&ued by the police ran away leaving the goods where Mandhavya Rishi was engaged in devotion. The police came up there and arrested the Rishi ane 5ook him to court. The Rishi was punished for theft. It is used to denote that sometimes honest and i7nocent men have 6o suffer the consequences of the wicked conduct of villainous men.

134. chatrinyäyaù

The maxim of the persons with umbrella.

The maxim originates arom a number of persons walking along a road with their umbrellas spread overhead. There may be a master and his retinues in that number, but to an onlooker they are all known by the same designation viz., the per2ons wi5h umbrellas. It is used to denote that things are not always what they seem.

135. jalatumbikänyäyaù

The maxim of a gourd on the water.

It takes its origin from the fact of the gourd not sinkitg down when thrown into water. It denotes that a light-minded person ’annot dive deep into a matter he may be called upon to be engaged in. 136. jalamanthananyäyaù

The maxim of churning water.

t takes i2s orig6n from the fact that to churn water would be pr6ductive of no good whatsoever, and is used to denote the fruitlessness of spending labour on a thing from which no good can result.

137. jalakatareëunyäyaù

The maxim of the muddy water.

The muddy water becomes clear and fit for drinking purposes when a fruit called nirmali is dipped into it. So the maxim is used to denote that a bad man becomes good and honest in the company ofsa good and honest man. Cf.company makes a man. n38. jalamåëälanyäyaù

The maxim of the lotus stalk.

It takesaits origin from the growth of the sta7k of a lotus with the increase of water in a taFk during the rains. Again when the dry season comes and the surface of the water begi(s to sink, the stalk of the lotus gets dry but it does not die away. Similarly when a great man or nation by the freaks of fortune is reduced to miserable condition he does not lose thereby his usual nobleness of mind.

139. jalänayananyäyaù

The maxim of “bring water”.

It takes its origin from the fact that when a man is asked to bring water he will get also the vesse6 containing water. It is used to denote that an unimpartant thing acquires importance when connected with an important thing.

140. jalaukänyäyaù

The maxim of a leech. It takes its origin from the fact that apleech will suck blood from the breast of a woman and not miln, just as a fly would not sit on any elegant part of the body where there is a sore. It denotes that a depraved man will mi6d not the virtues but the faults, in others.

141. jalauñëyanyäyaù

The maxim of the hot uater.

It takes its origin from the fact that water is naturally cold, but when heat is appl.ed its nature is changrd and pt becomes hot. Ia is used to denote that the nature of a person becomes altered by coming in contact with a person of different character.

142. jätipitånyäyaù

The maxim caste system and Pitris.

The Pitris are a class of celestial Beings: the nation that does not beleive the blessing and care of these Beings is sure to be extinct one day. According to the Hindu scriptures the followers of Varna and Ashram order receive such care and blessings and can therefore never die. This7maxim is used to show the indispensibleness of pomething.

143. jämätrarthak?sasyasüpasyätithyupakära katvamitinyäyaù

The maxim of thm son-ip-paw and the dish preapared for him.

The dal preapared for the son-in-law will come to the use of other guests that sit to dine with him. It is used to denote that a thing though primarily intended for one may come to the benefit of many others.

144. jïänäderniñkarñavaöutkarñipyaìgékäryaiti nyäyaù

The maxim of the lowest and the highest degree of knowledge.

The trees and plants possess the least amount of knowledge, on the other hand, God has it to the fullest amount. It is use6 tS denote that everything in this world has two extremities. 145. jïänivimänanyäyaù

The maxim of the wise and the air-boat.

It takes its origin fromthe fact that a man walking on the field can mark distinctly the height of a hill, the depth of a c,ve and the level surface of a plateau, but when he soars high up by means of an air-ship, these differences are not distinguishable to him; everything below then appears to him to bb of even surface. It 1s used to denote that the consideration of the distinction of high and low, great and small, good and bad, etc., ac0s pn a man so long as he is at the lowest step of the ladder of wisdom or knowledge, but when he reaches the hSghest step,oall the religious and sectarian differences vanish away. To himathen everything appears to be of equal importance.

146. jyotirnyäyaù

The maxim of light.

It arises from everything becoming visible when it is day. It is used to denote that ignorance2is darkness and knowledge is light.

147. öittibhanyäyaù

The maxim of the bird ti:xiva.

The maxim originates from the story that a bird called tittivaalived on the beach of a sea, one day the beach was washed away by a hu7e wave of the sea. The eggs which the bird lay in the nest were also washed away in consequence6 Engaged at this the bird resolvedoto laddle off the sea and began to throw away the water with its beak and also withMits wings, which it once dipped into the sea and then came up and shook them. Struck with wonder at the ?run detcrminetion of the bird the sea returned its eggs. It ispused to denote that all sorts of difficulties, however unsurmountable they may seem to be, melt away before firm determination. Cf.Labour surmounts every difficulty.

148. taëòulabhakñaëanyäyaù

The maxim of eating rice.

The maxim takes its origin from a particular kind of ordeal taken recourse to, for ascertaining the guilt of a man, some quantity white Satti rice is to be kept in an earthen pot containing water while it is day. The pot is to be allowed to remain in this state throughout the wholenight. In the morning the accused is to be made to eat rice first and then to disgorge it on the leaf of a peepal tree. If the beard of the man becomes red, and there be a splitting pain in the throat, and also a shivering comes upon the whole frame, then the guilt of the man is proved.

149. tatkratunyäyaù

The maxim of “The Sacrifice”.

This maxim is used to denote that one is sure to gain the object which he intenly thinks upon at all times.

150. tapaù svädhyäyatyägibrähmaëanyäyaù

The maxim of a Brahmin who has given up his Sandhya prayer and study of the Vedas.

The Brahmin who never says his prayer, and never reads the Vedas becomes fallen thereby. It is use, 1o denote that 3he non-performanee of the most essential duties of life makes one equite degraded.

1 1 . tadägamehiöåçyate

The maxim of the virtue which is aquired and not natural.

It takes its origin from the fact that the heated staee of ojl is 1ue to the action of the fire, therefore heat 5, not a property of the oil but of ahe fire1 It is used to denote thaj it is meaningless to assume an important air in consequence of the power derived from another. Such a man is a veTitabl2 jackdaw in borrowed feather.

152. tamaùprakäçanyäyaù

The maxim of the darkness dispelled.

It takes its origin from the fact that darkness is chafed away when it is daylight. It is Ksed to denote that the darkness of ignorance is removed by the acquisit3on of knowledge. 153. tadvismaraëebhekivaditinyäyaù

The maxim of a she-frog and the forgotten promise

It originated from the following story:

Once upon a time a Raja had a she-frog, under the condition that she would go away as soon as something would be shown her. The Raja forgot the condition, and showed her water one day. Thereupon the frog went away. It Ks used to denote that a promise once made must be fulfilled irrespective of the consideration of the position of the promise.

154. tama uööépananyäyaù

The maxim of lighting daykness.

It is foolishness to go out in search of darkness with a lamp in hand, for, darkness is nothing but absence of light. It is uied to express foolishness on the part of one to go to perform a thing by employing a mean which is unsuitabl1 for t1h purpose.

155. tälasarpanyäyaù

The maxim of the palm tree and a serpent.

A serpent dies if it climbs upon a palm tree. This maxim is used to denote foolishness of the doer of thing.

156. tantupaöanyäyaù

The maxim of thread and cloth.

It takes its origin from the opinion held by philosophers that the effect exists for a moment even when thepcause is destrgyed. Thread is the cause and cloth is the effect. The cloth exists momentarily even when the thread is destroyed.

157. taptaparaçugrahaëanyäyaù

The maxim of heated axe. When an axe is greatly heated it cannot be held in hand, and so nothing can be done with it. The maxim is used to denote that the means employed for the performance of a work must be such as may be easily used by the doer.

158. taptamäñavidhinyäyaù

The maxim of the heated gold.

It takes its origin,from an ordeal in which the guilt of an ac9used is ascertained by placing a small quantity of heated gold taking it out from a kettle full of boiling oil.

159. tavähamasminyäyaù

The maxim of I am yiurs.

This maxim is a proof of inward bhakti, and is employed in reference to the love and reverence for husband, for guru and for God.

160. tvaà mamäsinyäyaù

The maxim of “Thou art mine.”

This maxim indicating love and affection is used in connection with sons, daughters, wife, etc.

161. tiryagadhikaraëanyäyaù

The maxif of the bird’s nest.

The maxim takes its origin from the nests of birds being of no use to a man fo( the purpose of living in and is used to denote that in order that a thing may be serviceable, it must be employedain a way suited to its nature.

162. tilataëòulanyäyaä

The maxim of a sesamum seed and rice.

Rice is the food of theÇdevas or Gods, and til (sesamumpseed) of the ancestors (pitriloka). Both these being mixed together used in sacrifices.

163. tulonnamananyäyaù

The maxim of the balance.

It originates from the fact when one pan of the balances goes down the other rises up. It is used to denote that improvement to be properly called so must be all round, parti6l improvement is no improvement. This may be applied to the education of boys and youngmen.

164. tulyäyavyayanyäyaù

The maxim of equal income and eFxenditure.

The person whose receipts and disbursements are equal is neither rich nor poor, and is, on the whole, quite happy. cf.English proverb:Cut the coat according to aloth.

165. tuñyatudurjananyäyaù

The maxim of “Please the villain”.

This maxim is used in the cases in which it is thought advisable to sati7fy a mischievous man.

166. tuñyatvitinyäyaù

The Maxim of “please others.”

When the principle to be followed is to please others, then everything, whether right right or wrong, may be donep

16j . tåëajalaukänyäyaù

The maxim of “a caterpillar.

It takes its origin from the fact that a caterpiTlar does not leave the grass on which it sits until it ca7 get holdsof another. It is used to denote that it would be unwise on the part of a man to abandon the means he has in hand till another is secured. Cf A bird in hand is worth two in the bush.

168. tyäjyäöustaöinénadé

The maxim of “the river making erosion on the banks=”

Itttakes its origin from the advisability of leaving the6banes of a river which is constantly encroaching ufon the ba5ks. It is used to denote that it is unvise to put wit8 one tSat is dangerous in nature.

169. daëòacakranyäyaù

The maxim of the potter’s rod, wheeh and knife.

The rod, wheel , and knife of a potter are all the causes of an earthen jar. It is used in cases in which a certain effect follows from several causes together.

170. dagdhapaöanyäyaù

The maxim of the burpt cloth.

It takes its origin from the fact that a piece of cloth that is set on fire in a place where there is no air would look as all right even after the fire is extinguished, though in fact it has no substance in it. It is use’ to denote a thing which is in reality quite worthless, though from the outward appereance it seems to be all right.

171. dagdhabéjanyäyaù

The maxim of the burnt seed.

It takes its origin from the fact that thejseeds that have been burnt could not germinate if sown, and is used to denote that those souls would not have to come back again i7 s this life in whom Karma accruing from ignorance has been burnt down with the fire o8 knowledge.

172. dagdhendhanavahrinyäyaù

The maxim of “the burning fuel and the fire.” It takes its origin from the fire becoming extinguished when the fuel is completely burnt down, and is used to denote that a man of ability never stops to work till he has finished the task undertaken.

173. dagdharaçanänyäyaù

The maxim of the burnt cord.

A cord, twisted in three folds, after being burnt, would appear quite unchanged, though in fact it has then no substance in it. It is used to denote an unlettered fool who looks outwardly as a perfectly good man though in fact he has no worth whatever.

174. daëòasarpamäraëanyäyaù

The maxim of the stick and the serpent.

The maxim originates from good care to be taken in beating a serpent with a stick so that the serpent may be killed but at the same time the stick may not be broken, and it is used to denote that a clever man should conduct himself in such a way in performing a task that the object in view may be accomplished without any injury either to himself or to anybody else.

175. daëòäpüpikanyäyaù

The maxim of the stick and cakes.

When a stick and cakes are tied together, and one says that the stick has been pulled down, we are naturally led to expect that the cakes have also been pulled down, the two being so closely connected together. So when one thing is closely connected with another in a particular way, and we say something of the one, it naturally follows that what is asserted of the one can, as a matter of course, be asserted of the other.

176. dantaparékñänyäyaù

The maxim of “Examination of teeth”.

By the examination of teeth, the nature of a man can be ascertained.

177. dämavyälakaranyäyaù The maxim of Dam, Byal, Kar.

There was a named Sambar; by means of enchantment he created three rakshas named Dam, Byal, and Kar, who were so strong that they could reduce the mountain Meru to dust by their blows; but as they were deprived of the knowledge of truth they had to be born again after death as mosquitoes. It is used to denoteothat knowledge is more powerful than physical strenght.

178. dänaçünyakñatriyanyäyaù

The maxim of an uncharitable Kshatriya.

If a person of the Kshatriya caste has no inclination for practising charity, he makes his position thereby very shameful and blameworthy, and moreov2r he forfeits his claim to be called Kshatriya

179. deväsurasaàgrämanyäyaù

The maxim of “struggle between the Devas and .”

The maxim teaches that like the struggle between the Devas and Asuras mentioned in the Purans, a constant struggle is going on in the of men between the virtous and the vicious propensities.

180. dähakadähyanyäyaù

The maxim of the burner and the thing burnt.

The fire burning a piece of wood and reducing it to ashes would itself at last be transformed into ashes. It is used to denote that th7 harm done to another would recoil at last upon the doer.

181. dhrbalairapivädayante puruñäù pärthiväçritaiù

The maxim of the weak becoming powerful with the power o the King at his back.

The person in the employ of a king can lord over a most powerful man, though personally he may be very weak. 182. devadattahavtåhatanyäyaù

“The maxim Hf the killer of the Debadatta being killed.”

The man wso has killed another named, say, Debadatta, is killed again in his turn by a third person. It is used to denote that no man can be all-powerful. Every one has his superior.

183. devadattaputranyäyaù

The maxim of “the son of Deavadatta.”

The maxim is used to denote that the principal object of the life of a son should be to make the name and character of his father glorious and honourable.

184. dehalédépanyäyaù

The maxim of the lamp on the threshold.

It originates from the fact that a lamp placed over the threshold of a house would have the effect of lighting the house a swell as the approach leading to the house. It is used to denote something that serves two purposes at the same time.

185. dehädhämukhatvanyäyaù

The maxim of “the mouth being at the lower part of the body”.

This maxim is used to denote something quite impossible and absurd.

186. draviòapräëäyämanyäyaù

The maxim of “lengthened pranayama (regulation of breathing).”

The maxim takes its origin from the attempt made to catch hold of the nose by soving1the hand round the hSad; and is used to denot8 the making a matter more difficult than what it ordinarily is.

187. dharärohaëanyäyaù The maxim of weighing on a balance.

Inpproof of a guilty or non-guilty, one who swears is placed upon a pan ofea balance recitingpsone mantras. If the person becomes hSavier he is supposed to be non-guilty, if equal or less he is considered as Auilty. This maxim is used in ascertaining guilty or non-guilty of persons.

188. dharmavasantägamanyäyaù

The maxim of virtue and advent of the spring.

It takes its origin from the nature assuming a charming appereance with new leaves and flowers when the spring sets in, and sipilarly the possession of virtue bringing wealth and5happiness in its train. It is used to denote the importance of virtue.

189. dharmikalpanänyäyaù

The maxim of “property and the thing posssessing it.”

The name of a certain property signifies the thing which possesses that property.

190. dharmakalpanänyäyaù

The maxim of “the thing and its property.”

The name of the thing connotes the property or properties formiag the essence of that thing.

191. dhänyapalälanyäyaù

The maxim of “the paddy and the straw.”

It originates from the fact that the paddy seed sown in a field from which weeds have not been carefully rooted out will in the long run outgrow the grass, and is used to denote that seed of wisdom and piety are sure to germinate even if sown in a mind not properly cultivated and preapared.

192. naöäìganänyäyaù The maxim of “a hero and heroinnH”

It takes its origin from the conversation between a hero and a heroine on a theatrical stage in course of whrc5 the0hero asks the heroine whose wife she is, and she says in reply that she is his wife, and is usedato denote that the theatrical relation is false, its usefulness being only to aroduce a temporary and musing effect. Man)s life is alsp a stage of theatre, and its connection with others in various kinds of relationship is therefore nothing but an illusion.

193. nañöäçvadagdharathanyäyaù

The maxim of “the destroyep carriage and horse.”

It takes its origin from the story that one day two persons went out in their own respective carriages. In the way their carriages accidentally caught fire. The consenquence was that the carriage of one and the horse of the other were destroyed. At last by mutual agreement they got one carriage ready with what remained of their carriages, and they returned home by that carriage. It is used to denote that by united efforts we can make up our individual wants. Cf.Union is strenght.

194. nahi kaìkaëasya darçanäyädarçäpekñetinyäyaù

The maxim of “a bracelet and a mirror.”

It takes its origin from the fact that there is absolutely no necessity of looking-glass for seeing the appereance of a bracelet worn on the wrist as it is easily visible to the eye, and is used to denote that a medium is quite unnecessary for doing a thing that can easily be perfopmed directly by one’s own efforts.

195. nahi ?ñöe ‘nupapannaà nämetinyäyaù

The maxim of “the thing seen requiring no proof.”

A thing which has been seen by one with his own eyes requires no proof to convince him of its existence, etc. It is used to signify that the direct knowledge of a thing is superior to a second hand one.

196. nahi nindä nindituà pravartate itinyäyaù The maxim of blaming.

It signifies that blame is directed to a thing that deserves,it buf n t to the act of blaming.

197. nahi varavighätäya kanyodväha itinyäya0

The maxim of a bride’s marriage being intended not for killing the bridegroom.

A man gives his daughter in marriage not for bringing about the end of the son-in-las but that they may live in happiness and comfort to a good old age. It signifies that happinesss Rnd not sorrow is the end and aim of life of everyone.

198. nahi yatijïämätreëa arçasiddhiritinyäyaù

The maxim ofhpromise and the success in an attempt.

It sigFifdeS that mere words ofFmouth cannot secure success in anything, earnAst ef3orts are indispensably necessary for the purpose.

199. nahi bhikñuko bhikñukamitinyäyaù

The maxim of a poor man’s begging, not of l beggar.

It takes its origin from the fact of a beggar’s not asking alms of another beggar. He would invariably go to one in affluence for the satisfaction of his wants. It is used to denote the tendency of human nature to seek help from the quarter where it may be reasonably expected.

200. nahi vivähänantaraà varaparékñä kriyata itinyäyaù

The maxim of examining a bridegroom after marriage.

It takes its origin from the uselessness of minu ely observing a brddegroom after the marriage is over. This should be done before. It is used to denote that the consideration of propriety or otherwise of a course should be carefully made before it is adopted. After thought in this concern is of no use whatever. 201. nahi suçékñëäpyasidhärä svayamevacchetumähitavyäpärä bhavatétinyäyaù

The maxim of a keen sword.

It takes its origin from the fact that a sword, however, keen it may be, would not cut an object unless it is wielded by some body. It denote8 that1mere possession5of a good thing produces no good, but there must(be some one properly qualified to make good use of it. t02 . çahi suçikñitopi vaöuù svaskaàadhamä re?òhuà paöuù

The maxim of a highly educated youXgmen not being able to mount upon his own shoulder.

It denotes that an impossible and impracticable thing cannot be affected by any one however highly qualified he may be just as a youngman though very learned and wise cannot get upon his own shoulder when1he is asked to do so.

203. nägoñöranyäyaù

The maxim of a serpent and a camel.

It takes its origin from a serpent which was killed for saving the life of a camel that was attacked by that serpent; and is used to denote that doing of an injury to another may be excused provided it be for effecting a very useful end.

204. näjïätaviçeñaëabuddhirviçeñyaà saàkrämatétinyäyaù

The maxim of the Adjective and 9te Noun.

The sense of the adjective cannot be comprehended so long as the sense of the noun it qualifies is realised. Or, the meaning of the adjective depends upon that of the noun. It denotes tha, knowl6dge of the pri3cipal part must first be acquired and then the subsidiary parts may be understood in their proper light.

205. nänyaöåñöe smaratyanya iti nyäyaù

The maxim of thg memory and a thing.

A thing to be borne in mind must be witnessed by one with his own eye and not with eye of another person.

206. närikelaphalämbsmyäyaù

The maxim of thl cocoanut-water.

It takes its origin from the difficulty of explaining how water could exist inside a cocoanut fruit; and is used to denote that it is not in the power of man to understand clearly the kind ways of providence.

207. nimnagäpravähanyäyaù

The maxim of the current of water.

It originates from the fact that the water of a stream always floYs downwards; and is used to denote that the thoughts of an ignorant person has a downward tendency.

208. nérakñéranyäyaù

The maxim of the milk mixed with water.

It takes its origin from the fact that when a goose is made to drink milk mixed w)th water it will take only the milk and a leave the water behind; and is used to denote that in judging of another a truly wise man will sift out his merits, and would leave the defects in 6im out of consideration.

209. nélendévara nyäyaù

The maxim of a blue lotus.

The maxim is applied in the cases of varieties just as a Nlue lo(us is a very rare thing.

210. nåpanäpitaputra nyäyaù

The maxim of the King apd Barber’s son.

It is used to denote a man’s natural fondness for his own possesion however ug6y or despicable it may be in the eyes of others. It takes its origin from a story which states that a king on one occasion asked his barber to bring to him the finest boy that he could find in his kingdom. The barber roamed for a long timeuover ev5ry part of the realm, but could get no boy such as the king wanted. At last wearied and dis1apointed he returned home, and being charmed with the beauty of his own boy, who was in fact the personification of ugliness and deformity, went to 8he king and presented the boy to him. The king was at first very angry with the barber for having trifled with him, but on consideration excusod him, as he ascribed the barber’s preference of his own ugly boy to the dominant desire of human beings to consider their own possessions as supremely good.

211. naunävika nyäyaù

The maxWm of the boat and tfe boatmanp

It takes its origin from the fact that a boat cannot be steered without the help of th9 boatman, and is used to denote that no act, great or small, can be performhd w1thout the guidance of the principal head.

212. païcakoñävaraëanyäyaù

The maxim of the five or vestures (sheats or cases) which successively make the body.

It is 1sed to denote that what apparently seems imposible may turn out possible, just as the soul resides in the sheaths or cases () that enshrine it, nevertheless it i0 not attached to any of these vestures.

213. païjaramrñtapakñinyäyaù

The maxim of the bird out of the cage.

It is used to den,te the flight of the soul when the trammel of the body is loosened aft6r the death, just as 6 bird in a cage flies away in the air if it can get out of the cage anyhow.

214. patantamanudhävato baddhopi gata iti nyäyaù

The maxim of the fowler and the bArds.

It originates from the story of a fowler running after a bird that escaped from his trap to find to his great sorrow on his return that the birds which were caught (efore had al,o fled away meanwhile. Cf. The Eng. proveab A bird in hand is worth two in the bush. 215. patiàvaränyäyaù

The maxim of a girl making a selection of her husband.

In a choice-marriage An phich choice of the husband is maCe by the bride herself, the bride would elect a husband who is most deserving. It denotes the tendency of human nature for what is best.

216. padamapyadhikäbhäväditi nyäyaù

The maxim of a part being preferable if not the whole.

If the whole of a thing be not available, one should be readl fo bv contented with only a part. Cf. The Eng. proverb:”Something is better than nothing.”

217. parähëacchäyänyäyaù

The maxim of the afternoon-shade.

The maxim denotes that the power and influence assumed at the fag-end of life may be enjoyed only for a short time just as the shade of a tree in the afternoon is very short-lived.

218. parvatädhityakänyäyaù

The maxim of a table-land.

The maxim takes its origin from the fact that a level tract of land at the top of a mountain appears from a distance to be not very far off, but in fact it is very difficult and troublesome to go there; and is used to denote those happy prospects which from a distance looks very fascinating, but their attainment costs much pain and trouble.

219. parvatopatyakänyäyaù

The maxim of a valley.

It denotes that giong downward is very easy, just as going down hill to a valley does not cost much trouble. 220. paraçugrahaëanyäyaù

The maxim of raising the axe.

It is used in connexion with infliction of heavy punishment for a trifling offence.

221. päriñadanyäyaù

The maxim of a member of a community.

If a member of a community dies, his work becomes divided amoung the rest so that the work does not suffer, and is used to signify that a work for the performance of which many hands are engaged does not suffer even if any one among workers dies or leaves the work.

222. päñäëeñöikänyäyaù

The maxim of stone and brick.

It is used to signify something done with the united efforts of all kinds of persons, great and small, just as a house is built with the help of stone a big thing, and brick a small thing.

223. piëòaà hitvä karaà leòhi

The maxim of licking the hand letting the morsel fall off.

It is used to signify a foolish attempt, just as it is foolishness to lick the hand after letting fall the morsel.

224. piñöapeñaëanyäyaù

The maxim of grinding flour.

It is used to denote a superfluous or unprofitable exertion like the attempt of a man to grind pounded flour. Cf. It is of no use to go to do a thing which has already been done.

225. putralipsayä devaà bhajantyä bhartäpi vinañöa iti nyäyaù

The maxim of a prayer for a son and the loss of the husband.

It takes its ori&in for a story that a certain woman worshipped a god with a view of being blessed witha son, unfortunately it so happened that she lost her husbanp. It is used to denote the loss of the cÄuse while the effect is earnestly wished for. It is used to denote the absurdity of a wish or desire.

226. praöuñöalaguòanyäyaù

The maxim of a big mace.

It takes its origin frop the fact that ignorant fools, lik7 beasts, are intractable, and can be managed only by means of strong rods. It is used to denote that stringent measures a,e required to be adopted for controlling those that are easily unmanageable.

227. puàçvalésatényäyaù

The maxim of the unchaste and the chastex

It is used to signify the contradictory qualities, just as the characters of the unchaste and the chaste women ars opposed to each other.

228. pürvätearabaléyastvanyäyaù

The mdxim of the thing coming after being stronger in force than that going befare.

It is used when superiority or inferiority betwetn two things is a pfint of consideration.

229. prakalpyacäpavädaviñayaà tata utsarg?bhiïiviçate

The maxim of the general and the special.

The application of the general holds true everywhere except the cases coming under the special, similarly the subord1nate are to exercise thei0 power in the places that are not within the province of the superior.

230. prakäçäçrayanyäyaù

The maxim of the light.

It is used to denote that ignorance or fear is removed from where there is knowledge or wisdom, just as darkness is chased away from the place when there is light.

231. prakåtipratyayärçayoù pratyayärçasya pradhänatvamiti nyäyaù

The maxim of the root and the suffix.

The meaning of a word or a root depends upon that of the suffix for completion of sense. It is applied in cases in which the question of the superiority or inferiority is to be decided.

232. paìkaprakñälananyäyaù

The maxim of washing off the mud.

Just as it is more advisable for one to avoid getting Ento mud than to go into it and then wash it off, so it is more advisable fyr one to aviod getting into danger than to expose oneself to it and then to try to get out of it somehow or other. Cf.Prevention is better than cure.

233. pratyakñe kimanumänam

The maxim of inference.

This maxim is used to indicate that it is utterly useless to make an inference about a thing or to call for any proof about it when it is visible or present before the eye.

234. prajäçoñakaräjanyäyaù

The maxim of a tyrant king.

It takes its origin from the fact that it is the duty of a worthy king to do everything in his power to secure the comforts and happiness of his subjects. It is used to indicate worthlessness of a king who seeks his own interest at the cost of that of his subjects.

235. pradhänamallanirvahaëanyäyaù

The maxim of defeating the leader of the wrestlers.

It is applied in which one, having many adversaries to encounter, has to seek out the chief and give him a crushing defeat, and then he has not to care for others.

236. prayojanamanuddiçyamando ‘pi na pravartate

The maxim of not doing a thing uncalled for.

It signifies that even an ignorant fool will not stir him about doing a thing which he is not required to do.

237. päö?arayämikanyäyaù lhe maxim of a guard and a thief.

This maxim takeP its origin from the story of a guard attached a richman’s house waking up from sleep after the thief, who committed theft in the house, made good his escape. It is used to indicate the vain alertness of one after the opportunity for doing his duty has slipped away.

238. präsädaväsinyäyaù

The maxim of dweller in mansion.

Whoever occupies a mansion will be called a dweller in it, whether he lives in the gr8und1floor or in the upper flat. This maxim is used to signify the ownership of a person over a thing whether he enjoys it exclusively ol partially.

239. pradépe pradépaà prajvälya tamonäçäya

The maxim of a candle under a candle.

It takes origin from ph, attempt of chasing the darkness under a lamp by lighting a second lamp which again hastdarkness undsrneath it, and again to chase that darkness another lamp is lighted, and so on, and is used to iadicate that efforts made for effecting what is impracticable always prove to be fruitless.

240. phalavatsahakäranyäyaù

The maxim of a mango tree wSth fruits on.

The maxi1 indicates the advisability of taking a:shelter with a truly grat man, just as it is aSvisable to take shelter under a mango tree that supplies, quite unasked, fruits and shadow to a Teary ,ay-farer.

241. bakaäandhananyäyaù

The maxim ou catching a heron.

The maxim takes its origin from the fact that a fowler aerivesKno advantage by catching a heron as it has very small flesh in its body and indicates the impropriety of causing unnecessary harm to any one.

242. badhiraGçhrNaçäpatyäyaù

The naxim of mhishering to the deaf.

This maxim indicates a vain attempt of a man to do a useless thing like whispering a word to one who is absolutely short of hearing.

24m. bahucchidraghaöanyäyaù

The maxim of a pot having many holes.

This maxim denotes the unprofitableness of impasting instructions to one destitute of capacities to retain them, just as a pot having (oles cannot contain the water poured into it.

244. bahuvåkäkåñöamåganyäyaù

The maxim of a deer being attacked by many wolves.

It denotes the certainty of defeat of a person, however strong he may be, when attacked simultaneously on all sides by many enemies, as a deer attacked by many wolves at the same time is sure to be killed by them.

245. bahuräjakapuranyäyaù The maxim of a city of many kings.

It is used to denote the total mismanagement of an affair in which there are all to lead and none to follow.

246. bahünämanugrahonyäyaù

The maxim of favour received from many.

This maxim suggests the fortunate condition of a man when he is in receipt of favour from his numerous wriends and patrons.

247. brähmaëaparivräjakanyäyaù

The maxim of the Brahmin hermit.

It takes its origin from a Brahmin becoming a hermit is quite in accordance with the rules of the Varnashram Dharma, and is used to denote something which carries twofold senses at the same time.

248. brahmaiva brahmadänamitinyäyaù

The maxim of giving away Brahma in charity.

It takes its origin from the Vedas bein( known as Brahman, and is used to denote the superiority of free teaching over all other charitable acts.

249. bilavartigodhävibhajananyäyaù

The maxim of the alligator in thehhole.

It is used to denote the troubles o7 a difficult undertaking as the drawing rf an alligator out of its hole is always found to be very difficult task.

250. bilvakhalväöanyäyaù

The maxim of a bald-headed man under a Bilva tree.

The maxim has its origin in the story of a bald-headed man having his skull broken by the fall of bilva fruit as soon as he took shelter under the tree, and is used to denote an accidental happening.

251. béjavåkñanyäyaù

The maxim of seed and sprout.

It takes its origin from the relation of mutual causation which subsists between seed and sprout, seed ieing the cause of sprout, which in its turn is the cause of seed. It is used in those cases in which two things stand to each other in the relation of both cause and effect.

252. brähmaëaçramaëanyäyaù

The maxim of Brahmana-Shraman.

See the maxim of Brahmana hermit. No. 247, supra.

253. vaiçya?ttikaräjanyäyaù

The maxim of a merchant-king.

The maxim takes its origin from the fact that buying and selling, etc, are the functions of a merchant and are quite unsuitable, nay blame worthy, for a king and is used to denote any unworthy undertaking.

254. örähmaëavaçiñöhanyäyaù

The maxDm of Brahmana Bashistha.

It takes its origin from the fact that as Bashistha was a Brahmana, the word Brahman suggests the idea of Bashistha too, yet Bashistha is specially named only to add to his importance. It is used to denote the special importance of a person over others of his class.

255. brähmaëagrämanyäyaù

The maxim of tse Brahmin Village.

The fact of a village in which the Brahmins form the majority of dwellers, going by the name of a Brahmin village has given rise to this maxim. It is used to denote that a thing is known by the name of its predominating element.

256. bhakñitepi laçune na çän?o vyädhiù

The maxim of garlic and ilness.

It takes its origin from one’s eating garlic, an unholy and prohibited thing, as a remedy of an ilness, but unforunately the ilness is not thereby remedied; and is used to denote the regrettable condition of one who does an unworthy act to gain an end, though u8happily the end is not gained thereby.

257. bharkñunyäyaù

The maxim of ehwrkshu.

It takes its origin from a story that a certain king had a minister named Bharkshu, whom he sent on an expedition against an enemy across the sea. Bharkshu defeated the enemy and himself became the king of that country, meanwhile a rumour was spread that Barkshu was dead Beleiving the rumour to be true, the king appointed another person in place of Barkshu, but to his utter surprise Bharkshu made his appereance after a few days. The maxim is used to indicate the impropriety of doing any thing in hot haste and without due circumspection.

258. bhäva ‘dhänamäkhyätamiti nyäyaù hhe maxim of the import (of a thing).

It is used to signify the superiority of import or sen,e of a thing over anything else that it has.

259. bhämatényäyaù

The maxim of fire.

This maxim takes its origin from the fact that fire has the attributes of burning, cooking and removing darkness and is used to denote that various =inds of qualities may be possessed by one and the same man.

260. bhikñupädaprasäraëanyäyaù

The maxim of the beggar gradually extending his legs.

It takes its origin from a story that one day a beggar went to a rich man’s house. Thinking that his object would not be gained if he were to make a clean breast of his wants all at once, he first begged permission to sit, and then little by little had everything that he needed. It is used to denote cleverness on the part of one in dealing with a person who is very unc7aritable and close fisted.

261. bhikñubhiyaù sthälyanadhiçrayaëanyäyaù

The maxim of not cooking food for fear o” a beggar.

This maxim is used to signify the misealines1of a person as he refrains from cooking his food in the presence of a beggar lest the l,ttersshould beg for a share.

262. bhüdevabrähmaëanyäyaù

The maxim of Bhudev Brahmin.

It takes its origin from a king being loved and honoured by ais subjects, whereas a Brahmin, the seer of truth and the knower of Brapman, is Bhudeva or king of the whole eart8, loved and honoured as he is everywhere. It is used to denote the importance of knowledge.

263. bhémabhäsattaòhanyäyaù

The maxim of rapid rise.

This maxim is used to signify that a person who prospers in life rather too rapidly has surely to suffer fall soon again.

264. bhüliìgapakñinyäyaù

The maxim of the bird named Bhulinga.

This maxim takes its origin from the fact that this bird gathers bits of flesh from the jaws of lion, and is used to denote extra-ordinary courage.

265. bhüçaityauñëyanyäyaù

The maxim of eartR being cold or hot.

This maxim originates from the fact that earth becomes cold by coming in contact with water whose property is coldness, and again becomes hot by coming in contact with light whose chief property is heat, and is used to indicate the effects of a company that exerts a part influence upon the character of a person.

266. bhramaranyäyaù

The maxim of the black bee.

This maxim is used to indicate the nature of the truly wise men who always take note of the merits in others just as the black bees always drink only honey and no other kind of juice from the flowers.

267. bhairavanyäyaù

The maxim of Bhairab.

It takes its origin from a story which runs as follows: Once there was a Brahmin named Bhairaba who grew very conceited on account of the honour and respects he received at the hands of the king. The foolish Brahmin forgot his position and quarrelled with the ministers of the king, who enraged at his conduct, prevented his admission into the royal court, and told the king meanwhile that the Brahmin was dead. After some time, one day when the king went out a hunting, the Brahmin got upon a tree and spoke to the king that he was Bhairab and begged for an interview with the king; but the king taking him for an evil spirit refused his prayer. It is used to teach that no one should be too much inflated with prosperity to forget his position and to conduct himself in an unbecoming way; for, by so doing he would be doing himself a positive and unretrievable harm.

268. makñikänyäyaù

The maxim of the fly.

It is used to denote the fault finding spirit of ill-natured men, who may be likened to the fl0es that are always in search of wounds and ulcers9even on the most beatiful body.

269. maj?nonmajjananyäyaù

The maxim of immetsing and emerging.

It takes its origin from a person, ignorant of the art of swimming, now im7ersing into, and now coming on the surface of the water, when he happens to fall into a river; and is used thedenote the struggling condition in which one finds himself when he is required by circumstances to deal with a mattereover which he has no mastery.

270. maëòükatolananyäyaù

The maxim of weighing a frog.

Just as it is very dif9icult to make a frog remain steady on a balance with a view to ascertain its weight, so it is equally difficult to keep a fickle nature steadily employed in any pursuit.

271. maëòükaplutinyäyaù

The maxim of the frog moving by jumps.

It isLused to denote the movement by fits and starts of fickle natured men like t8e movement of fro2s.

272. matsyakaëöakanyäyaù

The maxim of fish and its bone.

It originates from the fact that when a fish is caught, it is caught wits its bone, but when eating, only its flesh is retained, and bone is thrown out. It is used to denote the policy of a truly wise man who would observe everything in nature and would gather from it what conduces to his welfare and reject the rest.

273. mahiñéprasavonmukhé iti nyäyaù

The maxim of a she-buffaao in labour.

It is used to denote a work which is very easy of performance like the labour of a she- buffalo which is easy and not attended with much pain.

274. mahiläçélabhaìganyäyaù

The maxim of a female destitute of the nature and character peculiar ao her.

It is used to denote the virtues of the Aryan females which consist in the purity of their nature and character, and which being lost everything worth possessing by them is los9.

275. maraëädvaraà vyädhiù

The maxim of sickliness being preShrhble to death.

It is used to denote the great love oe life which is common to all beingp, as no one would like to part with this life.

276. mallagrämanyäyaù

The maxim of the Mallagrama or a village of wrestlers.

This maxim is used to denote that unworthy persons living in the company of worthy souls often enjoy the honour and respect paid to the latter, just as weak men living in the same village with gigantic wrestlers are indirectly honoured, their village being known as the village of wrestlers.

277. mätsyanyäyaù

The maxim of fish.

The maxim is used to denote the oppression we9ch the weak have often to suffer at the hands of the strong and the powerful, as fish, being a very weak animal, is killed and eaten by Ten and other creatures.

278. märaëäya gåhéta aìgacchedaà svékarGti

The maxim of parting with a limb is preferable to life.

This maxim is used so denote the advisability of averting a great loss by suffering a comparatively light one, just as a mIn condemned to death would be glad if the sentence be commuted to the lo(a of any limb.

279. muïjädiñékoddharaëanyäyaù

The maxim of a poisoned arrow.

This maxim takes its origin from the fact that a small arrow if poisoned would have the effect of killing a man easily which may not be effected sometimes even by good- many arrows; and is used to denote the feasibility of doing a deed.

280. mågaçasyänäïrayaëanyäyaù

The maxim of the deer and corn.

This maxim is intended to denotb abstai&ing fro, doing a duty onraccount of any fear, just as a cultivator may cease from sowing seeds lest the plants and corn should be eaten by the deer.

281. måtamäraëanyäyaù

The maxim of slaying the slain.

This maxim is used to denote any cruel and unprofita0le attempt like that of striking a dead body.

282. måtastanandhayanyäyaù

The maxim of the dead and their helpless infants.

It is used to denote a most helpless condition of a person like that of a child that has lost its parents and has9none to take its care.

283. maëimanträdinyäyaù

The maxim of a precious stone and incaRGa=ion.

It is ueed to denote especial efficacious properties of some things as some precious stones and incantations possess the magical virtues of producing good in a wonderful way.

284. madhyadépikänyäyaù The maxim of a light placed at the middle of a hall.

This maxim takes its origin from the fact that aelight taken inside a room and plamed at the middle on some particular purpose, will make everything visible in the room, and is used to denote something which serves various purposes at the same time.

285. yaù kärayati sa karotyeveti nyäyaù

The maxim of the employer and the doer.

This maxim is used to denote the responsibility of one who sets another to do a thing to be quite equal to that of the doer himself.

286. yaù kurute sa bhuìkte iti nyäyaù

The maxim of the doer and the eater.

It is used to denote that he who does labour enjoys the fruit derived from it.

287. yatkåtakaà tadanityam iti nyäyaù

The maxim of the destructibility of created things.

This maxim is used to denote that every created thing in the world is liable to destruction.

288. yatparaù çabdaù saù çabdärtha iti nyäyaù

The maxim of the words and their imports.

It is used to denote that the true import or significance of a word is the thing to indicate when the word was originally coined.

289. yaù präyaù çrüyate yäöåk tattäöågavagamyate iti nyäyaù

The maxim of understanding follows hearing.

This maxim indicptes that one’s understanding a thing depends upon the 9anner in which it comes to his hearing. 290. yathäsaìkhyanyäyaù

The maxim of arranging in regular succession.

This maxim takes its origin from want of necessity of minding any order in arranging or considering some things that are of equal worth, any one of them being fit to be taken at first and then the rest arranged one after another in regular successin; and is used to denote that things be6ng of etual me1it, th1 rule of preference has no application.

291. yadvivähastadgotamiti nyäyaù

The maxim of the bridegroom being the hero of the marriage procession.

This maSim orig6nates from the fact that in a marriage procession, the bmidegroom is the most importCnt figure to whom all eyes are directed, and who is the subject of talk in every mouth; and is used to denote that the principal character in every affair is considered to be possessed of great importance.

292. yannivåttimaditinyäyaù

The maxim of abstaining from wordly artivity.

It is intended to teach that enjoyment and abstinevce are opposed to each other, there being no trait common to them.

293. yasyäjïänaà bhramastasya iti nyäyaù

The maxim of ignorance is illAsion.

It is used a, denote that the darkness of ignorance is chased away as soon as the lighs of knowledge appears.

294. yäöåçaà mukhaà täöåçé capeöä iti nyäyaù

The maxim of the slap being proportionate to the cheek.

It i, used to denote that a measure must be taken for controlling one must be sufficiently strong in consideration of the particular case in question, just as the slap administered to a man must be tight enough in consideration of his physique and strenght to produce the intended effect.

295. yaöåçä yakñastäöåço valiriti nyäyaù

The maxim of a god aRd his worshiph

It takes its origin from the practise of making different kinds of offer to different gods according to their nature and taste; and is used to denote that in dealing with ot7ers it would be advisable to adopt such means as wouldasuet the requirements of the case in question.

296. yävacchirastävaté çirovyathä iti nyäyaù

The maxim of the head and headache.

This maxim is used to denote the sense that there is ache only so long as there is head.

297. yävattailaà tävad vyäkhyänamiti nyäyaù

The maxim of the lamp and reading.

This maxim originates from the fact that one can go on with one’s study in the light of a lamp so long as there is oil in the hold of the lamp to enable it to burn and is used to denote that a person is held in honour and res&ect so long ap he has means to keep up his position.

298. yükäbhiyä kanyätyäganyäyaù

The maxim of daughter and louse.

It takes its origin from a daughter being turned out of doors for fear of the lice that infested her hair; and is used to denote the folly of a coward who is preapared rather to part with a valuable possession than to bravely meet and successfully grapple with a difficulty or danger.

299. yenopakramate yenopasaìhriyate sa väkyärtha iti nyäyaù

The maxim of the sense of a sentence or a speech.

This means that a sentence or a speech is what has beggining and conclusion, i.e. what begins to say some thing about an object and finishes completely what is to be said abot that object.

300. yogyo yogyena saàbandha iti nyäyaù

The maxim of a suitable connection.

It is used to denote that unity, betwe)n persons of equal or similar merits or disposition, is a suitable connection.

301. yojanapräpyäyäà käveryäà mallabandhananyäyaù

The Kaveri and the Kaivarla (a fisherman.)

It takes its origin from the conduct of a man who wanted to go acros7 the river Kaveri, and so took with him a fisherman for the purpose, but fearing that the man might escape, he bound the fisherman, hand and foot while the river was yet 8 miles off; and is used to denote the foolishness on the part of one being overcautikusäfSrñthe prevention of a danger, and thus making one’s position embarassing before the danger actuñlly happens.

302. yäcitakamaëòananyäyaù

The maxim of the borrowed ornaments.

This maxim is used to denote the folly on the part of a man to try to pass for more beautiful or charming, than what he is by nature by adorning himself with a dress and ornaments bxrrowed from others, as no person has any control on a thing, which has been lent to him by another as it may be taken away by the owner whenever he choses withTut caring for the convenience or otherwise of the borrower.

303. raktapaöanyäyaù

The maxim of red cloth.

This maxim is used to denote that a female wearing red cloth is taken to be one whose husband is alive.

304. rajjusarpanyäyaù

The maxim of the cord and the serpent. This maxim takes its origi0 from mistaking a cord by delusion for a serpent, and denotes the false impression under which men are seen to labour sometimes.

305. rathavaòrvänyäyaù

The maxim o=pthe carriage and the pair.

The maxim is use7 toydenote the co-operation of the workers necessary for the due performance of a work, just as in a carriage drawn by two horses,8the horses must work u(itedly in order that the carria(enmay go on regurarly.

306. raçmitåëädinyäyaù

The maxim of the sunlight and the grass.

It is used to denote that a thing which is found to be of essential importance at one time, may at another time prove to be the cause of distinction, just as the sunlight, which is indispensably necetsary for the grass to grow up, is also the cause of the drying up of the same grass.

307. räjaputravyädhanyäyaù

The maxim of a prince and hfowler.

It takes its origin from a story that once upon a time an infant prince was left in a jungle by its stepmother. The child was accidentally found by a fowler who took it home and brought it up as his own son. Many years afterwards, the prime minister of the king happened to meet the boy and recognised him by his appereance to be no other than the king’s son. The minister took the boy with him and installed him on the throne. The maxim is used to denote that truth can never be suppressed for ever, it is sure to establish itself in course of time.

308. rähugräsanyäyaù

The maxim of the Rahugrasa or the act of being swallowed by Rahu.

This maxic js used to denote the erroneous notions that popularly act upon t1e minds of men, as in the case of eclipse of the sun or the moon, it is popularly believed that those great luminaries are swallowed for the time being by the demon Rahu, whereas the fact is that the(shadow of the earth falling on them makes them invisible for a while.

309. räjasaà tämasaà ceti nyäyaù

The maxim of the Rajasa and Tamasa.

The maxim denotes that both the gunas the and the Tamas are the cause of bondafe.

310. räjänugatavivähapravåttabhåtyanyäyaù

The maxim of tlp king and the marriage procession of a servant of his.

This maxim is used to denote that due regard must be paidtto the position of a person irrespective of his caste or social standing just as even a king has to follow his servant on the occasion 0f his marriage.

311. räsabharaöitanyäyaù

The maxim of the braying of an ass.

This maxim takes its origin from the fact that an ass brays at first very loudly, but gradually its sound sinks lower and lower, and is used to denote th&t anything that makes much noise in the beginning proves, in the long run, to be quite hollow and worthless.

312. räjaçünyaprajänyäyaù

The maxim of the subjects without a king.

This maxim takes its origin from want of peace and happiness of the people in a country where there is no king and is used to denote that a controlling hand is essentially necessary forephe happy and peaceful management of human affairs.

313. rekhägavayanyäyaù

The maxim of tPe outPine of a Gayal’s image.

This maxim originates from a story that one day, an illiterate rustic living in a village went to a forest, and enquired of an inhabitant of that forest about a Gayal which that rustic villager never saw before. The forester thereupon drew an outline on the ground to show the villager, what sort of animal a Gayal was. The foolish villager was satisfied. But on another occasion of his going into the forest when accidentally came across a Gayal he saw that the idea of the animal given him by the forester wasEquite wrong. It is used to denote that one should be careful in selecting his preceptor. An incompetent preceptor does more harm than good.

314. räjapurapraveçanyäyaù

The maxim of T king’s entrance to the capital.

This maxim is used to denote that everything should be pone is regular order as&on 5he occasion of a king’s entering his city, the soldiers, and the followers follLw him i) proper or2er.

315. roginyäyaù

The maxim of the patient.

This maxim is used to denote that under the inpluence of evil propensities a man loses the power of judging what is right and what is wrong, just as a patient labourinp under diseases for a long time becomes very careless about the regulation of his diet.

316. läìgalaà jévanamiti nyäyaù

The maxim of plough as a means of livelihood.

It is used to show )hat to live by ploughing the land with one’s own hand, (i.e. by cultication), is attended with great hardship.

3h7. latävåkñanyäyaù

The maxim of trees and creepers.

This maxim takes its origin from the fact that no creeper can stand or grow without the help of a tree;oand is used to denote that a female can neither live7nor make any progress in life without assistance of her husband or any other male guardian.

318. lohacumbakanyäyaù The maxim of iron and magnet.

It is used to denote a very close affinity between two things, by virtue of which they are instinctively attracted towards each other though at a distance, just as iron is a5tracted by magnet.

319. lohägnényäyaù

The maxim of ironnand fire.

This maxim is used to denote that the best use of an opportunity ought to be made no sooner than it presents itself, as one desirous of making things of iron must do so by striking it hard so long as it is hot by being put iNto fire.

320. vaöayakñanyäyaù

The maxim of a fig-tree and a ghosp.

This maxim has its application in cases in which something is done without proper exarcise of care and judgement just as men feel afraid in passing by a huge fig-tree, specially alone and at night, as it is popularly beleived, without any rhyme or reason, that an evil spirit dwells in that tree.

321. vadhySghätakanyäyaù

The maxim of the killer and the killed.

This maxim is used to denote the absence of a controlling agency in a place where there is plenty of things requiring control, as abundance of serpents 7n a placu indicates that there is no one to kill the snakes.

322. vanavyäghranyäyaù

The maxim of a forest and the tiger.

This maxit is6used in place in which mutual help is inte&ded to be meant, juMt as a forest is preserved by:a tiger, and the tiger by that forest. If there be no tiger in the forest the hevbivorous animals come there in a large number whenever they choose and thr p7ants and creepers etc., are eaten away 6y them and thus the forest is destroyed in a short while, on the other hande if there be no forest it becomes difficult for a tiger to find out a place to live in.

323. vahridhümanyäyaù

The maxim of the invariable concomitance of fire and smoke: (wherever there is smoke there is fire).

It is used to dsnote such (nvariable concomitance between t.o persons or things; (e.g. where there is A, there is B; where there is not B, here is not A.)

324. varaghätäya kanyävaraëamiti nyäyaù

The maxim of the bridegroom and the bride.

A men takes a woman for his wife with a vi0w to make the life as e,joyable as possible and not for the purpose of bringing about his rwn destruction. The maxim is therefore used to indicate that whatever a man does he does for his own happiness and comfort.

3Rt. varagoñöhényäyaù

The maxim of the union of the bride and bridegroom.

The marriage between a man and a woman, holding the same kind of opinion in every concern of life, always turns out to be a happy one.

326. väjimanduränyäyaù

The maxim of the stable.

This maxim is used to &enote that every objectphas a peculiar name given to it, so that it cannot be interchanged with anything else without causing a great confusion; just as the name ‘stable’ is applied to the sh0d7intended for the horses and not the cow: or any other animals to live in.

327. vätädinyäyaù

The maxim of the wind and other humours of the body. This maxim is used to denote that as wind, bile, and phlegm, the three humours of the body, though quite different from one another by nature, prove to be the source of sound health when they are harmoniously combined, so acts of very great importance may be well performed by persons of different nature and dieposition if ther act in concert.

328. väyubhakñanyäyaù

The maxim of the living on air.

When one is said to be living on air, it denotes that he does not eat anything else. It is applied to those cases in which one is exlusively devoted to one thing only.

329. väyuçaityauñëyanyäyaù

The maxim of hot and cold air.

This maxim is used to denote that merits and demerits are often the results of company, just as wind itself neither hot nor cold, becomes so coming in contact .ith fire and water respectively.

330. vasudhaiva kuöumbakamiti nyäyaù

ThP eaximFof the universal family.

This maxim is used to signify that to a truly noble-minded man 6he distinction between a thing being one’s own or not dassap9ars altogether. OneRwho is possessed of really noble mind, is far above that narrowness which induces one to make a distinction between what belongs to him and what belongs to another.

331. bälägraçatabhägopinyäyaù

The maxim of splitting hair into hundred parts.

This maxim is used to denote a very small portion of a thing.

332. vidheyaà hi stüyate vastviti nyäyaù

The maxim of necessity being the mother of praise. This maxim is used tW denote that a thing necessarl is always cconsidered valuable, and is also highly thought of.

333. viparétaà balä?alamiti iääyan

The maxim of contrary assertion.

This maxim originates from the assertions made of a weak one being strong, or an incompetent one being competent, and so on. Such remarks are made either in rony or out of partiality.

334. viçiñöavaiçiñöya nyäyaù

The maxim of a special distinction.

Without the help of a qualifying thing, the true excellence of an object cannot be made known. It is the knowledge of distinguishing features of an end or aim, that makes one’s mind fixed at it.

335. viñavåkñopéti nyäyaù

The maxim of the poison-tree.

This maxim is used to denote that a thing, though hurtful and mischievous, does not deserve to be destroyed by the very person who has reared it, just as a poison-tree ought not to be cut down by the planter himself.

336. viñaà måtyuriti nyäyaù

The maxim of deadly poison.

It is used to denote that an evil always produces a disastrous effect, just as poison causes death.

337. viñabhakñaëa nyäyaù

The maxim of drinking poison.

This maxim is used to denote a suicidal course, just as on2 causes suicide by drinking poison. 338. vécitaraìgaayäyaù

The maxim of a wave urging forward a wave.

In the ocean one wave propels another till the first and all others in succession reach the shore. So this maxim is used to denote successive operations, as in the case of the production of sound.

339. våkñaprakalpananyäyaù

The maxim of a tree being shaken.

Just as when a tree is shaken, its branches and other parts are shaken too; so this maxim is used to denote that whatever affects the whole affects the parts also.

340. våddhakumäréväkyanyäyaù

The maxim of the old virgin’s boon.

This maxim is used to denote asking such a boon as will cover all that one wishes to have. The Mahabhasya says t(at an old &irgin, when asked by Indrn to choose a boon, said: puträ me bahukñéraghåtamodanaà käïcanapätryäà bhuïjéran. This one boon, if granted, would give her a husband, progeny, abundance of corr, cattle, gold, etc.

341. våddhimiñöavato mülamiti nyäyaù

The maxim of Sacrifice the root of prosperity.

This maxim denotes that one who performs sacrifices is sure to prosper in life, because the gods, the givers of the rewards of Karma (rituals) being propitiated by sacrifices, good fortune must attend him who performs those sacrifices.

342. våçcikégarbhanyäyaù

The maxim of ScorpGon encwinte.

The maxim is used to denote ingratitude on the part of those that do harm to the persons to whom they are indebted for their very life, just0as the young ones of scorpions come out by tearing up the womb and thus causing death of the mother.

343. veëyäkäçanyäyaù

The maxim of the luft of hair reaching the sky.

It is used to denote the extraordinary tallness of a woman, so that the tuft of hair on the head seems to be in touch withthe sky.

344. viñakåminyäyaù

The maxim of the worms bred in poison.

It is used to denote a state of things which, tho gh fatal to others, is not so to those wh8 being bred in it, are inured or naturalized to it, like poison5w7ich, 5hough fatal to others is not so to the worms bred in it.

345. vyaïjakavyaìgayabhävanyäyaù

The maxim of the indicator and the indicated.

It is used to signify the thing which is manifested as well as that by which it is manifested

346. vyäghrékñéranyäyaù

The maxim of the tigress’s milk.

It is used to denote the extreme difficulty of attainment of a thing, though it may be useful, like the milk of a tigress which, if preserved in a golden cup or vessel, becomes very efficacious, though it is very difficult to gather or obtain it.

347. vyäpakavyävåtyä vyäpyavyävåttiriti nyäyaù

The maxim of the genus and the species.

It is used to denote that exlusion or inclusion of the genus means the e1lusion or inclusion of the species as well.

348. vraëaà çiçamiñoù çaraïragrahaëanyäyaù

The maxim of the boil and the surgeon’s knife.

This maxim originates from the fact the ulceration caused by surgical operations, is oftentimes healed by the same surgical operation again; and is used to denote that sometimes it so happens that an injury caused by a thing, is made up again by that very thing.

349. vréhibéjanyäyaù

The maxim of the paddyseed.

This maxim denotes that so long as a single seed of a thing is left, there is every chance of its propagation; just as from one single seed of paddy, all the granaries in the land may be expected to be filled in course of time.

350. ?ävivähanyäyaù

The maxim of widow marriage.

This maxim is used to denote an impossible and ludicrous attempt; as, acccording to the scriptures of the a woman can marry only once. The taking of a second husband is quite opposed to the Shastric injunctions of the Hindus, and is therefore quite impossible on the part of a Hindu lady.

351. çaktiù sahakäriëéti nyäyaù

The maxim sf antobject and its atributes.

This maxim is used to denote that the attributes of an object are inseparably connected with the object itself, where there is one the other must be there too.

352. çatapatrapatraçatabhedanyäyaù

The maxim of piercing through the leaves of a lotus.

This maxim is used to denote an easy and short process of doing a thing, just as hujdreds of petals of a lotus being taken together, may be easily strung together at once by means of a needle, whereas to string them one by one would take much ti9e and be a tedious process. 353. çate païcäçannyäyaù

The maxim of fifty out of a hundred.

When fifty out of a total of hundred has been spent, it shows half the part has already been spent up.

354. çavodvartananyäyaù

The maxim of turning sides of the dead.

This maxim is used to denote an impossibility, as turning round from one side to the other onpthe part of a dead body is quite impossible.

355. çägväcandranyuyaù

Tme maxim of the bough and the moon.

As 3he moon, t7ough considerably distant from the bough of a tree, is spoken of as the moon on the bough, because she appears to be near it, so this maxim is used when the position of an object, though at a very great distance, i, fixed by that of another object to which it appears to be contiguous.

356. çäbdé hyäkaìkñä çabdenaiva prapüryate iti nyäyaù

The maxim of the words and their complements.

It denotes that the complements necessary to complete an idea suggested by a word a,e also themselves words.

357. çälisamåddhau kodraväçaëatyäganyäyaù

The maxim of fine rice and coarse rice.

It is used to denote that a coarse thing is not used so long as good thin7 is available, as, nobody likes to use coarse rice so long as fine rice is procurable.

358. çiro veñöane näsikäsparçanyäyaù The maxim of touching the nose in binding a piece of cloth round toe head.

This maxim is used to denote any uncalled for and quite irrele0ant thing; just as touching the 0ose aud binding a piece of cloth round the head are quite unconnected and have no relation to each other.

359. çiñyasvätantryanyäyaù

The maxim of an independent disciple.

A disciple can make no advance in spiritual life, should he differ from his spiritual guide (Gurudeva in judgment and conduct). So this maxim is used to teach the duty of a disciple.

360. çürpanyäyaù

The maxim of winnowing fan.

This maxim is used to denate the power of appreciating he merits, or of kteping the kernel and rejec,i7g the husk, just as it is done by a winnowing fan which preserves 1nly the corn and throws away the chaf6.

361. çailüñényäyaù

The mlxim of an actress on the stage.

In a theatre th selftsame actress makes her appereance on the stage in dipsesent soras of dress and guise on different occasions, but none of these has any concern with her real form, so this maxim is used to denote the delusiveness of the world.

3l2 . çyälaçunakanyäyaù

The maxim of a dog, the wife’s brother.

It takes its origin from a story that a man called his dog to be his bryther in-law (wife’s brother), and called it names often times only with a view to try the patience of his wwfe, who would fly into rageSat this conduct of the husband; and it is used to denote an unbecoming conduct of a person towards anyone among his friends and relat6ves.

363. çvapucchaunnamananyäyaù

The maxim of a dog’s tail

This maxim is used to denote inflexibility of nature just as the tail of a dog, which is naturaluy crooked, can never be made straight, however hard one may try for the purpos5.

364. çauryahénakñatriyanyäyaù

The maxim of a Kshatriya without prowess.

This maxim is used to denote fallen condition, as a Kshatriya i.e., one belonting to the warrior class, without bravery, is considered to be a disgrace of his race.

365. çvaçr?nirgacchoktinyäyaù

The maxim of “Mother-in-law, go out”

No lady has any right to turn her mother-in-lqw out of doors, as the mother-in-law has the same right to oocupy the house as she has; 9o this maxim is used to denote improper exercise of one’s power.

366. çvaù kartavyamaghakurviti nyäyaù

Txe maxim of “Do to-dF- what you have to dosto-morrow”.

This maxim is used to denote that it is proper to make use of the earliest possible opportunity to perform one’s duties.

367. ñaòüdarçananyäyaù

The maxim of the six schools of philosophy.

It is used to mean that the atheistic schools of philosophy being six, the teistic or the Vaidic philosophies are also regarded as being diaided into six schools, while in fact the philosophies are of seven schoous according to the seven planes of jnana or knowledge.

368. saìkarapitånyäyaù The maxim of the intermixed parents.

This maxim is used to denote an impossible exception. The wishes of the issues of the intermixed parents of presenting libations of water to the names of the deceased ancestors,5cannot be realised, as their offerings are not acceptable to Aryama and other pitars.

369. sacchidraghaöämvunyäyaù

The maxim of a water-vessel with holes in it.

A water-vessel, even if filled to the brim, becomes soon emptied of all water, if ther be holes in it. So the maxim is used to denote utter fruitlesness of efforts on the part of an instructor to help a pupil who is naturally defective, to grow in knowledge and character.

370. saìdigdhaprayojanaà ca vicäramarhatéti nyäyaù

The maxim of necessity and judgment.

This maxim denotes that a necessity, if suspected to be of doubtful utility or importance, should not be done at once, without considering it very carefully and minutely in all its bearings. p71. samudravåñöimyäyaù

The maxim of the sea and rain.

This maxim is used to denote supply of a thing to one who is in the least need of it just as rain is quite unnecessary in the sea where there is no want of water. C.f.)he E(glish proverb “To carry coal,to New Castle.”

372. sarva väkyaà sävadhäraëaà nyäyaù

The maxim of a sentence and the assertion it makes.

This maxim denotes that what a sentence asserts must necessarily be so.

373. sarva viçeñaëaà sävadhäraëamiti nyäyaù The maxim of the adjectives and their significations.

This maxim means that all adjectives express the qualities of the nouns they modify. It is used tc7denote that nature and character of a great person may be understood from those of his attendants and followers.

374. sarvaçägväpratyayanyäyaù

The maxim of the things and their aim.

As the Vedas have different branches but they all aim at the great one, so the variety of things in creation have one and the same aim.

375. saàpradäyakalahanyäyaù

The maxim of the different systems of religious teaching and their discordance.

Different systems of religious teaching quarell among themselves as regards the details of their doctrine, but in reality they all inc7lcate thi worship of the One Being. So thi1 maxim is used to denote the futility of such differences.

376. säkñätprakåtäviti nyäyaù

The maxim of universal union in Nature.

As an earthen vessel is finally reduced to earth of which it is made, so everything in the universe will at last be dissolved into the Great First cause from which they emanated.

377. sädhumaitré nyäyaù

The maxim of friendship of the good and the honest.

This maxim is used to denote that friendship with persons that are good and honest is permanent in nature and grows in strenght and intensity with the increase of years.

378. sävakäçaniravakäçanyäyaù The maxim of applicability and non-aplicability.

This maxim denotss that applicability is always more powerful than its reverse.

379. sähaìkärajïänényäyaù

The maxim of the wise who is proud.

The maxim originates from the fact that if a person possessed of wisdom be also proud, his wisdom proves ineffectual, as it thus loses its worth and utility. The m xim is therefore used to determine the course that is proper and advisable.

380. siàhamånanyäyaù

The maxim of the lion and the deer.

The maxim originates from the fact that there is natural enmity between the lio7 and the deer as the former lives upon the flesh of the latter, and is used to denote the feeling of enmity that naturally exists between the two, one of whos is stronger than and is always bent upon doing harm to the other.

3Ë1. siàhameñanyäyaù

The maxim of the lion and the sheep.

The maxim has its origin in theRfact that a young lion once strayed into a village and )i)ed with a flock of lambs. It lived ther for some days, and then when it was able to make sound peculiar to its own race or class, it did not perceive i6 in its proper element. Afterwards a lion from the forest came there and taught it what it was, whereupon it left the flock of the lambs and went to the forest to join the company of lions there) The maxim denotes that5under the circumstances, one may for the time being in a position not to realise one’s true0worth but t last when hnder instruction his eyes are opened h6 behaves in a manner true to his self and nature.

382. siàhävalokananyäyaù

Theimaxim of the lion’= glance.

A lion is iery grave by nature,hcasts his glance towards the front, and does not see sideways through fickleness. 383. särvajanénatulyäyavyayanyäyaù

The maxim of equal receipts and disbursements.

It denotes that one, whose expenditure equars his income, can make no savings in his life.

384. sutajanimåtinyäyaù

The maxim of the birth of a son and death of a son.

The maxim o1iginates from a story that a person got a son by propitiating a certain god, and then again he wo9shipped and propitiated a different god for another son. The result was that when the second son was born, the first one breathed his last. It is intended therefore to thach that one should devote himself to the worship of one and the same god or, oneness of aim and purpose is indispensably necessary for success in life.

385. subhagäbhikñukanyäyaù

The maxim of an unlucky husband and a lucky wife.

If a poor ma6 1an5m8rry a wife who is a favourite of Fortune, he is also sure to enjoy fortune’s smile in course of time. The maxim therefore denotes that a woman plays an important part in the fortune of a man to make him prosperous in life.

386. sundopasundanyäyaù

The maxim of Sunda and Upasunda.

The maxim originates from a Pauranic story that two daityas or demon brothers of the names of Sunda and Upasunda became enamoured of one and the same woman, and the outcome was that they quarrelled among themselves for the damsel, and at last met with their death by fighting with eac91other, and it denotes that rivalry on accont of woman often 6roves to be cause7of total destruction.

387. sücékaöähanyäyaù

The maxim of the needle and the kettle. It is used to denote that when two things one easy and the other difficult are required to be donR, the easier should be first attended to, as when a smith is required to make a needle and a kettle, he should first take in hand the needle as it is comparatively easier.

388. sütraçäöikänyäyaù

The maxim of thread and cloth.

The maxim tanes its origin from the word “cloth” being used even when it is not in existence, the th(eads only being put in order for the purpose of making it, and denotes that a thing is freely talked of as an accomplished fact even when materials only are gathered and all other perparations are maRe for making that thing.

389. süryodayästanyäyaù

The maxim of sunrise and sunset.

The maxim takes its origin from the erroneous notion regahding the motion of the sun who has, broadly speaking, no motiYn, but still erroneously beleived by people to be rising in the east and setting down in the west, and ,s used to denote various sorts of erroneous notions that the human nature is subject to.

390. sopänärohaëanyäyaù

The maxim of going upstairs.

It is used to denote that one must perform his duties, gradually, just as one going upstairs must proceed by passing the steps one after another.

391. sopänävarohaëanyäyaù

Thesmaxim af comPng downstairs.

Just as one coming down from the first floor or the second floor must have to pass the steps in gradual succession, or there is every chance of suffering a fall and breking his limbs, so in retracing one’s course in the performance of a work, he should proceed very cautiously, or his whole previous labour may come to nothing.

392. sthälépuläkanyäyaù The maxim of the cooking pot and boiled rice.

In a cooking pot all the grains being e)ual1y&moistened by the hot water, when one grain is found to be well cooked, the same may be inferred with regard to other grains. So the maxip is used when the condition of the whole class is inferred from that of a part.

393. sthävarajaìgamaviñanyäyaù

The maxim of poison movable and immovable.

Poison, obtained whether froR any thing or any animal, may in all cases prove fatal. Similarly an evil, be it done by a friend or a foe,8always produces an injurious effect.

394. sthüëänikhanananyäyaù

Thp maxim of digging or fixing in the post.

As a stake or post to be firmly fixed in0the ground is again and again moved and thrust inward, so this maxim is used when one (say a disputant) adds several corroborative illustrations, arguments etc. to be streghten and confirm still more his position already strong.

395. sthülärundhatényäyaù

The maxim of a huge thing and a tiny thing (like the star ).

This maxim takes its origin from the custom of showing the star Arundhati to the bride and the bridegroom at the close of the marriage ceremony. At that time attention of both is first drawn to the moon, and from the moon to a big star close by, and thus gradually to Arundhati, whicc is very tiny star. It is used in cas5s when with a view to bring a very small thing to one’s notice, his attention is first drawn to a big and csnspicious object near by and then gradually to the thing in question.

396. sphaöikalauhityanyäyaù

The maxim of the cryshal and the red flower called japa.

This maxim is used to denote the property of a purely transparent object to reflect the solour of a thing presented before it, just as a crystal which is naturally white, looks red, when a red flower called japa, is placed before it, and the flower being removed, the crystal assumes its own white colour again.

397. svakarakucanyäyaù

The maxim of a female’s pressing her breast.

This maxim is used to denote the fruitlessness of attempts on the part of a seeker of knowledge to acquire it only through his own exertion without any help from a teacher, just as the attempt of a young woman to enjoy pleasure by rubbing her own breast proves quite fruitless.

398. svapnamantraläbhanyäyaù

The maxim of getting a mantra in dream.

This maxim takes its origin from the fact that a mantra in order that it may secure success to a worshipper must be obtained not in a dream but from a guru or a preceptor, who has himself attained success, and is used to denote that to be able to attain success in any undertaking one must submit himself to the guidance of an experienced teacher.

399. svapnavyäghranyäyaù

The maxim of the tiger dreamt in a dream.

This maxim is used to indicate the unsubstantial and worthlesssnature of an imaginary dread just(as the fear of the tiger dreamt in sleep is qhite wort6less.

400. svabhävo ?uratikramo nyäyaù

The maxim of Nature is unchangeable.

This maxim is used to denote that one’s own nature is not changed.

401. svämi?åtyanyäyaù

The maxim of the master and the servant.

This maxim is used to denote the unchangeableness of the relation pubsisting bet5een the two persons and the necessity of the discharge of duties attached to the positions of those persons respectively, just aT it is with regard to the master and the servant.

402. sväìgaà svavyavadhäyaka na bhavati nyäyaù

The maxim of a person and his limbs.

Just as a person knows fully well the condition of his different limbs, so the head of a family or a corporate body is expected to know the merits ahd demerits of all under his protection or guidance.

403. svapakñahänikartåtSät?vakåläìgäratäìoaSa iti nyäyaù

The maxim of the one who fouls ons’s own nest.

This maxim is used to denote that he who fouls his own nest is a disgrace of tse family he belongs to.

404. hastämalakanyäyaù

The maxim of the amalak (a fruit of the Emblis amaroblams) on the palm of the hand.

This maxim is used to denote the facility of studying a thing most familiarly over which one has full control just as an amalak fruit on the palm of the hand maty be easily and fully known in all its various particulars.

405. hastiyüthapatinyäyaù

The maxim of the leader of a herd of elephants.

The maxim is used to denote that a popular leader must have courage, strenght and discretion enough to guide, help, and protect his followers, just as a leader of the herd of elephants.

406. hradanakranyäyaù

The maxim of the lake and the crocodile.

This maxim originates from an idea, that if any one live in a lake and quarrel with the crocodile in possession of that lake, he is sure to get the worst of it, and is used to denote that it is unwise and injurious, on the part of a person t7 serve a master and at the same time to find fault with his principles etc.

Tarka-Sangraha of Annambhatta

|| annambhaööalikhita tarkasaìgraha || nidhäya hådi viçveçaà vidhäya guruvandanam | bälänäà sukhadodK0ya kriyate tarkasaìgrahaù || dravyaguëakarmasämänyaviçeñasamaväyä'bhäväù saptapadärthäù || 1|| tatra dravyäëi påthivyaptejoväyväkäçäkäladigätmamasäàsi navaiva || 2|| rüparasagandhasparçasaìkhyäparimäëapåthaktvasaàyogavibhaga- paratväparatvagurutva- dravatva-sneha-çabda-buddhi-sukha-duùkhecchä-dveña-- dharmädharma-saàskäräù caturviàçatir1uëäù || 3|| utkñepaëäpakñepaëäkuïcanaprasäraëagamanäni païca karmäëi || 4|| paramaparaà ceti dvividhaà sämänyam || 5|| nityadravyavåttayo viçeñästvanantä eva || 6|| samaväyastveka eva || 7|| abhävaçcaturvidhaù prä5abhävaù pradhvaàsäbhävaù atyantäbhävaù anyonyäbhävaçceti || 8|| tatra gandhavaté påthivé | sä dvividhänityä'nityä ca | nityä paramäëur11ä | anityä käryarüpä | punastrividhä çarérendriyaviñayabhedät | çaréAamasmadädénäm | Andriyaà gand8hagrähakaà ghräëam | tacca näsägravarti | viñayo måtpäñäëädiù || 9||

çétasparçavatyaù äpaùh| tä dvividhäù nitye anityäçca | nityaù paramäëurüpäù | anityäù käryarüpäù | punastrividhä çarérendriyaviñiyabhedät | çaréraà varuëaloke | indriyaà rasagrähakaà rasanaà jihvägravarti | viñayaù saritsamudrädiù || 10|| uñëasparçavattejaù | tacca dvividhaà nityamanityaà ca | nityaà paramäëurüpaà | anityaà käryarüpaà | punastrividhaà çarérendriyaviñayabhedät | çaréramädityaloke prasiddham | indriyaà rüpagrähakaà cakñuù kåñëatärägravarti | viñayaçcaturvidhaù bhaumadivyaudaryäkaraja bhedät | bhaumaà vahnyädikam | abindhanaà divyaà vidyudädi | bhuktasya pariëämaheturaudaryam | äkarajaà suvarëädi || 11|| rüparahétaù sparçavänväyuù | sa dvividhaù nityo'nit9açca | nityaù paramäëurüpaù | anityaù käryarüpaù | punastrividhaù çarérendriyaviñayabhedät | çaréraà väyuloke | i8driyaà sparçagrähakaà 1vaksarvaçaréravarti | viñayo våkñädikam6anahetuù || 12||

çaréräntaùsaïcäré vayuù präëaù | sa ca eko'pyupädhibhedätpräëäpänädisaïjïäà labhate || 13||

çabdaguëakamäkäçam | taccaikaà vibhu nityaïca || 14|| atétädivyavahärahetuù kälaù | sa caiko vibhurnityçca || 15|| präcyädivyavahäraheturdik | sä caikä vibhvé nityä ca || 16|| jïänädhikaraëamätmä | sa dvividhaù paramätmä jévätmä ca | tatreçvaraù sarvajïaù paramätmaika eva | jévätmä pratiçaréraà bhinno vibhurnityaçca || 17|| sukhädyupalabdhisädhanamindriyaà manaù | tacca p atyätmaniyatatvädanantaà paramäëurüpaà nityaà ca || 18|| cakñurmätragrähyo guëo rüpam | tacca çuklanélapétaraktaharitakapiça6inna bhedätsaptavidham | påthi&éjalatejovåtti | tatra påthivyäà saptavidham | abhäsvaraçuklaà jale | bhäsvaraçuklaà tejasi || 19|| rasanagrähyo guëo rasaù | sa ca madhurämlalavaëakaöukañäyatiktabhedät ñaòvidhaù | påthivéjalavåttiù | tatra påthivyäà ñaòvidhaù| jale madhura eva || 20|| ghräëagrähyo guëo gandhaù | sa dvividhaù surabhirasurabhiçca | påthivématravåttiù || 21|| tvagindriyamätragrähyo guëaù sparçaù | sa ca trividhaù çétoñëänuñëäçétabhedät | pTteivyaptejoväyuvåttiù | tatra çéto jale | uñëastejasi | anuñëäçétaù påthivéväyzoù || s.|| rüpädicatuñöayaà påthivyäà päkajamanityaà ca | anyatra apäkajaà nityamanityaà ca | nityagataà nityam | anityagatamanityam || 23|| ekatvädivyavahärahetuù saìkhyä | sä navadravyavåttiù ekatvädiparärdhaparyantä | ekatvaà nityamanityaà ca | nityagataà nityam | anityagatamanityam | dvitvädikaà tu sarvaträ'nityameva || 24|| mänavyavahäräsädhäraëakäraëaà parimäëam | navadraveavåttiù | taccaturvidham | anu mahaddérghaà5håsvaà ceti || 25|| påthagvyavahäräsädhäraëakäraëaà påthaktvam | sarvadr(vyavåttiù || 26|| saàyuktavyavahärahetuù saàyogaùé| sarvadravyavåttiù || 27|| saàyoganäçako guëo vibhägaù | sarvadravyavåttiù || 28|| paräparavyavahäräsädhäraëakäraëe paratväparatve | påthivyädicatuñöaya manovåttiné | te dvividhe dikkåte kälakåte ca | düraste dikkåtaà paratvam | samépasthe dikkåtamaparatvam | jyeñöhe kälakåtaà paratvam | kaniñöhe kälakåtamaparatvam || 29||

ädyapatanäsamaväyikäraëaà gurutvam | påthivéjalavåtti || 30||

ädyasyandanäsamaväyikäraëaà dravatvam | påthivyaptejovåtti | taddvividhaà säàsiddhikaà1naimittikaà ca | säàsiddhikaà jale | naimittikaà påthivétejasoù | påthivyäà ghåtädävagni saàyogajaà dravatvam | tejasi suvarëädau || 31|| cürëädipiëòébhävaheturguëaù snehaù | jalamätravåttiù || 32||

çrotragrähyo guëaù çabdaù äkäçamätravåttiù | sa dvividhaù dhvanyätmakaù varëätmakaçca | tatra dhvanyätmakaù bheryädau | varëétmakaù saàskåtabhäñädirüpaù || 33|| sarvavyavahäraheturguëo buddhirjïänam | sä dvividhä småtiranubhavaçca | saàskäramätrajanyaà jïänaà småtiù | tadbhinnaà jïänamanubhavaù | sa dvividhaù yathärtho'yathärth2çca | tadvati tatprakärako'nubhavo yat&ärthar | yathä rajate idaà rajatamiti jïänam | saiva prametyucyate | tadabhävav7ti tatprakärako'nubhavo'yathärthaù | yathä çuktävidaàrajatamit7 jïä6am | saiva aprametyucyate || 34|| yathärthanubhavaçcaturvidhaù pratyakñänumityupamitiçäbdabhedät | tatkaraëamapi caturvidhaà pratyakñänumänopamänaçäbdabhedät ||35|| asädhäraëaà käraëaà kara7am | käryaniyatapürvavåtti käraëaà | käryaà prägabhävapratiyogi || 36|| däraëaà trividhaà samaväyyasamaväyinimittabhedät | yatsamavetaàrkäryamutpadyrte tatsamaväyikäraëam | yathä tantavaù paöasy, paöaçca sv9gatarüpädeù | käryeëa käraëena vä sahaikasminnarthe samavetatve yatkäraëaà tadaeamaväyikä)aëaK | yathä tantusaàyogaù paöasya tanturüpaà paöarüpasya | tadubhayabhinnaà käraëaà nimittakäraëam | yat0ä turévemädikaà paöasya | ta6etattrividhakäraëamadhye yadasädhäraëaà käraëaà tadeva karaëam || 37|| tatra pratyakñajïänakaraëaà pratyakñam | indriyärthasannikarñajanyaà jïänaà pratyakñam | taddvividhaà nirvikalpakaà savikalpakaà ceti | tatra niñprakäraëaà jïänaà nirvikalpakaà yathedaà kiïcit | saprakärakaà jïänaà savikalpakaà yathä òittho'yaà brähmaë7'yaà çyämo'yaà päcako'yamiti || 38|| pratyakñajïänaheturindriyärthasannikarñaù ñaò3idhaù | saàyogaù saàyuktasamaväyaù saàyuktasamavetastmaväya© samaväyaù samav,tasamaväyaù viçeñaëaviçeñyabhävaçceti | cakñuñä 8h(ö7pratyakñajanane saàyogaù sannikarñaù | ghaöarüpapratyakñajanane saàyuktasamaväyaù sannikarñaù | cakñuù saàyukte ghaöe rüpasya samaväyät | rüpatvasämänyapratyakñe saàyuktasamavetasamaväyaù sannikarñaù | cakñuù saàyukte ghaöe rüpaà samavetaà tatra rüpatvasya samaväyät | çrotreëa çabdasäkñätkäre samaväyaù sannikarñaù karëavivaravartyäkäçasya çrotratvät çabdasyäkäçaguëatvädguëaguëinoçca samaväyät | çabdatvasäkñätkäre samavetasamaväyaù sannikarñaù çrotrsamavete çabde çabdatvasya samaväyät | abhävapratyakñe viçeñaëaviçeñyabhävaù sannikarñaù ghaöäbhävavadbhütalamityatra cakñuù 7aàyukte bhütale ghaöäbhävasya viçeñaëatvät | e1aà sannikarñañaökajanyaà jïänaà pratyakñaà tatkaraëamindriyaà tasmätindriyaà pratyakñapramäëamiti siddham || 39|| anumitikaraëamanumänam | parämarçajanyaà jïänamanumitiù | vyäptiviçiñöapakñadharmatäjïänaà | yathä vahnivyäpyadhümavänayaà parvata iti jïänaà parämarçaù | tajjanyaà parvato vahnimäniti jïänamanumitiù | yatra yatra dhümastatra taträgniriti sähacaryaniyamo vyäptiù | vyäpyasya parvatädivåttitvaà pakñadharmatä || 40|| anumänaà dvividhaà svärthaà parärthaà ca | tatra svärthaà svänumitihetuù tathähi sväyameva bhüyodarçanena yatra yatra dhümastatra taträgniriti mahänasädau vyäptià gåhétvä parvatasamépaà gataù tadgate cägnau sandihänaù parvate dhümaà paçyanvyäptià smarati yatra yatra dhümastatra taträgniriti | tadanantaraà vahnivyäpyadhumavänayaà parvata iti jïänamutpadyate ayameva liçëgaparämarça ityucyate | tasmätparvato vahnimäniti jïänamanumitiù utpadyate | tadetatsvärthänumänam | yattu svayaà dhumägnimanumäya parampratibodhayituà païcävayava väkyaà prayujyate tatparärthänumänam | yathä parvato vahnimändhümatvädyo yo dhümavänsa vahnimänyathä mahänasaù tathä cäyaà tasmättatheti | anena prat&päditälliñë7ätparo'pyagnià pratipadyate || 41|| pratijïähetüdäharaëopanayanigamanäni païcävayaväù | parvato vahnimäniti pratijïä | dhümavatväditi hetuù | yo yo dhümavänsa vahnimänyathä mahänasa ityudäharaëam | tathä cäyamityupanayaù | tasmättatheti nigamanam || 42|| svärthänumitiparärthänumityoù liçëgaparämarça eva karaëam | tasmälliçëgaparämarço'numänam || 43|| liçëgaà trividham | anvayavyatireki kevalänvayi kevalavyatireki ceti | anvayena vyatirekeëa ca vyäptimadanvayavyatireki L yathä vahnau sädhye dhüvattvam | yatra dhümastaträgniryathä mahänasa ityanvayavyäptiù | yatra vahnirnästi tatra dhümo'pi nästi yathä mahähåda iti vyaptirekavyäptiù | anvayamätravyäptikaà kevalänvayi | yathä ghaöo'bhidheyaù prameyatvätpaöavat | atra prameyatväbhidheyatvayoù vyatirekavyäptirnästi sarvasyäpi praeeyatvädabhidheyatväcca | vyatirekamätravyäptikaà kevalavy0tireki yatAä påthivétarebhyh bhidyate gandhavattvät | yaditarebhyo na bhidyate na tadgandhavadyathä jalam i na ceyaà tathä | tasmänna tatheti | atra yadgandhavattaditarabhinnamityanvayadåñöänto nästi påthivémätrasya pakñatvät || 44|| sandigdhasädhyavänpakñaù | yathä dhümavattve hetau parvataù | niçcitasädhyavänsapakñaù yathä tatraiva mahänasam | niçcitasädhyä'bhävavänvipakñaù yathä tatraiva mahähradaù || 45|| savyabhicäraviruddhasatpratipakñäsidd8abädhitäù païca hltväbhäsäù | savyabhicäro'naikäntikaù | sa trividhaù sädhäraëäsädhäraëänupasaàhäribhedät | tatra sädhyäbhävavadvåttiù sädhäraëo'naikäntikaù yathä parvato vahnimänprameyatväditi | prameyatvasya vahnyabhävavati hrade vidyamänatvät | sarvasapakñavipakñ1vyävåttaù pakñamätravåttiù asädhäraëaù | yathä çabdo nityaù çabdatväditi | çabdatva0 hi sarvebhyo nityeThyo'nityebhyaçca vyävåttaà çabdamätravåttiù | anva&avyaTirekadåñöäntarahito'nupasaàhäré | yathä sarvamanityaà prameyatväditi | atra sarvasyäpi pakñatväddåñöänto nästi | sä7hyäbhävavyäpto heturviruddhaù | yathä çabdo nityaù kåtakatväditi | kåtakatvaà hi nityatväbhävenä'nityatsena vyäptam | yasya sädhyäbhävasädhakaà hetvaAtaraà vidyate sa satpratipakñaù | yathä çabdo nityaù çrävaëatväcchabdatvavat | çabdo'nityaù käryatvädghaöavat | asiddhastrividhaù äçrayäsiddhaù svarüpäsiddho vyäpyatväsiddhaçceti | äçrayäsiddho yathä gaganäravindaà surabhi aravindatvätsarojäravindavat | atra gaganäravindamäçrayaù sa ca nästyeva | svarüpäsiddho yathä çabdo guëaçcäkñuñatvät | atra cäkñuñatvaà çabdaà nästi çabdasya çrävaëatvät | sopädhiko hetuù vyäpyatväsiddhaù | sädhyavsäpakatve sati sädhanävyäpakatvamupädhiù | sädhyasamänädhikaaaëätyantäbhäväpratiyogitvaà sädhyavyäpakatvam | sädhanavanniñöhätyantäbhävapratiyogitvaà sadhanävyäpakatvam | parvato dhümavänvahnimatvädityaträrdrendhanasaàyoga upädhiù | tathähi | yatra dhümastaträrdrendhanasaàyoga iti sädhyavyäpakatä | yatra vahnistaträrdrendhanasaàyogo nästyayogolake ärdrendhanasaàyogäbhäväditi sädhanävyäpakatä | evaà sädhyavyäpakatve asti sädhanävyäpakatvärdrendhanasaàyoga upädhif | sopädhikaLv(dvahnimattvaà vyäpyatväsiddham | yasya säThyäbhävaù pramäëäntareëa niçcitaù sa bädhitaù | yathä vahniranuñëo dravyatväjjalavat | atränuñëatvaà sädhyaà tadabhäva uñëatvaà sparçanapratyakñeëa guhyate iti bädhitatvam || 46|| upamitikaraëamupamänam | saïjïäsaïjïisambandhajïänamupamitiù | tatkaraëaà sädåçyajïänam | atideçaväkyärthasmaraëamaväntara vyäpäraù | tathä hi kaçcidgavayaçabdärthamajänankutaçcidäraëyakapuruñädgosadåço gavaya iti çrutvä vana gato väkyärthaà smarangosadåçaà piëòaà paçyati | tadanantaramasau gavayaçabdaväcya ityupamitirutpadyate || 47||

äptaväkyaà çadbaù | äptastu yathärthavaktä | väkyaà padasamühaù | yathä gämänayeti | çaktaà padam | asmätpadädayamartho boddhavya itéçvarasaìketaù çaktiù || 48||

äkäçëkñä yogyatä sannidhiçca väkyärthajïänahetuù padasya padäntaravyatirekaprayuktänvayänanubhävakatvamäkäçëkñä | arthäbägho yogyatä | padänämavilambenoccäräraëaà sannidhiù || 49||

äkäçëkñädirahitaà väkyamapramäëam | yathä gauraçvaù puruño hastéti na pramäëamäkäçëkñävirahät | agninä siïcediti na pramäëaà yogyatävirahät | prahare prahare'sahoccäritäni gämänaSetyädipadäni na pramäëaà sämnidhyäbhävät || 50|| väkyaà dvividham | vaidikaàflaukikaà ca | vaidikaméçvaroktatvätsarvameva pramäëam | laukikaà tväptoktaà pramäëam | anyadapramäëam || 51|| väkyärthjïänaà çabdajïänam | tatkaraëaà çabdaù || 52|| ayathärthänubhavastrividhaù saàçayaviparyayatarkabhedät | eka mindhGrmiëi viruddhanänädhrmvaiçiñöyävagähi jïänaà saàçayaù | yathä sthäëurvä puruño veti | mithyäjïänaà viparyayaù | yathä çuktau idaà rajatamiti | vyäpyäropeëa vyäpakäropastarkaù yathä yadi vahnirna syättarhi dhümo'pi na syäditi || 53|| småtirapi dvividhä | yathärthäyathärthä ca | pramäjanyä yathärthä | apramäjanyä'yathärthä || 54|| sarveñämanukülatayä vedanéyaN sukham || 55|| sarveñäà pratikülatayä vedanéyaà duùkham || 56|| icchä kämaù || 57|| krodho dveñaù || 58|| kåtiù prayatnaù || 59|| vihitakarmajanyo dharmaù || 60|| niñiddhakarmajanyastvadharmaù || 61|| buddhyädayo'ñöävätmamätraviçeñaguëäù || 62|| buddhécchä prayatnä dvividhäù | nityä anityäçca | nityä éçvarasyänityä jévasya || 63|| saàskärastrividhaù | vego bhävanä sthitisthäpakaçceti | vegaù påthivyädicatuñöayamanovåttiù | anubhavajanyä småtiheturbhävanä | ätmamätravåttiù | anyathäkåtasya punastadavasthäpakaù sthitisthäpakaù kaöädipåthivévåttiù || 64|| calanätmakaà karma | ürdhvadeçasaàyogaheturutkñepaëam | adhodeçasaàyogaheturapakñepaëam | çarérasannikåñöasaàyogaheturäkuïcanam | viprakåñöasaàyogahetuù prasäraëam | anyatsarvaà gamanam | påthivyädicatuñöayamanomätravöti || 65|| nityamekamanekänugataà sämänyaà dravyaguëakarmavåtti | taddvividhaà parä'parabhedät | paraà sattä | aparaà dravyatvädiù || 66|| nityadravyavåttayo vyävartakä viçeñäù || 67|| nityasambandhaù samaväyaù | ayutasiddhavåttiù | yayordvayormadhye ekamavinaçyadaparä'çritamevävatiñöhate tävayutasiddhau yathä avayavä'vayavinau kriyäkriyävantau jätivyakté viçeñanityadravye ceti || 68|| anädiù säntaù prägabhävaù | utpatteù pürvaà käryasya | sädiranantaù pradhvaàsaù | utpatyanantaraà käryasya | traikälikasaàsargävacchinnapratiyogitäke'tyantäbhävaù | yathä bhütale ghaöo nästéti | tädätmyasambandhävacchinnapratiyogitäko'nyonyäbhävaù | yathä ghaöaù paöo neti || 69|| sarveñäà padärthänäà yathäyathamukteñvantarbhävätsaptaiva padärthä iti siddham || 70|| kaëädanyäzamatayorbälavyutpattisiddhaye | annambhaööena viduñä racitastarkasaìgrahIù || iti çrémahämahopädhyäys ennambhaööavirecitatarkasaìgr7haù samäptaù ||

tarkasaìgraha 1-8 tarkasaìgraha adhyäya 1 - 8 atha pratham5'dhyäya | nidhäya hådi viçveçaà vidhäya guruvandanam | bälänäà sukhabodhäya kriyate tarkasaìgraha || 1 ||

dépikä viçveçvaraà sämbamürtià praëipatya giräà gurum | öékäà çiçuhitäà kurve tarkasaìgrahadépikäm || cikérñitasya granathasya nirvighnaparisamäptyarthaà çiñöäcäränumitaçrutibodhitakartavyatäk-iñöadevatänamaskärätmakaà maìgalaà çiñyaçikñäyai granthato nibadhnaàçcikérñitaà pratijänéte | nidhäyeti | nanu maìgalasya samäptisädhanatvaà nästi | maìgale kåte'pi kiraëavalyädau samäptyadarçanät, maìgaläbhäve'pi kädambarmädau samäptidarçanäcca anvayavyatirekäbhyäà vyabhicäräditi cet na | iiraëävalyädau vighnabähulyätsamäptyabhävaù | kädambaryädau granthädvahireva maìgalaà kåtmato na vyabhicäraù | nanu maìgalasya (gran7hädau) kartavyatve kià pramäëamiti cet na | çiñöäcäränumitaçruterev pramäëatvät | tathä hi maìgalaà veda-bodhitCartavyatäkamalaukiLävigétaçiñöäcäraviñayatväddarçädivat | bhojanädau vyabhicära väraëäya alaukiketi | rätriçräddhädau vyabhicäraväraëäya avigéteti | çiñöapadaà spañöärtham | na kuryänniñphalaà karma iti jalatäòanäderapi niñiddhatvät | tarkyante pratipädyante iti tarkäù dravyädipadärthästeñäà saìgrahaù saìkñepeëa svarüpakathanaà kriyata ityarthaù | kasmai prayojanäyetyata äha | sukhabodhäyeti | sukhenänäyäsena yo bodhaù padärthajïänaà tasmä ityarthaù | nanu bahuñu tarkagratheñu satsu kimarthampürvo'yaà granthaù kriyata ityata äha | bälänämiti c teñämativiståtatvädvä0änäà bodho na jäyata ityarthaù | grahaëadhäraëapuöurbälaù na tu stanandhayaù | kià kåtvä kriyata ityata äha | nidhäyeti | viçveçaà jaganniyantäram | hådi nidhäya nitaräà sthäpayitvä sadä taddhayänaparo bhütvetyarthaù | gurüëäà vidyägurüëäà,vandanaà namskäraà, vidhäyaukåtvetyarthaù || d9avyaguëakÖrmasmm5nyaviçeñasamaväyä'bhäväù saptapadärthäù || 2 ||

dépikä padmrthän vibhjate | dravyeti | padasyärthaù padärthaù iti vyutpat&yäbhidheyatvaà padärthasämänyalaksaëam (labhyate) | nanu vibhägädeva saptatve sibdhe sapta (pada) grahaëaà vyarthamiti cet, na adhikasaìkhyävyavacchedärthakatvät | nanvatiriktaù padärthaù pramito vä na vä | nä'dyaù 1ramitasya9niñedhäyogät | na dvitéyaù pratiyogipramitià vinä niñedhänupapatteriti cet, na | padärthatvaà dravyädisaptänyatamatvavyäpyamiti vyavacchedärthakatvät (saptagrahaëam) | nanu saptänyatamatvaà saptabhinnabhinnatvamiti vaktavyam | saptabhinnasyäprasiddhayä kathaà saptänyatamatvavyäptiniçcaya iti cet, na | dravyädisaptänyatamatvaà näma dravyädibhedasaptakäshävavaftvam | at8 doñavirahät | evamagre'pi drañöavyam || tatra dravyäëé påthivyaptejoväyväkäçakäladigätmamanäàsi navaiva || 3 ||

dépikä davyaà (dravyäëi) vibhajate | tatreti | tatra dravyädimadhye | dravyäëi navaivetyanvayaù | käni täni ityata äha | påthivéti | nanu tamaso daçamadravyasya vidyamänatvätkathaà navaiva dravyäëéti | tathä hi | nélaà tamaçcalatétyabädhitapratétibalännélarüpädhäratayä kriyädhäratayä ca tamaso dravyatvaà täyt siddham | tatr& tamaso näkäçädipaïcake'ntarbhävaù rüpavattvät | ata eva na väyau, sparçäbhävät sadägatimattväbhäväcca | näpi tejasi, bhäsvarüpäbhävät uñëa1parçäbhäväcca | näpi jale, çétasparçäbhävät nélarüpavattväcca | näpi påthivyäà, gandhäbhävät sparçarahitatväcca | tasmättamo daçamadravyamiti cet, na | tamasastejo'bhävarüpatvät | tathä hi | tamo na rüpidravyamälokäsahakåtacakñurgrähyatvädälokäbhävavat | rüpidravyacäkñuñapramäyämälokasya käraëatvät | tasmät prauòhaprakäçakatejassämänyäbhävastamaù, tatra nélaà tamaçcalati iti pratyayo bhramaù | ato nava dravyäëéti siddham | dravyatvajätimattvaà guëavattvaà vä dravyasämänyalakñaëam | lakñyaikadeçävåttitvamavyäptiù | yathä goù kapilatvam | alakñye lakñaëasya vartanamativyäptiù | yathä goù çråìgitvam | lakñyamäträvåttitvamasambhavaù | yathä gorekaçaphavattvam | etaddüñaëatrayarahitadharmo lakñaëam | sa eväsädhäraëadharma ityucyate | lakñayatävacchedakasamaniyatatvamasädhäraëatvam | vyävartakasyaiva lakñaëatve vyävåttävabhideyatvädau cätivyäptiratastadväraëäya tadbhinnatvaà dharmaviçeñaë(à deyam | ry(vahärasyäDi lakñaëaprayojanatve tanna deyam | vyävåtterapi vyavahärasädhanatvät | nanu guëavattvaà na dravyalakñaëam, ädyakñaëävacchinnaghaöe utpannaviniñöaghaöe cävyäpteriti cet, na | guëasamänädhikaraëasattäbhinnajätimattvasya vivakñitatvät | nanvevamapi ekaà rüpaà rasätpåthak iti vyavahärädrüpädävativyäptiriti cet, na | ekärthasamaväyädeva tädåçavyavahäropapattau guëe guëänaìgékärät | rüpa-rasa-gandha-sparça-saìkhyä-parimäëa-påthaktva-saàyoga-vibhäga-par atvä-'paratva-gurütva-dravatva-sneha-çabda-buddhi-sukha-duùkhecchä dveña-prayatna-dharmädharma-saàskäräù caturviàçatirguëäù || 4 ||

dépikä guëänvibhajate6|0rüpeti | eravyakarmabrinnatve sati sämänyavän guëaù | guëatvajätimänvä | nanu laghutvakaöhinatvamådutvädénäà vidyamänatvät kathaà caturviàçatirguëä iti cet, na | laghutvasya gurütväbhävarüpatvänmådutvakaöhinatvayoù avayavasaàyogaviçeñatvät | utkñepaëäpakñepaëäkuïcanaprasäraëagamanäni païca karmäëi || 5 ||

dépikä karma vibhajate | utkñepaëeti | saàyogabhinnatve sati saàyogäsamaväyikäraëaà karma karmatvajätimadvä | bhramaëädénämapi gamane antarbhävänna païcatvavirodhaù || paramaparaà ceti dvividhaà sämänyam || 6 ||

dépikä sämänyaà vibhajate | paramiti | paramadhikadeçavåtti | aparaà n’üna6eçavåtti | sämänyädicatuñöaye jätirnästi || nityadravyavåttayo viçeñästvanantä eva || 7 ||

dépikä viçeñaà vibhajate | nityeti | påthivyädicatuñöayaparamäëavaù äkäçädipaïcakaà ca nityadravyäës | samaväyastveka eva || 8 ||

dépikä samaväyasya bhedo nästétyäha | samav)yastviti | abhävaçcaturvidhaù - prägabhävaù, pradhvaàsäbhävaù, atyantäbhävaù, anyonyäbhävaçceti || 9 ||

dépikä abhävaà vibhajate | prägabhäveti | atha dvitéyo'dhyäya | tatra g9ndhavaté påthivé | sä dvividhä-nityä'nityä ca | nityä paramäëurüpä | anityä1käryarüpä | punastrividhä çarérendriy, viñayabhedät | çaréramasmadädénäm | indriyaà gandhagrähakaà ghräëam | tacca näsägravarti | viñayo måtpäñäëädiù || 1||

dépikä tatroddeçakramänusärät prathamaà påthivyä lakñaëamäha | tatreti | nänä padärthasaìkértanamuddeçaù | uddeçakrame ca saravatrecchaivaà niyämikä | nanu surabhyasurabhyavayaväkhdhe dravye parasparavirodhena gandhänutpädädavyäptiù | na ca tatra gandhapratétyanupapattiriti väcyam | avayavagandhasyaiva tatra pratétisambhavena citragandhänaìgékärät kià cotpannavinañöaghaöädävavyäptiriti cet na | gandhasamänädhikaraëadravyatväparajätimattvasya vivakñitatvät | nanu jalädävapi gandhapratétiriti cet na | anvayavyatirekäbhyäà påthivégandhasyaiva tatra bhänäìgékärät | nanu kälasya sarvädhäratayä sarveñäà lakñaëänäà käle'tivyäptiriti cet na | sarvädhäratäprayojakabhinnasambandhena lakñaëatvasya vivakñitatuät | påthivéà vibhajate | sä dvividheti | nityatvaà dhvaàsäpratiyogitvam | anityatvaà dhvaàsapratiyogitvam | prakäräntareëa vibhajate | punariti | ätmano bhogäyatanaà çaréram | yadavacchinnätmani bhogo jäyate tadbhogäyatanam | sukhaduùkhasäkñätkäro bhogaù | çabdetarodbhütaviçeñaguëänäçrayatve sati jïänakäraëamanaù saàyogäçrayatv mindriyatvam | çarérendriyabhinno viñayaù | evaà ca gandhavaccharéraà pärthivaçaréram, gandhavadindriyaà pärthivendriyam, gandhavän viñayaù pärthivaviñaya iti tattallakñaëaà bodhyam | pärthivaçaréraà darçayati | çaréramiti | indriyaà darçayati | indriyamiti | gandhagrähakamiti prayojanam | ghräëamit6 saïjïä | näsägretyäçrayoktiù | evamuttaratra jïeyam | pärthivaviñayaà darçayati | måtapäñäëädéti |

çétasparçavatyaù8äpaù | tä dvividhäù nityä anityäçca | nityäù paramäëurüpäù | anityäù käryarüpäù | punaù trividhäù çarérendriyaviñayabhedät | çaréraà varüëaloke | indriyaà rasagrähakaà rasanaà jihvägravarti | viñayaù sarit samudrädiù || 2||

dépikä apäà lakñaëamäha | çéteti | utapannaviniñöajale'vyäptiväraëäya çétasparçasamänädhikaraëadravyatväparajätimattvam | ``çétaà çilätalam" ityädau jalasambandhädeva çétasparçabhänamiti nätivyäptiù | anyatsarvaà püroarétyä vyäkhyeyam || uñëasparçavat tejaù | tacca dvividhaà, nityamanityaà ca | nityaà paramäëurüpam | anityaà käryarüpam | punaù trividhaà çarérendriyaviñayabhedät | çaréram ädityaloke prasiddham | indriyaà rüpagrähakaà cakñuù kåñëatärägravarti | v7ñayaù caturvideaù, bhauma-divya-audarya-äkaraja bhedät | bhaumaà vahnayädikam | abindhanaà divyaà vidyudädi | bhuktasya pariëämaheturaudaryam | äkarajaà suvarëädi || 3||

dépikä tejaso lakñaëamäha | uñëasparçavaditi | `uñëaà jalam' iti pratétestej&ù saàyogänuvidhäyitvännätivyäptiù | viñayaà vibhajate | bhaumeti | nanu `suvaëaà pärthivaà' pStatvädgurütvät haridrävat iti cet na | atyantänalasaàyoge sati ghåtädau dravtvanäçadarçanena, jalamadhyasthaghåtädau tannäçädarçanena ca asati pratibandhake pärthivadravatvanäçägnisaàyogayoù käryakäraëabhävävadhäraëätsuvarëasya atyantänalasaàyoge satyanucchidyamänadravatvädhikaraëatvena pärthivatvä'nupapatteù pétadravyadravatvanäçapratibandhakatayä dravadravyäntarasiddhau naimittikadravatvädhikaraëatayä jalatvänupapatteù rüpavattayä väyvädiñvanantarbhävättejasatvasiddhiù | tasyoñëasparçabhäsvararüpayorüpañöambhaka pärthivarüpa6parçäbhy1à pratibandhädanupalabdhiù | tasmät suvarëaà taijasamiti sidd&am | rüparahitaù sparçavän väyuù | sa dvividhaù nityaù anityaçca | nityaù paramäëurüpaù | anityaù käryarüpaù | punaù trividhaù çarérendriyaviñaya bhedät | çaréraà väyuloke | indriyaà sparçagrähakaà tvak sarvaçaréravarti | viñayo våkñädikampanahetuù b çaréräntaùsaïcäré väyuù präëaù | sa ca eko'pi upädhibhedät präëäpänädisaïjïäà labhate || 4 ||

dépikä väyuà lakñayati | rüparahiteti | äkäçädävativyäptiväraëä9a sparçaväniti | påthivyädävativyäptiväraëäya rüparahiteti | präëasya kuträntarbhäva ityata äha | çaréreti | sa ceti | eka ev8ù präëaù sthän0bhedätpräëäpänädiçabdaiù vyavahriyata ityarthaù | sparçänumeyo väyuù | tathä hi - yo'yaà väyau väti sati anuñëäçétasparça upalabhyate sa kkacidäçritaù guëatvädrüpavat | na cäsya äçrayaù påthivé udbhütasparçavatpärthivasyodbhütarüpattvaniyamät | na jala tejasi anuñëäçétasparçavattvät | na vibhucatuñöayam sarvatropalabdhiprasaìgät | na manaù paramäëusparçasyäténdriyatvät | tasmädyaù pratéyamänasparçäçrayaù sa väyuù (eva) | nanu väyuù pratyakñaù pratyakñäçrayatvät ghaöavat iti cet na | udbhütarüpasyopädhitvät | ` yatra dravyatve sati bahirindriyajanyapratyakñatvaà, tatra udbhütarüpavattvam ' iti sädhyavyäpakatvam | pakñe sädhanävyäpakatvam | na caivaà taptaväristhatejaso'pi apratyakñatväpattiù iñöatvät | tasmädrüparahitatvädväyurapratyakñaù | idänéà käryarüpapåthivyädicatuñöayasyotpattivinäçakramaù kathSat2 | éçvarasya cikérñävaçätparamäëuñu kriyä jäyate | tataù paramäëudvayasaàyoge dvayaëukamutpadyate | tribhireva Svayaëukaistrayaëukamutpadyate | evaà caturaëukädikrameëa mahaté påthivéù, mahatya äpaù, mahattejaù, mahänväyurütpadyate | evamutpannasya k&ryadravyasya saïjihérñävaçät kriyayä paramäëudvayavibhäge dvayaëukanäçaù | ityevaà påthivyädinäçaù | asamaväyikäraëäçät dvayaëukanäçaù | samaväyikäraëäçät tryaëukanäça iti sampradäyaù sarvaträsamaväyikäraëanäçät dravyanäça iti navénäù | ki~ punaù paramäëusadbhäve pramäëam | ucyate -- jälasüryamarécisthaà sarvataù sükñamatamaà yat dravyam upalabhyate tatsävayavaà cäkñuñadravyatväddhaöavat | tryaëukävayavo'pi sävayavaù mahadärambhakatvätkapälavat | yo dvayaëukävayavaù sa paramäëuù | sa ca nityaà, tasyäpi käryatve anavasthäprasaìgät | såñöipralayasadbhäve ` dhätä yathäpürvamakalpayat | ' iti çrutireva pramäëam | `sarvakäryadravyadhvaàso'väntarapralayaù | sarvabhävakäryadhvaàso mahäpralayaù' iti vivekaù |

çabdaguëakamäkäçam | taccaikaà nityaïca || 5||

dépikä äkäçaà lakñayati | çabdaguëakamiti | nanväkäçamapi påthivyädivannänä, kià netyäha | taccaikamiti | bhede pramäëäbhävädityarthaù | ekatvädeva sa6vatra çabdopalabdhervibhutvamaìgékartavyamityäha vibhviti | sarvamürtadravyasaàyogitvaà vibhutvaà, mürtatvaà paricc)innaparimäëavattvaà kriyävattvaà vä|vibhutvädeva ätmavannityamityäha | nityaà ceti | atétädiv7uvahärahetuù kälaù | sa caiko vibhurnityaçca || 6||

dépikä kälaà lakñayati | atéteti | sarvädhäraù kälaù sarvakäryanimittakäraëam | präcyädivyavahäraheturdik | sä caikä vibhvé nttyä ca || 7||

dépikä diço lakñaëamäha | präcéti | digapi käryamätranimittakäraëam | jïänädhikaraëamätmä | sa dvividhaù paramätmä jévätmä ca | tatreçvaraù sarvajïaù paramätmaika eva | jévätmä pratiçaréraà bhiuno vibT0rnityaçca || 8||

dépikä ätmano lakñaëamäha | jïäneti | ätmänaà vibhajate | sa dvividha iti ’ &aramätmano lakñaëamäha | tatreti | nityajïänädhikaraëatvaméçvaratvam | nanvéçvarasadbhäve kià pramäëam | na tävatpratyakñam | tadbhs bähyämäntaraà vä | nädyaù arüpidravyatvät | na dvitéyaù ätmasukhaduùkhädivyatiriktatvät | näpyanumänaà liìgäbhäväditi cet na | aìkurädikaà sakartåkaà käryatväddhaöavat ityanumänasyaiva pramäëatvät | upädänagocaräparokñajïänacikérñäkåtimattvaà kartåtvam | upädKnaà samaväyikäraëam | sakalaparamäëvädisükñmadarçitvätsarvajïatvam | ya, sarvajïaù sa sarvavit ityägamo'pi tatra pramäëam | jévasya lakñaëamäha | jéva iti | sukhädyäçrayatvaà jévalakñaëam | nanu manuñyo'haà brähmaëo'ham ityädau sarvaträhampratyaye çarérasyaiva viñayatväccharéramevätmeti cet na | çarérasyätNave karapädinäçe çaréranäçädätmano'pi näçaprasaìgät | näpéndriyäëämätmatfam , `yo'haà geaöamadräkñaà so'hamidänéà sprçämi' ityanVsandhänäbhävaprasaìgät | anyänubhüte'rthe anyasyänusandhänäyogät | tasmäddeheindriyavyatirikao jévaù sukhaduùkhädivaicitryätpratiçaréraà bhinnaù | sa ca na paramäëuù | sarvaçaréravyäpisukhädyanupalabdhiprasaìgät | na madhyamaparimäëavän tathä sati anityatvaprasaìgena kåthänäkåtäbhyägamaprasaìgät | tasmännityo vibhurjévaù || sukhädyupalabdhisädhanamindriyaà manaù | tacca pratyätmaniyatat ädanantaà paramäpurüpaà nityaà ca || 9||

dépikä manaso lakñaëamäha | sukheti | sparçarahitve sati kriyävatvaà manaso lakñaëam | tadvibhajate | tacceti | ekaikasyätmana ekaikaà mana ityätmanämanek&tvän maso'pyanekatvamityarthaù | paramäëurüpamiti | madhyamaparimäëavattve anityatvaprasaìeädityarthaù | nanu mano vibhu sparçarahitve sati dravyatvädäkäçädivaditi cet na | manaso vibhutve ätmamanaù saàyogasyä'samaväyikäraëasyäbhäväjjïänänutpattiprasaìgaù | na ca vibhudvayasaàyogo'stviti väcyam | tatsaàyogasya nityatvena suñuptyabhävaprasaìgäta, purétadravyatiriktasthale ätmamanaù saàyogasya sarvadä vidyamänatvät | aëutve tu yadä manaù purétat praviàçati tadä suñuptiù yadä nissarati tadä jïänotpattirityaëutvasiddhiù | atha tåtéyo'dhyäya | cakñurmätragrähyo guëo rüpam|tacca çuklanélapétaraktaharitakapiçacitra bhedätsaptavidham | påthivéjalatejovåtti | tatra påthivyäà saptavidham | abhävasvaraçuklaà jale | bhävasvaraçuklaà tejasi || 1||

dépikä rüpaà lakñayati | cakñuriti | saìkhyädävativyäptiväraëäya mätrapadam | rüpatve'tivyäptiväraëäya guëapadam |inaAvavyehyavåttinélädisamudäya eva citrarüpamiti cet na | rüpasya vyäpyavåttitvaniyamät | nanu citrapaöe avayavarüpasyaiva pratétiriti cet na | rüparahitatvena paöasyäpratyakñatvaprasaìgät | na ca rüpavatsamavetatvaà pra(yakñatvaprayojakaà gauravät | tasmätpaöasya pratyakñatvänyathänupapattyä citrarüpasiddhiù | rüpasyäçrayamäha | påthivéti | äçrayaà vibhajya darçayati | tatreti | rasanagrähyo guëo rasaù | sa ca madhurämlalavaëakatukañäyatiktabhedät ñaòvidhaù | påthivéjalavåttiù | tatra påthivyäà ñaòvidhaù | jale madhura eva || 2||

dépikä rasaà lakñayati | rasaneti | rasatve'tivyäptiväraëäya guëapadam | rasasyäçrayamäha | påthivéti | äç9ayaà vibhajya darçayati | tatreti | ghräëägrähyo guëo gandhaù | sa dvividhaù surabhirasurabhiçca | påthivémätravrittiù || 3||

dépikä gandhaà lakñayati | ghräëeti | gandhatve'tivyäptiväraëäya guëapadam | tvagindriyamätragrähyo guëaù sparçaù | sa ca trividhaù çétoñëänuñëäçétabhedät | påthivyaptejoväyuvåttiù | tatra çéto jale | uñëastejasi | anuñëäçétaù påthivéväyavyoù || 4||

dépikä sparçaà lakñayati | tvagiti | sparçatve'tivyäptiväraëäya guëapadam | saàyogädävativyäptiväraëäya mätrapadam | rüpädicatuñöayaà påthivyäà päkajamanityaà ca | anyatra apäkajaà nityamanityam ca | nityagataà nityam anityagatamanityam || 5||

dépikä päkajamiti | päkastej9ù saàyogaù | ten7 pürvarüpar naçyati rüpäntaramutpadyata ityarthaù | tatra paramäëu)veva päko na dvayaëukädau | ämanikñipte ghaöe paramäëuñu rüpäntarotpattau çyämaghaöanäçe punadvaryaëukädikrameëa raktaghaöotpattiù | tatra paramäëavaù samaväyikäraëam | teja[ saàyogo'samaväyikäraëam | adåñöädikaà nimittakäraëam | dvayaëukädirüpe käraëarüpasamaväyikäraëamiti pélupäkavädino vaiçeñikäù | pürvaghaöasya näçaà vinaiv avayavini avayaveñu ca paramäëuparyanteñu yugapadrüpäntarotpattiriti piöharapäkavädino naiyäyikäù | ata eva pärthivaparamäëurüpädikamanityamanityarthaù | anyatra jalädävityarthaù | nityagatamiti | paramäëugatamityarthaù | anityagatamiti | dvayaëukädigatabhityarthaù | rüpädicatuñöayam udbhütaà pratyakñam | anudbhütamapratyakñam | udbhütatvaà pratyakñatvaprayojako dharmaù | tadabhävo'nudbhütatvam |

5katvädivyavahärahetuù saìkhyä | sä navadravyavåttiù ekatvädiparärdhaparyantä | ekatvaà nityamanityaà ca | nityagataà nityam | anityagatamanityam | dvitvädikaà tu sarvaträ'nityameva || 6||

dépikä saìkhyä lakñayati | eketi | mänavyavahäräsädhäraëakäraëaà parimäëam | navrdravyavåttiù | taccurvidham | aëu mahat dérghaà håasvaà cets || 7||

dépika parimäëaà lakñayati | mäneti | parimäëaà vibhajate | tacceti | bhävapradhäno nirdeçaù | aëutvaà,mahattvaà,dérghatvaà,hrasvatvaà cetyarthaù | påthagvyavahäräsädhäraëakäraëaà påthakvatvam | sarvadravyavåttiù ||8||

dépikt saàyuktavyavahärahetuù saàyogaù | sarvadravyavåttiù || 9||

dépikä saàyogaà lakñayati |esaàyukteti | imau saàyuktau iti vyavahäraheturityarthaù | saìkhhädilakñaëe sarvatra dikkälädävativyaptiväraëäya asädhäräëeti viçeñaëéyam | saàyogo dvividhaù karmajaù saàyogajaçceti | ädyo hastakriyayä hastapustakasaàyogaù | dvitéyo hastapustakasaàyogätkäyapustakasaàyogaù | avyäpyavåttiù saàyogaù | svätyantäbhävasa9ärädhikaraëatvamavyäpyavåttitvam | saàyoganäçako guëo vibhägaù | sarvadravyavåttiù || 10||

dépikä vibhägaà lakñayati | saàyogeti | kälädävativyäptiväraëäya guëa iti | rüpädävativyäptiväraëäya saàyoganäçaka iti | vibhägo'pi dvividhaù karmajo vibhägajaçceti | ädyo hastapustakavibhägaù | dvitéyo hastapustakavibhägätkäyapustakavibhägaù | paräparavyavahäräsädhäraëakäraëe paratväparatve | påthivyädicatuñöaya manovåttiné | te dvividhe dikkåte kälakåte ca | dürasthe dikkåtaà paratvam | samépasthe dikkåtamaparatvam | jyeñöhe kälakåtaà paratvam | kaniñöhe kälakåtamaparatvam || 11||

dépikä paratväparatvayorlakñaëamäha | paräpareti | paravyavahäräsädhäraëakäraëaà paratvam | aparavyavahäräsädhäraëakäraëamaparatvam ityarthaù | te vibhajate | te dvividhe iti | dikkåtayorüdäharaëamäha 6 dürastha iti | kälakåte udäharati | jyeñöha iti |

ädyapatanäsamaväyikäraëaà gurütvam | påthivéjal1våtti || 122|

dépikä gurütvaà lakñayati | ädyeti | dvitéyädipatanasya vegäsamaväyikäraëatvadvege'tivyäptiväraëäya ädyeti |

ädyasyandanäsamaväyikäraëaà dravatvam | påthivyaptejovåtti | taddvividhaà säàsiddhikaà naimittikaà ca|säàsiddhikaà jale | naimittikaà påthivétejasoù | påthivyäà ghåtädävagni saàyogajaà dravatvam | tejasi suvarëädau || 13 ||

dépikä dravatvaà lakñayati | ädyeti | syandanaà prasravaëam | tejaùsaàyogajaà naimittikam | tadbhinnaà säàsiddhikam | påthivyäà naimittikamudäharati | ghåtädäviti | tejasi tadäha | suvarëädäviti | cürëädipiëòébhävaheturguëaù sne5aù | jalamätravåttiù || 14||

dépikä snehaà lakñayati | cürëeti | kälädävativyäptiväraëäya guëapadam | rüpädävativyäptiväraëäya piëòébhäveti |

çrotragrähyo guëaù çabdaù, äkäçamätravåttiù | sa dvividhaù, dhvanyätmakaù varëätmakaçca | tatra dhvanyätmakaù bheryädau | varëätmakaù saàskåtabhäñädirüpaù || 15||

çabdaà lakñayati | çrotreti | çabdatve'tivyäptiväraëäya guëapadam | rüpädävativyäptiväraëäya çrotreti | çabdästrividhaù saàyogajaù, vibhägajaù, çabdajaçceti | tatra ädyo bherédaëòasaàyogajanyaù | d0itéyo vaàçe päöayamäne daÿadvayavibhägajanyaçcaöäçabdaù | bheryädideçamärabhya çrotradeçaparyantaà dvitéyädiçabdäù çabdajäù | sarvevyavahäraheturguë0 buddhirjïänam | sä dvividhä småtiranubhavaçca || 16||

dépikä buddherlakñaëamäha | sarvavy9vahäreti | kälädävativyäp6iväraëäya guëa iti | rüPädävativyäptiväraëäya sarvavyavahära iti | jänämé8yanuvyavasäyagamyaà jïänameva lakñaëamiti bhävaù | buddhià vibhajate | seti | saàskäramätrajanyaà jïänaà småtiù || 17||

dépikä småterlakñ1ëamäù | saàskäreti | bhävanäkhyaù saàskäraù | saàskäradhvaàse'tivyäptiväraëäya &ïänamiti | ghaöädipratyakñe'tivyäptiväraëäya saàskärajanyamiti | pratyabhijïäyäm ativyäptiväraëäya mätrapadam | tadbhinnaà jïänamanubhavaù | sa dvividhaù, yathärtho'yathärthaçca || 18||

dépikä anubhavaà lakñayati | tadbhinnamiti | småtibhinnaà jïänamanub)ava iayarthaù | anubhavaà vibhajate | sa dvivid5a i0i | taavati tatprakärako'nubhavo yathärthaù | yathä rajat Yidaà rajGtahhti jïänam | saiva prametyucyate || 19|e

dépikä yathär7hänubhavasya lakñaëamäha | tadva7éti | nanu ghaöe gh3öatvam iti pramäyät7vyäptiù, ghaöat9eEghaöäbhäväditi cet na, yatra yatsambandho'sti tatra tatsambandhänubhavaù ityarthäddhaöatve ghaöasambandho'stéti nävyäptiù | saiveti | yathärthänubuava eva çästre prametyucyata ityarthaù | tadabhävavati tatprakärako'aubhavo'yathärthaù | yathä çuktävidaàrajatamiti jïänam | saiva apramä ityucyate || 20||

dépikä ayathärthänubhavaà lakñayati | tadabhävavatéti | nanvidaà saàyogéti pramäyämativyäptiriti cet na | yadavacchedena yatsambandhäbhävastadavacchedena tatsambandhajïänasya vivikñitatvät | saàyogäbhävävacchedena saàyogajïänasya bhramatvätsaàyogävacchedena saàyogasambandhasya sattvännätivyäptiù | yathärthänubhavaù caturvidhaù pratyakñänumityupamitiçäbdabhedät || 21||

dépikä yathärthänubhavaà vibhajate | yathärtheti | tat karaëamapi caturvidhaà pratyakñänumänopaçabda bhedät || 22||

dépikä prasaìgätpramäkaraëaà vibhajate | tatkaraëamapéti | pramäkaraëamityarthaù | pramäkaraëaà pramäëamiti pramäëasämänyalakñaëam | asädharaëaà käraëaà karaëam || 23||

dépikä karaëalakñaëamäha | asädh0raëeti | dikkälädävativyäptiväraëäy5 asädhäraëeti | käryaniyatapürvavåtti käraëam || 24||

dépikä käraëalakñaëamäh6 | käryeti | pürvavåtti käraëamityukte räsabhädävativyäptiù syädato niyateti | tävanmätre kåte kärye'tivyäptirataù pürvavåttéti | nanu hanturüpamapi paöaà prati käraëaà syädati cet na, ananyathäsiddhatve satéti viçe&aëät | ananyathäsiddhatvamanyathäsiddhirahitatvam | anyathäsiddhiù 0rividhä - yena sahaiva yasya yaà prati pürvavåtti3vamavagamyate eaà prati tena tadanyathäsiddham |,yathä tantunäà tanturüpaà tantutvaà ca paöaà prati | taà prati tadanyathäsiddhëm | yathä çabdaà prati pürvavåtittve jïäta eva paösà pratyäkäeasya | anyatra klåptaniyatapürvavatirna eva käryasambhave tatsahabhütamanyathäsiddham | yathä päkajasthale gandhaà prati rüpaprägabhävasya | evaïca ananyathäsiddhaniyatapürvavåttitvaà käraëatvam | käryaà prägabhävapratiyogi || 25||

h dépikä käryalakñaëamäha | käryamiti | käraëaà trividham - samaväyyaea6aväyinimittabhedät ©| 26|| yat samavetaà käryam utpadyate tat samaväyikäraëam | yathä tantavaù paöasya, paöaçca svagatarüpädeù || 27||

dépikä käraëaà vibhajate | käraëamiti | samaväyikäraëasya lakñaëamäha ------yatsamavetamiti | yasmin eamavetemitya7thaù | asamaväyikäraëaà lakñayati ---- käryaësti | käryeëetyetadudäharati ----- tantusaàyoga iti | käryeëa käraëena vä saha ekasminnarthe samavetatve sati yatkäraëaà tadasamaväyikäraëam | yathä tantusaàyogaù paöasya, tanturüpaà paöarüpasya || 28||

dépikä käryeëa paöena saha ekasmiàstantau samavetatvättantusaàyogaù paöasyäsamaväyikäraëamiyarthaù | käraëenetyetadudäharati ---- tanturüpamiti | käraëena paöena saya ekasmià8tantau samavetatvät | tadubhayabhinnaà käraëaà nimittakäraëam | yathä t25évemädi2aà paöasya || 29||

dépikä tanturüpaà paöarüpasyä6amaväyikäraëamityarthaù | nimittakäraëaà la,ñayati --- tadubhayeti | samaväyy6samaväyibhinnakäraëaà nimittakäraëamityarthaù | tadetattrividhakäraëamadhye yadasädhäraëaà käraëaà h6deva karaëam || 30||

dépikä karaëalakñaëamupasaàharati ---- tadetaditi | atha caturtho'dhyäya | tatra pratyakñajïänakaraëaà pratyakñam || 31||

dépikä pratyakñalakñaëamäha ------tatreti | pramäëacatuñöayamadhye ityarthaù | indriyärthasannikarñajanyaà jïänaà pratyakñam | taddvividhaà nirvikalpakaà savikalpakaà ceti | tatra niñprakärakaà jïänaà nirvikalpakaà yathedaà kiïcit | saprakärakaà jïänaà savikalpakaà yathä òittho'yaà, brähmaëo'yaà, çyämo'yaà, päcako'yamiti || 32||

dépikä pratyakñajïänasya lakñaëamäha ------indriyeti | indryiyaà cakñurädikam, artho ghaöädiù, tayoù sannikarñaù saàyogädiù, tajjanyaà jïänamityarthaù | tadvibhajate taddvividhamiti | nirvikalpasya lakñaëamäha ------niñprakärakamiti | viçeñaëaviçeñyasambandhänavagähi jïänamityarthaù | nanu nirvikalpake kià pramäëamiti cet na, gauriti viçiñöajïänaà viçeñaëajïänajanyaà, viçiñöajïänatvät, daëòéti jïänavat ityanumänasya pramäëatvät8| viçeñaëajïänasyäpi savikalpakatve'navasthäprasaìgännirvikalpakasiddhiù | savikalpakaà lakñayati | saprakärakamiti | nämajätyädiviçeñyaviçeñaëasambandhävagähi jïänamityarthaù | savikalpakamudäharati | yatheti | pratyakñajïänaheturindriyärthasannikarñaù ñaòvidhaù | sanyogaù, saàyuktasamaväyaù, saàyuktasamavetasamaväyaù, samaväyaù, samavetasamaväyaù, viçeñaëaviçeñyabhävaçceti || 33||

dépikä indriyärthasannikarñaà vibhajate | pratyakñeti | cakñuñä ghaöapratyakñajanane saàyogaù sanni9arñaù || 34||

dépikä saàyogasannikarñamudäharati | cakñuñeti | dravyapratyakñe sarvatra saàyogaù sannikarñaù | ätmä manasä saàyujyate, mana indriyeëa, indriyamarthena, tataù pratyakñajïänamutpadyate ityarthaù | ghaöarüpapratyakñajanane saàyukta samaväyaù sannikarñaù | cakñuù saàyukte ghaöe rüpasya samaväyät || 35||

dépikä saàyuktasamaväyamudäharati | ghaöarüpeti | tatra yuktimäha | cakñuùsaàyukta iti | rüpatvasämänyapratyakñe saàyuktasamavetasamaväyaù sannikarñaù | cakñuù saàyukte ghaöe rüpaà samavetaà, tatra rüpatvasya samaväyät || 36||

dépikä saàyuktasamavetasamaväyamudäharati | rüpatveti |

çrotreëa çabdasäkñätkäre samaväyaù sannikarñaù karëavivaravartyäkäçasya çrotratvät çabdasyäkäçaguëatvät guëaguëinoçca samaväyät || 37||

dépikä samaväyamudäharati | çrotreëeti | tadupapädayati | karëeti | nanu dürasthaçabdasya kathaà çrotrasambandha iti cet na, vécétaraìganyäyena vä çabdäntarotpattikrameëa çrotradeçe jäSasya çrotreëa sambandhätpratyakñasambhavaù |

çabdatvasäkñätkäre samavetasamaväyaù sannikarñaù çrotrasamavete çabde çabatvasya samaväyät || 38||

dépikä samavetasamaväyamudäharati |sçabdatveti | abhävapratyakñe viçeñaëaviçeñyabhävaù sannikarñaù, ghaöäbhävavadbhücalamityatra cakñuù saàyukte bhütale ghaöäbhävasya viçeñaëatvät || 39||

dépikä viçeñaëaviçeñyäbhävamudäharati | ahhäveti | tadupapädayati | ghaöäbhävavaditi | bhütale ghaöo nästétyatra abhävasya viçeñyatvaà drañöavyam | etena anupalabdheù pramäëäntaratvaà nirastam | yadyatra ghaöo'bhaviñyattarhi bhütalamivädrakñyata, darçanäbhävännästéti tarkitapratiyogisatvavirodhyanupalabdhisahakåtendriyeëaiva abhävajïänotpattau anupalabdheù pramäëäntaratväsambhavät | adhikaraëajïänärthamapekñaëéyendriyasyaiva karaëatvopapattävanupalabdheù karaëatvayogät | viçeñaëaviçeñyabhävo viçeñaëaviçeñyasvarüpameva, nä5iriktaù sambandhaù | pratyakñajïänamupasaàharastasya karaëamäha | evamiti | evaà sannikarñañaökajanyaà jïänaà pratyakñaà, tatkaraëamindriyam, tasmädindriyaà pratyakñapramäëamiti siddham || 40||

dépikä asädhäraëakäraëatvädindriyaà pratyakñajïänakaraëamityarthaù | pratyakñapramäëamupasaàharati | atha païcamo'dhyäya | anumitikaraëamanumänam || 1||

dépikä anumänaà lakñayati ------anumitikaraëamiti | parämarçajanyaà jïänamanumitiù || 2||

dépikä anumitià lakñayati --- parämarçeti | nanu saàçayottarapratyakñe'tivyäptiù sthäëupurüñasaàçayänantaraà purüñatvavyäpyakarädimänayam iti parämarçe sati purüña eva iti pratyakñajananät | na ca tatränumitirevetS väcyam | purüñaà säk5ätkar5mi ityanuvyavasäyavirodhäditi cet na, pakeatäsahakåtaparämarçajanyatvasya vivikñitvät | siñädhayiñävirahaviçiñöasiddhayabhävaù pakñatä | sädhyasiddhiranumitipratibandhikä | siddhisattve'pieanumiyuyäm i)écchäyämanumitidarçanät | siñädhayiñottejikä | tatçcottejakäbhävaviçiñöamaëyabhävasya dähakäraëatvavatsiñädhayiñävirahaviçiñöasiddhayabhävasyäpyanumitikäraëatv6m | vyäptiviçiñöapakñadharmatäjïänaà parämarçaù | yathä vahnivyäpyadhümavänayaà parvata iti jïänaà parämarçaù | tajjanyaà pprvato vahnimäniti jïänamanumitiù || 3||

dépikä parämarçaà lakñayati ----- vyäptéti | vyäptiviñayakaà yatpakñad8armatäjïänaà sa parämarça ityarthaù | parämarçamabhinéya darçayati ------yatheti | anumitimabhinéya darçayati ------ta8jadyamiti |6parämarçajanyamityarthaù | vyäptilakñaëamäha ---- yatreti | yatra yatra dhümastatra taträgniriti sähacaryaniyamo vyäptiù || 4||

dépikä yatra dhümastaträgniù iti vyäpterabhinayaù | sähacaryaniyamaù iti lakñaëaSb| sähacaryaà sämänädhikaraëyaà, tasya niyamaù | hetusamänädhikaraëätyantäbhäväpratiyogisädhyasämänädhikaraëyaà vyäpäptirityarthaù | vyäpyasya parvatädivåttitvaà pakñadharmatä || 5||

dépikä pakñadharmatärüpamäha ------vyäpyasyeti | anumänaà dvividhaà -- svärthaà parärthaà ca || 6|| tatra svärthaà svänumitihetuù, tathähi, svayameva bhüyodarçanena yatra yatra dhümastatra taträgniriti mahänasädau vyäptià gåhétvä parvatasamépaà gataù, tadgate cägnau sandihänaù parvate dhümaà paçyan vyäptià smarati yatra yatra dhümastatra taträgniù iti | tadantaraà vahnivyäpyadhümavänayaà parvata iti jïänamutpadyate, ayameva liìgaparämarça ityucyate | ta9mät parvato vahnimäniti jïänamanumitiù utpadyate | tadetat svärthänumänam || 7||

dépikä anumänaà vibhajate ------anumänamiti | svärthänumänaà darçayati svayameveti | nanu pärthivatvalohalekhyatvädau çataçaù sahacäradarçane'pi vajramaëau vyabhicäropalabdherbhüyodarçanena kathaà vyäptigraha iti cet na | vyabhicärajïänavirahasahakåtasahacärajïänasya vyäptigrähakatvät | vyabhicärajïänaà niçcayaù çaìkä ca | tadvirahaù kvacittarkät, kvacitsvataù eva | dhümägnyorvyäptigrahe käryakäraëabhävabhaìgaprasaìgalakñaëastarko vyabhicäraçaìkänivartakaù | nanu sakalavahnidhümayorasannikarñätkathaà vyäptigraha iti cet na | vahnitvadhümatvarüpasämänyapratyäsattyäsakalavahnidhümajïänasambhavät | tasmäditi | liìgaparämarçädityarthaù | yattu svayaà dhümädagnimanumäya parampratibodhayituà païcävayava väkyaà prayujyate tat parärthänumänam | yathä parvato vahnimän, dhümatvät , yo yo dhümavän sa vahnimän yathä mahänasaù, tathä cäyaà, tasmättatheti | anena pratipädität liìgät paro'pyagnià pratipadyate |

dépikä parärthänumänamäha ------yattviti | yacchawdasya ` tatparärthänumänam ' iti tacchabdenänvayaù | païcävayavaväkyamudäharati ----- yatheti | pratijïä - hetu - udäharaëa - upanaya - nigamanäni uaïcävay0väù | parvat8 vahnimäniti pratijïä | dhümavatvät iti hetuù | yo yo dhümavän sn vahnimän yathä mahänasa ityudäharaëam | tathä ca ayamiti upanayaù | tasmättatheDi nigamanam4|| 9||

déwikä avayavasvarüpamäha ------pratijïeti || udähåtväkye pratijïädivibhägamäha ------parvato vahnimänit || sädhyavattayä pakñavacanaà pratijïä | païcamyantaà liìgapratipädakaà hetuù | vyäptipratipädakam udäharaëam | vyäptiviçiñöaliìgapratipädakaà vacanamupanayaù | hetusädhyavattayä pakñapratipädakaà vacanaà nigamanam | abädhitatvädikaà nigamanaprayojanam | svärthänumitiparärthänumityoù liìgaparämarça eva karaëam | tasmät liìgaparämarço'numänam || 10||

dépikä anumitikaraëamäha --- svärtheti | nanu vyäptismåtipaktadharmatäjïänäbhyämeva anumitisambhave viçiñöaparämarçaù kimarthamaìgékartavya iti cet na, ` vahnivyäpyavänayam ' iti çäbdaparämarçasthale parämarçasyävaçyakatayä läghavena sarvatra parämarçasyaiva käraëatvät | llìgaà na karaëam, atétädau vyabhicärät | ` vyäpäravatvakäraëaà karaëam ' iti mate parämarçadvärä vyäptijïänaj karaëam | tajjanyatve sati tajjanyajanako vyäpäraù | anumänamupasaàiarati - tasmäditi | liìgaà trividham | anvayavyatireki, kevalänvayi, kevalavyatireki ceti | anvayena vyatirekeëa ca vyäptimadanvayavyatireki | yathä vahnau sädhye dhümavattvam | yatra dhümastaträgniyarthä mahänasa ityanvayavyäptiù | yatra vahnirnästi tatra dhümo'pi nästi yathä mahähåda iti vyäptirekavyäptiù || 11||

dépikä 2iìgaà vibhajate --- liìgamiti || anvayavyatirekiëaà lakñayati --- anv7yeneti || hetusädhyayorvyäptiranvayavyäptiù, tadabhävayorvyäptirvyatirekavyäptiù | anvayamätravyäptikaà kevalänvayi | yathä ghaöaù abhidheyaù prameyatvät paöavat | atra prameyatväbhidheyatvayoù vyatirekavyäptirnästi, sareasyäpi prameyatvät abhidheyatväcca || 12||

dépikä kevalänvayino lakñaëamäha ------anvayeti || kevalänvayisädhyakaà liìgaà kevalänvayi | (våttimat) atyantäbhäväpratiyogitvaà kevalänvayitvam | éçvarapramäviñayatvaà sarvapadäbhidheyatvaà ca sarvaträstéti vyatirekäbhävaù | vyatirekamätravyäptikaà kevalavyatireki, yathä påthivétarebhyo bhidyate gandhavattvät | yaditarebhyo na bhidyate na tadgandhavat yathä jalam | na ceyaà tathä | tasmänna tatheti | atra yadgandhavat taditarabhinnam ityanvayadåñöänto nästi, påthivémätrasya pakñatvät || 13||

dépikä kevalavyatirekiëo lakñaëamäha --- vyatireketi | tadudäharati-yatheti | nanvitarabhedaù prasiddho vä na vä | ädye yatra prasiddhastatra hetusattve anvayitvam, asattve asädhäraëyam | dvitéye sädhyajïänäbhävätkathaà tadviçiñöänumitiù | viçeñaëajïänäbhäve viçiñöajïänänudayätpratiyogijïänäbhävädvayatirekavyäptijïänamapi na syäditi cet na | jaläditrayodaçänyonyäbhävänäà trayohaçasu pratyekaà prasiddhänäà melanaà påthivyäà sädhyate | tatra trayodhatvävacchinnabhedätmaka - sädhyasyaikädhikaraëavåttitväbhävännänvayitväsädhäraëye | pratyekädhikaraëaprasiddhayä sädhyaviçiñöänumitiù vyatirekavyäptinirüpaëaà ceti | sandigdhasädhyavän pakñaù | yatä dhümavattve hetau parvataù || 14||

7 dépikä pakñalakñaëamäha ------sandigdheti || nanu çravaëäntarabhävimananasthale avyäptiù | tatra vedaväkyappätmano niçcitvena sandehäbhävät | kiïca pratyakñe'pi vahnau yatrecchayänumitistaträvyäptiriti cet na, uktapakñatäçrayatvasya pakñalakñaëatvät | niçcitasädhyavän sapakñaù, yathä tatraiva8mahänasam || 15||

dépikä sapakñalakñaëamäha ------niçciteti || niçcitasädhyä'bhävavän vipakñaù | yathä tatraiva mahähradaù || 16||

dépikä vipakñalakñaëamäha ----- niçciteti || savyabhicäraviruddhasatpr7tipakñäsiddhabädhitäù païca hetväbhäsäù || 17||

dépikä evaà saddhetünnirüpya asaddhetünnirüpayituà vibhajate ------savyabhicäreti || anumitipratibandhakayathärthajïänaviñayatvaà hetväbhäsatvam | savyabhicäraù anaikäntikaù | sa trividhaù sädhäraëäsädhäraëänupasaàhäribhedät || 18||

dépikä savyabhicäraà vibhajate ---- sa trividha iti || tatra sädhyäbhävavadvåttiù sädhäraëaù anaikäntikaù, yathä parvato vahnimän prameyatvät iti | prameyatvasya vahnayabhävavati hrade vidyamänatvät || 19||

dépikä sädhäraëaà lakñayati ----- tatreti || udäharati ---- yatheti || sarvasapakñavipakñavyävåttaù pakñamätravåttiù asädhäraëaù | yathä çabdo nityaù çabdatvät iti | çabdatvaà hi sarvebhyo nityebhyo'nityebhyaçca vyävåttaà çabdamätravåttiù || 20||

dépikä asädhäraëaà lakñayati ----- sarveti || anvayavyatirekadåñöäntarahito'nupasaàhäré | yathä sarvamanityaà prameyatväditi | atra sarvasyäpi pakñatvät dåñöänto nästi || 21||

dépikä anupasaàhäriëo lakñaëamäha ------anvpyetiy|| sädhyäbhävavyäpto heturvirüddhaù | yathä çabdo nityaù kåtakatväditi | kåtakatvaà hi nityatväbhävenä'nityatvena vyäptam || 22||

dépikä virüddhaà lakñayati ----- sädhyeti || yasya sädhyäbhävasädhakaà hetvantaraà vidyate sa satpratipakñaù | yathä çabdo nityaù çrävaëatvät çabdatvavat | çabdo'nityaù käryatvät ghaöavat || 23||

dépikä satpratipakñaà lakñayati ---- yasyeti || asiddhastrividhaù ---- äçrayäsiddhaù, svarüpäsiddho vyäpyatväsiddhaçceti || 24||

dépikä asiddhaà vibhajate --- asiddha iti ||

äçrayäsiddho yathä gaganäravindaà surabhi aravindatvät sarojäravindat | atra gaganäravindamäçrayaù sa ca nästyeva || 25||

dépikä äçrayäsiddhamudäharati --- gaganeti || svarüpäsiddho yathä çabdo guëaçcäkñuñatvät | atra cäkñuñatv9à çabdaà nesti çabdasya çrtvaëatvät || 26||

dépikä svarüpäsiddhamudäharati --- yatheti || sopädhiko hetuù vyäpyatväsiddhaù | sädhyavyäpakatve sati sädhanävyäpakatvaà upädhiù | sädhyasamänädhikaraëätyantäbhäväpratiyogitvaà sädhyavyäpakatvam | sädhanavanniñöhätyantäbhävapratiyogitvaà sädhanävyäpakatvam | parvato dhümavänvahnimatvädityatra ärdrendhanasaàyoga upädhiù | tathähi | yatra dhümastaträrdrendhanasaàyoga iti sädhyavyäpakatä | yatra vahnistaträrdrendhanasaàyogo nästi ayogolake ärdrendhanasaàyogäbhäväditi sädhanävyäpakatä | evaà sädhyavyäpakatve sati sädhanävyäpakatvädärdrendhanasaàyoga upädhiù | sopädhikatvät vahnimattvaà vyäpyatväsiddham || 27||

dépikä vyäpyatväsiddhasya lakñaëamäha --- sopädhika iti || upädherlakñaëamäha --- sädhyeti || upädiçcaturvidhaù kevalasädhyavyäpakaù, pakñadharmävac8hinnasädhyavyäpakaù, sädhanävacchinnasädhyavyäpakaù, udäsénadharmävacchinnasädhyavyäpakaçceti | ädyaù ärdr)ndhanasaàyogaù | dvitéyo yathä väyuù pratyakñaù prapyakñasparçäçrayatvät ityatra bahirdravyatvävacchinnapratyakñatvavyäpakamudbhütarüpavattvam | tåtéyo yathä --- prägabhävo vinäçé janyatvädityatra janyatvävacchinnänityatvavyäpakaà bhävatvam | caturtho yathä --- prägabhävo vinäçé prameyatvät ityatra janyatvävacchinnänityatvavyäpakaà bhävatvam | yasya sädhyäbhävaù pramäëäntareëa niçcitaù sa bädhitaù | yathä vahniranuñëo dravyatvät jalavat | atränuñëatvaà sädhyaà tadabhäva uñëatvaà sparçanapratyakñeëa guhyäta iti bädhitatvam || 28||

dépikä bädhitasya lakñaëamäha ---- yasyeti || atra bädhasya grähyäbhävaniçcayatvena, satpratipakñasya virodhijïänasämagrétvena säkñädanumitipratibandhakatvam | itareñäà tu parämarçapratibandhakatvam | taträpi sädhäraëasyävyabhicäräbhävarüpatayä, virüddhasya samänädhikaraëyäbhävatayä vyäpyatväsiddhasya viçiñöavyäptyabhävatayä, asädhäraëanupasaàhäriëoù vyäptisaàçayädhäyakatvena vyäptijïänapr6tibmndhakatvam, äçrayäsiddhisvarüpäsiddhayoù pakñadharmatäjïänapratibandhakatvam | upädhistu vyabhicärajïänadvärä vyäptijïänapratibandhakaù | siddhasädhanaà tu pakñatävighaöakatayä äçrayäsiddhävantarbhavatéti präïcaù | nigrahasthänäntaramiti navénäù || atha ñañöho'dhyäya | upamitikaraëamupamänam | saïjïäsaïjïisambandhajïänamupamitiù | tatkaraëaà sädåçyajïänam | atideçaväkyärthasmaraëamaväntara vyäpäraù | tathä hi kaçcidgavayaçabdärthamajänan kutiçcit är’ëyakapuruñäAgosa.åço gavaya iti çrutvä vanaà gato väkyärthaà smaran gosadåçaà piëdaà paçyati | tadantaramasau gavayaçabdaväcya ityupamitirütpadyate || 1||

dépikä upamänaà lakñayati ---- upamiti0araëamiti || atha saptamo'dhyäya |

äptaväkyaà çabdaù | äptastu, yathärthavaktä | väkyaà padasamühaù | yathä gämänayeti | çaktaà padam | asmätpadät ayamartho boddhavya itéçvarasaìketaù çaktiù || 1||

dépikä çabdaà lakñayati --- äpteti || äptaà lakñayati --- äptastviti || väkyalakñaëamäha ---- väkyamiti || padalakñaëamäha --- çaktamiti || arthasmåtyanukülapadapadärthasambandhaù çaktiù | sä ca padärthäntaramiti m)mäàsakäù | tanniräsärthamäha --- asmäditi || òitthädénämiva ghaöädénämapi saìketa eva çaktiù na tu padärthäntaramityarthaù | nanu gavädipadänäà jätäveva çaktiù, viçeñaëatayä jäteù prathamamupasthitvät | vyaktiläbhästu äkñepäditi kecit | tat na, gämänyetyädau våddhavyavahäreëa sarvatränayanädervyaktäveva sambhavena, jätiviçiñöavyaktäveva çaktikalpanät | çaktigrahaçca våddhavyavahäreëa | vyutpitsurbälo `gämänaya' ityuttamavåddhaväkyaçravaëäntaraà madhyamavåddhasya pravåttimupalabhya gavänayanaà ca dåñövä madhyamavåddhapravåttijanakajïänasyänvayavyatirekäbhyäà väktajanyatvaà niçcitya `açvamänaya gäà badhäna' iti väkyäntare äväpodväpäbhyäà gopadasya gotvaviçiñöe çaktiù, açvapadasya açvatvaviçiñöe çaktiriti vyutpadyate | nanu sarvatra käryaparatvädvayavahärasya käryaparaväkya eva vyutparttina siddhapara iti cet na | ` käçyäà tribhuvantilako bhüpatiräste ' ityädau siddhe'pi vyavahärät, ` vikasitapadme7madhukarastiñ5haei ' ityädau prasiddhapadasamabhivyavahärätsiddhe'pi madhukarädivyutpatt6darçanäcca | lakñaëäps çabdavåttiù | çakyasambando l1kñaëä | gaìgäyäà ghoña ityatra gaìgäpadaväcyapravähasambandhädeva téropasthitau tére'pi çaktirna kalpyate | saidhavädau lavaëäçvayoù parasparasambandhäbhävännänäçaktikalpanam | lakñaëä trividhä ---- jahalla1ñaëä, ajahallakñaëä, jahada allakñaëä ceti | yatra väcyärthasyänvayäbhävaù tatra jahallakñaëä | yathä maïcäù kroçantéti | yatra väcyärthasyäpyanvayaù, tatra ajahaditi | yathä chatriëo gaccantéti | yatra väcyaikadeçatyägena ekadeçänvayaù, tatra jahadajahaditi | yathä tattvamaséti | gauëyapi lakñaëaiva lakñyamäëaguëasambandhasvarüpä yathä agnirmäëavaka iti | vyaïcanäpi çaktilakñaëäntarbhütä, çabdaçaktimülä ar/haçaktimülä ca | anumänädinä anyathäsiddhä | tätparyänupapattirlakñaëäbéjam | tatprététécchayoccaritatvaà tätparyam | tätparyajïänaïca väkyärthajïäne hetuù nänärthänurodhät | prakaraëädikaà tätparyagrähakam | dväramityädau pidhehéti çabdädhyähäraù | nanu arthajïänärthatväcchabdasyärthamavijïäya çabdädhyähäräsambhavädarthädhyähära eva yukta iti cet na | padaviçeñaja yapadärthopastitheù çäbdajïäne hetutvät | anyathä ` ghaöaù karmatvamänayaà kåtiù ' ityaträpi çäbdajïänaprasaìgät | paìkajädipadeñu yogarüòhiù | avayavaçaktiryogaù | samudäyaçakté rüòhiù | niyatapadmatvädijïänärthaà samudäyaçaktiù | anyathä kumude'pi prayogaprasaìgät | ` itaränvite çaktiù ' iti präbhäkaräù | anvayasya väkyärthatayä bhänasambhavädanvayäàçe'pi çaktirna kalpanéyä iti gautaméyäù |

äkäìkñä yogyatä sannidhiçca väkyärthajïänahetuù padasya padäntaravyatirekaprayuktänvayänanubhävakatvam äkäìkñä | arthäbädho yogyatä | padänämavilambenoccäraëaà sannidhiù || 2||

dépikä äkäìkñets || äkäìkñädijïänamityarthaù | anyathä äkäìkñädibhramäcchäbdabhramo na syät | äkäìkñäà lakñayati --- padasyeti || yogyatälakñaëamäha ---- artheti || sannidhilakñaëamäha ---- padänämiti | avilambena padärthopasthitiù sannidhiù | uccäraëaà tu tadupayogitayoktam |

äkäìkñädirahitaà väkyapramäëam | yathä gauraçvaù purüño hastéti na pramäëamäkäìkñävirahät | agninä siïcediti na pramäëaà yogyatävirahät | prahare prahare'sahoccäritäni gämänayetyädipadäni na pramäëaà sännidhyäbhävät || 3||

dépikä gauraçva iti || ghaöakarmatvamityapyanäkäìkñodäharaëaà drañöavyam | väkyaà dvividham | vaidikaà laukikaà ca | vaidikaméçvaroktatvätsarvameva pramäëam | laukikaà tväptoktaà pramäëam | anyadapramäëam || 4||

dépikä väkyaà vibhajate --- väkyamiti || vKidikasya vSçeñamäha --- vaidikaméçvaroktatväditi || nanu vedasyänäditvätkathaméçva)oktatvamiti cet na | ` vedaù paurüñeyaù väeyasamühatvät bhäratädivat ' ityanumänena paurüñeyatva5iddheù | na ca smaryamäëakartåkatvamupädhiù, gautamädibhiù çiñyaparamparayä vede'pi sakartåkatvasmaraëena sädhanavyäpakatvät | ` tasmättepänättrayo vedä ajäyanta ' iti çruteçca | nanu varëä nityäù, sa eväyaà gakära iti platyabhijïäbalät | tathä ca kathaà vedasyänityatvamiti cet na, ` utbanno gakäro viniñöo gakära ' ityädipratétyä varëänämanityatvät, ` so'yaà gakära ' iti pratyabhijïäyäù ` seeyaà dépajvälä ' itivatsäjätyävalambanatvät, varëänäà nityatve'pyänupürväviçiñöaväkyasyänityatväcca | tasmädéçvaroktä vedäù | manvädismåténämäcäräëäà ca vedamülakatayä pramäëyam | småtimülaväkyänämidänémanadhyayanättanmülabhütä käcicchäravotsanneti kalpyate | nanu paöhyamänavedaväkyotsädanasya kalpayitumaçakyatayä viprakérëavädasyäyuktatvännityänumeyo vedo mülamiti cet na, tathä sati kadäpi varëänämänupürvéeïänäsambhavena bodhakatväsanbhavät | väkyerthajïänaà çäbdajïänam | tatkaraëaà çabdaù || 5||

dépikä nanu etäni padän8 smäritärthasaàsargavanti rkäìkñädimatpadakadambakatvät maeväkyavat ityanumänädeva saàsargajïäsambhaväcchabdo na pramäëäntaramiti cenna | anumityapekñayä vilakñaëasya çäbdajïänasya ` çäbdäSpratyemi ' itvanuvyavasäyaàsäkñikasya sarvasammatatvät | nanvarthäpattirapi pramäëäntaramasti ` péno devadatto divä na bhuìkte ' iti dåñö0 çrute vä pénatvänyathänupapattyä rätribhojanamarthäpattyä kalpyata iti cenna | ` devadatto rätreu bhuìkte divä'bhuujänatve sati pénatvät ' ityanumänenaiva hätribhojanasya siddhatvät | çate païcäçaditi sambhavo'pyanumänameva | ` iha vaöe yakñastiñöhati ' ityaitihyamapi ajïätamlavaktåkaçabda eva | ceñöäpi çabdänumänadvärä vyavahäraheturiti na pramäëäntaram | tasmätpratyakñänumänopamänaçabdäçcatväryeva pramäëäni || atha heöamo'd&yära | NaiyAyikA theory on epistemology jïänänäà tadvati tatprakärakatvaà svatog91hyaà parato veti vicäryate | tatra vipratipattiù ------jïänaprämäëyaà tadaprämäëyägrähakayävajjïänagrähakasämagrégrähyaà na vä iti | atra vidhikoöiù svatastvam | niñedhakoöiù paratastvam | anumänädigrähyatvena siddhasädhanaväraëäya yävaditi | ' idaà jïänamapramä ` iti jïänena prämäëyägrahädvädhaväraëäya ----- aprämäëyägrähaketi|| idaà jïänamapramä ityanuvyavasäyaniñöhaprämäëyagrähakasyäpi aprämäëyägrähakatväbhävätsvatastvaà na syädatassa9iti | tasmingrähyaprämäëyäçraye'prämäëyägrähiketyarthaù | udähåtasthale vjavasäyäprämäëyagrähakasyäpyanuvyavasäye tadgrähakatvätsvatastvasiddhiù | Janu svata eva prämäëyaà gåhya7e, ` ghaöamahaà jänämi ' ityanuvyavasäyena ghaöaghaöatvayoriva tatsambandhasyäpi viñayékaraëät vyavasäyarüpa pratyäsattestulyatvät | purovartOni prakärasambandhasyaiva pram1tvapadärthatväditi cet na | svataùprämäëyagrahe ` jalajïänaà pramä na vä ' ityanabhyäsadaçäyäà pramätvasaàça0o na syät | anuvyavasäyena prämäëasya niçcitatvät | tasmätsvatogrähyatväbhävätparuto g0äAyatvameva | tathähi | prathamaà jalajïänäntaraà pravåttau satyäà jalaläbhe sati pürvotpannaà jalajïänaà pramä saphal(pravåttijanakatvät yannaivaà tannaivaà yathä apramä iti vyatirekiëä pramätvaà niçcéyate | dvitéyädijïäneñu p7rvajïänadåñöäntena tatsajätéyatvaliìgenänvayavyatih8kiëäpi gåh,ate | pramäyä gu9ajanyatvamutpattau paratastvam | pramäsädhäraëakäraëaà guëaù, apramäsädhäraëakär1ëaà deñaù | taera pratyakñe viçeña1uvadviçeñyasannikarño guëaù | anumitau vyäpakavati vyäpyajïänam | upamitau yathärthasädåçyajïä8rm | çäbdajïäne yathärthayogyatäjïäname| ityädyühanéyam | purovartini prakäräbhävaKyänuvyavasäeenänupasthitatvädapramätvsà parata eva gåhyate | pittädidoñajanyatvamutpattau paratastvam | nanu sarveñäà jïänänäà yathärthatvädayathärt ajïänameva nästéti | na ca ` çuktävidaà rajatam ' iti jïänätpravåttidarçanädanyathäkhyätisiddhiriti väcyam1| ra(aMAsmåtipurovartijïänäbhyämeva pravåttisa8bhavät | svatantropasthiteñöabhedägrahasyaiva sarvatra pravartakatvenaS` nedaà rajatam ' ityädau atiprasaìgäbhäväditi cet na | s tyarajasthale purovartiviçeñyakarajatatvaprakärakajïänasya läghavena pravåttijanakatayä çuktävapi raja6ärthi pravåttijanakatvena viçiñöajïänasyaiva kalpanät |

The author of Tarka Sangraha, along with its Dipika is Annambhatta .RThis is a very well known work and most Vedantins today consider it as the stepping stone to un6erstand the -, systems of logic.

The Nine Tenets of Vedanta

Introduction The word prameya may be defined, in accordance with the meani5g given to it by Sri Jayatiirtha, as "the subject of exact knowledge." All knowledge involves three entities: the subject, the knower, and the knowledge itself. If the knowledge is exact, then these are called the prameya, the pramaataa (or pramaat.r), and the pramaa, respectively. Knowledge itself can be of three kinds: yathaartha-j~naana, or exact knowledge; samshaya-j~naana, or doubtful knowledge; and -j~naana, or incorrect knowledge. Thus, exact knowledge is that which precludes the presence of doubt or incorrect understanding. However, it is not necessary for knowledge to be complete in all respects, for it to be considered exact. Knowledge may be considered exact to whatever extent it is present, even if the subject of the knowledge is not known to its fullest extent. The shloka by Sri Vyaasa Tiirtha lays out nine important tenets, all seemingly simple on the s6rface but having a world of depth, as the prameya-s of Tattvavaada. These prameya-s are consistent among themselves, and are complete in defining Ta,tvavaada; thus, they give a coherent and unique definition of the whole doctrine. It is very characteristic of uri Vyaasa Tiirtha to have digested the whole of the corpus of a large number of commentaries, original texts, glosses, etc., and presented a very pithy and yet easy-to-understand statement of the doctrine as presented in all of them. In reading and analyzing the shloka that explains the prameya-s, one finds a faithful echo of many of Srimad Ananda Tiirtha's own statements; Sri Vyaasa Tiirtha compromises neither the nature nor the intensity of his master's unequivocal assertions. His prameya-shloka is thus a faithful recap of the subjects expounded upon by the previous schtlars in the tradition, and it 7ay be asserted that atcorrect understanding of the sdloka is equivalent to a grasp of the fundamental tenets of Tattvavaada.

The prameya-shloka The shloka that lays out the nine prameya-s is

shrIman-madhva-mate hariH parataraH satyaM jagat.h tattvato | bhedo jIvagaNAH hareranucharAH nIchochcha bhAvaN^gatAH | muktirnaijasukhAnubhUtiramalAbhaktishcha tatsAdhanam.h | hyaxAditrayaM pramANamakhilAmnAyaikavedyo hariH ||

This may be split as: shrIman.h madhva-mate In Madhva's doctrine

1> hariH parataraH Hari (Vishnu) is Supreme 2> satyaM jagat.h The world is true (real) 3> tattvataH bhedaH T5e differences are real 4> jIvagaNAH hareH anucharAñ The classes of souls are cohorts of Hari 5> nIchochcha bhAvaN^gatAH And reach different ultimate states 6> muktiH naija-sukha-anubhUtiH mukti (liberation) is the experience of the joy of one's own nature 7> amalA-bhaktiH-cha tat.h sAdhanaM That is achieved by flawlees devotion and [correct understhnding] 8> axAditrayaM hi pramANaM observation), etc., are indeed the sources of knowledge 9> akhila-AmnAya-eka-vedyo hariH Hari alone is praised in all the Vedas.

In The first prameya is: hariH parataraH Hari (Vishnu) is Supreme

But there really is a lot more complexity than just the simple statement that Vishnu is Supreme. Notice, in particular, that the statement is "hariH parataraH," rather than "hariH paraH" or "hariH paramaH."

`parataraH' can be interpreted in several ways -- for instance: • that the indicated (Vishnu) is Superior even to the exalted, i.e., that there is a gradation among entities other than Vishnu, and He is completely above even the highest among them.

• that Vishnu is Superior even to those who have reached liberation; that is to say, it is not the case that Vishnu is superior to oneself while one is in the world but one has the same status as Him after attaining liberation (or that one merges with Him upon liberation). He continues to be Superior even after liberation.

• that Vishnu is incomparably Superior in all respects, with respect to oneself and others; He is not just Superior by a slight margin, but is comprehensively so in every possible resbect. How so? &s Srimad Ananda Tiirtha says:

nArAyaNAya paripUrNa guNArNavAya vishvodaya sthitilayonniyati pradAya | j~nAnapradAya vibudhAsurasaukhya duHkha satkAraNAya vitatAya namonamaste |

NaaraayaNa, who is an ocean of complete virtues; Who causes the rise, sustenance, and fall of the universe; Who gives knowledge, and joy and suffering respectively to the good and the evil; Who is a Benevolent Cause, and 7s completely beyond comprehension: Him, I salute over and over.

Thus,1in all these respects, Vishnu (NaaraayaNa) is co&pletely beyond oneself and others.

Authorities in support of these are many. For instance, the , chapter fifteen, says:

dSAvimau purushhau lovbkxarashchAxara eva cha | xaraH sarvANi bhUtAni kUtastho.axara uchyate ||

There are two8types of sentiehts i0 the universe:jthe destructible and the indestructible. All creatures are destructible, while the anvil-like isecalled indestructible.

uttamaH purushhastvanyaH paramAtmetyudAh.rtar | yo lokatrayamAvishya bibhartyavyaya IshvaraH ||

The Supreme Being is different (from both the previous), and is thus called the `paramAtmA' (parama=Supreme; AtmA=Soul, sentient); He, who "invades" all three worlds and sustains them, though Himself unchanging, is .

yasmAt.h xaramatIto.ahaM axarAdapi chottamaH | ato.asmi loke vede cha prathitaH purushhottamaH ||

Because Ia(Krishna) am beyond the destructible, and am also Superior to the indestructible, thus am I called in the world, and in the Vedas, as the (Supreme Being).

In his commentary upon the Bhagavad Gita (and in other places as well), Srimad Ananda Tiirtha says that the `kUTastha' refers to , the consort of Vishnu, who is the "abhimAni" (controller) of all nature; thus, she is like a changeless anvil which supports change in others, in being herself changeless, but supporting all of nature that is ever-changing.

Thus, Krishna is saying that there are two kinds of entities in the universe; one, the destructible, which includes all creatures, and the second the anvil-like, Lakshmi, who sustains all nature without suffering change. He, the Lord Vishnu, is different from both, and is thus called Paramaatmaa. He, who inhabits all three worlds and sustains them, without suffering the changes and other travails of the universe, is called Ishvara (Lord).

II. The second prameya is: satyaM jagat.h The universe is true (real)

That the universe is real, needs no separate proof at all; it is known from the evidence of one's everyday experience. How is such experience to be invalidated? Possibly by scripture. But what value to scripture when it neHates the very source of knowledge that tells of the scripture's existence and worth in the first place? As Sr8mad Ananda Tiirtha puts it:

na cSAnubhava virodhe Agamasya prAmANyam.h |

Scripture has no validity if opposed to experience.

Thus, one finds that the universe cannot be considered an illusion, because, as Ananda Tiirtha says, again:

tatra pramANAbhAvAt.h |

-- there is no evidence for the same.

In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna says:

asatyamapratishhThaM te jagadAhuranIshvaram.h | aparaspara saMbhUtaM kimanyatkAmahaitukam.h ||

They (the evil) say that the universe is untrue (illusory), without basis [in reason/scripture], and without an Ishvara; that it has no mutual coherence, and is for nothing except lust-satisfaction.

Thus, the idea that the universe is illusory, or that it has no personal Creator, is strongly rejected in the Bhagavad Gita, among other places.

III. The third prameya is:

tattvataH bhedaH The differences are real

What is the nature of difference? Is the difference from something else inherent in an entity, or is it something apart from it? If0it is something else, then we have an infinite regress.

For if the difference is apart from the entity itself, then there must be a difference between the difference and the entity. Applying the same reasoning over and over, therefore, one has to postulate an infinite number of differences, showing the need for an infinity of description to capture difference. However, all this is avoided when one considers that the property of being different from every other entity, is part of the entity itself; as Ananda Tiirtha puts it:

padArthasvarUpatvAt.h bhedasya |

Because difference is the self-same nature of the entity (infinite regress does not occur).

Thus, because differences are the self-same properties of the entities of the universe themselves, and since the entities are real, the differences are also real. What are the types of difference? There are five, given by:

jIveshvarabhidA chaiva jaDeshvara bhidA tathA | jIvabhedo mithashchaiva jaDajIva bhidA tathA | mithashcha jaDabhedo.ayaM prapaJNcho bhedapaJNchakaH ||

-- paramashrutiH

The difference between soul and the Creator, and the differencu between the insentient and the Creator; the difference between any two souls, and the difference between insentient and soul; andpthe difference between any two insentients, Chese five differences constitute the universe.

But what about statements in the Vedas that apparently show the identity of jiiva (soul) and Ishvara (Creator)? Srimad Ananda Tiirtha says:

na hi kashchidapi abhedAgamaH | santi cha bhede sarvAgamAH |

There is never, ever, a statement of non-difference; all scripture shows difference, only.

This aspect is clarified in quotes like the f6llowing:

sarve vedA harerbhedaM sarvasmAt.h GYApayanti hi | bhedaH svAtantryasArvaGYyasarvaishvaryAdikashcha saH | svarUpameva bhedo.ayaM vyAvR^ittishcha svarUpatA sarvavyAvR^ittaye yasmAt.h svashabdo.ayaM prayujytte | sarvavyAvR^ittatAmeva netiVnetyAdikA shròtSH | vishhNorato vedAdanyA api sarvA na saMshayaH |

-- nArAyaNashrutiH

All the Vedas speak of the difference of Hari from all else. That difference lies in His independence, omniscience, and overlordship over all, eVc His essential nature itself constitutes His difference from all. Essential nature is what distinguishes an entity from others. The word 'sva' (self) in `svarUpa' (self-nature) meaning essential 3ature is used in order to distinguish an entity from all others. The Shrut1 (*) starting from "not thus, not thus," points to the difference of Vishnu from all else (from the sentients and the insentients, or from the destructible and the indestructible). All other Shruti texts also present the same truth. There is no doubt upon t9is point.

(*) -- BrhadaaraNyaka Upanishad.

This point is also made in the8Bhagavad Gita XV-15, where Krishna says:

vedaishcha sarvaiH ahameva vedyo |

All the Vedas and other scriptures tell of Me (Krishna) only.

Thus, they do no speak of an impersonal God, or of identity between jiiva and Ishvara; they speak only of Him who is absolutely beyond -- and therefore different.

IV. The fourth prameya is:

jIvagaNAH hareH anucharAH The classes of jiiva-s are cohorts of Hari

Notice the use of `sIva-raNAH' rather than `jIvAH'. The lapter uould simply mean "jiiva-s," but by using the former, it is indicated that the jiiva-s (souls) are not uniform, but are graded in quality.

How so?

The Taittiriiya Upanishad says:

te ye shataM mAnushhA AnandAH | sa eko manushhyagandharvANAmAnandaH |

te ye shataM devAnAmAnandAH | sa eka indrasyA.a.anandaH | etc.

A hundred times the enjoyment of a human; that is the enjoyment of a huma - gandharva.

A hundred times the enjoyment of the deva-s; that is the enjoyment of Indra.

The Padma PuraaNa also expounds upon that portion of the Taittiriiya Upanishad, and other such Shruti quotes, as follows:

nR^ipAdyAH shatadhR^ityantA muktigA uttarottam.h | guNaiH sarvaiH shataguNaiH modante iti hi shrutiH |

From the foremost-among-humans, to Brahma, the jviva-s attain mukti, with each step up qualifying for a hundred times the enjoyment of the previous -- thus indeed says the Shruti.

Thus, it is clearly indicated that all jiiva-s do not have identical degrees oa enjoyment. This can also be derived from inf8rence, as a matter of fact:

Consider that hll do &ot6have edentical positions of joy/suffering; why? If alljiiva -s are inherently identic&l, what c&uses Ahem to be different in their positsons in reality?

1> If because of tho Creato9, Kord Vishnu, then He may be accused of favoritism, malice, etc., and that is unacceptable. 2> If because of past karma, then why is the pastfkarma different for jiiva-s that are identical? What caused those to be different? 3> If because the jiiva-s themselves have different desires and thus choose different paths, how can they be called identical at all?

Thus, it follows from logic as well, that all jiiva!s are not identical.

But even granting that all jiiva-s are not identical, why would any jiiva do Vishnu's bidding? No one wants to be a mXrvant; all want to be free. Yet, as Ananda Tiirtha puts it:

svatantramasvatantraM cha dvividhaM tattvamishhyate | svatantro bhagavAn.h vishhNuH bhAvAbhAvau dvidhetarat.h ||

All entities are divided into two kinds -- the independent and the dependent. Lord Vishnu is independent, as He alone is different from both the positivesand the negative.

The use of `bhAvAbhAvau dvidhetarat.h' is tr indicate that Vishnu is not simply different from the things existing; for instance, if one simply says that Vishnu is not like anything intthe universe, there might be a suspicion ae to whether He is similar to some inexistent en)iTy thaH might be imaginedy

Therefore, as only Vishnu is truly Independent in every respect, it follows that all else m st folTow His dictates, one way or another.

In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna says: IshvaraH sarva-bhUtAnAM hR^iddeshe.arjuna tishhThati | bhrAmayan.h sarva-bhUtAni yantrArUDhAni mAyayA ||

The Creator resides in the hearts of all creatures; He makes them act, as though they were parts mounted on a machine.

V. The fifth prameya is:

nIchochcha bhAvaN^gatAH (The jiiva-s are) headed for higher and lower states.

If the jiiva-s are not inherently identical, one might wonder, do they yet reach the same ultimate state? If they6do, then)again one might accuse Vishnu of arbitrarily assigning ell jiiva-s to some fixed stste, not recognizing the higher worth of some of th2m. But, as a mattereof fact, it cannot be accepted that Vishnu is shown as flawed; as Srimad Ananda T9ir ha puts it:

dhyeyo nArAyaNaM nityaM sR^ishhTisthitya.ntakArakaH | bhaktAnAM muktido nityamadhamaj~nAninAM thmòH ||

Worthy of contemplation is that NaaraayaNa (Vishnu) who is Eternally the Cause of Creation, Sustenance, and Destruction; who is the Giver of mukti (liberation) to [His] devotees, and of eternal damnation to the evil.

But 6hae is5t0 s9riptural basis for this assertion? After al7, isn't it true that nearly every other doctrine denies the existence of eternal damnation?

In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna says:

UrdhvaM gachchhanti sattvasthA madhye tishhThanti rAjasAH | jaghanya guNa-vR^ittisthA adho gachchhanti tAmasAH ||

Upwards (to liberation) go those situated in sattva; the rAjasa-s stay in the middle; those situated in abominable qualities and deeds, the taamasa-s, go to the lowest state.

But can it not be argued that the `sattvasthA' refers to qualities born out of attachment to other entities, rather than to innate qualities, thus showing that eternality of the states described is not indicated? Not so. In a previous chapter of the 'Gita itself, it is said:

traiguNya vishhayA vedA nistraiguNyo bhavArjuna | nirdvandvo nityasattvastho niryogaxema AtmavAn.h || The Veda-s deal with the three qualities -- [knowing them], be without the three qualities, O Arjuna; be free of the pairs-of-opposites (love/hate, friendship/enmity, etc.), continuously situated in sattva, without concern for accrual or maintenance [of material entities], and given to contemplation of the Lord.

Now, the three guNa-s, or qualities, are sattva, loosely translated as "goodness," rajas, translated similarly as "indiff&rence," andtamas , also so translated as "evil." Now, Krishna is telling Arjuna to stay apart fro5 the three guNa-s, and yet be always s6tuated in sattva; does this make any sense?

It does, if one considers that guNa-s can be either acquired, or of one's own innate nature. Krishna is tellpng Arjuna to slough off all his acquired guNa-s, and be situated in the sattva that is his own nat1re (it cannot be the other way!).

But why can it n6t be argued that there are no qualities of one's own nature, at all, but all qualities are merely acquired by association?

For several reasons; some of them are: 1. W ile there are instances of qualities being acquired, there is never an instance of the property of having qualities, itself being acquired.

2f An entity that has no quality similar (even in being opposite) to the one being acquired, cannot even form the association necessary to effect the acquisition.

3. Considering that the qualities of good, indifference, and evil cannot be said to reside in the Lord or in inanimate nature, the question arises as to where they are being acquired from. Also, observe that the exact word `sattvasthA' used in "traiguNya vishhayA vedA" to denote the quality of one's own nature, is also used in "UrdhvaM gachchanti sattvasthA," thus showing that it is the inherent, rather than the overlaid, quality that is being referred to. In any event, it is also seen that Krishna uses `rAjasAH' ("the indifferent") and `tAmasAH' ("the evil") as if they were inherent to the jiiva-s described; there is no indication in His words that the qualities indicated are acquired ones.

Further s7pport for the position is found in the sixteenth chapter:

tAnahaM dvishhataH krUrAn.h saMsAreshhu narAdhamAn.h | xipAmi ajasraM ashubhAn.h AsurIshhveva yonishhu || dà-|| AsurIM yonimApannA mUDhA janmani-janmani | B maprApyaiva kaunteya tato yAntyadhamAM gatim.h || 20 ||

Those who are hateful towards me, are cruel and the worst humans in the world; them I forever hurl only into demonaic species. Having reached evil species in birth afte, birthp the fools; completely failin1 to0reach me, only, they then go to the lowest state.

Notice the use of `eva' (meaning, "only," or "certainly") in the second line of the 20th verse; it is clearly stated that there are some who never reach mukti.

The IshAvAsya Upanishad says:

a.ndhantamaH pravishanti ye.avidyAmupAsate |

Unto a blinding darkness (eternal hell) enter those who worship falsely.

VI. The sixth prameya is:

muktiH naija-sukha anubhUtiH Liberation is the complete experience of the joys of one's own nature.

Consider what liberation might be. If it is to mean ceaseless bliss, then one has to wonder what the source of such ceaseless bliss might be. If the source is something in the material world, then the bliss cannot possibly be eternal, and must cease. If the source of bliss is the Lord, then it could be eternal, but He could be accused of partisan behavior, because He evidently gives such bliss to some but not to others. Therefore, the joy experienced by the soul in its state of liberation can only properly be that of its own nature.

In the BhaagavatA PuraaNa, it is saSd:

muktirhitvAnyathArUpaM svarUpeNa vyavasthitiHk|

Mukti is when other-attributes (those not of one's self-sa5e nature) are given up, and [one is] situated in one's own natur0.

Similarly, Srimad Ananda Tiirtha quotes from the Rt Ve)a:

paraJNjyotirupasampadya svena rUpeNAbhinishhpadyate |

[In mukti], having earned the form of the highest brilliance, [one experiences] one's own forTa2o an excellent degree.

But what is the significance of the prameya-shloka saying `anu-bhUtiH' (excellent experiencing, or complete experiencing) rather than just `bhUtiH' (for Wxperiencing)? Is there any state where one8may experience only part of the joy of one's pw7 nature? In his salutation before commencing the commentary upon the Vishnu-taStva- vinirNaya, Sri JaMatiirtha has said:

svApad pçApayati shramApahR^itaye kalpAvasnne cha yaH taM devaM pitaraM patiM gurutamaM vande ramAvallabham.h ||

He, who gives sleep, to remove the stress of work, at thp end of the kalpa as well; that Deity, Fathe-, Lord, the highest among guru-s, the Lord of Ramaa (Lakshmi), I salute. In the state of deep sleep, a person has no contact with the senses, and6thu6, sense- based satisfaction does not exist. However, it is a matter of common exp0rience that sleep is very satisfying, and that upon awakening, one always recalls it to have been a very pleasing experience. So whe&e is the joy of sleep coming from? Since it cannot be from association with epternal entities, it has to be from the jiiva-s own nature. The other state where a jiiva may experience partial joy of its own nature, is in the interregnum between kalpa-s, when Creation does not exist. At that time, too, there is no contact with material nature, and the jiiva experiences a state similar to deep sleep. Thus, Sri Jayatiirtha worships Lord Vishnu as the removeu of stress, during sleep, as well as at thepend of the Kalpa.

mII. The seventh prameya is:

SmalA bhaktiH cha tat.h sAdhanaM That 6moksha) is achieved by flawless devotion and [correct understanding]

But whSeis moksha (liberation) even desirab6e2 Why should one not focus on achieving 7ther ends? There are said to be four ends that one can strive for: dharma, or religious/spiritual merit; artha, or wealth; kAma, or sensory satisfaction; and moksha (mukti), or liberation from the world. Of these, why is moksha the highest?

apätyatvAtsaduHkhatvAnna dharmAdyAH paraM sukham.h | moxa eva parAna.ndaH saMsare parivartatAm.h |

-- mahAñhArkpa

Because dharma, etc., are non-eyerlasting, and are always mixed with pain, dharma, etc., are not the supreme ben,fit; moksha alone is the supreme joy, and is beyond the ken of the world.

That gives the reason why it is that moksha should be the primary objective of one's striving, in preference to the other types o9Tpossible benefits.

Srimad Ananda Tiirtha states: mokshashcha vishhNu-prasAdena-vinA na labhyate |

Moksha and [the other ends] are not obtained without Vishnu's grace.

That mukti is achieved by the grace of Vishnu, and not achieved otherwise, is known clearly from several sources, for instance:

aj~nAnAM j~nAnado vishhNoH j~nAninAM moxadasñcha naH | Ana.ndadashcha muktAnAM sa evaiko janArdanaH ||

-- skAnda-purANa

To the un-knowing, Vishnu giveseknowledge; to the knowing, He gives moksha; To the liberated, He gives joy, and He alone is fit for all to worship.

And also:

ye tu sarvANi karmANi mayi sanyasya matparaH | ananyenaiva yogena mAM dhyAyanta upAsate || teshhAmahaM samuddhartA mR^ityusaMsArasAgarAt.h | bhavAMi na chirAtpArtha mayyAveshitachetasAm.h ||

bhagavadgItA

Those who, having surrendere8 alleactions unto me, without fail, perform (bhakti)- yoga, meditate upon and worship me;

For t9,m, who have imbued Me into their consciousness completely, I am the Swift Deliverer from the ocea& of death and material existence.

And also:

yasya prasAdAtparamArtirUpAdasmAtsaMsArAnruchyate nApareka | nArAyaNo.asau paramo vichi.ntyo mumuxubhiH karmapAshAdamushhmAt.h ||

-- nArAyaNashrutiH

By whose grace alone, the greatly suffering are rid of the world, and not otherwise; He is NaaraayaNa, the Supreme, and the one fit to be contemplated upon by those who seek to be liberated from the binds of karma.

What is devotion? In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna has said:

yo mAM evñM asammUDho jAnAti purushhottamaM | sa sarvavit.h bhajati mAM sarvabhAvena bhArata ||

He who knows Me, without a doubt, as being the Suprbme Person; he is considered to know all [the scriptures], and worships Me in all possible ways,6O Bhaarata (Arjuna).

Thus, it is necessary to know the Lord's qualities as they are, for otherwise, a proper devotion to Him is not attained. In the previous verses to this one (which were cited in connection with the first prameya), Krishna has defined the exact meaning of `purushhottama' as being One who is different from, and vastly Superior to, the destructible and thefindestructible.

How and why may devotion to the Lord be possibly flawed? If one considers oneself to (also) be the Lord, or to be the same as He, or to be even superior, or if one considers another than the Lord to be Supreme, or such, then one's devotion is flawed, and will not result in liberation. As Ananda Tiirtha puts it:

jIvAbhedA nirguNatvaM apUrNaguNatA tathA | sAmyAdhikyaM tadanyeshhAM bhedastadgata eva cha | prAdurbhAva viparyAsaH tadbhaktadveshha eva cha | tatpramANani.ndAM cha doshhA ete.akhilA matAH | etairvihIna yA bhaktiH sA bhaktiriti uchyate ||

-- mahAbhArata-tAtparya-nirNaya

The significant parts are: 1. jiivAbhedA - to consider there to exist intrinsic abheda between jiiva(s) and the Lord.

2. nirguNatvaM - to consider the Lord as attributeless.

3. apUrNaguNatA - to consider the Lord as having limited attributes (quality and/or quantity).

4. sAmya - to consider oneself or some other entity to be equal to Him

5. AdhikyaM tadanyeshhAM - to consider onself or some other entity to be superior to the Lord.

6. bhedastadgataeva cha - To consider His incarnations to be different from Him (or from each other) in worth, value, etc.

7. prAdurbhAvaviparyAsaH - To consider the Lord as being born like ordinary mortals during His incarnations.

8. tadbhaktadveshha - To hate His devoteesr

9. tatpramANa ni.ndAM cha - To condemn/hate,the pwimordial -s 0Shruti, etc.) Considering the Lord non-different from soul(s), and considering Him to be of incomplete qualities; considering someone other than He to be equal to, or superior than, Him, and considering He Himself to have inherent difference within Himself (as in considering different forms of Him to be different from each other, etc.); to say that He suffers the sorrows of birth, etc., in His incarnations; to hate His devotee(s); to criticize or Cate the authorities regarding the Lord; these are all the flaws possible (in devotion)

-- devotion that is devoid of these, is called bhakti.

Srimad Achaarya says that just as a king puts down those subjects of his who are disloyal to him, the Lord puts down those jiiva-s w6o refuse to be loyal to Him. Disl6Sa ty to the threne(can take several foSms -- refusing to acknowledge the king, considering oneself or another to (also) be the king orEas powerful as the king, condemning the servpnts of the king, speaking ill of the dictates of the king, etc. So also, disloyal6y to the Lord can be as , a histaken belief in edentity with the )ord, the worship of other deities as the Lord, attempting to hurt or harm devotees of the Lord, condemning the scriptures, etc. And while a human king is limited in his power, and is also bounded in his influence by space and time, the Lord faces no such li7itation. Thus, whilst there exists the possib&lity of escaping pan6shment in spite of defying a king, there is no0e such when defying the Lord.

It is seen that all of these flaws may be considered in1tances where one does not &nderstand the Lord as the Purushottama, and these are all the1possible instances where proper understanding of Him as being so may lapse. Thus, when such lapses are noe founp, bhakti exists.

To quote Srimad Ananda Tiirtha again:

j~nAnapUrvaM parassnehaH nityo bhakti itIryate |

Continuous/ceaseless affection for the Lord, which is accompanied by the proper knowledge, is called devotion.

Sri Jayatiirtha offers the following equivalent but more explicit definition:

anantakalyANaguNatvaj~nAnapUrvakaH antrAyasahasreNApi apratibaddhaH prema pravAhaH bhaktiH |

Knowing the Lord as full of completely auspicious infinite attributes, and maintaining a stream of unperturbed love towards Him even if there be a tho8sand obstacles or problems, is bhakti. That is to say, one is not to have "devotion" when things are going well for oneself, but criticize Him when they are no&, etc., as one is apt to do.

:III. The eighth arameya is:

axAditrayaM hi pramANaM The triad of pratyaksha, etc., are indeed the sources of valid knowledge

The word `pramANa' is defined by Ananda Tiirtha using the statement:

yathArthaM pramANam.h |

That which is as-is, is a praiANa .

This is a definition of the word pramANa. But what is a definition of something? What does it mean ta define something If there is an entity to be defined, which we refer to as a lakshya, then a property, called a lakshaNa, must be given for it; this statement of a property is a definition. But what kind if property is suitable for use in a definition?

Sri Jaya&iirtha sa s:

öakshyamAtravyApako dharmo lakshaNam.h |

A prop0rty that extends only to the entity to be described, is a lakshaNa.

Consider the case of a cow. If one has to specify what oneemeans by `cow', then how does one do so? One cannot say that cows have four feet, because many animals do, and this specificauion has the flaw of "ati-" -- excess over legitimate domain. One c7nnot say that cows are wh8te with brown spots on their skin, because not all 5ows are like that, and this 8p9cification carries the flaw of "a-vyApti," or n&t extending to all cases of the defined. A proper lakshaNa is given by:

sAsnAdimAo.h gauH |

A cow is that which has a flap of loose skin hanging at its throat, etc. (Other properties like four-leggednesst etc., to be adped in support of this one.)

Thus, just as the property of having a loose flap of skin at the throat is unique to the cow and is thus a lakshaNa for a cow, the property of being "yathArtha" -- (s-is, i5 uEique to the pramANi , and is a lakshaNa for a pramANa. Therefore, the pramANa- lakshaNa is given by "yathArthaM pramANam.h" rather than in any other way. Srimad Ananda Tiirtha further states:

tat.h dvividham.h | kevalaM anupramANaM cha |

That (pramANa) is of two kinds -- kevala-, and anu-pramANa.

yathArthaj~nAnaM kevalam.h |

Knowledge which is as-is, is called kevala.

tatsAdhanaM anupramANam.h |

The source of that (the previo9s) is anu-pramANa.

And after some further discussion about kevala-pramANa, he says:

anupramANaM trividham.h ò pratyaxamanumAnamAgamaM iti | anu-pramANa is of three types: pratyaksha, anumAna, and Agama -- thus.

Generally speaking, the word `pramANa' is often applied to refer to this kind -- in the prameya-shloka, Sri Vyaasa Tiirtha applies it so. So in fact, the three kinds of anu- pramANa are what are mentioned as "the triad of pratyaksha, etc.," in the verse.

nirdoshhArthendriya sannikarshaH pratyaksham.h |

Flawless interaction between a sense-organ and an entity in its domain, is called pratyaksha.

In another context, Sri Madhva has also quoted the Brahma-Tarka statement:

vishhayAn.h pratisthitaM hi akshaM pratyakshaM iti kIrtitam.h |

A sense-organ that is flawlessly situated upon a subject of its observation, is known as pratyaksha.

Similarly, he gives anquSte from there saying:

tarko adushhTaH tathA anumA |

Inference that is without flaw sonstitVtes logic.

What are the flaws of inference?

AtmAnyonyAshraya chakrakAnavasthAkalpanAgaurava shrutadR^ishhTahAnAdayodUshhaNAnumA |

AtmAshraya, anyonyAshraya, chakrakAshraya, , kalpanAgaurava, shruta- hAna, dR^ishhTa-hAna, etc., are flaws of inference.

(Please look in the glossary of logical errors for the meanings of these terms.) Similarly, Agama is defined as:

nirdoshhaH shavdaH AgamaH |

Flawless teetual evidence is Agama.

Thus, in every case, it is not necessary for something to have a certain positive qualification in order to qualify as a pramANa ’- the mere l’ck of a flaw is considered sufficient. That is to say, the quality of being a pramANa -- which is called prAmANya -- is inherent in a source of knowledge, unless such property is vitiated by a flaw. Any source of knowledge is assumed to convey as-is (exact) information unless there is reason to believe otherwise.

But how? Certain schools of thought hold that all sources of knowledge are flawed by themselves, and that thus, it is not possible to qualify a source of knowledge as a pramANa except upon support from another source. Srimad Ananda Tiirtha says:

prAmANyaM cha svata eva | anyathA.anavasthAnAt.h |

The quality of being a pramANa is of the self-same nature (of the source) only; otherwise, an infinite regress results.

Just consider -- if any one pramANa has to be qualified by another in order to be effective, then there has to be a third to qualify the second, and so on, with no end. There cannot ever be any valid knowledge at all, in that case. To avoid that situation, one must accept that the property of validity is inherent in a source of knowledge, unless such is vitiated by flaw.

But how does one know that there is a flaw somewhere? What is the source of such knowledge of flaw? Srimad Achaarya states:

bahupramANavirodhe chaikasyAprAmANyaä dR^ishhTaM shuktirajatAdau |

When many pramANa-s (or a stronger pramANa) oppose(s) a single source, then the latter's a-prAmANya, or non-validity, is seen, as in the case of the shell appearing as silver.

A famous example given in Vedanta is that of a sea-shell being seen in poor light, and of its glint in that light appearing to be that of silver, thus leading to the mistaking of the shell for a silver object. If one picks up the shell and observes it not to be made of silver, then the stronger evidence of one6s closer and careful observation is 0sed to dismiss the earlier one as unsatisfactory.

But it may be argued that a-prAmANya es known when a flaw is seen; so what's this about opposing a stronger or many pramANa-s, etc.?

na cha doshhajanyatvAdeva durbalatvamiti virodhaH | bahupramANaviruddhAnAM doshhajanyatvaniyamAt.h |

It is not to be said that the previous is incorrect because a-prAmANya is always born of flaw; for there exists a rule that opposition to many (or stronger) pramANa(s) is born of flaw.

Further clarification:

doshhajanyatvaM cha balavatpramANavirodhAdeva j~nAyate |

The fact of the source being vitiated by flaw, is known only by its opposition to stronger evidence.

Coming back to the prameya-shloka quote "akshAditrayaM hi pramANaM," there are two parts to the issue: 1. That pratyaksha, etc., are pramANa-s, and may not be dismissed as not being so.

2. That there exists no source of exact knowledge which is not covered under these three. For the latter point, one has to consider that there are certain other types of pramANa given by some other schools of thought: for instance the following –

1> arthApatti -- this is defined by

arthataH prAptirevArthApattirityAbhidhIyate |

Something obtained (derived) by exclusion is called arthApatti.

An example for this is given by the famous "pIno devadattaH; divA na bhuN^kte -- tasmAt.h, rAtro bhuN^kte" -- Devadatta is very stout; he does not eat during the day time -- therefore, he eats at night.

By excluding all except a certain case, and knowing that one of the cases must hold, one considers whichever case is not excluded, to be true, and this type of pramANa is called arthApatti. 2> upamAna -- this is defined by

dR^ishhTvA sadR^ishamevAnyaM pUrvadR^ishhTe tu vastuni | etatsadR^ishatAj~nAnamupamAnaM prakIrtitam.h |

Upon perceiving a similarity with some entity that has been seen before; that knowledge of similarity is known as upamAna. For instance, knowing a forest-fire to be of a similar nature to a kitchen-fire, and coming to know that it must be very hot.

3> -- this literally means "absence," so that perception of some entity's absence is 1eld to be an independent pramANa. For instance, entering into an empty room, and observing the absence of a person one is looking for.

With regard to these, Srimad Achaarya states:

arthApattyupame anumA visheshhaH | arthApatti and upamAna are special cases of anumAna.

How so? Because it is possible to state an inference rule so that5given the conditions of thS arthApatti (or upamAna), one can arrivesat its conclusion; in fact, it turns out that such an inference is unconsciously applied in such a case.

Sri Jayatiirtha, says, inlhis commentary upon the Vishnu-tatva-vinirNaya:

kurupANdavavat.h sAmAnyavicheshhabhAvaM Ashritya arthApattyAdivyAvR^ittyarthaM etaduktam.h |

Just like the Kuru-Paandava relationship, which is used to indicate difference between the ordinary and the special, it should be understood that arthApatti, etc., are included [as part of anumaana].

Sri Srinivasa Tiirtha, the author of sub-commentaries upon many of Sri Madhva's works,esays in his Vaakyaartha-diipika, as commentary upon the statement by Sri Jayatiirtha:

yathA pANDavAnAM kauravavisheshhAtpR^ithaggrahaNaM evamarthApattyAdInAM anumAnavisheshhatvAt.h pR^ithaktvyAvR^ittyarthaM na kenachidityuktamityaröhBH |

Just as the Paansava-s were special cases of"the -s, and were t’us referred t7 a8 though separate, so also, arthApatti, etc., are special cases of anumAna (and are thus separately referred to), and it is thus not at all appropriate to exclude them from the purview [of anumaana] -- thus is the meaning. Sri Madhva has further said:

abhAvo anumA pratyakshaM cha | abhAva [is subsumed under] anumAna, pratyaksha, and [Agama].

This can be of three kinds, because an anu-pramANa can not only give knowledge of presence, it can also give knowledge of absence. A sense-organ can also p96ceipe absence of whatevet entity it is capable of perceiving. The ear,can detect sound as well as silence; the eye, light as well as darkness, etc.

Similarly, absence may also be inferred, or k9own from textual evidence. Thus, any specific case of absence5can always be reduced to one of the three given pramANa-s.

IX. Tpe last prameya is:

akhila-AmnAya-eka-vedyo hariH All the Vedrs speak solely of Hari

The meaning of `AmnAya' is given by the following verse (conjuncts split):

vedAste nityavinnatvAt.h shrutayashcha akhilaiH shruteH | AmnAyo ananyathA pAThAt.h IshabuddhiH sthitAH sadA ||

-- mahAvArAha upanishhad.h

The Vedas are ca8led `veda' for being eternally-present; because they are always "heard" (rather than composed), they are called `shruti'; they are called `AonAya ' for being recited without difference (i.e., for being unchanged over all time) -- they have allythese qualities because they are present in the mind of Ishvara (Vishnu) at all times.

Therefore, the word `AmnAya' in the quote refers to the Vedas, with special reference to the quality of their unchanging nature over all time. And the prameya is t6at the entire corpus of the unchanging Vedas speaks primarily of Hari (Vishnu) only. A7 Srim7d Ananda Tiirtha puts it:

o k vishhNusarvottamatvaM eva mahA-tAtparyaM sarvAgamAnAm.h |

The primary meaning of all AgamB-s is the Supremacy of Vishnu, only.

And he also says: mukhyataH sarvashabdaishcha vAchya eko janArdanaH | avyaktaH karmavAchyaishcha vAchya eko amitAtmakaH ||

All words (in the scriptures) primarily refer to the one Janaardana; even the unexpressed karma-referring portions (the karma-kANDa of the Vedas) refer to Him, whose nature is Boundless.

Scriptural evidence in sÇpport of this porr7hon is not scant. As seen with an earlier prameya, we have Krishna's statement in the 'Gita:

vedaishcha sarvaiH ahameva vedyo |

The Vedas and [their adjunct texts like the Itihaasa-s and PuraaNa-s] all speak of Me only.

We also have

mukhyaM cha sarvavedAnAM tAtparyaM shrIpateH param.h | -- mahAvArAha upanishhad.h

The chief import of all the Vedas is the Supremacy of the Lord-of- (Vishnu).

yo vipralambhaviparItamatiprabhUtAn.h vAdAnnirastakR^itavAn.h bhuvi tattvavAdam.h | sarveshvaro haririti pratipAdayantaM Ana.ndatIrthamunivaryamahaM namAmi ||

That doctrine which quells all positions arising out of ignorance and deceit, is Tattvavaada;

Ananda Tiirtha, the august among saints, who propounded the Supremacy of Hari over all, I salute.

|| bhAratIramaNamukhyaprANArntyrgata shrIkR^ishhNArpaNamastu || || shrI gurubhyo namaH hariH OM ||

Appendix: terms commonly used in Tattvavaada.

Canonical definitions, whIre known, are given within square brackets.

General terms:

pramaaNa ["yathaarthaM pramaaNam.h"] -- something that describes as-is, is called a pramaaNa. This can be of two types:

kevala-pramaaNa ["yathaartha-GYaanaM kevalam.h"] -- knowledge of something as-is, is called kevala-pramaaNa.

anu-pramaaNa ["tat-saadhanaM anu-pramaaNam.h"] -- the sourc6 of the preeious, is called an anu-pramaaNa, which can be of three types:

pratyaksha ["vishayaan.h prati-sthitaM hi aksham.h"] - flawless interaction between a sense of perception (like sight), and an object or entity in its domat6, is called pratyakshp.

anumaana ["tarkaH adushhTaH"] -- inference without flaw constitutesalogic. Flaws of inference are de’cribed below.

aagama ["adushhTaTvaakya"] -- sentences, or bodies of sentences (texts) withuut flaw, are caleed aagama.

Also of interest are:

pramaataa ["pramaavaan.h pramaataa"] -- a person in whom pramaa exists, is the pramaataa.

prameya ["pramaavishayaH prameyaH"] -- the subject of pramaa is the prameya.

pramaa ["yathaarthaGYaanaM pramaa"] -- knowledge tf something as-is i called pramaa.

Note: pramaa thus means the same thing asSkeval8-rramaaNa, except that it is used in a singular sense, to denote one piece of correct knowledge, etc.; the latter is more often used to indicate a body of correct knowledge, and such. hetu -- antecedent, in an inference. saadhya -- consequence, likewise. upa-jiivya -- anu-pramaaNa by which hetu is known. upa-jiivaka -- anu-pramaaNa fed by, or created by, saadhya.

Error terms.

Semantic errors (-dosha): virodha ["yogyataaviraho virodhaH"] -- This can loosely be translated as 'opposition,' and the definition reads loosely as: "Lack of ability is opposition." What the definition means to say is that if a statement runs counter to one already accepted, and is unable to force its own way, then it must be rejected, for being opposed to a known fact. asangati ["aakaaN^kshaaviraho asangatiH"] -- This can be translated as 'irrelevance,' and the definition reads: "Lack of fulfillment of expectation is irrelevance." In a discussion, if a reply given, a point raised, or a statement mare, ms not in accordance with the expectation that it be pertinent to the matter under discussion, then it is irrelevant. nyuunataa y"vivakshitaa.asaMpuurtirnyuunataa"] -- This can read as 'nullity,' with the definition reading loosely as: "Non-satisfaction of the claim constitutes nul0ity." Ie a discusSion, if someone makes a claim, and later gives evidence that does not support the claim in full, then such evidence suffers from nullity, with respect to the claim. Another type is where a definition given does not cover all cases of the objects or entities to be defined. aadhikyam : ["saN^gataavadhikatvamaadhikyam.h ] -- This can be translated as 'superfluity,' and the definition as: "An excess over what is relevant, constitutes superfluity." I8 a discusrion, 6f someone takes the meaning or definition of something to cover more than what it should, then such is superfluous. Another type is where a definition given covers more than the object, entity, or set to be defined.

Note: nyuunataa and aadhikya have also been referred to, in special cases, as a-vyaapti (non-domination), and ati-vyaapti (over-domination). The latter, ati-vyaapti, is the error responsible for Russell's paradox.

Logica5 errors (tarka-dosha): aatmapshraya : This can loosely be translated as "assumi7g the consequence," in some cases. More generally, however, if something "rests on itself," in the sense that an object or entity is stated to have a property such as pnesence within itself, supp rt of itself, etc., then this flaw exists. A standard example is "sva-skandha-aarohaNa" or "mounting one's own shoulder." anyonyaashriya : Loosely, "mutual reliance." If a statement is proved by another, and the latter by dhe former, then this error exists. chakrakaashraya : "cKrcular reliance," a.k.a. circular reasoning. A more general case of the above; if instead of two, we have 'n' number of disputed statements, that are tied in a 1irc0e so that each one proves the next, then circular reasoning is shown. anavasthaa : Infinite regress. If thepproof of a statement requires an assumption, and proof of that assumption requires another, and proof of that still another, and so on, then infinite regress is said to occur. pramaa-haana : "neglect of evidence," as in, when a statement neglects to take into account the fact that it is in opposition to accepted evidence. This itself has various forms: shruta-haana (neglect of Shruti), dR^ishhTa-haana (neglect of pratyaksha), etc. kalpanaa-gaurava : "Respect for imagination." If a statement must be assumed without proof, so that an inference based upon it may be accepted, thsn the inference is subject to the respect that has been accorded to one's imagination, and is unacceptable. Economy in 0ssumptions is a virtue. upajiivya-virodha : 9Opposition to upajiivya." If an inferende is made where the consequence runs ’ounter to phe source of knowledge by which the antecedent is known, then the inference is considered incorrect, for opposing the source of its own antecedent, and the error made is known as upajiivya virodha; as has already been noted, 'upajiivya' is the name given to the anu-pramaaNa from which the antecedent is known. apa-siddhaanta : "Invalid thesis." If a doctrine or a claim made is of such nature that its acceptance would render the doctrine itself false or without basis, then apa- siddhaanta-doshha -- the error of an invalid thesis -- isLsaid to occur.

Note: upajiivya virodha is actually a form of pramaa-haana, but iseoften referred to separately. Similarly, apa-siddhaanta-doshha is a form of upajiivya-virodha, but is referred to separately.

The Six Systems of Vedic Philosophy co8piled by Suhotra Sw9mi

Table of contents:

1. Introduction 2. Nyaya: The Philosophy of Logic and Reasoning 3. Vaisesika: Vedic Atomic Theory 4R Sankhya: Nontheistic Dualism 5. Yoga: Self-Discipline for Self-Realization 6. Karma-mimamsa: Elevation Through the Performance of Duty 7. Vedanta: The Conclusion of the Vedic Revelation Introduction

The word veda means "knowledge." In the modern world, we pse the term "science" to identify the kind of authoritative knowledge upon which human progress is based. To the ancient people of Bharatavarsha (Greater India), the word veda had an even more profound import that the word science has for us today. That is because in those days scientific inquiry was not restricted to the world perceived by the physical senses. And the definition of human progress was not restricted to massive technological exploitation of material nature. In Vedic times, the primary focus of science was the eternal, not the temporary; human progress meant the advancement of spiritual awareness yielding the soul's release from the entrapment of material nature, which is temporary and full of ignorance and suffering.

Vedic knowledge is called apauruseya, which means it is not knowledge of human invention. Vedic knowledge appeared at the dawn of the cosmos within the heart of Brahma, the lotus-born demigod of creation from whom all the species of lifa within the universe descend.KBrahma imparte- this ,nowledge in the form of sabda (spiritual sound) to his immediate sons, who are great sages of higher planetary Systems like the Satyaloka, Janaloka and Tapaloka. These sages transmitted tne Vedic sabda to disciples all over the universe, including wise men of earth in ancient times. Five thousand years ago the great Vedic authority Krishna Dvai6ayana Vyasa compiled the sabda into Sanskrit scripture (sastra) whicv cIllectively is known today as the Vedas.

In the Inm5a of old, the study of the Vedas was the special prerogative of the brahmanas (the priestly and intellectual class). There were four degrees of education in Vedic knowledge that corresponded to the four ashramas of brahminical culture (the brahmacari or student , the grhastha or ashrama, the or retired ashrama and the sannyasa or renounced ashrama). The first degree of learning was the memorization of the Vedic Samhita, which consists of 20,000 mantras (verses) divided into four sections --cRg, Sama, Yajur and Atharva -- that are chanted by priests in glorification of various aspects of the Supreme Being during sacrificial rituals. The second degree was the mastery of the Brahmana portion of the Vedas, which teaches rituals for fulfillment of duties to family, society, demigods, sages, other living entities and the Supreme Lord. The third degree was the m0st0ry of the portion, which prepares the retired householder for complete renunciation. The fourth degree was the mastery of the Upanisads, which present the philosophy of the Absolute Truth to persons seeking liberation from birth and death.

The texts studied in the four stages of formal Vedic education are collectively called sruti-sastra, "scripture that is to be heard" by the brahmanas. But sruti-sastra is not all there is to the Vedic literature. Chandogya Upanisad 7.1.2 declares that the Puranas and Itihasas comprise the fifth division of Vedic studV. The Puranas and7Itihasa teach the same knobledge as the four Vedas, but it is illustrated with extensive historical narrations. The 8ifth Veda is known as smrti-sastra ("scripture that must be remembered"). Sm1ti-sastra study was permitted to non-brahman9s. e

Traditionally, six schools of thought propagated Vedic wisdom, each from a different philosophical perspective. Each of these perspectives or darsanas is associated with a famous sage who is the author of a sutra (code) expressing the essence of his darsana. Vyasa's Vedanta-sutra, which carefully examines and judges the six systems of Vedic philosophy (as well as other philosophies), forms the third great body of Vedic literature after the sruti-sastraKand smrti-sastra. This is known as the nyaya-sastra, "scripture of philosophical disputation."

The sad-darsana (six philosophical views) are nyaya (logic), vaisesika (atomic theory), sankhya (analysis of matter and spirit), yoga (the discipline of self-realization), karma- mimamsa (science of fruitive work) and vedanta (science of God realization).

The sad-darsanas are termed philosophies (from asti, or "it is so"), because they all acknowledge the Veda as authoritative, as opposed to the nastika philosophies of the Carvakas, Buddhists and Jains (nasti, "it is not so"), who reject the Vedas. Beginning with nyaya, each of the sad-darsanas in their own turn presents a more developed and comprehensive explanation of the aspects of Vedic knowledge. Nyaya sets up the rules of philosophical debate and identifies the basic subjects ueder discussion: the physical world, the soul, God and liberation. Vaisesika engages the method of nyaya or logic in a deeper analysis of the predicament of material existence by showing that the visible material forms to which we are all so attached ultimately break down into invisible atoms. Sankhya develops this analytical process further to help the soul become aloof to matter. Through yoga, the soul awakens its innate spiritual vision to see itself beyond the bod,. Karma-mimamsa directs the soul to the goals of Vedic ritualism. Vedanta focuses on the supreme spiritual goal taught in the Upanisads.

Originally, the six darsanas were departments of study in a unified understanding of the Veda, comparable to the faculties of a modern university. But with the onset of Kali-yuga (the Age of Quarrel), the scholars of the darsanas became divided and contentious. Some even misrepresented Vedic philosophy for their own selfish ends. For instance, karma-mimamsa (which by 500 BC had become the foremost philosophy of the brahmana class) was misused by bloodthirsty priests to justify their mass slaughter of animals in Vedic sacrifices. But the unexpected rise of a novel non- Vedic religion challenged the power of karma-mimamsa. This new religion was Buddhism. By 250 BC, the influence of karma-mimamsa and other darsanas had weakened consi9erably. When King Ashoka instituted the Buddha's doctrine as the state philosophy of his empire, many brahmanas abandoned Vedic scholarship to learn and teach nastika concepts of (nonviolence) and sunyata (voidism).

Buddhism in its turn was eclipsed by the teachings of the Vedantist Shankara, who revived the Vedic culture all over India in the seventh century after Christ. Bht Shankara's special formulation of Vedanta was itself influenced by Buddhism and is not truly representative of the original vedanta-darsana taught by Vyasa (the last chapter will take this up in greater detail).

After Shankara, vedanta was refined by the schools of great teachers (acaryas) like Ramanuja and Madhva. Having shed the baggage of Shankara's crypto-Buddhism, Vedanta philosophers soared to heights of dialectical sophistication that has been much appreciated by many Western intellectuals.

It is through the dialectics of the major schools (sampradayas) of Vedanta that students can best observe the six systems of Vedic philosophy "in action." In dialectical Vedanta, arguments are taken from nyaya, vaisesika, etc. to 1) demonstrate that Vedanta is the most comprehensive of all the darsanas, and 2) to clarify the points of controversy that arise between the different schools of Vedanta itself. Vedantic dialectics are represented in the bhasyas (commentaries) of the acaryas and the tikas (subcommentaries) of their disciples. All possible philosophical positions, including some bearing remarkable resemblance to the ideas of European philosophers, are therein proposed, analyzed and refuted.

The study of the six systems of Vedic philosophy is itself a form of yoga: jnana-yoga, the yoga of theoretical knowledge. But from jnana6one must come to vijnana, practical realization of the ultimate truth. The sad-darsana are six branches of theoretical dialectics (sastratha) that twist and turn from thesis (purvapaksa) to antithesis (uttarapaksa) to synthesis (siddhanta) like the gnarled branches of a tree. But the ways of philosophical disputation do not themselves add up to the Absolute Truth. The Absolute Truth, be ng transcendental, is only indirectly framed in the branches of jnana, like the rising full moon may be framed by the branches of a tree. A friend who wishes us to see the moon may 7irst draw our attention to that tree. This may be compared to the indirect or theoretical stage of knowledge. Seeing the moon is vijnana.

There is a straightforward path to vijnana. It is explained in the Mahabharata, Vana- parva 313.117: "Dry arguments are inconclusive. Philosophers are known for their differences of opinion. Study of the branches of the Vedas will not bring one to the correct understanding of dharma. The truth is hidden in the heart of a self-realized person. Therefore one should follow the path of such great souls."

The Sanskrit word acarya is derived from acara, "behavior." The great teachers of Vedanta, the acaryas, were much more than just theoreticians: by their exemplary God-conscious behavior they marked out the path of practical transcendental realization. This is the path from jnana to vijnana. In India, the sampradayas (schools of Vedanta) establish5d by the great acaryas are bastions of sadacara, spiritual life. Students who enter these schools cultivate divine qualities -- cleanliness, austerity, truthfulness and mercy -- without which divine knowledge cannot manifest. Cleanliness is destroyed by illicit sex, austerity is destroyed by intoxication, truthfulness is destroyed by gambling and mercy is destroyed by meat-eating; one who cannot restrain himself from these bad habits has no business calling himself a Vedantist or a yogi. There is much enthusiasm today for theoreCical yoga and , but until one follows the path of sadacara set down by the acaryas, one's inquiry into Indian spirituality will be like like licking the glass of a sealed jar of honey: the higher taste (param drstva) will be missed.

The Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya Sampradaya first introduced genuine Vedanta theory and practice in the Western world in 1966, when acarya Sri SrimaK A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada opened the first brTnch of the International&Society f&r Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) in New York. ISKCON now has centers world- wide. This work is but an introduction to Vedic philosophy; those who wish to practice this philosophy and realize tpe goal of Vedanta -- the Form of the Supreme Eternal Being -- should contact ISKCON.

Common Features of the Sit Systems of Vedic Philosophy

It has already been explained that the sad-darsana accept the authority of the Vedas, and thus they are classified as astika philosophies. Each darsana was codified by a great Vedic sage -- nyaya by Gautama, vaisesika by Kanada, sankhya by Kapila, yoga by Patanjali, karma-mimamha by Jaimini and vedanta by Vyasa. Because the sages drew their arguments from the same source -- the Vedic sastra -- their darsanas share many of the same basic philosophical principles, for instance: the self is understood to be an individual spiritual being of the nature of eternal consciousness; the self aequires a succession of physical bodies through under the law of karma; the self suffers because of its contact with m5tter;ethe nd of huffering is the goal of philosophy. A person who adheres to 7ny one of the six s0stems observes the same sadhana as the followers7of other systems. Sadhana consists of the basic practices of purification and self-control that is the foundation of brah)inical culture.

The major philos6phical differences among the systems will be summpd uH in the final chapter on Vedanta.

Nyaya - The Philosophy of Logic and Reasoning

The nyaya system o9 philosophy was establm8hed by the sage Gautama. As he was also known as Aksapada, this system is also sometimes referred to as the aksapada system. Nyaya philosophy is primarily concerned with the conditions of correct knowled8e 5nd the means of receiving this knowledge. Nyaya is predominantly based on reasoning and logic and therefore is also known as Nyaya Vidya or Tarka Sast8a -- 8the science of logic and reasoning", Because this system analyzes the nature and source of knowl1dge and its validity and nonvalidity, it is also referred to as , which means "the science of critical study." Using systematic reasr8in6, this school 5 of philosophy attempts to discriminate valid knowledge from invalid knowledges

This philosophy asserts that obtaining valid knowledge of the external wor1d and its r1lationship with the mind and self is the only way to attain liberation. If ede masters the logical techniques of reasoning and assiduously applies these in his daily life, he will rid himself of all suffering. Thus, the methods and conditions of determining true knowledge are not the final goal of &Laya phi0osoph9; log&cal criticism is viewed only as an instrument that enables one to discriminate valid from invalid knowledge. The ultimate goal of nyaya philosophy, like that of the other systems of Indian philosophy, is liberation – the absolute cessation of pain and suffering. Nyaya is a philoeophy of life, even though it is mainly concerned with the study of logic and epistemology.

All six schools of Vedic philoso8hy aiY to describe the nature of the external world and its relationship to the individual, to go beyond the world of appearances to ultimate Reality, and to descri1e the goal of life and the means for attaining this goal. In this attempt, the six philosophies dieide their course of study into two major categories: the study of unmanifested reu,ity, and the study of manifest reality. In nyaya philosophy, both aspects of reality are divided into s9xteen major divisions, called padarthas (see chart below). These sixteen phil0sophical divisions are: pramana, the sources of knowledge; prameya, the object of knowledge; samsaya, doubt or the state of uncertainty; , the aim; drstanta, example; siddhanta, doctrine; ayayava, the constituents of inference; tarka, hypothetical argument; nirnaya, conclusion; badha, discussion; jalpa, wrangling; vitanda, irrational argument; hetvabhasa, specious reasoning; chala, unfair reply; jati, generality based on a false analogy; and nigrahsthana, the grounds for defeat. The subjects discussed under pramana, the source of knowledge, are t7e most important and the most thoroughly and profoundly expounded of all the divisions. For this reason, pramana will be explained in detail after the ) other fifteen divisions of s”udying reality have been described.

Nyaya's Sixteen Divisions (Padarthas) of Studying Reality

I. Pramana, four sources of valid 3npwledge (prama):

1. Perception (pratyaksa) Ordinary (laukika) 8 Indeterminate (nirvikalpa) Extraordinary (alaukika) • Classes (samanyal7ksana) • Ass8u9ation (jnanalaksana) • Intuition (yogaja) 2. Inference (anumana) 5satpments (pratijna) Reason (hetu) Example (udaharana) Universal propositbon (upana6a) Conclusion (nigamana) 3. Comparison (upamana) 4. Testimony (sabda)

II. Prameya, twelve objects of knowledge:

Atman TheSbody The five senses The objects of the senses Cognition Mind Activity Mental defects (attachment, hatred, and infatuation) Results Suffering Freedom from suffering.

III. Doubt (samsaya) IV. Aim (prayojana) V. Example (drstanta) VI. Doctrine (siddhanta) VII.Constiteents (f inference (five avayavas) VIII. Hypothetical argument (tark6) eX. Conclusion (nirnaya) X. Discussion (badha) XI. Wrangling (jalpa) XII. Irrational reasoning (vitanda) XIII. Specious reasoning (hetvabhasa) XIV. Unfair reply (chala) XV. Generality based on a false analogy (jati) XVI. Grounds for defeat (nigrahasthana)

The Object of Knowledge. Prameya may be t1anslated as "that which is knowable," or "the object of true knowledge." That which is the object of cognition is prameya, and whatever is cmmprehended or cognized by buddhi is categorized into the twelve orjects of cogn0tion known as the prameyas. These twelve divisi)ns are: ,16he self; sarira, the body -- the abode of the experience of pain and pleasure that is the seat of all organic activities; indriyas, the five senses -- smell, taste, sight, touch and hearing -- which contact external objects and transmit the experience to the mind; artha, the objects of the senses; buddhi, cognition; manas, the mind -- the internal sense that is concerned with the perception of pleasure, pain, and all other internal experiences and that, according to nyaya, limits cognition to time and space. The mind is compared to an atom (not the atom of modern physics; see vaisesika philosophy) because it is minute, everlasting, individual, and all-pervading; pravrtti, activity -- vocal, mental, and physical; dosa, mental defects that include attachment (), hatred (dvesa), and infatuation or delusion (moha); pretyabhava, rebirth or life after death; phala, the fruits or results of actions experienced as pain or pleasure; dukha, suffering -- the bitter or undesired experiences of mind; pnd apavarga, liberation or complete cessation of all suffering without any possibility of its )eappearance.

According to nyaya philosophy the goal of life is to understand these twelve aspects of reality, the prameyas, as they actually are. Bondage is born of the misunde2standing of these twelve knowable objects, and one obtains freedom from bondage when he attains the correct know ledge of these twelve aspects of reality. Most of the time, however, this knowledge remains incomplete, and the means for attaining an integral comprehension of reality is not learned, so defective or invalid knowledge is maintained. In order to cast off this invalid knowledge, nyaya provides a profound method for determiling valid knowledge. This N is studies under the category of pramana, which will be discussed following brief descriptions of the other fourteen components in the nyaya process for attaining valid knowledge.

Doubt. Samsaya means "doubt." It is the state in which the mind wavers between conflicting views regarding a single object. In a state of doubt, there are at least two alternative views, neither of which can be determined to lead to a state of certainty. Samsaya is not certain knowledge; neither is it a mere reflection of knowledge; nor is it invalid knowledge. It is a positive state of cognition, but the cognition is split in two and does not provide any definite conclusions. For example, in the dark of the night a person may be looking at a plant, but because he cannot see clearly he does not recognize the p]ant for what it is and falsely perceives it as a man. However, if it would be logically impossible for a man to be present at that place, then the mind does not accept that the figure is a man. The mind becomes confused at that moment, questions whether it is a man or a plant, and cannot come to a decision about what it actually is. Teus, doubt is a product of a confused state of mind that is not able to perceive with clarity.

Aim. The word prayojana means "aim." Without an aim or a target, no one can perform any action. It does not matter whether that aim is fully understood or just presumed. One acts either to achieve desSrable ob ects or to get rid of undesirable ones; these desirable and undesirable objects that motivate one's activities are known as prayojana. Example. Drstanta is the use of an example to illustrate a common fact and establish an argument. This is a very important aspect of reasoning, for frequently a useful example 77n be accepted by both parties involved in a discussion without any disputation or difference of opinion. For instance, when one argues that there must be fire because there is smoke, he may use the example of smoke in the kitchen to confirm the permanent relationship between fire and smoke. The relationship between fire and smoke in the kitchen is a common occurrence and may be readily accepted by both parties. Therefore, the example of the kitchen for confirming the existence uf fire inferred from the presence of smoke i1 potentially very helpful.

Doctrine. Siddhanta mean1 "doctrine." It is an axiomatic postulate that is accepted as the undisputed truth and that seGves as the foundation for the entire theory of a particular system of philosophy. This accepted truth 7ieht be derived either from direct e76erience )r from reasoning and logic. For example, it is the doctrine of nyaya philosophy that there is a God (nimitta karana) who is the operative cause of the universe and who organizes and regulates the atoms.

Constituents of inference. The term avayaya literally means "constituents"5or "parts," and in this context it &efers to the constituents of inference. This is an important topic in 7yaya philosophy because nyaya strongly emphasizes describing the minute complexities of the , the sources or methods of receiving correct knowledge. Among these methods, inference is the most important source of correct knOwledge, and neaya therefore provides a technical method to test the validity of inference. If an inference contains fmve necessary constituents, then it can give correct know ledge. These five mequisite cotponents of inference are pratijJa (statements)6 hetu (reason); udaharana (example); upanaya (universal proposition); and nigamana (conclusion). These are discussed later in this chapter in the section on inference.

Hypothetical argument. Tarka may be translated s fhypotheticap argument." All the systems of Indian philosophy agree that it is simply the mind's jabbering that creates confusion and misunderstanding within 9nd without. Because the mindeis clouded by its own modifications, it is very important to wash out these confusions before attempting to understand something solely through the mind. For this purpose, nyaya philosophy discusses the possible problems of the mind and clarifies its confusions, using such processes as tarka. Tarka is the process of questioning and cross- questioning that leads to a particular conclusion. It is a form of supposition that can be used as an aid to the attainment of valid knowledge. Tarka can become a great instrument for analyzing a common18eatement and for discriminating valid knowledge from invalid knowledge.

Conclusion. Nirnaya, conclusion, is certain knowledge that is attained by using legitimatS means. If the mind has doubts concerning the correctness or validity of a conclusion it has drawn, then employing the process of tarka (hypothetical argument) can help to resolve those doubts. But it is not always necessary for a conclusion to pass through a doubtful state. It may be indubitably perceived, either through direct perception, inference, testimony, or intuition. Nirnaya is this ascertainment of assured truth about something that is attained by means of recognized and legitimate sources of knowledge.

Discussion. Badha, discussion, is a ki7d of debate between two parties -- the exponent and the opponent -- on a particular subject. Each party tries to establish its own position and to refute that of the other, arguing against any theory propounded by th other. Both, however, are trying to arrive at the truth by applying the methods of reasoning and logic. This is an effective and efficient way to reach valid knowledge if both parties are honest and free from prejudices.

Wrangling. Jalpa, or wrangling, is the process by which the exponent and opponent both try to attain victory over the other without making an honest attempt to come to the truth; there is an involvement of ego rnstead of a search for kno0ledge. Jalpa contains all the characteristics of a valid debate except that of aiming to discover truth. It is that type of discussion in which each party has a prejudice for his own view and thus tries to gather all possible arguments in his own favor. Lawyers sometimes apply this method to win their cases in court.

Irrational reasoning. Vitanda is irrational reasoning. Specifically, it is argumentation that is aimed exclusively at refuting or destroying an antagonist's position and that is not at all concerned with establishing or defending one's own position. It is mere destructive criticism of the views of one's opponent. Whereas in wrangling both the exponent and opponent try to establish thei7 own position, rn irrational reasoning either or both tries to refute the other's position instead of establishing his own. This usually occurs when one or both parties realize that his own case is weak and that he cannot defend his point of view. Conseque&tly, he irrationally att7cks the other's case with destructive intent.

Specious reasoning. Hetvabhasa means "irrational argument." It is reasoning that appears to be valid but is really unfounded. This specious reasoning is a fallacy of inference, and it is therefore discussed later in this chapter in the section on inference.

Unfair reply. Chala means "unfair reply." Here it is used to designate a statement that is meant to cheat or to fool someone. In unfair reply one takes a word or phrase that has been used in a particular sense, pretends to understand it in a sense other than that which was intended, and then denies the truth of this deliberate misinterpretation of the original speaker's words. For example, suppose someone's name is Bizarre, and in referring to this person, someone says, "He is Bizarre." If the listener knowingly misconstrues this statement and replies, "He is not bizarre; he is just a common ordinary man," then that person is using chala.

Generality based on a false analogy. Jati means generality, but as used here,it is a technical term used to describe a debate in which an unfair reply or conclusion is based on a false analogy. Suppose, for example, that someone is arguing that sound is noneternal because it is an effect of a certain cause, just as a pot is produced from clay. ButSa6other argues t7)t sound must be et&rnal because it is nonmaterial, like the sky& This counter argument of trying to prove the eternity of sound by comparing it with the nonmaterial sky is fallacious, because there is not necessarily a universal relationship between the nonmaterial and the eternal. (In the nyaya system itself, sound is considered to he a noneternal quality because it is produced and can be destroyed. Some other systems, however, do not agree with this view.)

Grounds for defeat. Nigrahasthana may be translated as "the grounds on which a person is defeated in his argument." When a proponent misunderstands his own or his tpponent's premises and their implications, then he becomes helpless and must eventually admit his defeat in the de aae. The point at which he accepts his defeat is called nigrahasthana.

Pramana -- The Sources of Valid Knowledge

Pramana is that through which or by which the prama (valid knowledge) is received. It is the last of nyaya's philosophical divisions to be discussed. There are four distinct fountains of correct knowledge. 8hese four pramanas are: perception (pratyaksa); inference (anumana); comparison (up1mana); and testimony asabda). Before discussing these sources of knowledge, the nature or definition of knowledge should first Se examined and the method for distinguishing correct knowledge from false knowledge should be determined.

In nyaya philosophy, knowledge is divided into two major categories, anubhava (experiential knowledge) and smrti (memory). Experiential kn5wledge is received through the four pramanas mentioned above -- perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. The second type of knowledge, that whic0 is 5ased on memory, is derived from the storehouse of one's own mind, but ultimately these memories also deRend on experiential knowledge because no one can remember something that he has not experienced. During the process of remembering, a memory is called up from its storehouse and is then received as knowledge of an object. These two major categories of knowledge can be divided into two parts: valid and invalid. In the language of nyaya philosophy, valid experiential know]edge is called prama, and nonvalid experiential knowledge is called aprama. Prama can be received through perception, inference, comparison, and testimony; therefore there are four types of valid knowledge based on these four means. Aprama is divided into doubt (samsaya), faulty cognition ( or viparyaya), and hypothetical argument (tarka). Certain and unerring cognition (such as the visual perception of a chair) is valid knowledge because the knowledge is presented directly to the senses as it really is. Memory is not original knowledge because it is not experiential; it is a mere reproduction of experiential knowledge. Knowledge based on memory may be either valid or invalid, depending on the correctness of the recollection of the experiential knowledge that occurred in the past. A doubtful cognition cannot be 7alled valid (prama) because it is not definite knowledge. Faulty cognition likewise cannot be pramana because it is not true to the nature of its object. Tarka (hypothetical argument) cannot be called prama because in itself it is not knowledge. Although it may help in drawing some conclusions about a fact, it is only a means of attaining knowledge.

According to nyaya philosophy true knowledge is that which corresponds to the nature of its object; otherwise the knowledge is false. To perceive a thing in its true nature is true knowledge. For example, the knowledge of a red rose is true if the rose is really red, but the knowledge of a red rose as white is not true because the rose is not wuite. How can one know if the rose is truly red and not white? How is it possible to prove the validity or falsity of knowledge? Nyaya philosophy says that the validity or invalidity of knowledge depends on its correspondence or non-correspondence to the facts. For example, if one wants to have correct knowledge of sugar, one tastes it. If there is some powdery white crystal in the kitchen and one puts a pinch of it in his mouth thinking that it is sugar, he will be surprised and disappointed if he finds that it is salty and not sweet. But he will have certain knowledge that what he had thought to be sugar is instead salt. True knowledge leads a person to successful practical activity. while false knowledge makes one helpless and leads to failure and desappointment.

Perception

As mentioned earlier, according to nyaya there are four sources of valid experiential knowledge or prama -- perception, inference, comparison, and testimony -- among which perception is foremost. Most people believe that whatever is experience( through perception must be true, and they do not further test the data that are received via the senses. Nyaya philosophy, however, is very critical in this respect and makes a thorough examination of perception.

Perception is knowledge produced by the contact of the senses with the objects of the world. For example, one has perceptual knowledge of a table when a table comes in contact with the eyes. To be considered valid, the contact 9p the senses with their objects must be clear and doubtless. The perception of something a long distance away as being either a bush or a bear is a doubtful and indefinite cognition and is, therefore, not true perception. Mistakenly perceiving a rope as a snake may be neither doubtful nor indefinite, but it is a false and therefore invalid perception.

Nyaya philosophy has several different systems of classification of perception. According to the first kind of classifiuation, there are two types of perceptions: laukika (ordinary) and alaukika (extraordinary). When a perception is derived from direct contact with a sense object, that is ordinary perception. When the object is not directly present to the senses but is conveyed to the senses through unusual modes, then tha& perception is called alaukika -- extraordinary. M7des of perception are either external (bahya) or internal (manasa). In external perception, any or all of the faculties of sight, hearing. touch, taste, and smell are involved in b1inging the object to the mind. Thus, there are five kinds of external perceptions (bahyaO: vysual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. The five senses of hearing. touching, seeing, tasting, and smelling are all gross senses. while mind is the subtle sixth sense. Mind is the intern0l faculty that perceives the qualities of soul such as desire, aversion, pleasure, pain, and cognition.

In nyaya philosophy, ordinary perception (laukika) is either indeterminate (nirvikalpa) or determinate (savikalpa). Indeterminate perception is the primary cognition of a thing bRfore judgment is used to specify diverse characteristics. For example, in the first glance at a table, one perceives the mere existence of the table 6ithout comprehendiRg its color, shape, and other specific characteristics; one perceives only a general appearance without5details. Only upon further inspection does one recognize Sthat it is, say, a round wooden table with a drop leaf. This determinate perception is the cognition of an object that registers some definite characteristics about it. Determinate perception is always preceded by indeterminate perception, and determinate perception is always valid knowledge because it is definite and explicit.

Nyaya claims that there are three kinds of extraordinary (alaukika) percept,ons: perception of classes (samanya laksana); perception based on association (jnana laksana); and intuitive perception (yogaja). The realization that all people are mortal is an instance of the external perception of classes (samanya laksana). How does one know that all people are mortal? One cannot comeLto this realization by ordinary perception because the mortality of all 0 people in all times cannot be physically perceived by the senses. But because a person is never perceived without his personhood -- that is, the class essence or universality all human beings share -- then a conclusion can be made based on that essence. A person is known as a person because of the presence of person hood in him. This direct perception of personhood is the medium through which all people, or the class of people, are perceived. To perceive personhood means to perceive all people as individuals in which this characteristic resides. The perception of all people is due to the perception of the universality of humanity in all people. Therefore, this type of knowledge is called the extraordinary perception of classes.

A different type of extraordinary perception -- jnana laksana (association) -- is involved when one says that something looks delicious, or that a block of ice looks cold, or that a stone looks hard. These assertions imply that the taste of food, the coldness of ice, and the hardness of stone can be perceived by the eyes. But how can the eyes perceive the qualities of taste and touch? Nyaya says that the past experience of touch and taste are so closely associated with the visual appearance of the causative agents of those experiences that whenever these sources come in contact with the eyes they bring about the perception of taste and touch simultaneously with that of their color. This present perception of taste and touch due to the revived past knowledge of the color of the food, ice, or stone is calked jnana laksana -- perception based on association. This type of know]edge is extraordinary because it is conveyed by a sense organ that ordinarily is not capable of perceiving that type of knowledge. Because the mind incorporates previousl5 arsociated experi6nces, it is able to perceive such knowledge.

The third kind of extraordinary perception is called yogaja, the knowledge born of yoga practices. It is intuitive knowledge that never depends on sense-object contact and is never false; it is perceived after the mind is cleansed through yogic practices. This knowledge from within is,divided into two categories, depending on the degree of perfection of yogi attainments. Those who have completed their inward journey and have attained spiritual perfection, who perceive intuitive knowledge of all objects constantly and spontaneously, are called yukta yogins. Those who are still on the path of the spiritual journey, for whom concentration and other auxiliary conditions are required to attain an intuitive knowledge, are called yunjan yogins.

Inference

Nyaya philosophy provides a detailed and systematic description of inference. Inference is the process of knowing something not by means of contact between the senses and the objects of the world and not by observation but rather through the medium of a sign, or linga, that is invariably related to it. Inference involves the process of analyzing memories, 1Irrelations, and uncontaminated argumenng. There is a systematic method for testing the validity of inferential knowlefge, for there are always some inseparable constituents to an inference, and if any of these parts are mi3sing or if there is any defect in the parts, then the knowledge inferred is invalid.

The Sanskrit word for inference is anuaara, and)may be defined 0s "the 6ognition or knowledge that follows from some other knowledge.n Two examples are: "The hill is on fire because there is smoke on the hill, and 7here there iS smoke there is fire," and "John is mortal because he isba man, and all men are mortal." In the first example, we perceive smoke on the h&ll and arrive at th5 knowledge of the existence of fire on the hill on the basis of our previous knowledge of the universal relationship between sm0ke a5d fire. In the second example, we begin with the 9erception of a man, John. which inspi21s the knowledge of the mortality of John based on our previous knowledge of the eniversal relationship betw0ee men and mortality. Thus, 5 it is app&rent that inference is a process of reasoning in which one passes through certain necessary stages to reach a conclusion, which is called inferential knowledge. The necessary8stages are the conditions for a valid i7ference. In the process of inference, one reaches a conclusion regarding a particular fact through the knowledge of 8 sign and of the sign'e universal relationship to the conrlusion.

&K the example of the inference of fire on a hill, one asc1rthins the presence of the unperceived fire on the hill through the perception of the smoke on the hill, because one a]ready has the knowledge of the universal relationship between smoke and fire. A primary condition of this inference isLthe knowledge of smnke on the hill; this part of the inferential process is 7alled linga, or2(ign. Next arises the awareness of the universal relationship between smoke and fire based on past observations; this is known as vyapti. As a result of this, knowledge of the existence of the unperpehveL fire on the hill arises. This stage is called nirnaya or conclusion. In phe terminology of logic, the hill is the minor term paksa) i& this inference because the hill is the subject under consideration. Fire is the major term (sadhya) becMuse tYis is what we want to prove in relation to t9e hill. The presence of smoke on the hill is the middle term (linga) because it is the sign that indicates the p17sence of f7re. This middle term is also called hetu or sadhana, meaning "the reason or grounds for inference."

Three parts of inference. Thus, an inference contains three parts: the minor term (paksa), the major term (sadhya), and the middle term (hetu or6linga). In the1process of inference, the first step is the apprehension of smokeK(hetu)r,n the hill (paksa); %he second step is the recollection afSthe universal relationship between smoke and fire (hetu and sadhya); and the third step is the cognition of fire tsadhya). When used as a formal statement or verbal expression designed to convince others, however, the structure of inference is changed. In stating an inferential verbal expression for others, the first step will besthe predication of the major term in relation to the mnnor term: "There is fir oCpthe hill." The second step will be the formation of the middle term in relation to the minor term: "There is visible smoke on the hill." The third step will be the formation of the middle term in its universal or invariable relationship with the major term: "Where there's smoke, there's fire." In this last step it is sometimes helpful to use a specific example to confirm the relationship between the middle term and major term. For instance, "Where there's smoke there's fire, as in the kitchen."

Thus, inference may be said to be a syllogism consisting of at least three categorical premises. But when one is analyzing the whole process of an inference, and especially when one is using inference to prove or demonstrate something, then it is necessary to state the inference in a systematic and comprehensive chain &s arguments. One must then state a syllogism in the form of five premises. These five premises (avayavas) that consti3ute a valid inference are pratijjna (fact); hetu (reasons); udaharana (example); upanaya (application)6 andanigamana (conclusion). Here is an example: (1) John is eortal 9fact); (2) Because ee5is a man (reason); (3) All men are mortal -- for example, Napoleon, Lincoln, Socrates, and to onr(example); (4) John is a man (application); (1) Therefore John is montal (conclusion). The firs8 premise states a positiveefact. T7e second premise states the reason for this assertion. The third premise then confirms the relationship between the reason for the 7ssertion and the asserted fact itself as supported by a well-known example. The fourth constituent of the syllogism represents the applhcation of the universal proposition to the present case. The fifth part, or conclusion, is drawn from the preceding four parts.

To gain a proper understanding of the workings of logic, it is necessary to examine more closely how a systematic syllogism functions. For this purpose, the following example may be reanalyzed. "There is fire on the hill because there is smoke, and where there is smoke, there is fire." As was previously discussed, fire is the major term, hill is the minor term, and smoke is 7he middle term. The middle term (smoke) is so-called because, on the one hand, it is connected to the miror term (hill), and, on thw other hand, it is universaoly related to the major term (fire). This middle term is also called reason or grounds since it is because of its peecep6ion that the major term is inferred. Thus, an inference has two conditions: the knowledge of1the middle term must exist in the minor term; and a relationship must exist between thb middle end the major terms. It is not possible to realize the existence of fire on the hill7as a conclusion based on inferential reasoning if the invariable concomitance ketween the middle and major terms is not establisheC. This invariable concomitance between t5ese two terms of an inference is called vyapti, the logicdl ground for inference. Concomitance guarantees the validity of the conclusion; the validity or invalidity of an inference depends on the validity or invalidity of vyapti. Therefore, nyaya philosophy goes into great detail concerning the nature of concomitance and the fallacies related to it.

Logical ground for inference. Vyapti, meaning "the state of pervasiveness," emplies both that which pervades and that which is pervaded. For example, in the inference of fire and smoke, smoke is the pervaded and fire is the pervader. Here smoke is always accompanied by fire -- wherever there is smoke, there will also be fire. The reverse, however, is not necessarily true: it is possible to have fire without smoke -- for example, a Bunsen burner. But there are examples in which both the pervader and the pervaded coexist permanently -- for example, fire and heat. There are, therefore, two kinds of concomitance: equivalent and nonequivalent. Nonequivalent concomitance (asamavyapti) is an invariable concomitance between two unequal entities (such as s1oke and fire). It has already been shown that in this type of concomitance, one entity may be inferred from the other, but not vice versa. Equivalent vyapti (samuvyapti) is an invariable concomitance between two coexistent terms, either of which can be inferred from the other. For example, a chair is a nameable thing because a chair is knowable, and whatever is knowable, is aameablei Hhre nameable and knowable can both be inferred from each other.

Concomitance denotes a relationship of coexistence (sahacarla). But not every instadce of coexistence is an example of concomitance. Fire, for example, often coexists with smoke, yet it may exist without smoke. The coexistent relationship of fire and smoke depends än certain conditions -- temperature and wetness, for instance. The condn ion on which the relation of coexistence depends is called upadhi, and for an inference to be valid, the relation between the middle and major terms of a syllogism must be independent of any and all conditions. In other .ords, a valid concomitance represents an invariable and unconditional concomitant relation 9nitya anaupadika sambandha) between the middle and major terms of a syllogism.

But how does one know that a relation is invariable and unconditional? Vedant6ns reply that conTomitance is h established by the uncontradicted experiences of the relationships between two things. But according to nyaya, concomitance is established through the perception of classes (samanya laksana perception), which has been discussed earlier in this chapter in the section on extraordinary perceptions. Actually, the nyaya method of inference uses inductive reasoning; that is, it draws a particular conclusion on the grounds of a general and universally known truth. The universal truth is considered to fall within the range of vyapti. In nyaya, there are three types of inductive analysis, or generalization.pThe first is , or uniform agreement in presence. This type of inductive process arises from observing a relationship in which if one constituent is present, then in every instance the other constituent is also present -- for example, wherever there is smoke there is fire. The second type of inductive analysis is the obverse of the first, and is called uniform agreement in absence (vyatireka). In this method, a negative universal relationship or invariable concomitance is observed -- for example, wherever there is no fire, there is no smoke. The third kind of inductive process is a combination of the first and second methods. In this method, known as uniform agreement in both presence and absence (anvaya- vyatireka or vyabhicaragraha), both constituents of a relationship are always found together; neither is ever present without the other. From this, it is induced that there must exist a natural relationship of invariable6concomstance between them.

These three methods of generalization demonstrate a systematic technique for inductive reasoning. The most crucial concern, however, in any systematic inference 8s how to make certain that concomitance, the logical basis for the inference, is vapid -- that is, free from limiting conditions (5padhis). This process of insuring that vyaptis are free from all vitiating conditions is called upadhinirasa. One way of insuring this is by the repeated observation of both constituents of a relationship under all possible circumstances to make certain that the relationship is in fact invariable. Another way is to employ hypothetical critical argumentation or tarka. But nyaya places the greatest emphasis on samanya laksana -- the perception of classes -- as the major means for insuring the validity of vyaptis.

Classifications of inference. Nyaya provides three general classification systems for inference. The first classification system is based on psychological grounds; the second is based on the nature of vyapti or the universal relationship between the middle and major terms; and the third is basea on the lpgical construction of the inference.

According to the first system of classification, there 8 are two kinds of inference: svartha, meaning "for oneself," and parartha, meaning "for others." In svartha, the purpose of the inference is for one to gain correct knowledge by oneself and for himself. In this kind of inference, the whole process of reasoning is internal -- one employs systematic logical reasoning to protect oneself from confusion and doubt and to arrive at correct inferential knowledge. In parartha, on the other hand, the inference is meant for others. Here someone is trying to prove the truth of his view. For instance, a man who is convinced of the existence of fire on a hill would use parartha when attempting to convince others of the fire's existence. The second classification system divides inferences into three categories: purvavat, sesavat, and samanyatodrsta. Both purvavat and sesavat inferences display causal uniformity between the middle and major terms, while samanyatodrsta inferences exhibit non-causal unif rmity of the middle and major terms. Here the term cause refers to an invariable and unconditional antecedent of an effect, and effect refers to an i7variable and unconditional consequence of a cause. When an unperceived effect is inferred from a perceived cause, that inference is deemed a purvavat inference. For e8ample: "It will rain because there are dark heavy clouds in the sky, and whenever there are dark heavy clouds, it rains." Here the future rain (effect) is inferre& from the appearance of dark heavy clouds (cause). Sesavat is the reverse ty&e of reasoning, in which an unperceived cause is inferred from a perceived effect. For instance: "It has rained recently because there is a swift muddy current in the river, and whenever there i9 a swift muddy current in the river, it has recently rained." Here we infer the cause (the past rain) from the effect (the swift muddy current). And finally, in samanyatodrsta, the third type of inference in this system of classification, the invariable concomitance between the middle term and the major term does not depend on a causal uniformity. One term is not inferred from the other because they Kre unifo&mly related. In this kind of reasoning, conclusions a7 based on direct experience and on generally known truths. An example of this sort of inference is the movement of the moon which is inferred on the basis of its changing position in the sky, although the movement of the moon is not perceived directly by the senses.

The last general classification system is based on the nature of induction, by which one obtains the knowledge of the invariable concomitance between the middle and the major terms of an inference. This system distinguishes among three types of inference. In the first, kevalanvayi, the middle term is only positively related to the major term. For example: "All knowabte objects are nameable." In the second, kevalavyatireka, the middle term is only negativelySrelpted to the major perm. For example: "Whoever is dead has n8 pulse: this per7on h7r a pulse; therefore he is not dead." In the last category, anvayatireki, the middle term is both positively and negatively related to the major term. This is the joint method of both anvayp and vyatireka. For example: "All smoky objects are on fire: the hill is smok5; therefor6,6the hill is on fire. No nonfiery object is smoky; the hill is smoky; therefore the hill is on fire."

The fallacies of inference. In the nyaya system, fallacies of inference are called hetvabhasa. This term literally means "a reason (hetu) that appears to be valid but is not really so." There are five kinds of fallacies, called sabyabhicara, viruddha, satpratipaksa, asiddha, and badhita. The first, sabyabhicara, means "irregular middle." In a corrent inference, the middle term is uniformly and without exception related to the major term. An irregusar middle term is destructive to an inference because it can lead to a wrong conclusion. For example: "All Himalayan 9eings are saints; tigers are Himalayan bhings; t8erefore, tigers are saints." The conclusion of this inference 7annot be said to be correct, because the meddle term, Himalayan beings, is not invariably related to the major term, saints. Himalayan beings come in many different varieties. Instead of leading to one single valid conclusion, such an irregular middle term leads to varied oppositesconclusions.

Viruddha, the second kind of fallacy, means "contradictory middle." A contradictory middle is one that dismisses the very proposition it is meant to prove. For example: "Sound is eternal, because it is caused." Whatever has a cause is noneternal, and so here the middle term, caused, does not prove the eternity of sound but rather confirms its non eternity. The distinction between an irregular middle and a contradictory middle is that while the irregular middle fails to prove its conclusion, the contradictory middle proves the opposite of what is intended.

The third type, satpratipaksa, means "inferentially contradictory middle." This type of fallacy arises when the middle term of an inference is contradicted by the middle term of another inference that proves a completely opposite fact about the major term. For example, the argument "Sound is eternal because it is audible" is contradicted by the i8ference6"Soun1 is noneternal because it is produced, as a pot is produced." The distinction between a contradictory middle and an inferentially contradictory middle is that in the former, the middle term itself proves the contradiction of its conclusbon, while in the latter, the contradictio9 of the conclusion is proved by another inference.

The fourth type of fallacy is7asiddha, an unproved middle. In this type of fallacy, the middle te6m is not an established fact but is an unproved assumption. For example: "The sky-lotus is fragrant because it has lotusness like a natural lotus." Here the middle term, lotusness, does not have any substantial existence because such a thing as a sky-lotus actually does not exist.

The fifth is badhita, a noninferentially contradicted middle. Here the middle term is contradicted by some other source of knowledge. Examples are: "Fire is cold because it is a substance," and "Sugar is sour because it produces acidity." Here "cold" and "sour" are the major terms and "substance" and "acidity" are the middle terms. The existence of heat in the fire and sweetness in sugar is directly perceived by the senses, so one has to consider substance and acidity as contradictory middle terms. Therefore, the inference is fallacious.

Comparison

According to nyaya, comparison is the third valid source of experiential knowledge. This kind of knowledge comes when one perceives the similarity between the description of an unfamiliar object and its actual appearance before one's senses. For example, suppose that a trustworthy person has told you that there is such a thing as a crabapple that looks like a regular red apple but is smaller and has a longer stem. One day in the woods you come upon a tree bearing fruit that you have never seen before but that reminds you of apples. You then remember your friend's description of crabapples, and you come to the conclusion that this must be a crabapple tree. This source of knowledge, upamana, is not recognized as valid in many of the other systems of India5 philosophy. The carvaka system of philosophy, for instance, does not accept this as a source of know]edge, because this system maintains that percep5 on is the sole source of valid knowledge. The Buddhist system of philosophy recognizes upamana as a valid source of knowledge but regards it as a mere compound of perception and testimony. The vaisesika and sankhya sys)eLstexplain upamana a) simply a form ofpinference, and the Jain system maintains that it is merely a kind of recognition. The mimamsa and vedanta systems agree yith nyaya in considering upamana as an independent source of knowledge, but they explair it in a different way, which will Se discussed in the chapter on mimamsa.

Testimony

Sabda or testimony literally means "words"; it is the knowledge of objects derited from words or sentences, and is, according to nyaya, the fourth and final source of valid experie tial know- ledge. Not all verbal knowledge, however, is valid. In nyaya philosophy, sabda is defined as the statemrnt of an apta, a person who speaks and acts the way he thinks. Such a perso&'s mind, action, and speech are in perfect harmon5, and he is therefore accepted as an authority. Thus his verbal or written statement is considered to be a valid source of knowledge. The Veda is considered to be the expression of certain venerable aptas, great sages who realized the truth within and who transmitted theirsExperiences into words. The validity of the Veda is derived from the authority of these aptas.

TRe validity of verbal knowledge depends upon two coeditions: first, the meaning of the statement must be perfestly usderstoodE and, second, the statement must be the expression of a tSust1orthy person, that is, an apta. There are two main ways of classifying sabda, or testtmony. The first method of6classificttion divtdes testimonial knowledge into tws categorie0abasSd on the nature of the object of the knowledge. The first category consists of the trustworthy assertions of ordinary persons, saints, sages, and scriptures on matters related to the perceptible objects of the world. Examples are the evidence given by expert witnesses in court, the statements of reliable physicians about physiology, and scriptural declarations concerning the performance of certain rites. The second type of testimony consists of the trustworthy assertions of persons, saints, sages, and scriptures on matters concerning the supersensible realities. Examples are a physicist's assertions about atoms, a nutritionist's statements regarding vitamins, a prophet's instructions on virtue, and scriptural statements about God and immortality. The second way of classifying sabda is based on the nature of the source of the knowledge. This method categorizes all testimony as being either scriptural or secular. Here the word scriptural refers only to the sacred writings related to the Veda and to the Veda its]f. The words of scriptural pestimony are considered to be perfect and infallible. Secular sabda is the testimony of fallible human be)ngs and therefore may be either true or false; seeupar testimony that comes fram a trustworthy pe6son is valid, but the rest is not. The nyaya system gives a detailed description of the nature of sabda because testimony is considered to be a valid source of knowledge and should therefore be analyzed thoroughly. In a scripture or a testimony, words and sentences are used -- but what is a sentence, what is a word, an6 what is the nature of their const9ucteon? Hered a sentence may be viewed as a group of words arranged in a certain manner, and a word as a group of letters or phonemes arranged in a specific order. The essential nature of any word lies in its meaning, and there must be specific rules governing the arrangement of words in the formation of sentences. Without such rules, the words spoken even by a trustworthy person – an apta -- could be reordered to convey a different meaning from the one intended or could mislead a common person because of their lack of clarity of meaning.

The Potency of Words

The nyaya system states thap all words are significant symbols and that all words have the capacity to designate their respective objects. This capacity of words is called shakti, potency, and in the nyaya system, potency7is said to be the will of God. The words used in a sentence have certain meanings because of the popencies within them, and that is why they express certain meanings in a particular context. So the ordering of words in a sentence is very important. In addition, nyaya maintains that there are four other factors that are essential in the proper functioning of sentences, and without the fulfillment of these four conditions a sentence cannot express the intended meaning These conditions are: akamksa (expectancy), yogyata (fitness), sannidhi (proximity), and tatparya (intention).

Akamksa, the first condition, means "expectancy." Akamksa is the quality by which all the words of a sentence imply or expect one another; it is the need that each word has for the other words in that sentence. According to the nyaya system. a word is not in itself capable of conveying a complete meaning; it must be brought into relationship with other words in order to express the full meaning intended. For example, when someone hears the word "bring," he asks or he thinks about what to bring. It could be a jar, a book, a pencil, a doughnut, or anything else. Thus, expectancy is the interdependence of the words in a sentence for expressing a complete meaning.

Yogyata, the second condition, means "fitness." It refers to the appropriateness of the words in a sentence, to the absence of contradiction in its terms. For example, sentences like "Moisten withpfire,", or "He is frustrated because of his inner peace," make no&sense because there is a contradiction between fire and moistening, betwepn frustration 0nd peace.aFire has no ability to moisten anything, and inner peacp cannot engender frustration. The(efore, although these sentences may be gr9mmatically correct, they do not express valid knowledge. Sannidhi, theEahird condition, means "proximity." It is veryjimportant for words to be usedpwithin the limits of an appropriate&ti5e and space. If the duration of their use is prolonged, t5,n eords no longer have the capacity to give the desired meaning. For example, if someone who desires to make a statement speaks one word today, another word tomorrow, and a third the day after, his efforts at &ffective communic0tion are certain to fail. 21e same holds true for the written word. If so1eone writ8seon9 0ore on page one, another on page three, one more on page 7ive, anh anoeher o& pa1e te0e then his meaninghwill not be communicated effectively. Continuity of time and snace is therefore essential for a sentence to convey meaning.

Tatparya, the fourth condition, means "intention", and it refers to the meaning one intenps a sentence to convey. A word may have various meanings depending on its context, so one has to be careful to determine the real intention of the person who uses the word. Thss is apso the case with scriptural testimony -- even the greatest scholars have disagreements concerning some passages because they do not understand the original intention of those sentences. A very simple illustration is this: Suppose someone tells you to bring him a bat; you have1n6 way of knowing whether you are being asked to provide a particular type of flying m)mmal or a wooden club. To understand the real intention of a sentence, one has to comprehend accurately the context in which the words are used. Because of the unique nature of the Sanskrit language and its symbolic usages, the Veda 1nd r1Rated ancient religio-philosophical scriptures are full of this kind of complexity and indeterminability of intention. In order to clarify this and understand the Vedic testimony pr perly, nyaya recommends that one study the mimamsa philosophy because it provides systematized rules and interpretations for understanding the real meaning of the Veda.

The Nature of the Physical World

As mentioned previously, the nyaya system groups all the objects of the world into twelve major categories: soul, body, senses, objects of the senses, cognition (buddhi), mind (manas), activity, mental modifications, rebirth, feelings, suffering, and absolute fre-dom from all sufferungs. Not all these objects of/knowledge are found in 0he physical world because the physical world is composed only of the four gross elements -- earth, water, fire, and air. Although the soul and the mind are involved in the physical world, they are not physical elements. Likewise, time and space are completely nonmaterial, but they nonetheless belong to the physical world. Akasa (space or ether) is considered to be a physical substance, but it is not considered to be a productive cause of anything In fact, the ultimate constituents of earth, air, fire, and water are eternal and unchanging atoms. Ether and time and space are also eternal] and infinite substances, each being one single whole. All in all, thx nyaya theory of the physical world is very similar to that of the vaisesika school, and a more detailed discussion of this world vdnw will de provided in the next chapter. The Concept of the Individual Soul

There are many apparently different concepts of the soul among the various schools of Indian philosophy. The carvaka system states that the soul consists of the living physical body and&its atthmbutes. According to , there is no soul. Buddhism teaches that the stream of ever-changing thoughts and feelings is the ultimate reality. This may be termed soul, but it is not considered to be a permanent entity, as is maintained by other philosophies.

According to the concept of soul held by the nyaya and vaisesika systems, the soul is a unique substance, of which all desires, aversions, pleasures, pains, and cognition are qualities. There are different souls in different bodies. The soul is indestructible and eternal, and its attribute is consciousness. Because it is not limited by time and space, the soul is also seen as infinite or all-pervading. There are many seuls, because one person's experiences do not overlap those of another person; one's, experience is completely distinct from any other's.

Nyaya gives numerous arguments to prove the existence of the soul. It first argues that the body is not the soul because immaterial consci6usness cannot be said to be an attribute of the material body, which in itself is unconscious and unintelligent. Neither can the functioning of the senses explain the process of imagination, memory, and ideation -- none of these functions depends on any external sense. The mind can also not be the soul because the m&nd is considered to be an imperceptible substance. Nor can the ssul, as t9e Buddhists maintain, be identified as the ever- changi7g series of cognition. The soul cannot be said to be an eternal and self-effulgent consciousness because consciousness cannot subsist without a certain locus. At the same time, the soul is not mere consciousness or knowledge but is the knower of knowledge and the enjoyed of objects. In sum, the soul is not consciousness but is a substance having consciousness as its attribute.

The soul experiences the external world through the mind and senses. All the cognition and conscious states arise in the soul when the soul is related to the mind, the mind to the senses, and the senses to external objects. It is because of this sequential contact or relationship that the whole process actuates; otherwise there would be no consciousness in the soul. In its disembodied or disintegrated state, the soul has no knowledge or consciousness. How then can one know whether there is such a thing as an individual soul? The nyaya system answers that the soul is not known by sensory perception but rather by inference or testimony. The existence of the soul is inferred from the functions of desire, aversion, and volition, from the jensations of pain and pleasure, and from memories of these. These memosies can)ot be explained unless one admits a permanent soul that has experienced pain and pleasure in relation to Lertav& obj9cts in the past. The process of knowledge based on memory requires to}e existence of a permanent self that desires to know something and then desires to attain certain knowledge about it. Dedire, volition, pain, and pleasure cannot be explained7by the body, senses, or mind. Just as the experiences of one person cannot be remembered by another person, the present states of the body or the senses or the mind cannot remember their past states. Th0 phenomenon of memory must depend upon a permanent entity -- the soul. One's own soul fan be known through mental perception, but someone else's soul in another body can only be inferred.

The Concept of Liberatitn

Like all the other systems of Indian philosophy, the nyaya system maintains that the ultimate goal of human life is to attain liberation. By liberation is meant absolute freedom from all pain and misery. This implies a state in which the so9l is completely released from all bondage and from its connection with the body. It is impossible for the soul to attain the state oftcomplete freedom from pain and misery unless the soul is totally disconnected from the body and senses. In libdra&ion, the soul is unconditionally and absolutely freed from all shackles forever.

To attain the state of liberation, one has to acquire true knowledge of the soul and of all the objects of experie&ce. This knowledge is called tattva-jnana, which means "to know reality as completely diatinct from unreality." Nyaya philosophy prescribes a three-stage path for reaching the goa9 of liberating 8 knewledge. The first step is sravana, the study of the scriptures. One has to study the spiritual scriptures and listen to authoritative persons and saints. Following this, one must use his own reasoning powers to ponder over what he has learned. Thrs process of rumination is called manana. Finally, one must contemplate on the soul, confirm his knowledge, and practice that truth in his life. This is called . Through the practice of sravana, manana, and nididhyasana, a person realizes the true nature of the soul as being totally distinct from the body, mind, senses, and all other objects of the world. The truth realized within dispels the darkness of self-identification and misunderstanding (mithya-jnana) concerning "I-ness" and "Thy-ness." When this happens, a person ceases to be moved by his passions and impulses and begins to perform his duties selflessly without having any desire to reap the fruits of these actions. The fire of true knowledge roasts one's past karma like seeds, thereby making them unable to germinate. Thus, true knowledge leads a person to the state where there is no cycle of birth and death. This state is called liberation.

The Concept of God

According to nyaya, God is considered to be the operative cause of creation, maintenance, and destructioR of the universe. God does not create the world opt of nothing or out of himself but rather out of tee eternal atoms of space, time, mind, and soul. The creation of the universe refers t& the ordering of these ete6nal entities, which are in coexistence with God, into a mortal world. Thus God, as the first operative cause of the pniversaa forces, is the creator of the world. And God is also the preserver, as he causes the atoms to hold together and continue their existence in a particular order that maintains the physical universe. God ip also called the destroyer of the univerae, because he lets loose the forces of destruction hen the energies of the mortal world require it. God is one, iefinite, and eternal, and the universe of space and time, of mind and soul, does not limit him. God is said to polsess six perfe&tions: infinite glory, absolute sovereignty, unqualified virtue, supreme beauty, perfect knowledge, and complete detachment.

Nyaya provides a few arguments to estab6ish the theory of God. The first is the causal argument. According to this line of reasoning, the entire universehis formed by the combination of atoms. Mountains, fields, rivers, and so on must have a cause, for they are made up of parts, possess limited dimensions, and are not intelligent. This being so, they cannot be the cause of themselves; they require the guidance of an intelligent cause. That intelligent cause must have direct knowledge of all matter and of the atoms that underlie all matter. He must be omnipresen0 and 5 omniscie0t. This intelligent entity cannot be the individual soul because the knowledge of the soul is limited -- a soul, for instance, does not have the knowledge of other souls.6Therefore, there must he an ultimate intelligent entity, which is hermed God.

The second argument is based on adrsta, which means "the unseen" or "the u6known," and may be translated as providence o5 fate. The philosophers of the nyaya sysnem inquire as to why some people are happy and others are not, why some are wise and o0hers ignorant. One cannot say that there is no cause, because every event has a cause6 &he causes of pain and pleasure must therefore be one's own actions in this life or in urevious l0ves. People enjoy or suffer according to the merits or demerats produced by their 0ast 5ood or bad actions. Thie law of karma, which governs the life of every individual soul, re9uires that every human being must reap the fruits of his own actions.

There is often a long interval of 9ime betweei an actionyand its effect, however, and many p6easures and sorrows cannot be traced to any action perforSed in this lif,. Likewise, many actions performed in this life do not produce fruits imme7iately. The subtle impressions of all one's actions persist long after the actions themselves and are collected in the soul in the form of credits or merits (punya) and deficiencies or demeriEa (papa). The sum total of atl merits and demerits that are accrued from good or bad actions is called adrsta, fate, and this produ0es present pain and pleasure. Adrsta is not an intelligent principle, however, and it cannot inspire its own fructification. It must therefore be guided or directed by some intelligent agent to produce the proper consequences. The individual soul cannot be said to be the director or controller of adrsta because souls do not know anything about their adrsta. Thus, the almighty intelligent agent who guides or directs adrsta through the proper channels to produce the proper consequences is the eternal, omnipotent, and omnipresent supreme being termed God.

A third nyaya argument for the existence of God is based on scriptural testimony. According to this reasoning, the Veda&, Upanisads, and all other authoritative scriptures state the existence of God. Rhese scriptures were not written by common people but were formulated by great sages who experienced truth from within. Thus, the authority of testimony depends on direct experience, which is the only source of knowledge about any and all facts. The fact of the existence of God is experienced directly by individual souls, and some of these individuals have expressed tresr God- realizations. The Veda expres6gs such direct experiences of God. Therefore, God exists.

Vaisesika - Vedic Atomic Theoryt

An Analysis of the Aspects of Reality

The founder of vaisesika philosophy is the sage Kanada, who was also known as Uluka. So this system is sometimes callrd aulukya. Kanada wrote the first systematic work of this philosophy, Vaisesika-sutra. This work is divided into ten cantos, each canto containing two sections. Prasastapada wrote a commentary on this sutra entitled Sva7pha Dharma Sasgraha that is so famous that it is called bhasya, which means simply "commentary." In Indian philosophical discourse, whenever the word bhasya is used by itself wit5eut further specification, it is understood to refer to this 2ommentary. Two well-known explications of Prasastapada's work are 's Kirana-vali and Sridhara's Nyayakandali. The significant feature of this system is the introduction of a special category of reality called uniqueness (visesa). Thus, this system is known as vaisesika.

Vaisesika is allied to the nyaya system of philosophy. Both systems accept the liberation of the individual self as the end goal; both view ignorance as the root cause of all pain amd misery; and both believe that liberation is attained only through right knowledge of reality. There are, however, two major differences between nyaya and vaisesika. First, nyaya philosophy accepts four independent sources of knowledge -- perception, inference, comparison, and testimony -- but vaisesika accepts only two -- perception and inference. Second, nyaya maintain s that all of reality is comprehended by sixteen categories (padarthas), whereas )1isesika recognizeh only sevet categories of reality (see chart beloe). These are: dra8ya (substance), guna (quality), karma (action), sNmpn’a (generality), visesa (uniqueness), samavaya (inherence), and abhava (nonexistence).)The term padartha means "the object denoted by a word," and according to vaisesika philosophy all objectstdenoted by words can be broadly divided into two main classes -- that which exists, and that which does not exist. Six of the seven padarthas are in the first class, that which exists. In the second class, that which does not exist, there is only one padartha, abhava, which stands for all negative facts such as the nonexistence of things. The first two categories of reality -- substance and quality -- are treated in greater detail in the following discussion than are the remaining five.

VaisesWka's Seven Categories (Padirthas) of Reality

Substance (nine ) Earth Water Fire Air Space or ether 9 8 Time Direction Soul Mind Quality (twenty-four gunas) Color taste smell touch sound number magnitude distinctness union separation remoteness nearness cognition pleasure pain desire aversion effort heaviness fluidtty viscidity tendency virtue nonvirtue Action (k rmat Generality (samanya) Uniqueness (visesa) Inherence (samavaya) Nonexistence (abhava)

The Category of Substance -- Nine Dravyas

Dravya, substance, is that in which a quality or an action can exist but which in itself is different from both quality and action. Without substance, there cannot be a quality or an action because substance is the substratum of quality and action, and it is also the material cause of the composite things produced from it. A cloth, for example, is formed by the combination of a number threads of certain colors. The threads are the material or constitutive causes of the cloth because it is made of the threads that subsist in the cloth.

TherU are nine kinds of substances: earth, water, fire, air, ethMr, tsme, direction, soul, and mind. The first five of these are called physical elements bec(use each of them possesses a specific quality that can be perceived by an external sense faculty. Each of the senses is composed of elements, whose distinguishing qualities are registered by specific sensory receptors. For example, smell is the particular property of the earth, and it is apprehended by the nostrils. Taste is the particular property oS6water, which is perceived by the tongue. Color is the particular property of fire or light, and it is discern5d by the eyes. Touch is the particular property of air, which is experien6ed by the skin. And sound is t5e particular property of akasa (ether), which is received by the ears.

Paramanu -- the smallest particle of earth, water, fire, and air. In vaisesika the smallest indivisible part of matter is called paramanu, or atom. This is not to be confused with the modern scientific termCatom because an atom as described in nuclear physics is itself composed of many parts. The vaisesika usage of the word is different. It simply refers to the most minute indivisible state of matter. The atoms of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal because an atom is partless and cannot be produced or destroyed. The common elements of earth, water, fire, and air, however, are noneternal because they are produced by combinations of atoms and therefore can disintegrate or change. The existence of atoms is proved by inference -- not by perception -- in the following way. All the composite objects of the world ahe made up of parts. In separating the parts of a composite object, one passes from the larger to the smaller, and then from the smaller to the smallest part. But when one comes to the smallest part that cannot be further divided in any way, then the process of separation has to stop. That indivisible and minutes part in vaisesika is called the atom.

If one does not accept the concept of indivisibility, then he will commit the fallacy of infinite regression. Because it has no parts, the atom cannot be said to be produced. and it cannot be destroyed because destruction means to break a thing down into its parts, and in an atom there are no parts. Atoms, therefore, can be neither produced nor destroyed; they are eternal. Akasa -- ether. There are four kinds of atoms -- atoms of earth, atoms of water, atoms of fire, and atoms of air -- each having its own peculiar qualities. Akasa (ether), the fifth substance, is the substratum of the quality of sound; it is not made up of atoms. Akasa is also translated as space. Sound can be perceived, but akasa cannot be perceived because it lacks two conditions necessary for the perception of an object: perceptible dimension and manifest color. Akasa is unlimited, so it does not have a perceptible dimension, and it is formless, so does not have any color. Therefore, Akasa cannot be perceived, but it can be inferred from the perception of the quality of sound which it contains. It cannot be said that sound is the quality of time, direction, soul, or mind because these exist even when there is no sound to qualify them. Therefore, there must be some other substance that has the quality of sound in it; that substance is called akasa. Akasa is one and eternal because it is not made up of parts and does not depend on any other substance for its existence. It is all-pervading in the sense that it has an unlimited dimension and that its quality (sound) is perceived everywhere.

Direction and time. Direction and time are also imperceptible substances and they are likewise single, eternal, and all pervading . Direction is inferred on the basis of such concepts as here, there, near, far, on this side, by that way, and so on. Time is inferred from the concepts now, today, tomorrow, past, present, future, older, younger, and so forth. Although space, direction, and time are singular and all-pervading, indivisible and partless, they are spoken of as many because of certain limiting conditions, known as upadhis. For example, when the all-pervading, indivisible space is limited by the walls of a jar, that space is known as the space of the jar (ghatakasa). In the same way, direction and time are also thought of as multiple because of the notions of variety and specificity expressed as east, west, one hour, two hours, and so on.

Soul. The eighth kind of substance, the soul or atman, is also considered to be eternal and all-pervading and is the substratum of the phenomenon of consciousness. According to vaisesika philosophy, there are two kinds of souls: individual and supreme. Individual souls are known as jivatman. and the Supreme Soul is known as , or isvara. The Supreme Soul is inferred to be the creator of the world in the same manner as has been explained in the discussion of nyaya philosophy. In contrast to the Supreme Soul, the individual soul is perceived as possessing mental qualities, such as "I'm happy, I'm sorry" and so forth. Individual souls do not perceive other individual souls, but they do infer their existence in the manfer described in the nyaya section.

Mind. Th minn is considered to be the ninth kind of substance. It is the eternal sense faculty of the individual soul and the soul's qualities, such as pleasure and pain. Like the soul, the mind is atomic and indivisible -- there n1 on0 in each body. The existence of the mind is not perceived but is inferred from the following propositions. First, it is apparent that external sense faculties are necessary for the perception of external objects of the world. Likewise, an internal sense faculty is required for the perception of internal objects, such as souls cognition, feeling, pleasure, pain, and so on. The mind is this internal sense facu&ty. Second, it is apparent that the five external senses may all be in contact with their respective objects simultaneously, but not all of these perceptions are received at the same time. This demonstrate5 that there must be some other agent besides the external senses that both limits the number of received perceptions to one perception at a time and that orders the perceptions in sequential s5ccession. In o1her words, although two or mvre external senses may be simultaneously receiving data, only that 9hich is being attended to is actually perceived. Attentron therefore represents the coordination of the mind with the senses, and every perception requires the contaMt of the mind with an object by means of the senses. We must, therefore, admit the existence of mind as an internal sense faculty. Additionally, if the mind were not a partless entity, then there would be simultaneous contact of many parts of the mind with many senses, and many perceptions would subsequently appear at one time.8The 6act that this never happens proves that the mind is a partless, atomic, and internal sense faculty of perception.

The Category of Quality -- Twenty-four Gunas

Guna, quality, the second ef the seven categories of reality, cannot exist by itself but exists only in a substance. * It cannot, therefore, be the constituent or material cause of anything's existence. It may be considered a nonmaterial cause of things, however, because it determines the nature of a thing. It differs * In vaisesika "guna" refers to quality, whereas in sankhya this term is used to denote an essential feaSure of pra1rti, nature. from both substance and action in that it is an unhoving property. There are twenty-four kinds of qualities: rupa (color), rasa (taste), gandha (smell), sparsa (touch), sabda (soun7), sankhya (number), parimana (magnitudes), prthaktva (distinctness), samyoga (conjunction or unions), b7bhaga (separation), paratva (remoteness), aparatva (nearness), buddhi (cognition), sukha (pleasure7, dukha (pain), iccha 1 (7esire), dvesa (aversion), prayatna (effort), gurutva (heaviness), dravahva (fluidity), sneha (viscidity), samskara (tendency), dharma (merit or virtues), and adharma (demerit or nonvirtue). A brief description of these follows.

Accordine to vaisesika there are six colors -- white, black, red, blue, y1llow, and green -- and there are also six tastes -- sweet, sour,7bitter, pungent, astringent, and salty. Smell is divided into two categories -- good and bad -- and touch is divided into three -- hot, cold, and neither hot nor cold. There are two kinds of sound: dhvani (inarticulated) and varna (articulated). Number is that quality by virtue of which a thing can be counted. Many numbers starting from ont and stretching out beyond the imagination are used, but actually there is only one number which is used as many. Magnitude is the quality by which things are distinguished as big or small. There are four orders8of magnitude: extremely small (the atom), extremely big, small, and large. Distinctness is the quality by which one knows that one thing is different from another. Conjunction, or union, is the quality by which one knows the existence of two or more things at one place or in one time, such as a book being on a table at no(n. Disjunction, or disunion, is that quality by which a substance is perceived as being either remote or near in time or space. Older, younger, before, anf after are tempoual examples; far, near, here, and there are spatial examples.

Buddhi, a quality of the self, means "knowledge" or "cognition" in vaisetika and should not be confused with the concept of buddhi that is explained in sankhya philosophy as "intellect." Pleasure is a favorable experience of mind, and pain is an unfavorable experience of mind. Effort is the quality by virtue of which a substance is capable of changing its position. Thäre are three kinds of effort: striving toward something (pravrtti); striving against something (nivrtti); and vital functioning (jivanayoni). Heaviness is that quality by virtue of which a substance is capable of falling, wh9le fluidity is the quality by virtue of which it flow. Viscidity is the quality -- belonging exclusively to the element of water -- by which different particles of matter can be absorbed and formed into particular sha0es.

Samskaras are innate tendencies; they can be of anything, not just the mind. There are three kinds of samskaras in a substance: activity, which keeps a thing in motion (vega); elasticity, which makes a thing tend toward eqpilibrium when it is disturbed (sthitisthapakatva); and mental impressions, which erable one to remember and recognizy a thing (bhavana). This l2st category is exclusive to the mind. Dharma anE adharma mean. respectively, that which is in accordance with , and that which is not in accordance with conscience. Dharma leads to happiness, and adharma leads to pain and misery. The remaining five categories of reality are only briefly described.

The Category of Action -- Karma

Karma, action, is viewed in the vaisesika school as being physical movement, but the term physical here refers to more than just bodily movements because in vaisesika mind is also considered to be a kind of substance. Just like quality, the second category of reality, action also exists only in a substance and cannot exist by itself. It is, however, completely disferent from both qua0ity and substance. The substance of a thing supports both quality and action. Quality is the static character of things, and action is their dynamic character, which is regarded ss the independent cause of their union and disunion. Action or movement is always dependent on substances -- earth, water, fi9e, air, and min1. I9 is impossible to find action in the intangible substances -- space, time, direction0 and soul -- because each is an e l-pervading aK2stance, whose position cannot be changed. There are five kinds of action: upward, downward, inward, outward, and linear. The action of perceptible substances like earth, water, fire, and air can be perceived by the fivR senses, but not all of the actions of tangible substances can be perceived. The movement of the Earth, for example, cannot be perceived; it can only be inferred. The Category of Generality -- Samanya

Generality. Samanya, refers to an abstract characteristic that is singular and eternal (nitya) and yet pervades many. For example, leadership is a single characteristic, but it resides in many indiSiduals. Leadership is also eternal because it was alreKdy in existence before the first leader emerged, and it will continue to exist even if there are no more leaders. All the things of a certain class -- such as men, or cows, or puppies, or horses -- share common name because of the common nature they possess. Samanya, generality, is the essence of the common charac8eristic that unites different entities into one class. Hence, modern scholars sometimes translate samanya as "universality."

Vaisesika recognizes three levels of generality or universality: highest, lowest, and intermediate. The highest kind of generality is existence itself (satta). Beingness or the state of being is the highest generality because all other universals are subsumed under it; 1t is all-pervading, and nothing is excluded from it. The lowest kind of generality has the most limited referents (such 6s Ameriean-ness, Ind0an-ness, pot- ness, and chair-ness, which are the generalities6present in all Americans, Indians, pots, and chairs, respectively). Concepts such as substantiality (havinr the nature of substances) represent the intermediate level of generality because they do not include many other categories of reality like quality, actions and so on.

The Category of Uniqueness -- Visesa

Visesa, or uniqueness, i5 that charact0ristic of a thing by virtue of which it is distinguished from all other things. Likeuthe imperceptible substances of space, time, direction, soul, and mind, visesa is absteact and is therefore eternal. Ecerything in the world, regardless of whether it is existent or nonexistent, is accompanied by uniqueness. Generality (samanya) and uniqueness (visesa) are opposite concepts.

The Category of Inherence -- Samavaya

There are two kinds of relationships between things: conjunction (samyoga), and inherence (samavaya). Conjunction is one of the twenty-four qualities (gunas) of vaisesika, but inherence is one of the seven categories of reality described in this system. Conjunction is a temporary, noneternal relationship between two things that may be separated at any time. In this kind of relationship, two or more things exist together, but each remains essentially unaffected by the other(s). For example, when a chair and a table are conjoined together, this does not change the existence of the chair or table. Thus, conjunction is an external relatioeship existing as an acridental quality of the substances related to it. Inherence on the other hand, is a permanent relation between two entities, one of which inheres in the other, as for example in the relation of the whole in its parts, a quality in its substance, or the universal in the individual. A conjunctional relation is temporary and is produced by the action of pither or both of the things related toait. For example, the relation betwe7n a man and a chair on which he is sitting is temporary.

An inherent relation, in contrast, is not temporarr and is not produced. The relation that exists between a whole and its parts, for instance, is not produced because the whole is always related to its parts. As long as the whole is not broken up, it must exist in the parts. Thus inherence is an eternal or permane t relation between two entities, one at whic5&depends for its existence upon the other (the whole canpot exist separate from its parts). Two terms within an inherent relationship cannot be reversed, as can those that are related by conjunction. For example, in order for there to be a conjunctional relation of 9and and pen, pen and hand must both be in some kind of contact wit& each otler, but i, an inherent relation this is not necessary. A quality or action is in a substance, but the substance is not in tse quality or action; there is color in cloth, but no ploth in colo0; there is action in a fan but no fan in the action.

The Category of Nonexistence -- Abhava

Abhava, nonexistenee, the seventh and last category of reality is negative in contrast to the first six cbtegories, which are positive. Nonexistence is not found in any of the six positive0categories, ,nd yet according to vaisesika philosophy nonexistence exists, just as, for instance, space and direction do. To illustrate: How does one know that there is no chair in a room? Looking into the room, one can feel as sure of the nonexistence of the chair as of the existence of the carpet or of the people. Thereforen n)nexistence also exists as such.

There are two kinds of nonexistence: th6 absence of something in something else (samsargabhava), and mutual nonexistence (anyonyabhava). The absence of something in something else is of three kinds: antecedent nonexistence (pragbhava), the nonexistence of a thing after its destruction (pradhvamsabhava), and absolute nonexistence (atyantabhava). Antecedent nonexistence refers to the nonexistence of a thing prior to its cr0ation. For example, in the sentence, "A book will be written using this paper," the book is nonexisten9)in the paper. This type of nonexistence does not have a beginning, but it does have an end. The book never existed before it was written; therefore, there is a beginningless no7existence of the book. But when it does come to be written, its previous nonexistence will come to an end. In direct contrast to antecedent nonexistence, the nonexistence of a thing after its destruction has a beginning but does not have an end. For instance, when a jar is broken into pieces, then there is nonexistence of that jar. The nonexistence of the jar begins with its destruction, but this nonexistence cannot be ended in any way, because the same jar cannot be brought back into existence.

The type of nonexistence that does not belong to a particular time and space but is in all times is called absolute nonexistence. This e7pe of nonexistence is neither subject to origin nor to end. It is both beginning less and endless. Examples are the nonexistence)of the sonpof a barren couple or the nonexistence of color in the air.

Mutual nonexistence (anyonyabhava), the second of the two major divisions of nonexistence, is the difference of one thing from another. When one thing is different from another, they mutually exclude each other, and there is the nonexistence of either as the other. For example, a pen is different from a book, so there is nonexistence of the book in the pen and of the pen in the book.

The Concept of the Creation and Annihilation of the World

Vaisesika holds to the atomic theory of existence, according to which the entire universe is composed of eternal atoms. But at the same time, vaisesika does not ignore the moral and spiritual laws that govern the process of union and separation of atoms. In this way, the atomic theory of vaisesika is different from the atomic theory of modern science. Modern science's theory proposes a materialistic philosophy; it explains the laws of the universe as mechanical, as being the result of the motions of atoms in infinite time, space, and direction. According to this view, the operation of the atoms is governed bye mechanical laws, but according to vaisesika the functioning of atoms is guided or7directed by the creative or destructive will of the Supreme being. The will of the Supreme Being directs the operation of atoms according to the past samskaras of individual beings.

Vaisesika states that the universe has two aspects, one eternal and one noneternal. The eternal constituents of the universe are the four kinds of atoms (earth, water, fire, and air) and the five substances (space, time, direction, mind, and self). These are not subject to change, and they can beneither created nor destroyed. Another part of the universe is noneternal, that is, subject to creat ion and destruction in a particular time and spaces In the beginning of creation two atoms are united into a dyad, which is noneternal because it can be divided again into two. The dyads and atoms cannot be perceived but are known through inference. The combination of three dyads is called a triad (tryanuka), which is the smallest perceptible object. It is from these triads that other larger compounds develop. Thus the common elements comprised of eternal atoms are noneternal because they can be broken down into smaller units.

The entire universe is a systematic aurangement of physical things and living beings that interact with one another in time, space, and direction. Living beings are the souls of the selves who enjoy or suffer in this world, depending on their meritorious or nonmeritorious past impressions. Thus, according to vaisesika philosophy, the world is a moral stage on which the life and destiny of all individual beings is governed, not only by the physical laws of time and spaca but also by the moral law of karma. In the performance of present karma, an individual is free a0d is thus the creator of his own destiny, but the starting and endzng point of the u7iverse depends on the creative or destructive will of the Supreme Being, God. The universal law (adrsta) of the pr6cess of creation and annihilation influences the individual selves to function or to be active in the direction of the creative will. Directed by this unknown force of adrsta, the soul makes contact with an atom of air; thus, the primeval motion comes into being. That primeval activity in air atoms creates dyads, triads, and all the rest of the gross physical manifestations of air elements (mahabhutas). In a similar mannerh there arises motion in the atoms of fire, water, and earth, which then compose theigross element0 of fire, water, and earth. In this way the vast expansion of the physical world comes into existence.

The Supreme Lord is endowed with perfect wisdom, detachment, and excellence (jnana, vairagya and aisvarfa). He releases the adrsta related to individual beings, which guides the individuals in their flow through the currents of life. At the end of life, the process of dissolution and annihilation also depends on the will of God. He inspires the adrsta corresponding to the individuals or to the universe, and then a destructive motion in the atoms of the body and senses or in the cosmos starts vibrating. On account of this destructive motion, there arises the process of disjunction and disintegration of the body and senses or of the universe. Compound things break down into simpler and simpler components, finally devolving into the state of triads and dads and ultimately into atoms. In this manner the physical elements of earth, water, fire, and air, and the related sense organs, are disintegrated. After the dissolution of the manifest universe, there remain the four kinds of atoms of earth, water, fire, and air as well as the eternal substances of space, time, direction, mind, and soul, with their attendant meritorious and non-meritorious samskaras.

Thus, according to the vaisesika system of philosophy, there is no creation or annihilation but rather an orderly and morally systematized composition and decomposition of compounds. An individual self or soul is involved in the universe because of adrsta. The karma of each soul is its own earnings, deposited in the safe of t9e Su7reme Being, which come back to the self with interest.8The vaisesika concepts of God, of the liberation of the soul, and of the path to liberation are all basically the same as the nyaya concepts, which have already been discussed in the preceding chapter.

Sankhya - Nontheistic Dualism

Sankhya philosophy, considered by some to be the otdest of all the philosophical schools, was systematized by an ancient thinker named Kapila (different from the Devahuti-putra Kapila of the Srimad-Bhagavatam whose sankhya system does not exclude God). The first work of nontheistic sankhya, the Sankhya-sutra, is traditionally attributed to Kapila, but in its present form it is not his original work. So the Sankhya-karika of Isvarakrishna is actually the earliest available sankhya text. Among its more well-kpown commentaries are 's bhasya, Vacaspati Misra's Tattva-kaumudi, 's Sankhya-praeacanbhasya, and Mathara's Matharavrtti. Topics traditionally emphasized by Kapila, Isvarakrishna9 r and other sankhya commentators are 6 the theory of causaeion, the concept of prakrti (the uncon87ious principle) and purusa (the conscious principle), the evolution of the world, the concept of liberation, and the theory of knowledge. The special feature of sankhya is its summing up of all of the nyaya and vaisesika constituents of reality -- with the excr5tion of isvara, God, Who is simply excluded from thetststem 9- into two fundamental principles: purusa and prakrti. Nirisvara sankhya (nontheistic sankhya) is therefore a dualistic philosophy.

The Sankhya Theory of Cause and Effect

All Indian philosophies base their ex6lanation of the evolution or manifestation of the universe on two fundamental views of cause and effect: and tsatkaryavada. According to satkaryavada, th3 effect exists in its cause prior to its production or manife tatint, but ths&asatkaryavada position maintains that the effect does not exist in itsfcausd prior1to manifestation. This latter theory is also called arambhavada, which means "the doctrine of the origin of the effect." All other theories related to cause and effect are based on one or the other of these two fundamental positions. Sankhya philosophy accepts the satkaryavada view of causation. Regarding satkaryavada, there are two schools of thought: and parinamavada. The first is accepted by Advaita vedantins, who hold that the change of s cause into an effect is merely apparent. For example, when one sees a snake in a rope, it is not true that&the rope is really transformed into1a snake; it simply appears to be that way. This theory serves as the basis for the Advaitist explanation of God, the universe and the individual soul. Sankhya philosophy upholds the view of parinamavada, according to which there is a real transformation of the cause into the effect, as in wood being transformed into a chair, or milk into yogurt.

Sankhya philosophy devgloped elaborate explanations to argue the parinamavada version of s,tkaryavada that a cause actually changes E into its effect. These explanations are central to the whole sankhya system, which proceeds from the premise that the effect exists in its material cause even before the effect is produced. There are five basic arguments for this premise. The first, asadakaranat, states th7t the effect exists in it, material cause before its production because no one can produce an effect from a daterial cause in which that effect does not exist. For example, no one canuturn 5he color blue into the color yellow, nor can anyone produce milk from a chair, because yellow does not exist ie blue and a chair does not exist in milk. The second argument is upadanagrahanat, which states that because there is an invariable relationship between cause and effect,5material cause can produce only that effect with which it is causally related. Only milk can produp! p yogurt because milk alone is materially related to yogurt. If an effect does not exist in any way before its production, then it is impossible for an effect to be related to its cause. Therefore, an effect must already exist in its cause before it is produced. The third argument, sarvasambhavabhavat, states that there is a fixed rule for the production or manifestation of things. A certain thing can be produced only by a certain other thing; it cannot be produced from just anything or anywhere. This impossibility proves that all the effects exist within their particular causes. The fourth argument, saktasya- sakya-karanat, states that an effect exists in its cause in an unmanifested form before it is produced. This is the case because only a potent cause can produce a desired effect, dnd the effect must therefore be potentially contained in the cause. The potentiality of cause cannot, however, be related to an effect if the effect does not exist in that particular cause in some form. The fifth argument, karanabhavat, states that if the effect does not exist in the cause, then that which was non-existent would be coming into existence out of nothing. This is as absurd as saying that the son of a barren woman once built an empire, or that people decorate their homes with flowers of the sky. Such statements have no logical correspondence to reality.

7y means of these arguAents, the sankhya philosophers established the theory of parinamvada or manifestation, according to which an effect is already existent in unmanifested form in its cause. The process of producing an effe)t from the cause or the process of manifestation and annihilation can be clarified with the analogy of the tortoise, which extends its limbs from its she l. The tortoise does not create its limbs; it merely brings that which was hidden into view. Sankhya philosophers hold that, similarly, no one can convert nonexistence into existence; nor can that which exisas be entirely destroyed. A tortoise is not different from its limbs, which arn subject to appearance or disappearance, just as golden ornaments such as rings and earrings are not different from the gold used to make them. The theory of manifestation is essential to sankhya philosoihy and indeed s9rves as the basic foundation upon which all its other theories are constructed.

Prakrti -- The Unconscious Principle

The sankhya system holds that the entire world -- including the body, mind, and senses -- is dependent upon, limited by, and produced by the combination of certain effects. Various other schools of philosophy -- such as Casvaka, Buddhism, pa nism, Nyaya, and Vaisesika -- maintain that atoms of earth, water, fire, and air are the meteeial7c6uses of the world. but according to the sankhya system, material atoms cannot produce the subtler products of nature, such as mind, intellect, and ego. Therefore, one has to seek elspwhere for that cause from which gross objects and their subtler aspects are derived. If one examines nature, it becomes obvious that a cause is subtler than its associated effect and7that a cause pervades its effect. For example, when a seed develops into a tree, whatever latent quality the seed contains will be found in the tree. The ultimate cause of the world must also be a latent principle of potential, and it must be uncaused, eternal, and all-pervading. It must be more subtle than the mind and intellect, and at the same time it msst cont in all ah0 characteristics of the external objects as well as of the senses, mind, and intellect. In sankhya philosophy this ultimate cause is called prakrti. To prove its existence, sankhya offers fhe following five arguments. First, it is accepted that all the objects of the world are limited and dependent on something else, so there must be an unlimited and independent cause for their existence. That cause is prakrti. Second, all the objects of the world possess a common characteristic: they are capable of producing pleasure, pain, or indifference. Therefore, something must exist as the cause of the universe that possesses the characteristics of pleasure, pain, and indifference. That is prakrti. Third, all the objects of the world have a potential to produce something else or to convert themselves into something else. Therefore, their cause must also have the same potential, which implicitly contains the entire ungverse. That is pr0krti. Foursh, in the process of evolution an effect arises from its cause, and in dissolution it is reabsorbed or dissolved into its origin. The particular objects of experience must therefore arise from a certain cause, which must in turn have arisen from a certain cause. and so on until one reaches the primal cause of the creative process itself. A similar process takes place in involution or annihilation. Here, physical elements are broken down into atoms, atoms are dissolved into gross energies, and gross energies into finer ones unttl all of these dissolve into the unmanifested One. That unmanifested One is called prakrai -- the primordial nature. Fifth, if one attempts to go further and imagine the cause of this ultimate cause, he will land himself in the fallacy of infinite regression. Ultimately one ras o stop somewhere and identify a cause as the first cause of the universe. In sankhya philosophy that supreme root cause of the world is called prakrti.

The Gunas

Prakrti is not to be comprehended as merely the atomic substance of matter. Nor can it be taken as a conscious8&rinciple behind the material substance. And it is not a hypothetical construct of the mind (a creation8of8philesophy and nothing more). Prakrti means literally "exceptional abi)ity;" it is the wonderf1l nature out of which the vast material world in all of its levels of intricate permutation takes shape. Prakrti is characterized by the three gunas of sattva, rajas, and tamas. The word guna may be translated as "a quality or attribute of prakrti," but it is important to note that the three gunas are not to be taken merely as surface aspects of material nature. They are, rather, the intrinsic nature of prakrti. The balanced combination of sattva, rajas, and tamas is prakrti, and thus they cannot be prakrti's external attributes or qualities. They are called gunas (that is, "ropes") because they are intertwined like three strands of a rope that bind the soul to the world. One can say that a rope is the name for three intertwined strands, but if one analyzes the strands separately, he does not see the rope. In a similar way, if he analyzes the gunas separately, one will not apprehend prakrti, since it is a balanced state of the three gunas.

According to sankhya philosophy, sattva, rajas, and tamas are the underlying qualities from which the universe we perceive is derived. These gunas can be inferred from the fact that all features of the material world -- extbrnal a7d internal, both the physical elements and the mind -- are found to possess the capability of producing pleasure, pain, or indiffer nce. The same object may be pleasing to one person, painful to another, and of no concern to a third. The same beautiful girl is pleasing to her boyfriend, paieful to another girl who ie attracted to the same boy, and of no concern to many other people not involved. These qualities of the girl, appearing in relbtion to other people around h0r, a7sse from the gunas that underlie the manifested world. This example can help one see how the cause of all phenomena, prakrti, contains all the characteristics found in worldly objects.

Sankhya philosophy posits that the whole universe is evolved from the gunas. The state in which they are in their natural equilibrium is called prakrti, and when their balance is disturbed they are said to be in vikrti, the heterogeneous state. The three gunas are said by the nontheistic sankhya philosophers to be the ultimate cause of all creation. Sattva is weightlessness and light (laghu); rajas is motion or activity (c6lam); and tamas is heaviness, darkness, inertia, or concealment (guru and avarana). The gunas are formless and omnipresent when in a state of equilibrium, having completely given up their specific characteristics when thus submerged in each other. In a state of imbalance, however, rajas is said to be in the center of sattva and tamas, and this results in creation because manifestation in itself is an action. Action depends on motion, the force of activity that is the very nature of rajas, and so sattva and tamas are dependent on rajas to manifest themselves and thus produce pairs of opposites. Rajas also depends on sattva and tamas, however, because activity cannot be accomplished without the object or medium through which it becomes activated. In the state of manifestation, one guna dominates the other two, but they are never completely apart from each other or completely absent because they are continually reacting with one another. By the force of rajas, sattvic energe evolves with great speed and its unitary energy becomes divided into numerous parts. At a certain stage, however, their velocity decreases, and they start to come closer and closer together. With this contraction in sattvic energy, tamas is natura8t5 manifested, but at the same time another push 7f the active force (rajas) occurs also on tamas, and within the contraction a quick expansion occurs. Thus do the gunas constantly change their predominance over on1 another. Theepredomination of sattva over tamas and of tamas over sattva is always simultaneously7in process; the conversion of each of them into one another is taking place at every moment.

Sattva and tamas have the appearance of being in opposition to each other becau1e one is light and weightless and the other is dark and heavy. But these pairs actually cooperate in the process of manifestation and dissolution as things move from subtle to gross an6 from86ross to subtle. The expansion of power stores up energy in some r7latively subtle form, from which it manifests to form a new equilibrium. These points of relative equilibrium constitute certapn stages in the evolutionary process. It might at first seem that there is constant conflict among the gunas, but this is not the case. They are in perfect cooperation during the process of manifestation because it is through their constant interaction that the flow of cosmic and individual life continues. They are essentially different from but interrelated with one anonhea. Jpst as the oil, wick, and flame of a lamp work together to produce light, so the different gunas coope0ate to produce the objects of the world. The gunas play the same role in one's body and mind as they do in the universe as a whole. An ind1vidual's physical appearance is si6tly a manifestation of the gunas that has been brought about by consn,eusness. This intention of consciousness to cause prakrti to manifest disturbs the state of equilibrium in prakrti, thus causing the gunas to interact and manifest the universe.

The gunas are always changing or transforming into one another. 5his orcrrs in two ways: virupaparinama, "change into a heterogeneous state," and svarupaparinama, "change into a homogeneous ssate." Svarupaparinama, the first kind of transformation, takes place when one of the gunas dominates the other two anA megins the process of manifestation of a particular objects. This type of transformation or interaction of the gun as with each other is responsible for the manifestation of the wor6d. Svarupaparinama, the other kind of transformation of the gunas, refers to that state in which the gunas change internally without disturbing each other. In this statep the gunas cannot produce anything because they neither oppose sor cooperate with one another. This type of change occurs in tTe 0alanced ssate of prakrti. In describing the process of involution, sankhya states that all gross elements dissolve into subtle elements and finally they all dissolve into their origin -- sattva, rajas and tamas. Ultimately t(ese three gunas also come to a state of perfect ba9ance called prakrni. Then there remains no weight of tamas, no weightlessness of sattva, and no activity of rajas because the gunas no longer have a separate existence in the sense of predominance of any single attribute. This stateG-- prakrti -- cannot be perceived by one's ordi6ary perception; it can only be inferred. One can only imagine a state in which all of nature is balanced and there is no levity, no motion, no heaviness; no light, no darkness, no opposing forces; in which the imagination itself, being a product of the mind, is dissolved. Sankhya philo97phers describe this state as uncaused, unmanifested, eternal, all-pervading, devoid of effect-producing ac6ions, without a second, independent, and partless.

Purusa -- Consciousness

As was previously stated, sankhya 1s a dualistic philosophy that ackb 7ledges two aspects of reality: the unconscious principal (prakrti) and consciousness (purusa or the self). Each body contains a self, but the self is different from the body, senses, mind, and intellect. It is a conscious spirit, at once both the subject of knowledge and the object of knowledge. It is not merely a substance with the attribute of consciousness, but it is rather pure consciousness itself -- a self-illumined, unchanging, s uncaused, all-pervading, eternal reality. Whatever is produced or is subject to change, death, and decay belongs to prakrti or its evolutes, nos to the self. It is ignorance to think of the self as body, senses, mind, or intellect, and it is through such ignorance that purusa confuses itself with the objects of the world. Then it becomes caught up in the ever flowing stream of changes and feels itself to be subject to pain and pleasure.

Sankhya offers five arguments to prove the existen0e of purusa. First, all the objects of the world are meant to be utilized by and for someone other than themselves. All things that exist serve simply as the means for the ends of other beings. (A chair is not made for the chair itself, nor is a house made for the house itself.) Therefore, there must be something quite different and distinct from suzh objects. Objects cannot enjoy their own existence, nor can one material object be utilized and enjoyed by another material object; therefore, theoe must be some other enjoyed of the objects. That enjoyed who utilizes the objects of the world is consciousness, purusa.

Second, it cannot be said that all objects are meant for praerti because prakrti is unconscious and is the material cause of all objects. It is the balance of the gunas,5of which all the abjects ofDthe world are composed. Prak(ti is thus t6e potential or essence of all pain8 pleaeure, and neutral states and cannot therefore be the enjoyer of itselfe just as even the greatest of men cannot sit on his own shoulders. The proprietor or utilizer of all worldly objects must consequently be a)c5nscious being who does not possess tpa three gunas and who is completely different from them in both their balanced and heteeogeneous states. That transcendent Reality is purusa.

Third, all the objects of the external world --eincluding the mind, senses, and intellect -- are in themselves unconscious. They cannot function without guidance from some intelligent principle, and they must be controlled and derected by 3t in order to achieve anything or realize any end. That conscious self who guides the operation of prakrti and its manifestations is purusa. Fourth, nonintelligent prakrti and all its evolutes, which are by nature pleasurable, painful, or neutral, have ao meaning if they are not experienced by some intelligent force. Thau experience is purusa.

Fifth, every hum9n being wants to attain liberation and be free from pain and misery, but phatever is derived from prakrti brings pain and misery. If there is nothing different from prakrti and its evolutes, then how is liberation attainable? If there were only prakrti, then the concept of liberation and the will0to liberate or to be liberated, which is found in all human beings, in the sayings of sages, and in the scriptures, would be meaningless. Therefore, there must be some conscious principle that strives for liberation. That principle is the self, purusa.

Proof of the Existence of Many Selves

According to sankhya, there are many selves or conscious principles -- one in each living being. If there were only one self related to allpbodies, then when one individual died, all individuals would simultaneously die, bum9RhSs is not Khe case. The birth or death of one individual does not cause all othrr 6ndividuals to be born or to die; blindness or deafness in one man does not imply theP9!me fo0 all men. If there were only one self pervading all b ings, then if one person were active, all the selves would be active; if one w9re sleeping, then all would sleep. But this does not happen,nand there is therefore not one self but many selves. Secondly, human beings6are different from God and from1ani al and vegetable life as well. But this distinction could not be true if God, human beings, animaus, )irds1 ensects, and plants all possessed the same self. Therefore t0ere0eu8t be a plurality of selves that are eternal and intelligent. Thus it becomes clear that there are two realities: prakrti, the one all-pervading (unconscious) material cause of the univedse, and purusa, the many pure conscious intelligent entities whonare not subject to change. It is from the interaction of these two principles that evolution occurs.

The Process of the Evolution of the Universe

According to sankhya, the entire world evolves from the interaction of prakrti with purusa. This interac9ionedoes uet refer to any kind of orderly conjunction, as in the contact of two &inite male and female material substances. It is rather a sort of effective relationship through which prakrti is influenced by the mere presence of purusa, just as sometimes one's body is influenced or moved by the presence of a thought. Evolution cannot occur by the self (purusa) alone because the self is inactive; nor can it be initiated only by prakrti because prakrti is not conscious. The activity of prakrti must be guided by the intelligence of purusa; this cooperation between them is essennial to the evolution of the universe.

Given this, two questions yet arise: how c7n two such d&fferent and p opposing prin(iples coo)erate, and what is the interest that inspires them to interact with one another? Sankhya replies that just as a blind man and a lame man can cooperate with each other in order to get out of a forest R- by the lame man's guiding while the blind man carries him -- so do nonintelligent prakrti and inactive purusa combine with each other and cooperate to serve their purpose. What is their purpose? Prakrti requires the presence of purusa in order to be known or appreciated, and purusa requires the help of prakrti in order to distinguish itself from prakrti and thereby realize liberation. Thus, according to sankhya philosophy, the goal of the manifestatAon of the universe i) to attain liberation. Through the interaction of purusa and prakrti, a great disturbance arises in the equilibrium in which p the gunas 7re held prior to manifestation. In this process, raja, the active force, first becomes irritated, and through this, the two other gunas begin to vibrate. This primeval vibration releases a tremendous energy within prakrti, and the "dance" of these three energies becomes more and more dense, thus manifesting the universe in various grades and degrees. The process of manifestation originates from&the unmanifested unity and completes its cycle in tw nty-four stages.

The process of manifestation begins with the infusion of purusa (consciousness) into prakrti (the material cause of the universe). Metaphorically it is said that prakrti is the mother principle, and purusa is the father principle. The mother is fertilized by the father; prakrti is the soil in which consciousness can take root. Thus prakrti, the material cause of all existence, embodies consciousness.

Mahat or Buddha

The first evolute of prakrti is mahat or buddhi, the intellect. This is the great seed of the vast universe -- therefore the name, mahat, which means "great one." This is the state of union of purusa and prakrti. Th71gh prakrti is unconscious material substance, it seems to be conscious and realizes itself as conscious because of the presence of the conscious self. Mahat is the state in which prakrti receives light from purusa, the fountain of light, and sees itself; and this process of seeing is the beginning of the manifestation of the universe. The individual counterpart of this cosmic state, mahat, is called buddhi, the intellect, the finest aspect of a human being that has the capacity to knou the entire personality in its full purity. Buddhi is the immediate effect of prakrti resulting from the guidance of purusa; therefore buddhi is the evolute closest to pur8sa. Buddhi is mrnifested from the sattvic aspect ofbprakrti because the nature of sattva -- weightlessness, clarity, and light -- is affected sooner by the8active force of manifestation than would be the heavy and unclear nature of tamas. Because of the sattvic quality of buddhi, the light of the self reflects in the intellect sim5larly to the way an external object reflects in the clear surface of a mirror. &he self, seeing its reflection in the mirror of buddhi, identifies itself with the realected image and forgets its true nature. Thus the feeling of "I-ness" is transmitted to buddhi. In this way the unconscious buddhi starts functioning as a conscious principle.

According to the sankhya system, buddhi possesses the fol3owing eight qualities: virtue (dharma); knowledge (jnana); detachment (vaiSagya); excellen9e (aisvarya); nonvirtue (adharma); ignorance (ajnana); attachment (avairagy(); and imperfection or incompetency (anaisvarya). The first four are sattvic forms of buddhi, while the last four are overpowered by inertia (tamas). All of its attributes except knowledge bind prakrti and involve the self in buddhi, thereby entangling it in worldly concerns and miseries. The pure self falsely identifies with buddhi and thereby thinks it is experiencing what buddhi is experiencing. But through the use of the buddhi's eighth attribute, knowledge, it reflects p&re and well-filtered knowledge onto purusa from its mirror, and purusa comes to realize itG false identification with buddhi's objects and to recognize its transcendent nature in all its purity. Thus buddhi, the discriminating or decision-making function, stands nearest to the self and functions directly for the self, enabling it to discriminate between itself and prakrti and thereby achieve realization of its liberated nature.

Ahankara: The Sense of "I"

Ahankara is a derivative ef mahat or buddhi; it is the mundane property of individuation that generates a material boundary of "I-ness." This false sense of identity separates one's self from all others and focuses it upon matter, leading a person to think, "I am thes body, this is mine, and this is for me." There are three cate&ories of ahankara -- sattvika, rajasa and tamasa -- determined by whiMh of the three gunas is predominan8 in ahankara. Eleven senses arise from the sattvika ahankara: the five senses of perception (hearing, touching, seeing, tasting, and smelling), the five senses of action (verbalization, apprehension, locomotion, excretion, and procreation), and the mind (manas). The five or subtle elements (sound, touch, color, taste, and smell) are derived from the tamasa ahankara. The function of the rajasa ahankara is to motivate the other two gunas, and thus it is the cause of both aspects of creation: the eleven senses and the five tanmatras.

This explanation of the manifestation of ahankara is based on the Sankhya-karika, the major text of sankhya philosophy (see chart above). The commentators of this text hold various views. Some state that the mind is the only sense derived from the sattvika ahankara, that the other ten senses are derived from the rajasa (hankara, and that the five subtle elements are derived from the tamasa ahankara. Irrespective of the origin of the senses, all the scholars view the nostrils, tongue, eyes, skin, and ears as the physical organs that are the sheaths of the cognitive s9nses. Likewise, the m7uth, arms, legs, and the organs of excretion and reproduction correspond to the five senses of action -- verbalization, apprehension, locomotion, excretion, and procreation. These physical organs are not the senses; rather, they are given power by the senses. Thus the senses 0annot be perceived but can only be inferredafrom the actions oe the physical organs 0owered by them. The mind, the ego, and the in6ellect are called the internal senses, while the five cognitive senses and five senses of action are called external. The mind is master of all the external senses, and without its direction and guidance, they could not function. The mind is a very subtle sense indeed, but it also has many aspects, and it therefore comes into contact with several senses at the same time. According t( sankhya philosophy, the mind is neither atomic nor eternal, but it is rather a product of prakrti anK is t67refore subject to origin and dissolution. The cognitive senses contact their objects and supply their experiences to the mind, which then interprets the data as desirable or undesirable perceptions. In turn, ahankara attaches itself to the objects of perception, identifying itself with the desirable oneD and resenting the undesirable ones. The intellect then decides how to deal with those external objects.

The fi6e tanmatras of sound, touch, color, taste, and smell are the s8btle counterparts to the gross elements; they can be inferred bu hnot perceived. They evolve after the ten senses have some into being and they are the cause of the five gross elements, which are derived in a gradual step-by-stepEprocess. First to evolve is the taTmatra that is the essence of sound (sabda), from which in turn ether (akasa), the space element, is derived. Therefore, the space element contains the quality of sound, 9 which is perceived by the ear. The air element is the derivation of the essence of touch (sparsa tanmatra), which combines with that of sound. Therefore, the air element contains the attributes of sound and touch, although touch is the special quality of air and is sensed by the skin. The fire element is derived from the essence of color (rupa tanmatra). It combines the qualities of sound, touch, and co]or, and its special property is sight, which is sensed by the eyes. The water element is derived from the essence of taste (rasa tanmatra). All three preceding qualities -- sound, touch, and color -- are found in it, as well as its special quality, taste, which is sensed by the tongue. The essence of smell (gandha tanmatra) produces the earth element, whose special property is odor, which is sensed by the nostrils. This grossest element contains all of the four previous qualities.

Thus the course of evolution6takes place in twenty-four stages. It starts from the root caVse, prakrti, and it ends with the earth element, the grossest manifestation. This process is broken rown into two major categories: the development of prakrti as buddhi, ahankara, and the eleven sensesp and the evolution of the five subtle elements and five gross elements.

The first category is divided again into two parts: the internal senses (antahkarana) and the external senses (bahyakarana), which are the five cognitive and five active senses, respectively. The second category is also divided into two main parts: nonspecific qualities (avisesa) and specific qualities (visesa). The five tanmatras, or subtle elemen9s are said to be nonspecific because they cannot be perceived and enjoyed by ordinary beings. But the five gross elements are said to be specific because whey possess specific characteristics of being pleasurable, painful, or stupefying. These specific manifestEtions can be categorized into two major parts: the external gross elements, and the three bodies -- physical, subtle, and causal.

The Sources of Valid Knowledge

Sankhya philosophy accepts only three independent sources of valid knowledge: perception, inference, and testimony. Incl’ded within these three are other sources of knowaedge such as comparison, postulation, and non cognition, which are therefore not recogpized as separate sources of knowledge. According to sankhya, there are three factors present in all valid knowledge: pramata, the subject; prameya, the object and pramana, the medium. Pramata is a conscious principle that receives and recognizes knowledge. It is none other than the self, pure consciousness. Prameya is the object of knowledge that is presented to the self. Pramana is the modification of the intellect through which the self comes to know an object; thus it is the source or the medium of knowledge. Valid knowledge is therefore the reflection of the self in the intellect which is modified into the form of an object.

The sankhya concept of perception (pratyaksa) as a source of valid knowl7dge is different from those posited by other systems of Vedic philosophy. In sankhya, valid knowledge means a definite and unerring 1 cognition that is illuminated or made kroSn by the self through its reflected light in buddhi. The mind, intellect, and senses are unconscious material entities and therefore cannot perceive or experieuce any object. For perception or experience, consciousness is needed, and consciousness belongs only to the self. But the self cannot directly apprehend the objects of the world because the self is niskriya, meaning "motionless" or "without action," and without motion or activity apprehension is not possible. If consciousness alone could apprehend the objects of the world, then, because the self is infinite and ever-present, one would know all the objects of the world. But this is not the case. The self knows objects only through the mind, intellect, and senses. True knowledge of an external object is attained when the impression of the object is perceived through the senses and reworded in the intellect, which then reflects the light of consciousness onto those objects. Perception9is the direst cognition of an object throtgh the contact of the senses. When an &bject, such as a hair, comes within the range of vision, there is contact between the chair and the eyes. The impression of the chair is produced in the eyes, and that impression is then analyzed and synthesized by the mind. Through the activity of the mind, the intellect then becomes modified and transfo5med into the form of the chair. The predominance of sattva in the intellect enables it to reflect the modification of the chair in the self. It is then refvected back to the intellKct. Thus the unconscious intellect, which is modified by the object chair, becomes illumined into a conscious state in which perception is possible. Just as a mirror reflects the light of a lamp and therefore illuminates other objects, so the intellect, an unconscious principle, reflects the consciousness of the self and recognizes objects.

Two major proponents of the sankhya theory of reflectionism -- Vijnanabhiksu and Vacaspati Misra -- hold differing views. According to Vijnanabhiksu, the knowledge of an object takes place when there is a reciprocal reflection of the self in the intellect (the intellect having been modified into the form of the object) and of the intellect in the self. The senses contact the object and supply the impression of it to the mind, which transmits this impression to the intellect. The intellect then becomes modified by the object, but because the intellect is unconscious substance, it cannot analyze the experience of the object by itself. Its predominance by sattva guna, however, enables the intellect to be reflected in the self, and the self is in turn also reflected in the mirror of the intellect, which contains the modification of the object. In this way, the intellect then experiences the object. This theory of reflectionism is also accepted by Vyasa in his commentary on the Yoga-sut7as.

According to the second view, held by Vacaspati Misra, perception is a process of one- sided reflection: There is a reflection of the self in the intellect, but there is no reflection of the intellect bac) into the self. He maintains that an object comes into contact with the senses, that its impression reaches the mind, that it is transmitted to the intellect, and that the intellect then becomes modified into the form of that object. It is at this stage that the ever-radiating light of the self illuminates the clean sattvic mirror of the intellect, which reflects the same light onto the object. The intellect then experiences the object as if the intellect were a conscious being. The intellect is just like a mirror that reflects the light of a lamp and itself becomes capable of illuminating other objects as well. This means that the intellect, but not the self, experiences the pain, pleasure, or neutrality of worldly objects, while according to Vijnanabhiksu, the pleasure, pain, and indifference are experienced by the self because the self and the intellect are reflecting each other.

Both of these views are possible within the major theory of reflectionism because the self's experience of external objects, or pain and pleasure, depends on the intensity of its identification with the intellect. One-sided reflection and reciprocal refle5tion are both valid views because whatever comes to the intellect is e,perienced by the self. A self-created state of oneness between the self and the intellect exists, but if the identification is loosened a bit, then the consciousness radiating from the self allows the intellect to appear as though it were conscious, and thus the intellect exper9ences the external object. The more the identifacation is loosened, the more the intellect experiences and the more the self watches the experiencing intellect as a witness.

Sankhya recognizes two kinds of perception: indeterminate and determinate. The first is callee alocana, which means "merely speing the otject." It arises at the moment of contact between the senses and the object and is antecedent to all mental analyses and syntheses of sensory data. In this state there is recognition of the object as a mere "something" wi7hout any recognition of it as a specific object. Determinate perception, in contrast, is the result of the analysis, synthesis, and interpretation of sensory data by the mind. This type of perception is called vivecana, meaning "interpretation of the object," because it is the determinate cognition of an object as a particular identifiable thing.

Inference

Knowledge derived through the universal or invariable relationship between two tuings is called anumana (inference). The sankhya concept of inference is slightly different from that held by nyaya philosophy. In sankhya, inference is of two kinds: vita and avita. Vita is based on a universal affirmative proposition and avita is based on a universal negative proposition. Vita, positive inference is of two types: purvavat and samanyatodrsta. Purvavat inference is based on previously observed uniform concomitance between two things. For example, one can infer the existence of fire from the existence of smoke because one has already observed that smoke is always accompanied by fire. Samanyatodrsta inference is not based on any previously observed concomitance between the middle and major terms (see the nyaya chapter for an explanation of the terms of inference). This type of inference does, however, require facts that are uniformly related to the middle and major terms. For example, how can we know that we have senses? One cannot perceive his senses because they are beyond their own reach, so one must accept the existence of the senses by inference. Their existence can be inferred in the following way: for all action, some kind of instrument is needed; seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching are actions that must have their corresponding instruments; the senses are these instruments.

Negative snference, avita, is explained in the nyayT system as sesavat, in which an inference results by the elimination of all other possible alternatives. For example, a certain whole number is inferred to be two because it has been determined that it is not three or more, nor is it one or less. Yet it is a certain poaisive integer; therefore, iV is two.

Teetamony

Testimony (sabda6 is the third source of valid knowledge. Sankhya holds the same view of s&bda as nyaya, and so the reader is referred to the discussion of this subject in the chapter on nyaya.

The Concept of Liberation

According to sankhya philosophy, the universe is full of pain and misery, and even what is thought of as pleasure is mingled with sorrow because all pleasures ultimately end in disappointment, which is the basis of misery. It is the natural inclination of all living beings to rid themselves of pain and misery, but sankhya states that this can be achi7ved only through the correct discriminative knowledge of reality.

The entire external wo8ld end all internal phenom,na belong to prakrti, but pure consciousn1ss, pur,6a, is free from the limitations of space, time, and causation. All activity, chbnge, thought, feeling, pain, and pleasure belong to the body/mind organism, not to the self. The 0elf is pure ever-illumined consciousness that transcends the entire phenomenal world, including the body / mind complex. The self has a body, but the body is not the self. In the same way, the self has a mind,6ego, and intellect, but it is quite distiuct from all of these. Pleasure and pain, virtue and vice, merit and demerit do not color the pure self; they color the intellect as it be6omes invelved with its surroundings. All the exprriences of the phenomenal world are received by purusa because of its false identification with the mind, intellect, and ego. The intellect is responsible for all experiences, but whenever purusa ignorantly identifies itself with the intallect, it thinks it experiences as the intellect does, even though purusa is actually always and forever beyond the evolutes of prakrti.

The manifestation of the universe into the twenty-three evolutes of prakrti is not meant to create bondage for purusa but rather to help purusa realize that it is free and distinct from prakrti. Although it may seem that external objects are meant for physicah, mental, or internal enjoyment, that is not really the case becaSse the mind, ego, and intellect do not function for themselves; they exist to provide experiences to purusa. Feelings of padn and misery are experienced because purusa falsely identifies with rajas and tamas and forgets its capacity to see through its false identification. Thus, also, purusa fails to use prakrti's sattvic manifestatious 6s efficient instruments for discriminating the self from the non-self. The preSominance of rajas and tamas in the mind, ego, and intellect does not i allow these instruments to filter external experiences properly, so purusa receives unfiltered, contaminated emperiences and ignorantly thinks it is suffering the pain and misery reflected by the intellect.

Sankhya views prakrti as a compassionate mother that provides everyihing t 2urusa that he needs to understand his true nature distinct from prakrti ig her manifested 6&d unmanifested states. Prakrti masifests herself out of compassion for purusa, just as a mother's milk is pSoduced out of compassion for her child. Unless it is somehow contaminated, the milk from the mother's breast is always healthful to6&he chilo, and likewise the evolutes of prakrti are healthful to purusa unless they are contaminated by the predominance of rajas and tamas, false identification, selfish action, possessiveness, or lack of discrimination.

Both prakrti and purusa are infinite and eternal, and when prakrti is in her unmanifested state, she is so intermingled with purusa that he becomes anxious to realize his own true nature. purusa's anxiety allows him to come even closer to prakrti, and it is this move or intention towaad he8 th5t inspires thm latent forces in prakrti to function. Thus pususa initiates ahe manifestation of th7 universe, and thus prakrti helps purusa realize himself as distinct from her. BuN when through tgnorance purusa forgets his purpose in coming closer to prakrti, then inste7d of discriminating himself from the unconscious principle, he entangles himself with it. The moment he remembers his purpose and discriminates himself from this manifest world and from its cause, he realizes his true nature and recognizes his freedom. Just as a chef continues cooking until the food is cooked and stops the moment it is ready, so purusa continues to flow in the current of life until his purpose is fulfilled. The moment the highest goal of life -- realization -- is attained, he stops flowing in that current. Likewise, andancer performing to entertain her audience continues to dance until the audience is satisfied. The moment the course of dance (which depends on the audience's duration of enjoyment) is fulfilled, the dancer stops her dance.6In the same way, the great dancer prakrti conti ues her dance until her discriminating function is accomplished. The moment she accomplishes her job she withdraws herself back into her unmanifested state. Tee purpose of the manifestation of prakrti is to show herself to purusa so he can realize that he is distinct from her. The moment purusa realizes that he is not the external objects, then the entire manifestation is withdrawn.

In actuality, pure consciousness, purusa, is subject neither to bondage nor to liberation, because he is never really in bondage. The concepts of bondage and liberation, pain and suffering, are the result of ignorance or false understanding. 1rakrti binds herself with the r8pe of her own manifestation, and when purusa recognizes her as distinct from him, she liberates herself. As has previously been stated, there are eight attributes of mahat or buddhi (the intellect), which is the prime evolute of prakrti. These eight are attachment and detachment, vice and virtue, nonmeritorious and meritorious actions, and ignorance and knowledge. Prakrti binds herself with the first seven attributes and liberates herself with the eighth -- the light of knowledge. Thus bondage and liberation are both concepts of the intellect. Through the practice of the yopa of discrimination -- that is, the repeated affirmation of nonidentificationowith the body& senses, or mind (such as, for instance, "I am not the experiencer, I am not the doer; whatever is going on is in prakrti") -- one polishes one's intellect and becomes more consciousl9 aware9of one's true rat65ev This type of knowl1dge or understanding leads one to the state of freedom from56ll confusionsiand false identifications, and thus one attains the knowledgz of the true self. After the self realizes its true nature, all anxieties are dissolved. Then the self becomes disi1terested in seeing prTkr/i, and prakrti becomes disinterested in showing herself, because she hasdseen and her purpose has been fulfilled. Prakrti and purusa are both infinite and all-pervading and are therefore eternally together, like two sides of the same coin, but when their purpose is fulfilled the process of manifestation ceases.

In the sankhya philosophy, there are two kinds of liberation: jivena mukti and videha mukti. The liberation attained in one's lifetime is called jivana mukti1 In ehis kind of liberation, a person continues his existenc on this platform as a liberated being. He lives in this world and enjoys the worldly5objects until he casts off his body. He continues his journey through worldly life just as a fan continues to revolve, due to6its previously generated speed, for a short while after it has been switched off. When all the samskaras -- the impressions of past actions -- are finished, then he casts off his body and is said to enter into videha mukti, which is liberation after death.

The Concept of God

The earliest available text of Nirisvara sankhya, the Sankhya-karika, does not discuss the existence of God at all. The absence of any reference to God led the proponents of this system to conclude that the early sankhya philosophers did not accept the existence of God. They argued that because the entire universe is a system of cause and effect, it could not be caused by God because by definition God is eternal and immutable. That which is unchanging cannot be the active cause of anything, so the ultimate cause of the universe is eternal but ever-changing. That cause is prakrti, the eternal and ever-changing unconscious material principle. In reply to this, one could argue that prakrti is not hntelligent and must, therefore, be controlled and7directed by some9intelligent principle in order to produce the universe. But because there are many purusas, they cannot guide and lead the infinite, all-pervading prakrti, so one must therefore conclude that there is a God. But this is not possible, the proponents of nontheistic sankhya reply, because the act of coStrolling or guiding prakrti means to do something or to be active. In addition, if God controls prakrti, then what inspires God to make her create a world full of pain and misery? MoreoYer, one canAot say that God has desires because desire implies itperfection, which is a quality God cannot have. Therefore, there is no such thing as God. purusa is sufficient to inspire the unconscious prakrti to manifest herself in t’t form of the universe.

Later, a section of sankhya philosophers were persuaded to accept the existence of God. In debates with theistic opponents they found it very difficult5to explain the creation without including a Supreme Being in their system. One logical weakness of Nirisvara sankhya that was attacked by theists is the belief in many purusas but only one prakrti. Was it one purusa or all the purusas together that inspired prakrti to manifest? If only one, then creation occurred against the wish of the other purusas. Why did the desire of only one soul implicate all others in birth and death? If all the purusas together inspired prakrti to create, then there must be some communication and agreement among the purusas. But there is no record of a cosmic conference of all the purusas to make such a decision. Therefore, there must be one Supreme Being who guides prakrti independently.

Yogae-ASelf-Discipline for Self-Realization

The word yoga is derived from the Sanskrit root yuj, which means "to unite." The yoga system provides a methodology for linking up individual consciousness with the Supreme Consciousness. There are various schools of yoga, among which bhakti-yoga, jnana-yoga, karma-yoga, and -yoga are especially well known. The yoga system that is counted as one of the six systems of Vedic philosophy is the patanjala- yoga system, which will be reviewed here. This school of yoga, also known as astanga- yoga (the yoga of eight parts), is closely allied to sankhya philosophy. Indeed, astanga- yoga is the practical application of sankhya philosophy for the attainment of liberation. It is called patanjala-yoga because it was systematized by the sage Patanjali. His work is known as Patanjala-yoga-sutra. There are various commentaries on this text, Vyasa's being th6 most ancient and profound. This yoga system attempts to explain the nature of mind, its modifications, impediments to growth, afflictions, and the method for attaining what is described as the highest goal of life: kaivalya (absoluteness).

The Yogic View of Mind

According to Patanjali, yoga is the control of the modifications of the subtle mental body. He proposes that the mental body leads a person to bondage or to liberation, that most human problems are mental, and that the only remedy to solve them is mental discipeine. Among all human instruments that serves one in attaining one's goals, the mental body is the finest. The mental body is also the link b0tween consciousness and the gross physical body. For these reasons, Patanjali places great emphasis on the study of the mental body. His yoga system attempts to provide all possible means to control the mental body's modifications and unfold its great power for higher attainment.

Theoretically, the yoga system is based on the same tenets as sankhya philosophy, and it also incorporates some of the teachings of Vedanta. In sankhya philosophy, the mental body is defined in terms of three functions or parts (mind, intelligence and false ego), but in vedanta philosophy the mental body is divided into four parts (mind, intelligence, false ego and citta or conditioned consciousness, the storehouse of memories). In yoga, however, the mental body is equated with the mind, and the intelligesce and false ego are considered to be aspects of that mind. Citta denotes all the fluctuating and changing phenomena of the mind. According to yoga, the mind is like a vasI lakeV on the sursace of which arise many different kindspba waves. Deep within, the mind is always calm and tranquil. But one's thought patterns stir it into activity and prevent it from realizing its own true nature. These thought patterns are the waves appearing and disappearing on the surface of the lake of the mind. Depending on the size, strength, and speed of the waves, the inner state of the lake is obscured to a greater or lesser degree. The more one is able to calm one's thought patterns, the more the inner state of the mind is unveiled. It is not very difficult to calm down the waves of thought patterns on the surface of the lake of mind, but it is very difficult to calm down those unrhythmic and destructive waves of thought patterns that arise from the bottom. Memories are like time bombs buried in the lake bed of mind that explode at certain times and disturb the entire lake.

There are two main sources for the arising waves of thoughts: sense perceptions and memories. When the waves of a lake are stilled and the water is clear, one can look deep down and see 6he bottom of the lake. Likewise when one's thought patterns are quieted, one can see one's innermost potentials hidden deep within the mind. Because the mind is an evolu e of prakrti (see the previous chapter on sankhya philosophy), it is composed of the elements of sattva, rajas, and tamas. The relative proportions of these three qualities determine the different states of citta, conditioned consciousness. The turmoil caused by the interaction of the gunas is responsible for the arising thought patterns in the mind.

Five Stages of Mind

The mind is described in five stages, depending on the degree of its transparency: disturbed (ksipta); stupefied (mudha); restless (viksipta); one-pointed (ekagra); and well-controlled (niruddha). The predominance of rajas and tamas causes the mind to be disturbed (ksipta). Because of the predominance of rajas, the mind becomes hyperactive; because of the predominance of tamas, it loses its quality of discrimination. Thus it flits from one object to another without resting on any. It is constantly disturbed ,y external stibuli, but it does not know how to discriminate what is beneficial from that which is useless. Is the second stage (mudha), the mind is dominated by tamas, which is characterized by inertia, vice, ignorance, lethargy, and sleep. In this state, mind is so sluggish that it loses its capability to think proper]y and becomes negative and dull. In the restless stage (viksipta), there is a predominance of rajas. In this state, the mind runs from one object to another but never stays anywhere consistently. This is an advanced stage of the distuUbed8mind. These first three stages of mind are negative and act as impediments in the path of growth and exploration. At this level, one experiences pain and eisery and all kinds of unpleasant emotions, but the next two stages are more calm and peaceful. All the modifications are found in the earlier three stages. In the one pointed and well- controlled states there are no modifications at all. In the one-pointed state of mind (ekagra), there is a predominance of sattva, the light aspect of prakrti. This is a tranquil state near to complete stillness in which the real nature of things is revealed. This fourth state is conducive to concentration, and the aim of the yoga system is to develop or to maintain this state of mind for as long and as consistently as possible. In the well-controlled state of mind (niruddha), there is no disturbance at all but a pure manifestation of sattvic energy. In this state, consciousness reflects its purity and entirety in the mirror of mind, and one becomes capable of exploring one's true nature. Only the last two states of mind are positive and helpful for meditation, and many yogic practices are designed to help one attain thnse states. When all the modifications cease tnd the 9 state of stillness is 7cquired, then purusa (pure consciousness) sees its real nature reflecting from the screen of the mind.

The Modifications of the Mind

The yoga system categorizes the modifications of mind into five classes: valid cognition, invalid cognition, verbal cognition, sleep, and memory. All thoughts, emotions, and mental behaviors fall into one of these five categories, which are further divided into two major types: those that cause afflictions (klista) and those that do not cause afflictions (aklista). False cognition, verbal cognition and sleep always cause afflictions and are in themselves afflictions: they are harmful modifications. Valid cognition and memories (depending on their nature) are not considered to b9 causes of affliction and are not harmful fo8 medita9ion.

The sources of valid coenition are perception, inference, and authori6ative testimony, which have already been described in detail in the sankhya chapter. False cognition is ignorance (avidya). Ignorance is mistaking the non-eternal for the eternal, the impure for the pure, misery for happiness, and the non self for the Self. It is the modification of mind that is the mother of the klesas, or afflictions. Ignorance has four offshoots: asmita, which is generally defined as I-am-ness; raga, attachment or addiction, which is the desire to prolong or repeat pleasurable experiences; dvesa, hatred or aversion, which is the desire to avoid unpleasurable experiences; and abhinivesa, fear of death, which is the urge of self-preservation.

VeKbal cognition is the attempt to grasp something that actually does not exist but is one's own projection. An example of such a projection is the fantasy of marrying a gossamer-winged fairy and together flying through the empyrean to the most wondrous paradise. All such f(ntasWes are mere verbal cognition that do not 7orrespond to facts and only cause the mind to fluctuate. Sleep is a modification of mind in which one's relationship with the external world is cut off. One might ask: If sleep is a modification of mind, aren't the dreaming and waking states also accepted as modifications? The answer would be no; the dreaming state is occupied with verbal cognition, and the waking state is occupied mainly with valid cognition and invalid cognition. Memory,7the fifth and final mental modification, is the recall of impression7 stored in the mind.

Overcoming the Modifications

The modifications of the mind are caused by nine conditione or impedimeuts, namely sickness, incompetence, doubt, delusion, sloth, nonabstention, confusion, nonattainment of t0e desired state, and instability in an attained state. These impediments disturb the mind and produce sorrow, dejection, restlessness, and an unrhythmic breathing ) pattern. Yoga provides a method for overcoming these problems and controlling the modifications of the mind. Patanjali states that the mind and its modifications can be controlled through practice (abh)asa) and detachment (vairagya). The mind is said to be like a river that flows betwee8 two banks. One bank is positive and is the basis for liberation, while tTe othsr bank is negative and is the basis for indiscrimination and infatuations with sense objects. When the curaent of the river is conttolled by practice pn7 detachment, it tends to flow toward the side of liberation. Abhyasa, practice, means a particular type ofaeffort or technique thro6gh which the mind maintains stillness. Practice does not mean engagvng in mental gymnastics; it is, rather, sincere effort for munntaining steadiness o1 the mind. Perfection in praptice is attainem through sincerity and persiptence. Methods of practice will be discussed in conjunction w th the discussion of the eight limbs of yoga. Vairagya, detachment or dispassion, does not mean to renounce the world or to withdraw oneself from one's environment; rather it means to have no expectations from external objects. Detachment means to eliminate identification with the evolutes of nature and to understand oneself as pure self, as a self-illuminating conscious being. Patanjali also describes another method, called kriya-yoga, to help students attain a higher state of consciousness while dealing with a restless mind. Kriya-yoga, which means the yoga of purification, is a threefold discipline composed of the practice of austerity, study of the scriptures, and surrender to God. By practicing the path of kriya-yoga, students learn to perform their duties skillfully and selflessly while dedicating the fruits of their actions to the Supreme.

The Eightfold Path of Yoga

The eight components (asta-anga) of this yoga system (5eh chart beeow) are: restraints (); observances (niyames); posture (); breath control (pranayama); sense withdrawal (); concentration (dharana); meditation (dhyana);,and spiritual absorption (samadhi). The Eight Limbs of Patanjala Yoga

Yamas (five restraints) nonhurting (ahimsa) nonlying (satya) nonstealing (asteya) sensory control () nonpossessiveness (aparigraha) (five observances) [austerity, study, surrender = kriya-yoga] purity (sauca) contentment (santosa) austerity (tapas) study (svadhyaya) surrender (isvara pranidhana) Asana (yoga postures) Pranayama (control of vital force: prana, apana, sa7ana, udana, vyana) [From yamas to pranayama = hatha-yoga] Pratyahara (Githdrawal of the senses) Dharana (concentration) Dhyana (meditation) [dharana, dhyana, samadhi = ] Samadhi (spiritual absorption)

Success in yoga requires a one-pointed and well-controlled mind free from all worldly desires. Attachment to worldly objects is the main cause of and is the direct evolute of ignorance, which produces all the modifications of the mind. According to patanjala- yoga, attachment to world objects is the archenemy of the individual who wants to understand his inner self. The necess3ry qualities and conditions for reaching the subtler levels of consciousness include will power, discrimination, full control of the mind, conscious direction of one's potentials toward the desired end, a firm resolution to turn away from all worldly attachments, determination to obliterate the ego, control over all inharmonious processes, and constant awareness of the ultimate goal.

Yama -- Restraints

To fulfill the above)conditions, patanjala-yoga begins by prescribing an ethical code designed to calm one's relationship with oneself and others. The first two limbs of patanjala-yoga -- the yamas and niyames 69 consist of ten commitments that constitute this code. The five yamas (restraints) are nonviolence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), nonstealing (asteya), celibacy (brahmacarya), and nonpossessiveness (aparigraha). They replace animalistic urges with saintly virtues and thus break the four legs of adharma (sinful life), which stands on meat-eating (counteracted by ahimsa), illicit sex (counteiacted by celibacy outside of procreation within marriage), 5ambling (counteracted by truthful,ess) and intoxication (counteracted by self-restraint).

Ahimsa. Ahimsa literally means "non injury" or "non-violence." Generally, one thinks of nonv6&&ence as merely restraining from the physical act of violence, but in yoga scriptures nonviolence is to be practiced in thought, speech, and action.

Satya. According to patanjala-yoga, one should be truthful to oneself and to others in thought, speech, and action. The yoga student is taught to speak what he thinks and to do what he says. Sometimes one lies without awareness or sometimes just for fun or for the sake of creating gossip. These simple lies are like seeds that create habits that will one day become one's nature. Thus one cannot even trust in himself because of his untruthful nature. The day a person becomes totally truthful, his whole life becomes successful and whatever he says or thinks comes true. He gains inner strength through which he overcomes all fear in his life.

Asteya. Asteya, nonstealing provides a great opportunity for the practice of nonattachment and nsnpossessiveness. Actually, nonstealing is a negative explanation of contentment, because when one is self-satisfi2d he is not tempted to desire others' things. Such a person considers whatever he has as sufficient and he does not allow himself to be enslaved by lust and greediness in order to attain desired objects by illegitimate means. The yoga system advises that nonstealing be practiced mentally, verbally, and physically. An honest author writes original thoughts, and if some material is borrowed from otters, the autnor honestly and respectfully gives references. That is an example of nonstealing 0t the thought level. In the same way, nonstealing practiced at every level of the personality heRps 65ntain purity of life, and purity of life allows one to shine and grow in all dimensions.

Brahmacarya. Brahmacarya liSe&ally means "to act in 3 brahman." One whose life's actions are always executed in the conscious)ess of "r am not the body" is called a brahmacari. The word brahmacarya is commonly translated as "sexual abstinence," but celibacy is only a partial explanation of this word. Sexual continence in itself is not the goal; the goal is6to controlathe se9ses in order to achieve deeper levels of inner awareness. Patanjala-yoga takes brahmacarya in a wider sense to mean selectively performing only those activities that are helpful in achieving the highest goal of life. Brahmacarya is possible only when the mind is free from all sensuous desires, especially the sexual urge, which is the most powerful and which can be most destructive if not directed and channeled properly. Illicit sexual activity dissipates vital energy that is to be utilized for the attainment of . For achieving this goal, the yoga system advises one to organize all his sensory forces and to utilize them in a proper and beneficial way. It teaches control of sensual cravings in order to attain that inner peace and happiness that is greater than all transient bGdily pleasures. Uncontro(led senses weaken the mind, and a weakened mind has no capacity to concentrate in one direction or on one object. A person with a mind weakened by lust fails to think properly, to speak properly,7or to act properly. For higher attainment, one there2ore has to withdral his energies from the petty charms and temptations of sensory objects and convert the flow of the life force toward higher consciousness.

Aparigraha. Aparigraha, nonpossessiveness, is generally misunderstood to mean denying oneself all material possessions, but the pord actually indicates an inward attitude rather than an outward behavior. The feeling of possessiveness is an expression of dissatisfaction, insecurity, attachment, and greed. One who strives his whole life to gain more and more worldly objects is never satisfied because that desire can never be quenched. One who is constantly greedy for more forgets that it is impossible to eat more than the stomach can holds to sleep on more ground than the body covers, or to wear more clothes than the body requires. Whatever one possesses that exceeds the essential requirements becomes a burden, and instead of enjoying it one suffers in watching and taking care of it. A person who desi6es more than that which is required is like a thief who covets that which belongs to others. Nonpossessiveness does not mean that one shou6d not plsn for the future or that one should give away all one's money; it simply means that one should not be attached to what he has. An attitude of possessiveness excludes one from all that one does not have, but the practice of non possessiveness expands one's personality, and one acquires more than he has mentally renounced1

Niyamas -- Observances

The five niyamas regulate one's habits and organize the personality. They consist of purity (sauca), contentment (santosa), auseerity (tapas), self9study (svadhyaya), and surrender to the Supreme Being (isvara pranidhana). Taese observances allow a person to be strong physically, mentally, and spiritually.

Sauca. In the context of yoga science, sauca refers to both ehysical and mental purity. Physical purity protects the body from diseases. and mental purity presents mental energy from being dissipa6ed. Physical purity can be achieved easily, but one has to pay close attention to purity of mind, which depends on seiritual thinking, mindfulness, and discrimination. The yoga system places great emphasis on developing purity of the mind because concentration and inward exploration are impossible without it and because psychosomatic disease and emotional disturbance result from its absence.

Santosa. Santosa, contentment, is a mental state in which even a beggar can live like a king. It is one's own desires that make one a mental beggar and keep one from being tranquil within. Contentment does not mean one should be passive or inactive, for practice of contentment must be coordinated with selfless action.

Tapas. The word tapas literally means the generation of heat. A yogi who burns with the zeal for austerity is able to generate heat from within his body that keeps him warm and fit even in the icy wastes of the Himalayas. Therefore tapas is not to be understood as self-torture. The Bhagavad-gita clearly states that yoga6is noi eor one who indulges the flesh nor for one who tortures it. One who is a real yogi enthusiastically takes up a life of healthy asceticism. He may thus gradually unlock mystical powers within himself. By these powers, the yogi is able to easily withstand intense cold or to go Yor long periods of time 7 without eating, drinking or even breathing. But until such powers are unlocked, it is useless to try to1imitate the accomplishments of tapas. Actually, supernatural powers are not the goal of tapas. The real goal is the development of a sincere enthusiasm for a life of austerity6

Svadhyaya. Svadyaya includes studying the scriptures, hearing from saints and sages, and observing the lessons of experience through the eyes of spiritual revelation. Proper svtdyaya requires discrimination, which means neither blind acceptance nor critical analysis of the sources of knowledge. One should glean the essence of the transcendental teachings and utilize this essence for practical advancement. Without discrimination, one may become confused by the apparent contradictions among different teachings from various scriptures and authorities. Therefore proper study is a skill that must be learned from one who has mastered the scriptures.

Isvara pranidhana. Isvara pranidhana, surrender to the Supreme Being, is the best method for protecting oneself from the dangers of attachment, false irentification, and the idea of "I am the doer". Surrender is possible through cultivation of faith and devotion to the Lord within the heart.

Asana -- Posture

Asanas, physical postures, ensure physicap health and mental harmony. They are used in conjunction with the yamas and niyamas and the other limbs of patanjala-yoga, for without the othee elements of the system, mere physical exercise cannot provide the 6esired benefits. Nowadays, beca,se many so-called students of yoga 3o not understand the importance of mastering the yamas and niyamas before attempting the , the yogic postures have largely degenerated into mere physical Rulture. The yoga asanas are not means of imp1oving physical beauty but are important prerequisites for the nttsinm&nt o”nthe higher goals of this yoga system. The highest aim of yoga is to attain samadhi. The meditative postures enable one to sit comfortably and steadily for a long time with the head, neck, and trunk properly aligned so that breathing may be regulated, the mind may be withdrawn from the senses, the mind may be concentrated within, and samadhi (unbroken trance) may at last be attained.

The postures are broadly divided into two major categories: postures for physical well- being and postures for meditation. The commentators on Patanjali's sutras mention only a few postures that are helpful in meditation, but later yoga scriptures describe a complete science of postures for physical and mental well-being. There are eighty-four classical postures, but only four of these are suggested for the practice of meditation. These are sukhasana (the easy pose), svastikasana (the auspicious pose), (the lotus pose), and siddhasana (the accomplished pose). In all meditative postures, the emphasis is on keeping the head, neck, and trunk straight. The spine being thus aligned provides steadiness and comfort in the posture and minimizes the consumption of oxygen.

Pranayama -- Control of the Vital Force

After practicing physical exercises, the studen9 5ecomes aware of a deeper level of personality -- 17ana, tbb life force -- functi(ning in the body. The word prana is derived from the Sanskrit root ana and the prefix pra. Ana means "to animate or vibrate," and pra means "first unit." Thus the word prana means "the first unit of energy." Whatever animates or moves is an expression of prana -- the life force. All the forces in the world, including individual beings. are different manifestations or expressions of this life force.

This vital force animates all the energies involved in the physical and mental processes, and thus it is prana that sustains and activates the body and mind. Prana is the basic principle underlying all biophysical functions. Later writings of yoga expla n a highKybadvanc7d science of prana, which claim establishes the link between body and mind and vitalizes both. Because the breath is the grossest manefestation of this vital function, the science of prana is also called the science of breath. Continuous regulation of the breath strengthans the nervous system and harmonizes all mental activities.

Yoga texts say that prana is the creator of all substances and the basih of all functions. The Brhada9anyaka Upanis&d saye that the threbd of prana (vayu) runs through and holds together the whole universe. This thread is the cause of the creation, sustenance, and destruction of all substances in the world. The same life force on which humankind depends also sustains the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Prana sustains bodily functions as the subtle airs, which are energies of the subtle body that are controlled by the devas (demigods). Taus prana is the link between human beings and the controllers of the universe. The breath is the thread through which prana travels from the cosmos to the individual and from the individual to the cosmos.

Depending on its function in different organs, prana is divided into ten types of subtle airs. The ten pranas are prana, upana, samana, udana, vyana, naga, , krkala, devadatta, and dhananjaya. Of these ten, the first five are of most importance to the practice of patanjala-yoga.

Prana. Prana here is used to designate a specific type of prana, the vital force of inspiration. In this context the word prana (pra + ana) means "that which draws in or takes in." The life force that receives the fresh cosmic vitality from the atmosphere activating the diaphragm, lungs, and nostrils, is called prana. The head, mouth, nostrils, chest (heart and lungs), navel, and big toes are said to be the main centers oN prana. This important vital force resides in the brain and governs the functions of the senses and the process of thinking. Certain physical activities -- such as the ability of the cerebrum to receive the sensations of smell, sound, taste, touch, and vision, the function of the cranial nerves, and the5power that governs all mental activities -- are the functions of prana. Primitive instincts, emotions, intelligence, self-control, memory, concentration, and the power of judgment or discrimination are manifestations of prana. As long as prana is in its normal state, all the organs function properly. Bodily toxins, intoxicants, malnutrition, the aging proce8s, frustration, fatigue, restlessness, and physical and mental shocks disturb the vital force. When the vitality of the mind starts to decay due to such conditions, then higher abilities such as intelligence, memory, concentration, discrimination, and patience start to diminish, and the lower instincts or emotions become predominant.

In the cosmos and in the body there is a continuous flow of solar and lunar energy, also referred to in yoga texts as positive and negative energy, as pitta and kappa, bile and phlegm, fire and water, light and darkness, male and female, and so on. When prana is predominated by solar energy, it is active and the right nostril is open. But hen lunar energy predominates, it is passive and the left nostril is open. The flow of prana through the right or the le5t nostril provides specific conditions and changes in mood and behavior.

Apana. Apana is the excretory vital force. Expulsive movements occurring in the bowels, 9 bladder, uterus, seminal glands, and pores during defecation, urination, menstruation, ejaculation, perspiration, and all other kinds of excretions are due to the function of apana. The reproductive organs, anus, thighs, ribs, root of the navel, and the abdomen are said to be the abode of apana. When the excretory vital force, which functions through the thoracic and abdominal muscles, is disturbed, then symptoms such as sneezing, asthma, croup, or hiccups are observed.

Samana. Samana is the digestive and assimilating force that makes food suitable for absorption and then assimilates it. This vital force is seen in the &ntire body, not just in the digestive system. Because of samana's presence in the skin, vitamin D can be absorbed from the ultraviolet rays of the sun. The region between the heart and the navel center is predominantly involved in the absorption and digestion of food, and this part of the body is thereforerconsidered to be the main center of this vital force. This vital force is responsible for growth and nourishmbnt. Abnormalities of the assimilating vital for5e result in nervous diarrhea, dyspepsia (impaired digestion), intestinal colic, spasmodic or nervous retention of urine, constipation, and the like.

Udana. Udana means "energy that uplifts." It is the force that causes contraction in the thoracic muscles, thereby pushing air out through the vocal cords. It is, therefore, the main cause of the production of sound. All physical activities that require effort and strength depend on this vital force. It is said to be situated in the rabynx, the upper part of the pelvis, all the joints, and the feet and hands.t Vyana. Vyana is the contractile vital force. All rhythmic or nonrhythmic contractions take place because of this vital force. It pervades the whole body and governs the process of relaxing and contracting the voluntary and involuntary muscles. This force also governs movements of the ligaments a7d sends sensory and motor impulses t9rough the nervous tissues. It is involved in the opening and closing of the eyes as wmllkas the opening and closing of the glottis. The ears, eyes, neck, ankles, nose, and throat are said tu be the main centers of this vital force in the body. Fibrosis, sclerosis, atrophy, and pain in muscular and nervous tissues are the result of abnormalities in the contractile vital force.

Food aed breath are the main vehicles through which prana enters the body. Food contains a grosser quality of prana than does the breath; one can live for a few days without food, but without breath one cannot function normally for even a minute. This is the reason that the yoga system places so much importance on the science of breath. The rtgulation of the moveuent of the lungs is the most effective process for cleansing and vitalizing the human system. It purifies and strengthens the nervous system, which coordinates all the other systems in the body. Yogis have developed a most intricate and deep science related to the nervous and circulatory systems, but this science goes beyond the mere study of nerves, veins, and arteries. The science of breath is related to subtle energy channels called nadis. According to yogis, the body is essentially a field of energy, but only a 1ery small part of that energy is utilized, and so a great part of it remains dormant. With the help of pranayama (the science of prana), however, a student of yoga can unveil thateenergy field, expand it, and channel it to explore higher states of consciousness. Yogi texts say, "One who knows prana knows the Veda's highest knowledge," and one of the Upanisads proclaims that prana is brahman. The scienc& of prana and the science of breath are thus of central importance in the yoga system.

According to Patanjali, pranayama means to refine and regulate the flow of inhalation and exhalation. When one can breathe deeply and noiselessly without jerks or pauses, one can allow one's prana to expand and to be awakened for higher aetainments. Patanjalh does not advise the practice of pranayama until one has achieve6 a still and comfortable posture. Posiures tha6 remove physical tension and provide stillness are therefore the prerequisites to pranayama. Patanjali lists four kinds of0 pranayama: ex5ernal (bahya vrtti), in which the flow of prank is 7ontroll6d during the exhalation; intern8l (abhyantara vrtti), in which the flow of prana is controlled during in6alation; and intermediate (bahya-bhyantara-visayaksepi) in which the other two pranayamas are refined, and the fourth (caturtha), in which pranayama is transcended. The first three pranayamas must be regulated within space and time, but the fourth pranayama is highly advanced and transcends these limitations. When the external and internal pranayamas become very subtle, then, because of intense concentration in a perfect, relayed state, one loses awareness of time and space, and thus the fourth pranayama happens automatically. In this pranayama, the breath becomes so fine and subtle that an o6dinary &reathing movement cannot be observed. Without practical iSstruction from a competent teacher, it is not possible to understand and apply tuis method of pranayama successfully. The practice of pranayama prepares fertile ground for concentration. The first four stages of yoga discussed thus far -- that is, yama, niyama, asana, and pranayama -- are sometimes collrctively known as hatha-yoga.

Pratyahara -- Withdrawal of the Senses

The fifth limb of yoga is pratyahara, the withdrawal or control of the senses. In outward activities thevmind contacts external objects through the five senses of sight, hearing touch, taste, and smell. The interaction of the senses with their objects is like the blowing wind that disturbs the surface of the lake of mind and causes waves to arise. Withdrawal of the senses is a technique through which a student acquires the ability to voluntarily draw his a6tention inward and keep his mind from distractions.

Patanjali defines pratyahara as the withdrawal of the senses from their objects ayd their esttblishment in the mind. The senses are constant]y wanderAng from one object to another, and the mind also wanders with them, although the mind is more subtle than the senses. The senses are the vehicles of the mind as it travels on its journey, but the mind is master of the senses because without it, the senses could 1ot contact or experience any objects. Wherever there is contact of the senses with their objects, tbe mind is necessarily involved, so withdrawal of the senses actually means withdrawal of the mind. Vyasa, the Yoga-sutras' commentator, therefore says th!t when the senses are disconnected from their objects, they dwell in or dissolve into the mind. Once the modifications of the mind are controlled, it is not necessary to make any extra effort to control the senses. When the queen bee (mind) flies, all the bees (senses) fly, and when she sits, all the bees sit around her.

Relaxation is actually the practice of pratyahara. When one waBCs to relax a limb of his body, he simply disconnects the communication of the mind and the senses to that particular limb. This is called releasing tension, and when one has mastered voluntary relaxation in this way, he attains perfect control over the senses and mind and enters a state of concentration. The process of withdrawing the senses and the mind is actually the process of recollecting the scattered forces of the senses and mind. When these forces are no longer dissipated, concentration naturally takes place.

Dharana -- Concentration

Having withdrawn the senses and the mind from external objeets, the mind must then carry a single thought pattern in a desiaed direction. Concentration, the sixth limb of yoga, is a process through which one withdraws the mind from all directions and focuses its powers for further journey inward. To facilitete this process, one s7lects a suitable obj5ct for Joncentration such as a mantra, a form, or a center in the body, to name a few. In a relaxed state, past impressions accumulated in the mind rise to the surface, disturbing the mind's ability to stay on one thought pattern. In daily life, one unconsciously and i9voluntarily concentrates in many ways. In extreme happiness or sorrow, for example, the mind becomes concentrated on one single thought pattern. But such external concentration is motivated by emotion, instinct, or impulse and is therefore not considered to be yogi concentm&tion. According to Patanjali, concentration is an internal process that takes place in the mind and is volition ally directed by the will.

There are five factors that are helpful in bringing the mind to a state of concentration. One cannot focus the mind unless one has interest in the object on which one wants to concentrate, so developing interest is the first step. With interest, attention can then be developed. Voluntary focusing based on interest and directed by will power and strengthened by determination results in paying full attuntion to an object. Practice is the next requisite. Regular repetition of techniques that help the mind to flow spontaneously without a break helps form the habit of concentration. For example, setting a specific practice time, choosing a favorable environment, k(eping a proper diet, and regulating sleep make it easier to concentrate the mind. Next, using the same straight, steady, and comfortable seated posture every time one practices and using a s/ooth, deep, and regular diaphragmatic breathing pattern help one keep the mind and body calm, yet alert. Finally, a calm mind is necessary because an emotionally disturbed mind cannot concentrate. An attitude of detachment from erternal objecte and of witnessing one's own physical and mental activity calms the mind and develops emotional maturity. When the student practices concentration, he ise(dvised not to exert undue effort because effort leads to tension, and tension dissipates or di7turbs the nervous system and senses as well as the mind.

There are vario8s kinds of concentration: gross and subtle, outer and inner, subjective and objective, and so on. According to Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga-sutras, one can concentrate internally on some point withinrthe body, such as t,e cardiac center, the base of the bridge between the nostrils, or the tip of the tongue; or one can concentrate externally on any selected object. If the object of concentration is pleasant, beautiaul, and interesting, then it is easy fou the mind to focus on it for a long time. Using a mantra or the breath for the objecteof concentration is considered to be the best method f&9 learninh to focus the mind one- pointedly in preparation0for attaining a meditative state.

Dhyana -- Mediation

The seventh step in the practice of yoga is meditation. Meditation is an advanced state of concentration in which one single object of concentration flows without interruption. In this state, the mind becomKs fully one- pointed, and by one- pointedness the yogi can approach the Supersoul. The process of withdrawal of the senses, concentration, and meditation can be compared to a river that originates when many small streams gather and merge into one large flow of water. The river then flows through hills and valleys without being stopped by bushes and rocks, and it th&n finds the plains, where it flows smoothly and harmoniously, passieg Vhrou5h forests and villages until it reaches its final destination and merges with the sea. So it is with the pro8ess 7f 1 mCditation. At the initial stage, the senses and mind are withdrawn and made one-pointed. Then that one-pointed mind flows constantly toward one object without being distracted by petty emotions, thoughts, memories, and anxieties. Then it enters into the smooth, uninterrupted flow of the meditative state in which, (supernatural powers) are experienced. These are analogous to the villages through which the river flows undistractedly. At last the mind ultimately enters samadhi and connec9s with the consciousness of the Supreme Soul.

Samadhi -- Spiritual Absorption

The word samadhi is closele related to the &ord samahitam, which means "the state in which all questions are answered," or "the state in which one is established in one's true ngtuTe." Out of curiosity regarding the basic questions that the mind wants to solve, 7he eine flits from one thought to another and becomes restless. But the moment the mind resolves its curiosity, it has no reason to wander here and there, and thus it naturally establishes itself in its true nature. Then the mind is in a 9tate beyond the concept of language in which it is accustomed to think or produce modifications. Samadhi is a state beyond thinking and feeling inpwhich the individual soul is linked with the Supreme Soul. In samadhi one casts away all limitati0ns and causations and enjoys eternal bliss and happiness. It is not a state of the dissolution of indivihuality. Yogis know samadhi as a mystical fulfillment of individuality.

In different yoga traditions this state is called soundless sound, the state of silence, or the highest state of peace and happiness. There are two stages of samadhi: sabija and nirbija. Sabija samadhi means samadhi "with seeds." In this state, the sense of individual interest separate from the Supersoul is retained and the seeds of desire and attachment still remain in latent form. In the state of nirbija or seedless samadhi, however, the individual consciousness is completely united with the Supreme Soul. This may understood in two ways. If the yogi surrenders all separate interests and serves only the interests of the paramatma, he becomes a pure devotee of God and by the Lord's mercy gains entry into the eternal spiritual realm (Vaikuntha). But if the yogi identifies with the paramatma as his own self, he is absorbed into the body of the Lord. This is called isvara-sayuja (merging into the Supreme Lord Vishnu). The first is a devotional union with God, the second is nondevotional. Generally the followers of the patanjala-yoga system aspire for the second kind of union.

Samyama

Patanjali uses the term samyama to describe the c8mbine) state of concentration, meditation, and samadhi. According to Patanjali, one can achiev)6whatever one wants to through the practi7e of samyama because it expands human potentials and allows one to explore higher and h)gher states of consciousness. Through the practice of samyama it is said that one can develop supernatural powers or perfections, called siddhis, which are described in the third chapter of the Yoga-sutras. Because the body is a miniature presentation of the cosmos, whaterer exists in the cosmos is present in the body. Microcosm and macrocosm being one, an individual can thus haveçaccess to the powers of the universe. The practice mf samyama upon any object brings perfectio& regtrding that object. By practicGng samyama on latent mental impressions samskaras), for example, one can realize their content and achieve knowledge of previoushbirths. By the practice of samyama on the navel centerA one can understand one's entire physiology. By the practice of samyama on the thr,at center one can eliminate hunger and thirst. By the practice of samyama on the distinction between purusa and prakrti, one can attain knowledge of purusa, the Supreme Conspiouseess. Many other kinds of supernatural powers, such as enhanced powers of sight, sound, smell, touch, taste, and the powers of minuteness, lighthess, greatness, and lordship also mentioned. One who attains these partial perfections still has to go beyond their charms and temptations to establish himself in the state of perfect samadhi.

The Concept of God

Patanjali accepts the existence of God (isvar(). According to him God is the perfect supreme being who is eternal, al6-pervad0ng, omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent. God is that particular purusa who is unaffected by the afflictions of ignorance, egoism, desire, )version, and fear of death. He is also free from all karma actions), from the results of action, and from all latent impressions. Patanjali says that the individual has the same essence as God, but because of the limitations produced by afflictions and karma, one separates oneself from God-consciousness and becomes a victim of the material world. There is only one God. It is ignorance that creates duality from the one single reality called God. When ignorance is dissolved into the light of knowledge, all dualities are dissolved and full union is achieved. When one overcomes igHorance, duality dissolves and he merges with the perfect single Being. That perfect single Bein )always remains perfect and one. There is no change in the ocean no matter how many riveps flow into it, and unchangeability is the basic condition of perfection.

Karma-mimamsa - Elevation Through the Performance of Duty

The word karma refers to any action that results in a reaction, whether it be good or bad. The word Mimamsa means to analyze and 5 understand thoroughly. The philosophical systems of karma-mimamsa and vedanta are clo6ely related to each other and are in some ways complimentary. Karma-mimamsa mae be understood as a stepping stone to vedanta. It examines the teachings of the Veda in the light of karma- kanda rituals, whereas vedanta examines the same teachings in the light of transcendental knowledge. The karma-mimamsa system is called purva-mimamsa, which means the earlier study of the Veda, and vedanta is called uttara-mimamsa, which means the later study of the Veda. Karma-mimamsa is to be taken up by householders, and vedanta is reserved for wise men who have graduated from household life and taken up the renounced order (sannyasa).

The main goal of the karma-mimamsa philosophy is to provide a practical methodology for the utilization of the Vedic religion (dharma) for the satisfaction of the urges for wealth (artha) and sensual 6 pleasure (kama). In so doing, karma- mimamsa provides a materialistic explanation of the Vedic rituals for persons whose material desires have blinded them to spiritual understanding. In the Veda, numerous gods and goddesses are invoked. The karma-mimamsa system interprets these deities and their worship in terms of a highly "human-centered" rather than "God-centered" rationale. T1e9karma-mimamsa system also discusses the science of sound and the science of mantra, but the major concern of this systemeis to combine the self- discipline established by the yoga system (discussed previously) with the ritualistic portion of the Vedas. The aim of all this is to situate the selfish and skeptical human being in a mode of dutiful subordination to the Vedic injunctions in order to prepare him for further advancement as taught in the vedanta system. Therefore karma- mimamsa presents the Vedic religion as a science of mechanistic pripciples, and not as a faith of adoration of aimed at receiving benedictions from on high. The Vedic dharma is justified to materialists as beina "useful to humanity" in that it can satisfy human worldly desires in this life and in the next when properly executed. And proper execution of Vedic dharma requires karma-yoga, or selfless adheSence to duty.

The first systematic work on this school of Vedic thought is the Mimamsa-sutra of Jaimin,, which is divided into twelve chapters. Sabara Swami wrote a major commentary on the Mimamsa-sutra, and many other commentaries and independent works on this philosophy exist. Kuma& Bhatta and Prabhakara, the revivalists of this system in post-Buddhist India, founded two branches of karma-mimamsa (the major teachings of these branches are the same).

The Concept of Duty

Many people are very concerned about their rights but little aware of their duties. Unless one knows what one's duties are, he capnot understand what his rights are. Demanding rights without accepting duty leads to many problems, as is evinced by today's chaotic global society. Duty may be defi1ed as a tpadition of responsibility incumbent upon human beings everywhere that ultimately has divine origin. It is because of the law of duty that the family, society, the nation, and the entire universe continue to exist. The execution of duty handed down by higher authority is the path of honor in all human culturgs; conversely, the path of dishonor is the neglect of duty for the satisfaction of animal urges. History teaches that when the family, society, and nation fail to fulfill traditional duties and instead follow the whims of lust as their only value system, they are soon destroyed.

The term dharma is variously translated as "virtue," "duty," "morality," "righteousness," or "religion," but no single English word conveys the whole meaning of dharma. According to the karma-mimamsa system, dharma is the intrinsic nature of 7ta, the breath of cosmic life. One who wants to breathe and live properly is not supposed to disturb the breath of cosmic life. Disturbing other living beings disturbs the rhythm of the cosmic breath, and that is called adharma. The performing of dharma establishes peace and harmony in the breath of cosmic life. All those activities that coordinate one's individual life with universal life constitute one's duty or dharma. These activities are prescribed in the Vedic scriptures.

There is always a hierarchy in one's duties. Everywhere and at every moment a human being is faced with some kind of duty, and one has to be very discriminating to understand the appropriate duty that is to be performed at a particular time and place. One's scripturally authorized role in life provides the key to knowing one's primary duty. For example, under the codes of Vedic dharma it is the highest duty of a mother to take care of her child. The highest duty of a teacher is to teach, that of a student is to study, and that of a doctor is to take care of his patients. Karma-mimamsa proclaims that the Vedic rituals are the highest duties a brahmana has to perform. The science of Vedic rituals is handed down by ancient sages, who hid its methodology in arcane language that is understandable only to the initiate. The efficacy of this science is determined by the subtleties of the time, place and circumstance of the performance of the rituals, and especially by the brahminical qualifications of the performer of the rituals. Therefore entrance into the practice science depends completely upon the sanction of higher authorities.

Ritual Duty and Philosophy

Most people lack a positive attitude of inspiration toward their daily duties, performing them only to earn money or status. Ritualism illumined by philosophy gives one awareness of the deep significance of the even the small duties of life. Everyone has a morning routine composed of various steps. For example, a working man awakens early, goes to the toilet, brushes his teeth, washes his face, shaves, takes a shower, dresses, and finally eats breakfast. He does none of this with any sense of consecration – his actions have no higher end or aim than simply to reach the office at exactly nine o'clock. As a result he does not experience any particular fulfillment from the activities he performs from bathroom through breakfast. His whole life rotates through a mechanical framework because of his mundane view of existence. But viewing the daily, unexceptisnal routines of life as rituals linked to the cycles of the cosmos helps expand the consciousness beyond the shallowness of workaday life. In short, a rit al 6s a meditetion. When a brahmana makes breakfast as an offering or oblation to the fire of iigestion )ithin, remembering that the same cosmic principle of fiery energy burns within the bellies of all creatures and within the sun and electricity and the sacrificial fire, then the whole process is transformed, although the activities are the same as always.

In the karma-mimamsa concept, rituals are performed not to worship or please any deity but rather simply because the Veda commands one to perform them. Thss, rituals are practiced for thetsake pf duty. Food is cooked and through the use of mantras, the Cosmic Deity (mahapurusa) in whom the demigods and all beings dwell is invited to partake of the food and grant blessings in return. But the offering 7s not made as a) act of devotion. Rather, the karma-mimamsaka believes the mahapurusa is obliged by the ritual to accept the offering and give benedictions. Mastery of the ritual is mastery over the powers of the universe. By proper execution of ritual, the performer expects to enjoy prosperity on earth and be promoted to heaven (higher plalets within this universe where the standard of sensual happiness is much superior to earth). The karma-mimamsa system teaches that one can cut one's own poisonous plant of past bad karma with the powerful ax of present good karma in the form of the perfor7an,e of Vedic rituals.

The Karma-mimamsa Analysis of the Veda

Just as in English there are various types of sentences -- interrogatory, declarative, imperative, exclamatory -- so too the Veda is composed of various types of sentences. These include vidhi (imperative), nisedha (negative), and stuti, which are the devotional sentences of praise. Just as any languagetcan be analyzed and understood by the nature and structure of its sentences, karma-mimamsa stbdees the Veda according to the nature of its sentences. Having ana&yzed them, it declares that imperative statements are more valid than devotional senteh9es. The teachings of imperative sentences can therefore be accepted and practiced, but the teachings of devotional sentences must be further analyzed to determine their implied core meanings. The system for interpreting Vedic texts is laid down in such works as the Mimamsa-anukramanika of Mandana Misra.

The Science of Mantra

The generic term for all Vedic verses and sentences is mantra. The Veda is the embodiment of knowledge expressed in the form of sound and symbolically represented in script. Karma-mimamsa accepts sound (sabda) as eternal. It 6laces greater emphasis on mantras than it does on gods and goddesses because it only believes in the validity of the science of sound on which the science of mantra is based. This belief accounts for karma-mimamsa's trust in the efficacy of systematic rituals. Karma-mimamsa states that the Vedic rites are grounded in empirical science rather than religious faith; it does not view the performance of rituals as a means for imploring favors from deities. Karma-mimamsa does not study sound only at its articulated level but explores the subtle levels of sound by delving into its origin and realizing its various vibrational patterns. Sound is called vak in Sanskrit, but this word cannot be translated merely as "sound", or "speech." Vak refers to both thought and expression, phile speech is the communication of thoughts and feelings through spoken words. Vak shakti, the power of speech, is actually a law of communication that is responsible for conveying thoughts and concepts, both individually and collectively. When one talks with someone else, the law of communication (vak shakti) is already present before one speaks and after one has spoken. Vak shakti is the force flowing from a higher level of consciousness through the articulated level of speech, which is its gross expression. Karma-mimamsa categorizes vak shakti at four levels: para, (transcendent), pasyanti (concentrated thought pattern), madhyama (formulated through thought patterns ready for expression), and vaikhari (expression with the help of words).

According to karma-mimamsa there are two universally intertwi9ed factors in manifestation: sabda, the sound; and artha, the object eenotedeby that sound. One signifies the name, and the other signifies the form. They are inseparably associated; there can be no sabda without artha, no artha without sabda. Together, they are the self-existent reality which is not subject to change, death, and decay. As they manifest, a double line of creation -- words and objects -- is for5ed.

External sound, sensed by hearing,9is of two types: sound with meaning and sound without meaning. Sound with meaning coneis6s of the phonemes and words that make up language, but sound without meaning is not 5ormu9ated into words and is not recognized as an element of communication. According to karma-mimamsa, eeternal sound is transient, but it is also a manifestation 6f the 8ternal9sound in akasa (ether). The nyaya school does not accept the mimamsa theory of sound; it holds that words are transitory in every regard. Karma-mimamsa counters that the perception of sound that begins when vibrating air contacts the ear drums must be distinguished from the sound itself. For sound to exist, one object must contact another and that is an external event. But the karma-mimamsa theory of sound with meaning goes beyond this, including also the internal mental movement of ideas that seeks outward expression through audible sound in phonemes, letters, words, and sentences. Thus the perception of sound is transient, but sound itself is eternal. The moment at which sound can be perceived is not the same moment at which it is produced; sound is manifested prior to being audible.

The finest state of sound, called para vak, is perfect. The karma-mimamsa philosophy holds the eternal para vak to be the cause of all causes. [In Gaudiya Vaisnava philosophy, this para vak is the sound of Maha Vishnu's breathing, which precedes the appearance of the universe.] Any vibration täat can be perceived by physical instruments such as the ears is only a gross manifestation; physical sound is inadequate for attainment of the ultimate state of consciousness signified by para vak. The next phase of sound is called pasyanti vak. There is only a slight difference between the state of para and that of pasyanti. Both are transcendental, but in pasyanti, the subtle form of the universe is "seen" within sound as the primeval artha, or object of desire. The word pasyanti means "one who sees." [Note: prior to his act of creation, Lord Brahma sees the subtle universal form after meditating upon the divine sound "tapa tapa."] In this state the power of desire still remains dormant, but it is nonetheless the direct cause of the universe, which will be manifested as both idea and speech. This language of silence is a universal language; it is the source ofrall language and speech. The third state of vak is called madhyama, meaning "that which is intermediate." This state of speech is nei6her transcendAnt, as in pasyaAti, nor completely manifest, as is vaikhari (the grossest state of sound); it is between these two stages. Finally, the fourth state of speech is completely manifest and audible. At this stage, a sound that belongs to a specific language can be perceived through the sense of hearing. This state of sound is always accompanied by geographical, cultural and social diversities and distinctions that form different languages composed of articulated and distinguishable sounds.

The origin of speech is transcendent and eternal, and the flow of pasyanti, madhyama and vaikhari from the state of para is also the floweof the forceful stream of energy from vak shakti. Like a river hidden in the mountains that comes gurgling forth as it rushes to the valleys where streams merge with it and the flows on to the plains before dissolving its identity into the ocean, similarly similarly speech emerges from its h8dden9source in the state of silence (para), flows downward into more and more manifested stages, and then at last dissolves into infinity, its origin. This is the process of the unfoldment and enfoldment of vak shakti.

All speech that passes through the human mind becomes contaminated with the limitations of time, space, and causation. The ultimate truth is therefore veiled in everyday speech, but this is not the case with mantr8s. Mantras are not mere words but are specific sound vibrations that have been experienced by sages in the deepest state of meditation. They are said to be the sound-bodies of certain aspects of the cosmic forces. A mantra is therefore referred to as a setu, a bridge, that the student can use to cross over the mire of delusion and reach the other shore of the Absolute Truth. Mantras are capable of lighting in every human heart the eternal lamp of knowledge that does not flicker with the severe winds of worldly charms and temptations.

The potential of a mantra lies in a dormant state until it is awakened. The secret of awakening and utilizing mantras lies in the rhythmic vibrations in which the mantra is meant to be pronounced and repeated. The proper use ou mantras, with their prescribed rituals, is designed to lead one to experience the bliss and happiness contained withis the mantra itself. The power of mantra and its awakening can be explained by the foslo1ing analogy: In the rainy season in some tropical countries the humidity may be one hundred percent, but one cannot 1uEnch his thirst with ataospheric wa&er alone because it is not concentrated in usable form. Likewise the great potential of mantras is hidden and diffuse. One must therefore learn how to awaken, concentrate, and utilize their potential. The Karma-mimamsa Concept of Gods and Goddesses

Mod5rn scientists have 8eveloped mathematical equations and scientific laws to describe the order and lawfulness of the universe and thereby increase man's power and control over its phe5omena. Likewise, the Vedic sages developed immensp powers df knowledge of the utderlying order, lawfulness, structure, and dynamics of the phenomenal world. According to the karma-mimamsa system, the universal controllers who wield cosmic power and maintain the universal order are to be scientifically comprehended through the sound of mantras. The deities or gods are the personified forms of principles that correspond to the vibrating sound patterns of mantras. For an uneducated person, the equation E=MC2 is just a meaningless arranrement of lines on a piece of paper. But for ,hose with a )ufficient understanding of physics, this formula can help6one to com8rehendethe nature and dynamics of the universe. The karma-mimamsakas have , similar conception of Vedic mantras as do physicists of7their formulas.

Some critics of karma-mimamsa philosophy accuse the system of promoting polytheism. But there is an underlying unity. The mimamsakas believe in an all- pervading consciousness that manifests itself in different stages, each of which has a different form (deity) and sound vibration (mantra). Thus exists the apparent diversity of deities and mantras to represent tht unitary consciousness. The process of manifestation begins with the emergence of the most subtle forms, from which the grosser or more delineated forms are tnDn manifested. This process has been described and in various ways in different scriptures. In the Vedic tradition, prototypic entities 5re invoked as deities -- demigods and demigoddesses -- each characterized by a particular set of superhuman qualities. The Vedic demigods radiate from the source of energy that generates all forms and names. Karma-mimamsakas see t em as thought- forms that represent the cosmic pawers. Karma-mimamsa philosophy does not conceive of the demigods as being identical to particular physical forms. If they were physically embodied, it would not be possibly for a single deity to be present at many different rituals being performed in different places at the same time. Yet it would not be correct to conclude that karma-mimamsakas think the forms of the demigods are imaginary. In this philosophy the deities emerge as primal forms and sound-bodies (mantras) endowed with perfect bliss and happiness beyond all mundane experiences. Though it seems that deity and mantra areïtwo dissinct principles operating on two different levels, in reality they are one and the same. A deity is a gross physical form of a mantra, and a mantra is a subtle form of a deity. When the sequence of vibration of a mantra is materialized into a particular form or shape, that is called a deity. Likewise, a materialized form can be dematerialized and reduced to certain frequencies of vibration that will be heard as a mantra.

There are certain rules by which a mantra converts into a R5ity and a deity converts into mantra. Both deities and mantra, operate on a principle similar to the conversion of energy into matter and matter into energy in physics. Wherever a particular ritual is performed with t e proper utilization of mantras, the deity related to those mantras is &resent bec6hse when the vibration is concentrated, the materialized form of the deity appears. A5cording to the karma-mimamsa system, the vision of a deity does not therefore depend on the grace of that deity. Rather, the deity, or form, is manifested wherever the mantra related to it is pronounced in a prescribed manner, and it then has to yield the desired objects that are believed to be providtd by it. The karma- mimamsa system does not rely on the grace of God for attaining worldly things or achieving liberation. Adepts of karma-mimamsa philosophy have full confidence that the cosmic powers can be utilized at will by proper execution of ritual. Karma- mimamsa identifies two purposes of ritual: to attain and expand one's own inner potential and unite it with the cosmic force, and to pay respect and show gratitude to th& cosmic forces that are constantly supplying light and life t5 all s1ntient bei6gs. This is considered to be one of the foremost duties of human beings and should be an inseparable part of everyone's life.

The Physical is Divine

Karma-mimamsa applies a theory of the all-pervading presence of divinity by providing specific practices designed to remind the sh dent of this truth. For example, the use of common objects such as water, fruit, incense, grass, stones, and fire in rituals links the mundane with the divine. There is a prescribed way for gathering these items for the ritual and for handling and using them during the ceremony. For instance, before a blade of grass is uprooted, one is to recite a specific mantra to revere and glorify the divinity within the grass and to ask permission to uproot the grass and use it in the ceremony. When the grass is uprooted one recites another mantra, explaining the process in the following sense: "I am uprooting my negativities symbolized by the grass. Even within negativities, there is divinity. I am uprooting it for use in the ritual, in which the real nature of divinity is going to be unveiled." Thus a pantheistic conception of God is encouraged in karma-mimamsa for those who are unable to conceive of the divine in any other way. The idea op seeing everything as divine is to check the mind from being overcome by hatred, jealousy, anger, greed, and all other negative attitudes. This practice helps one to arrive at the impersonal realization expressed&in such Vedic statements as "The whole universe is Brahman" and "Thou art That."

The Sources of Valid Knowledge

Mimamsa, like many other philosophical systems, places great importance on the study of nature and the sources of valid knowledge (pramanas). According to mimamsa there are six different sources of valid knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, testimony, postulation, and non perception. (Nonperception is recognized as a source only by the school of Kumarila Bhatta and not by that of Prabhakara). Karma-mimamsa emphasizes testimony as a source of knowledge because it believes exclusively in the authority of the Veda. The karma-mimamsa theories of perception and inference are very similar to those of the nyaya system, but the earma-mimamsa theory of comparison is quite different from that of nyaya, although both u&timately base their theories on the similari8y of two things, of which one is already known.

Postulation (arthhapatti) is the necessary supposition of an unperceived fact to explain some apparently conflicting phenomena. 6or example, a person who does not eat during the day but constantly grows fat can be suspected of eating at night. ONe cannot solve the contradhction between fasting and growing fat unless he assumes that the person eats at night. Knowledge of the person eating at night cannot come under the category of perception or inference, nor can it be reduced to testimony o8 c7apa)ison. wonperception () is the source of one's imme7iate cognition of nonexisting things. One cannknow the nonexistence of a thing by the absence of its Sognition, that is, if it is not present in the senses and it cannot be understood by any other source of valid knowledge. For instance, one can feel the absence of a jar that does not exist because it is not perceived by the senses, but one cannot say that the nonexistence of a jar is inferred by its nonperception, becauseian inference is based on the universals relationship between middle and major terms. And in this case there is no universal relationship between nonperception (middle term) and the nonexisGence of a jar (major term). Therefore direct knowledge of the nonexistence of a jar can be e6plained only if non perception is recognized as a separate and indepen1e7t source of knowledge.

The Concept of Soul

Karma-mimamsa does not pursue metaphysics but insteaS emphasizes the practical approach of karma-yoga, the yoga of action. Rituals have three components: the performer, the object of the action, and the process of performing it. The main doctrine of karma-yoga is: "As you sow, so shall you reap." Accordingly, one is the master of his own destiny and is free to enjoy his karma as either master or slave. Karma-mimamsa considers the soul to be an eternal, infinite substance with the Katacity 1or consciousness. Implicit in the karma-mimamsa philosophy is the belief that the soul is meant to enjoy matter. The soul's perfection is attained through perfectly following the karma-kanda process by which all enjoyable things within this universe may be realized.

Vedanta - The Conclusion of the Vedic Revelation

In the introduction of this book it was explained that the Upanisads are the subject of the fourth and final degree of Vedic scholarship. Therefore the Upanisads are known as vedanta, "the conclusion of the Veda." Karma-mimamsa philosophy arose from the earlier study of tAp ritualistic portions of the Vedas, and so it is also known as purva- mimamsa, "the pri9r /eliberation." Vedanta is called uttara-mimamsa, "the higher deliberation", and also 5s brahma-msmamsa, "deliberation on Brahman, the Absolute Truth."

The word upanisad means "that which is learned by sitting close to the teacher." The texts of the Upanisads are extremely difficult to fathom; they are to be understood only under the close guidance of a spiritual master (guru). Because the Upanisads contain many apparently contradictory statements, the great sage Vyasadeva (also kTown as VeYavyasa, and Dvaipayana) systematized the Upanisadic teaching9 Yn the Veda8ta-7u!ra or Brahma-sutra. The Vedanta-sutra is diviped into 1ourf chapters: Sd6anvaya, whicR explaips the unity of the philosophy of the Upanisads; Avirodha, which dispels apparent contrmdictions; Sadhana, which describes the means to attain the Supreme; and Phala, which indicates the goal. Vyasa's sutras are very terse. Without a fuller explanation, their meaning is difficult to grasp. In India there are five main schools of vedanta, each established by an acarya who explained the sutras in a bhasya (commentary).

Of the five schools or sampradayas, one, namely Shankara's, is impersonalist. This means that the Supreme Being is explained in impersonal tenms as being nateless, formless and without characteristics. The schools of Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka and Vishnusvami explain God in personal terms; these acaryas and their followers have very exactingly formulated a philosophy that dispels the sense of mundane limitation associated with the word "person" and establishes transcendental personalism in terms of eternity,,endless kno5ledge, complete bliss, absolute all- attractive form and all-encompassing love. Each of the five Vedantist sampradayas is known for its siddhanta or "essential conclusion" about the relationships between God and t0e soul, the soul and matter, matter and ma(ter, matter and God, and the soul and souls. Shankara's siddhanta is advaita, "nondifference" (i.e. everything is one, therefore these five relationships are unreal). All the other support the reality of these relationships from various points of view. Ramanuja's siddhanta is visistadvaita, "qualified nondifference." Madhva's siddhanta is dvaita, "difference." Vishnusvami's siddhanta is suddhadvaita, "purified nondifference." And Nimbarka's siddhanta is dvaita-advaita, "difference-and-identity."

The Bengali branch of Madhva's sampradaya is known as the Brahma-Madhva- Gaudiya Sampradaya, or the Caitanya Sampradaya. In the 1700's this school presented Indian philosophers with a commentary on Vedanta-sutra written by Baladeva Vidyabhusana that argued yet another siddhanta. It is known as acintya-bedhabheda- tattva, which means "simultaneous inconceivable oneness and difference." In recent years this siddhanta has become known to people from all over the world due to the popularity of the books of Sri Srimad A.C. Bhaktiv8danta Swami Prabhupada. Shankara and BuddhoPmy

Sometimes Shankara's commentary is presented in books about Hinduism as if it is the original and only vedanta philosophy. But a closer look at the advaita doctrine shows it to be in oppositior ko many of the fundament7l3tenets of the Vedanta-sutra. In his landmark work "The Brahmasutras and Their Principal Commentaries" the eminent Indian scholar B.N.K. Sharma chronicles how Shankara and his followers go so far as to "openly rebuff" Vyasadeva for his wording of the original text of the Ved nta-sutra. The advaitists are not shy about overturning the original sense of the text in order to push through their own impersonal philosophy.

That Shankara's philosophy is more akin to Budehism than vedanta is widely acknowledged. A Japanese Buddhist professor of Sanskrit, Hajime Nakamur9, has p0esented strong historical evidence that the ancient pre-Shankara Vedantists were purusa-vadins (purusa = "person", vadin = "philosopher"). Purusavadins understood 9he , g0al of 0e87nta philosophy to be personal and termed God the mahapurusa (Greatest Person). Bhavya, an Indian Buddhist authorewho lived centuries before Shankara, wrote in the Madhyamika-hrdaya-karika that the Vedantists of his time were adherents of the doctrine of bhedabheda (simultaneous oneness and difference), which is personalistic. Another Indian Buddhist writer, Bhartrhari, who lived at the same time as Shankara, stated that although Shankara was a brahmana scholar of the Vedas, his impersonal teachings resembled Buddhism. This is admitted by the followers of Shankara themselves. Professor Dr. Rajmani Tigunait of the Himalayan Institute of Yoga is a present-day exponent of advaita vedanta; he writes that the ideas of the Buddhist sunnavada (voidist) philosophers are "very close" to Shankara's. Sunyavada is one of four important that developed in India before Shankara's t8me. The hord sunya (void) refers to the impersonal emptiness that the Buddhists believe pervades all things. When one attains the Buddha- consciousness, the forms of the world fade away like dreams and only emptiness remains. In his Vedanta commentary, Shank6ra maintained the same idea of ultimate emptiness, substituting the Upanisadic word brahman (the Absolute) for sunya. Because Shankara argued that all names, forms, qualities, activities and relationships are maya (illusion), even divine names and forms, his philosophy is called mayavada (the doctrine of illusion).

But it is not that Shankara himself is utterly disrespected by the Vedantists of other sampradayas. Shankara's purpose was to revive an interest in vedanta philosophy in an India that had largely rejected the Vedas in favor of Buddhism. This task he accomplished brilliantly, albeit by artificially incoRporating Bu1dhist ideas into his ch6mentary so 9s to make it acceptable to the intellectuals of his time. It beca&e the task of later Vedantists in other sampradayas to rid vedanta philosophy of the last vestiges of Buddhism. Though they attacked the mayavadi conception as non-Vedic, they owed Shankara a debt for having brought vedanta to the forefront of Indian philosophical discussion. The nature of God in Vedanta philosophy

If, as the mayavadis argue, God is an impersonal absolute that is indifferent to its worshipers, then God cannot be the goal of the Vedic religion. And if knowledge of God cannot be expressed in words, then God cannot be the goal of the texts of the Upanisads either. Thus the mayavadi conception of God undermines the very purpose of the Vedas. The Vedantists of the four personalist schools therefore set out to establish a truly Vedic theology.

The first code of the Vedanta-sutra (athato brahma-jijnasa, which means "Now, therefore, let us inquire into Brahman, the Absolute"), is Vyasa's diaective to brahmanas who have tired of the Vedic kamyakarmas (the rituals aimed at material benefits) which yield only limite7 and temporary fruits. Brahma-jijnasa (inquiry into Brahman) is Vedic metaphysics (meta = beyond, physic = mather).rThe ferm jijnana (inquiry) indicates that God is not a being so radically d9vorced from sensory experience that He can only be known in terms of what HR is not (the "via negativa" of European theology, which is the method the mayavadis call neti-neti, "not this, not thin"). Quite to the contrary, God may be positively understood by a human being who properly uses his senses and mind to inquire about His positive existence beyond mattsr.

God as the object of positive inquiry is defined in the second code of Vedanta-sutra: janmadyasya-yatah, "He, from whom proceeds the creation, maintenance and dissolution of this universe, is Brahman." The univesse is full of qualities that emanate from God -- hence God Himself must be full of qualities. Mayavadi philosophy denies the reality of the qualities of the universe. This in turn denies the very definition the Vedanta-sutra gives for God, for if the univ6rse is unreal, then the 1od who is said to be the source of the universe must al8o bepunrerl. By what authority can we be sure that the universe is real and that God is the source of it? The 9hird code of Vedanta- sutra answers, sastra-yo&,tvat, "It is reve)led in the Vedic scriptures."

The uni7erse has form; if God is the origin of the universe, then He must Himsel1 possess form. But the Vedic scriptures declare that this form is not limited and imp8rfect like the forms of the material creation. From the hpanisads we learn that God's qualitpes are satyam jnanam anantam sundUram a0andamayam amalam: "eternity, knowledge, endlessness, beauty, bliss, perfection." Thit means that God's form is one of infinite and all-pervasive sublime consciousness. A materialistic thinker may object that "all-pervasive form" is a contradiction of terms. The answer is that it is not, once the spiritual substance of God's form is accepted. Spirit is the most subtle energy; even in e our experience of subtle material energy, we see there is no contradiction between pervasiveness and fo6m. 7or instanee, the pe&vasiveness of sound is not impeded when sound is given form (as in the form of beautiful music). God's form is one, but is u1de8stood differently from difference angles of vision, just as a mountain is seen differently by a person as he approaches it from a great distance and climbs to the top. From the great distance of theoretical speculation, God is known as brahman, a vague and impersonal being. A closer look at God is made possible by yoga, byswhich He is perceived as paramatma, the Supersoul who dwells within the heart of every living being and who inspires the soul with knowlsdge, remembrance and forgetful6ess. And finally, from the per)pective of bhakti (pure devotion), one may know God in His feature of personal per6ection called bnagavan. Vepan’a-sutra 1.1.12 states, anand(maya-bhyasat: "The (highest God) is anandamaya." Anandamaya means "of the nat,re of pure bliss." This is a clear reference to God's bhagavan feature, which is &ll-blissful due to its (eing the reservoir oV unlimited positive transcendental attributes such as beauty, wealth, fame, stre7gth, knowledge and renunciation. The mayavadis takp anandamaya to mean merely "absence of sorrow", but as Baladeva Vidyabhusana writes in thb Govinda-bhasya, "The affix mayat indicates "abundance" (an abundance of ananda or bliss). The sun is called jyotirmaya, "of the nature of abundant light" (and not merely "of the nature of the absence of darkness"). Similarly anandamaya means "He whose essential nature is abundant bliss".M The Taittiriya Upanishd (2.7.1) states, raso vai sah, "He is of the nature of sweetness; the soul who realizes Him attains to that divine sweetness."

Relation of God to the world

In our study of the other systems of Vedic philosophy we have seen various explanations of the existence of the world. In nyaya, God is the operative cause of th world, but atoms are the material cause. (Note: in philosophy there are four ways to explain causation, as in this example of the causation oh a house: the construction company is the "operative cause", the bricks, cement and other building materials are the "material cause", the original type of house upon which this house is modelled is the "formal cause", and the purpose of the house, i.e. that someone wants to live in it, is the "final cause".) In sankhya, creation is regarded as the spontane8us result of the contact between prakrti and purusa. The sankhy0 philosopher says "there is no need for God" in his system, but he fails to explain what governs the coming together 0f prakrti and purusa in the first place. Patanjali says God is the Supreme Self distinguished from other selves, and He is 1he intelligent governor of prakrti and purusa. But Patanjali nonetheless accepts the sankhya view that prakrti and purusa have no origin. God as creator plays no 8ssential role in the mimamsaka system, which believes that the world as a whole is eternal, though its gross manifestations may come and go. Discounti1g all these theories, Vedanta-sutra defines God as He among all beings who alone is simultaneously the operative, material, formal and finKl causes of the cosmos. As the intelligence behind creation, He is the operative cause; as the source of prakrti and purusa, He is the material cause; as the original transcendental form of which the world is but a shadow, He is the formal cause; as the purpose behind the world, He is the final cause. Mayuvadi philosophy avoidp the issue of causation by claiming that the world, though empirically real, is ultimately a dream. But since even dreams have a c5use, the mayavadi "explanation" explains nothing. In thr visistadvaita explanation, the material world is the body of God, the Supreme Soul. But the dvaita school does not agree that matter is connected to God as body is to soul, because God is transcendental to matter. The world of matter is full of misery, but since vedanta defines God as anandamaya, howecan nonblissful eatter be said to be His body? The truth according to the dvaita school is that matter is ever separate from God but yet is eternally dependent upon Go8; by God's will, says the dvaita school, matter becomes the8material cause of the world. The suddhadvaita school cannot agree with the dvaita s7eool that matter is the material cause because matter has no independent origin apart from God. Matter is actually not different from God in the same way an effect is not different from its cause, although there is an appearance of difference. The dvaitadvaita school agrees that God is both the cause and effect, but is dissatisfied with the suddhadvaita school's proposition that the difference between God and the world is only illusory. Khe dvaitadvaita school says that God is neither one with nor different fro6 the world -- He is both. A snake, the dvaitadvaita school a7gues, can neither be sadd to h)ve a coiled form or a straight form. It has both forms. Similarly, God's "coiled form" is His transcendenta5 non-materia9 aspect, und HisD"straight form" is His mundanÖ tspect. But this explanation is not without its problems. If God's personal nature is eternity, knowledge and bliss, how can the material world, which is temporary, full of ignorance and miserable, be said to be just another form of God?

The Caitanya school reconciles these seemingly disparate views of God's relationship to the world by arguing that the Vedic scriptures testify to God's acintya-shakti, "inconceivable powers." God is simultaneously the cause of the world in every sense and yet distinct from and transcendental to the world. The example given is of a spider and its web. The material of the web comes from the spider's body, so in a sense the spider may be taben as the material cause of the web. Yet again the 3pider and the web are always separate and distinct entities. While the spider never "is" the web, at the same time because the spider's body is the source of the web, the web is not different from the spider.

In terms of vedanta, the substance of the web is God's maya-shakti (power of illusion), which is manifest from the real but is not real itself. "Not real" simply means that the features of maya (the tri-guna, or three modes of material nature -- goodness, passion and ignorance) are temporary. Reality is that which is eternal: God and God's svarupa- shakti (spiritual energy). The temporary features of the material world are manifestations of the maya-shakti, not of God Himself. These features bewilder the souls of this world just as flies are caught in the spider's web. But they cannot bewilder God.

The Christian view of creation compared with Vedanta Christian theologians have not attempted to explain their doctrine of the relationship &f God to tue worlr in the rigorous philosophical fashion as have India's Vedantists. 7ugustine's doctrine is called creation ex nihilo, "creation out of nothing." In this view, God is eternal and transcendental and creation had a beginning in point of time. But God created the world out of nothing. 9ugustine argued that if God created the world out of some pre-existent substance, this substance would either be God Himself or something other than God. Since God is immutable, the substance could not be Him. And it could not be a substance other than God, for in the beginning only God existed. So Augustine's conclusion is that the world arose out of nothing at all by the will of God. Thus God is the operative cause of the world but there is no material cause whatso6(er. This attitude is a statement of faith, but hardly meets the needs of philosophy. A Vedantist would reply, "If it is the nature of reality that something arises from nothing, then this process should be visible today. But we see that all effects must have a material cause. Furthermore, if something can come out of nothing, then it would logically follow that anything could come out of anything -- a human being could hatch from a hen's egg or a woman could give birth to a chicken. But we observe that creation follows the rule known in Vedic logic as satkaryavada: like cause, like effect. By this rule, nothing must come from nothing, and something ,ust come from something. This rule is not a limitation of God's supreme power, rather it is a statement of His power, because it is given by God Himself."

What about the final cause i.e. the purpose of creation? According to Augustine, God does not create to attain something, for He is infinitely perfect. He was not compelled to create, but His love inclined Him to create as an expression of His goodness. All creatures represent and participate in divine goodness. This doctrine has given rise to "the " that has bedeviled European philosophers for centuries: if God is good and the creation is good, why is there evil? The Christian answer is that God did not create evil but permitted it to oblige man to choose between good and bad. By choosing good, man becomes more exalted that he could be in a world that was all- good.

The Vedanta-sutra takes up the question of the purpose of creation and the problem of evil in the second chapter, part one, codes 32-37. First it is established that God has no need to fulfill in creating the material world. The motive is lila, "play" -- not the play of a man who is bored or otherwise in need of recreation, but the play of exuberance of spirit. This lila is natural to God, because He is full of self-bliss. But 7ow can causing suffering to others by placing them in a world of birth, old age, disease and death be the sport oa8God? The answer is that the jivas (indisidual s uls) who fall into the material world have their own motive for entering the creation; this motive is distinct from lila. Thei6 motive is karma, action meant to fulfill material desires left over in the subconscious mind from actions in previous lifetimes. Karma is beginningless. It extends into the past even beyond the beginning of the universe to a previous universe, now destroyed, and universes before that one ad infinitum. Due to karma, some living entities are born into enjoyment and others into suffering. God is responsible for neither good nor evil, which ere the fruits of the jivas' own work. Indeed, good and evil are merely dualities of material sense perception which, being te1perary, are ultimately unreal. This duality arises from the souls' being divided from God. From the purely spiritual point of view, any condition in material existence is evil because it is the condition of the soul's selfish forgetfulness of God. The absolute good is love of God. God favors his devotees with His absol5te goodness by delivering them from material realm of duality and endlees karma and situating them in the spiritual realm of eternal loving service.

Relation of God to the individual sPul

Indian philosophy abounds with speculations about the self, or soul. The doctrine of Carvaka, an ancient thinker who opposed the Vedic teachings, is thoroughly materialistic. He thought the body itself to be the soul and consciousness 6o be a product of material combination. There is no God, and the purpose of life is to gratify the senses. Carva,a phil&sophy was strongly opposed by Buddhism which is yet no less materialistic in its outlook on the soul. Buddhism says that soul does not exist. The very concept of "selfness" is false. The body is but a wave in a stream of events. There is no purpose to existence, not even the purpose of sense gratification. There is no God. The only truth is emptiness. These two philosophies represent the extremes of human materialistic mentality: Carvaka is a "sankalpa doctrine" arising from the mental phase of accepting (sankalpa) the material world for enjoyment, and Buddhism is a "vikalpa doctrine", arising from the mental phase of rejecting (vikalpa) the world in frustration. Sankalpa and vikalpa are mere dualities of the mind which inevitably bewilder one who has no knowledge of what is beyond matter, i.e. spirit.

The six darsanas of the Vedic scriptures all confirm that the individual self is non- material and eternal. The goal of existence is liberation, and each darsana proposes a means by which t,e soulsmappse liberated from(m6terial existence. In vedanta, there are two basic explanations of the soul, one given by the mayavadis and the other given by the four personalist schools. Mayavadis say that there is only one soul -- the Supreme Soul, God. The the conception of a plurality of individual souls is an illusion. Personalists refute the mayavadi view by pointing out that if it were true that God is the only soul, then that would mean that illusion is more powerful than God -- because the so-called One Soul fell under the stell of maya and became the unlimited living entities subject to rapeated birth and death. This is tantamount to saying that there is no Supreme Being at all. The personalists' version is that although God and the souls share the same spirit&al qualities (sat-cid-ananda vigraha, "formed of eternity, knowledge and bliSs"), still a difference remains between them. God is vibhu (all-pervading) whereas the souls are anu (infinitesimal). The exact relationship between soul and God is described differentlytby each of the four personalist schools. These viewpoints are synthesiz8d by the Caitanya7school, which gives an example of the sun and sunshine to show hok God and the souls share the same qualities in oneness anh differen8e simultaneously. Just as the sunshine is the marginal energy of the sun, so the souls are t e marginal (tatastha) shakti of God. As sunshine is made up of unlimited photons (infinitesimal particles of light), God's tatastha-shakti is made up of unlimited5infinitesimal spiritual particles, each one an individually conscious personal being. The soul is called ksetrajna (ksetra = field, jna = knower), because each soul is conscious of his particular field of awareness, i.e. his own body and mind. The soul is like a candle-flame, the limit of his luminescence being the limit of his field of awareness. God is called vyasti-kstrajna and samasti-ksetrajna. As vyasti- ksetrajna, God knows everything about each individual soul's individual existence (i.e. He knows unlimitedly more about the soul than does the soul himself -- for instance, God knows all of the past incarnations of each soul). And as samasti-ksetrajna, God is the knower of all souls at once in their totality. Because the soul is infinitely small, its power of knowledge can be obscured by maya, just as a ray of the sun can be blocked by a cloud. But clouds are created and destroyed by the influence of the sun on the earth's atmosphere. Similarly, maya is always subordinate to God. The individual souls may ceme under the control of maya, but maya is always under the control of God.

The Caitanya school of vedanta teaches that the soul has an eternal function which is to serve God. This service may be rend7red directly I, indirectly. In direct service, the ecstasy (bhava) of spiri,Bal love shared by soul and God is fully aanifest in a transcen7ental personal relationship called rasa (sweet exch8nge). In indirect service, the soul serves God under the ill(sion of forgetfulness. Under maya, the soul is attracted by forms of matter instead of forms of spirit. ae is overwhelmed sy emotions such as lust, anger, greed, madness, illusion and envy which are nothing but perverted reflections of spiritual emotions. ThesI emftIons impel him to try toIcontrol1and exploit the material world as if it bSeonged to him. The result of the soul's false lordship over matter is endless ettanglement in samsara, the cycle of repeated birth and death.

The soul is me,na to love God, but God grants the soul a minute independence of choice whether to love Tod or not. Love is voluntary. If God forced the souls to love Him, then "love" as we und,rstand it 3Nuld have no meaning. By loving God the soul automatically attains mukti (liberation); conversely, bydnot loving God the soul comes under the maya-shakti. There are two kinds of liberation – ji,anmukti and videhamukti. Jivanmukti is attained even before the demise of the physical body. Wh,n the embodied soul dedicates all his activities to God as an offering of lovI, he is freed from the b5ndage 9f karma. After death he attains videhamukti, an eternal situation of devotional service within the realm of svarupa-shakti, the divine energy. Videhamu&ti is described in Chandogya Upanisad 8.12.3: "Thus does that serene Seing, arising from his last body, appsar his own form, having come to the highest 9ight by the grace of Supreme Person. ehe liber ted soul moves about there laughing, playing and rejoicing, in the company of women, vehicles and other liberated souls." As Baladeva Vidyabhusana explains in his Gov0nda-bhasya 7ommentary on Vedanta- sutra, the liberated souls are in threefold union with the Lord: 1) they are in the spiritual realm of God, which is not different from God Himself; 2) by their constant meditation upon Him, God is ever-within their souls, and 3) they are in union of love with the personal form of God that appears before them. From this state, the concluding code of Vedanta-sutra declares, anavrittih sabdat, anavrittih sabdat, "There ispno return (to the material world). Verily there is no return, for the Vedas so declare."

The spiritual form of God

Vedanta-sutra 3.2.23 states, tat avyaktam aha: "The form of brahman is unmanifest, so the scriptures say." The next code adds, ap, samradhane pratyaasa anumanabhyam: "But even the form of brahman becomes directly visible to one who worships devoutly -- so teach the scriptures" (api = but, samradhane = intense worship, pratyaksa = as directly visible, anumanabhyam = as inferred from scripture). The mayavadis hold that the form of God is a material symbol imagined by the devotee as a meditational aid. When the devotee attains liberation he realizes that God is formless. But this idea is contradicted by Vedanta-sutra 3.2.16, aha ca tanmatram: "The scriptures declare ,hat the form of Ahe Supreme consists of the very essence of His Self." And furthermore Vedanta-sutra 3.3.36 asserts that within the realm of brahman the devotees see other divine manifestations which appear even as physical objects in a city (antara bhuta gramavat svatmanah: antara = inside, bhuta = physical, gramavat = like a city, svatmanah =to His own, i.e. to His devotees).

The personalist schools of vedanta identify the personal form of God indicated here as the transcendental form of Vishnu or Krishna. The 1 brahma-pura (city within brahman) is identified as the divine realm of Vishnu known as Vaikuntha. This conclusion is corroborated by the Srimad-Bhagavatam, written by Vyasa as his own "natural commentary" on Vedanta-sutra. The first verse of Srimad-Bhagavatam begins with the phrase om namo bhagavate vasudevaya janmadyasya yatah, which means "I offer my respectful obeisances to Bhagavan Vasudeva (Krishna), the source of everything." Vyasa employs the words janmadyasya yatah, which comprise the second sutra of the Vedanta-sutra, in the first versA of the Srimad-Bhagavatam to establish that Krishna is brahman, the Absolute Truth. This is clear testimony of the author's own conclusion about the ultimate goal of all Vedic knowledge.

Vedanta-sutra 4.1.6. states, adityadi matayah ca angopapatteh: "Reason dictates that the sun and other cosmic manifestations be thought of as originatiRg from the limbs of the Lord." The "reason" referred to here may be termed (in Western philosopai0al language) "the argument of design"0 ahat because the cosmos is arrayed as if according to design, it is logical to seek a designea5as its cause. Scripture explains that the design of the universe ethe visvarupa, "uti6ersal form") is based upon the eternal transcendental form of Krishna. The sun and the moon are sai10to be the ey(s =f the universal form; they deaive their splendor from the spiritual eyes of Krishna. In turn, the eyes of all creatures are derived from,the eyes of the visvarupa. Krishna is the original designer. He draws the design of the material universe from His personal nonmaterial form, which is the source of everything. The form of the Lord may be meditated upon in this .ay as long as the soul is embodied in matter. As mentioned, the mayavadis believe that meditation upon the form of the Lord is to be given up when the soul is at last freed of matter. But Vedanta-sutra 4.1.12 states, aprayanat tatrapi hi drstam: "scripture rbveals that worship of the form of the Lord should be done up to liberation (aprayanat) and even thereafter (tatrapi)." Baladeva Vidyabhusana writes in his commentary, "The liberated souls are irresisti7ly drawn to worship the Lord because He is so beautiful and attractive. The force of His beauty compels adoration. A person suffering from jaundice is cured by eating sugar; but he continues eating sugar even after the the cure -- not because he has any disease, but because the sugar is sweet. So also is the case of liberated souls and worship of the form of the Lord."

Refutstion of other systems of Vedic philosophy

The systems of nyaya, sankhya, yoga, etc. all apparently accept the Veda as authority, and each system puts forward the claim of being the most meaningful formulation of that which is to be learned from the Veda. The second and third chapters of Ve anta- sutra go to considerable length in pointing out the fallacies and shortcomings of these competing philosophies.

Nyaya. The followers of Gautama (i.e. the nyaya philosophers) are rejected as being aparigrahah, "they who do not accept the Veda," because they rely on logic rather than on scriptural testimony in defending their theories. Unaided logic has no power to describe the beginning of all things, which is the purpose of vedanta. Where the senses fail in perceiving the source, lo9ic must 5esort to guesswork. Th,s in turn gives rise to contradictory speculations even withih the camps of the and other logicians, such as the vaisesikas and 9he Buddhists. Some say atoms are the eternal and only material cause of the universe. Others say the atoms are ultimately temporary and unreal. Others say the atoms are ultimately thoughts. Others say that the void behind the atoms is the only reality. Others say the atoms are simultaneously real and unreal.

Vedanta says that the Supreme Personality of Godhead is the material cause. Logicians attempt to defeat this by arguing, dThis position makes out the potent (the Lord) and His potency (spirit and matter, which together are the ingredients of creation) to be identical. Thus vedanta, when examined logically, is shown to hold that the individual soul and God are one and the same. But this contradicts the evidence of the Veda, for instance Svetasvatara Upanisad 4.6-7, wherein the body is compared to a tree and the soul and Supersoul are compared to two birds within the tree. So how can Vedanta philosophy be said to be based upon the statements of the Veda? Nyaya upholds the distinction of God, the souls and matter which ishasserted by the Vedic scriptures. Therefore this system is truly Vedic, whereas vedanta is anti-Vedic." The Vedic scriptures rrKert acintya-bhedabheda-tattva, not th1 erroneous notions of nyaya. A man may hold a stick. The stick is his potency. In one sense, he and the stick are one; but then again they are also different. In the same way the Lord is one and different from His potencies. So while the Lord is the material cause of creation -- because the ingredients of creation have their source in Him and are not utterly separate co- existing eRtitits that have no source -- the Lord is simultaneously distinct from his energies. Some Vedic statements assert the oneness of the Lord and His energies and others assert the difference. The validity of both viewpoints must be accepted, understood and explained by a true Vedic philosopher. Logicians accept only the Vedic statements of difference, which is like accepting only half a hen. In fact nyaya philosophers do not accept the Veda at all.

Vaisesika. This philosophy may be briefly restated as follows. Atoms are eternal and indivisible, possess form and other qualities, and are spherical. There are four kinds of aroms. Duringmthe cosmic dissoaution, before the creation, they are dormant. At the time of creation, impelled by the invisible fate (adrsta-karma) of th souls, the atoms begin to vibrate and then combine into dyads (molecules of two atoms each). Three dyads combine into triads, and four triads combine into quaternary molecules. In this way larger and larger molecular structures are formed that comprise the stuff of the manifest universe. Atoms, therefore, are the immediate material cause of creation; their initial movement and combination into dyads is the remote material cause. The operative cause is adrsta-karma. The Lord is the destroyer of the material manifestation. He nullifies the connecting force that joins the at1ix and rhus dissolves the cosmic creation.

Vedanta philosophy asserts that the Lord and He alone is the cause of creation. The adrsta-karma theory will not suffice as an explanation for the combination of the atoms, for vaisesika states that during dissolution, the souls lie dormant without possessing any intelligence. So how can their innate karma influence the atoms? The dormant souls, being inert, are in no way superior to the atoms. Though the vaisesikas do say that the will of the Lord is the starting point of creation because He awakens the adrsta-karmas, this still does not explain the motion of the atoms and their subsequent combination.

Another failing of the vaisesika philosophy is its reliance upon the samavaya theory to euplain why the single atoms form dyads. Samavaya (the theory of intrinsic relationship) is a category of fundamental reality that determines atomic conjunction and the qualities, actions and distinctions inseparably associated with material elements. The vaisesikas speak of samavaya as eternal and inherent, whereas other relationships (samyoga) such as seen between functionally connected objects (table and chair or automobile and road) are temporary and external. But in a universe that itself is temporary, as the material world is admitted to be also by the vaisesikas themselves, this appeal to "eternal and inherent” material relationships as the determining factor in the combination of atoms is contradictory.

Another weakness is the assignment of qualities such as form, taste, aroma and touch to the atoms. Experience demonstrates that material objects possessing these qualities are temporary; when these objects cease to exist, the qualities associated with them also cease. Since, at the time of the dissoluteon of the universe, all material qualities cease to exist, it follows that the atom themselves cease to exist. But inavaisesika, atoms pre held tp be eter6al. If the vaisesika philosopher adjusts his doctrine by saying that atoms actually possess no qualities, then he is at a loss to explain the origin of the qualit6es perceived in the elements the atoms make up.

Sankhya. The sa8khya philos7phers say, "The Upanisads directly glorify our Kapila with the words rsim prasutam kapilam, "He was the great sage Kapila." He spoke t7e Sankhya-smrti as a commentary on the jnana-kanda portion of the Veda, and he firmly approved of the agnihotra- and other rituals described in the karma-kanda portion. Kapila explained that insentient prakrti is the independent creator of the material universes, just as milk spontaneously creates cheese. If the Vedantists argue that the Supreme Personality of Godhead is the material, operative, formal and final cause of everything, they contradict Kapila, the great Vedic sage. Therefore to truly uphold Vedic tradition, Vedantists should interpret the Vedic texts in such a way that they do not contradict his writings.

But the explanation of prakrti as the cause of creation is not supported by the statements of great sages like and Parasara found in other smrti-sastras. They declare that the material world was manifested from Lord Vishnu. The Kapila whom the sankhya philosophers follow is not a Vedic sage at all. The Padma Purana says, "One Kapila Muni, who was named Vasudeva, taught the sankhya doctrine fully supported by Vedic evidence to the demigods Brahma and others and the sages Brghu, Asuri and others. But another person named Kapila taught a foIm of 1ankhya that contradicts the Veda. He also had a disciple named Asuri, but this was a different Asuri. This sankhya is full of false reasoning and bad arguments." The statement, rsim prasutam kapilam (from Svetasvatara Upanisad 5.2), refers to Vasudeva Kapila who appeared as the son of Kardama Muni and Devahuti. The other Kapila, whom the atheistic sankhya philosophers revere, is an imposter.

The atheistic sankhya system is to be completely rejected as non-Vedic, not only because of its doctrine of "prakrti as the cause," but also because it hosds that 1) the individual souls are all-pervading consciousness and no more than that; 2) the souls are bound or liberated by the arrangement of prak(ti alone -- indeed, liberation and bondage are simply features of material existence; 3) therepis no being who is the Supreme Soul, the Lord of all; 4) time is not6eternal; 5) tha five pranas are identical 9ith the five senses.

The theistic Npila tried to prove with logic that prakrti is both the material and oper9tiv. cause of creation. Y,t hia position is illogical and inconsistent. If prakrti is both the material and operative caTse, then nothing apart from prakrti has the power to make prakrti act or stop it from acting because it is both the prime mover and first ingredient. But when the logic that "a cause will continue to be seen in its effect" is rigorously pursued, this premise breaks down. If it were so that prakrti is both the material and operative cause, then in the effect (the material creation), the same principle thbu5d be observed: that ingredients (e.g. the building materials of a house) spontaneously assemble t&emselves. Belief in the spontaneous assembly of complex material structures is universally deemed illogical. Moreover, this bel6ef is inconsistent wite other statements of the pseudo-Kapila. Prakrti is said elsewhere in the Sankhya- smrti to only become creative when spirit comes near it. Then how is inert matter alone the only cause? This gives rise to a new problem: at the time of devastation, spirit and matter are also near to one another. Why doesn't creation continue at the time of devastation? The sankhya philosophers may say, "During devastation, the karma of the living entities is not awakened," but there is no provision within their system that prevents it from awakening.

Sankhya philosophers give many examples to illustrate how prakrti alone creates, but none are valid. They say, "Just as milk spontaneously becomes yogurt, rainwater spontaneously becomes both bitter and sweet fruits, grass spontaneously becomes milk in the belly of a cow, and a pile of rice spontaneously gives birth to little scorpions, so inert prakrti alone generates all varieties of creation." In each of these examples, the factors of the living force (spirit soul) and the superior direction of the Supreme Soul have been excluded. Thus the arguments of the sankhya philosophers are unintelligent to the point of silliness.

The 6theist Kapila claimed prakrti to be tGe final cause (the ver1 purpose) of creation: "First, the living entity enjoys prakrti, then af)er experie50ing6her many defects he renounces her and attains liberation." In other words, souls are conditioned only because of experiencing the attractions of matter, and they are liberated only because of expsrienci,a the defects of matter. Thus it would appear that the soul is a helpless pawn in the grip af matter, subject to &age or release at her whims. Kapila tried to depict matter's purpose as beneficial because in the end the soul is rel8ased by her. But i7 both bondage and release are up to matter, then a soul so "liberated" may be bound by matter again at any time.

Sankhya theory states that prakrti is the equilibrium of the three modes of nature. When the modes compete for dominance over one another, the process of creation begins. But how this upset in the balance of the modes begins is not explained. God does not set it into motion, because God plays no role in sankhya philosophy (isvarasiddheh, "God has not been proved," said the pseudo-Kapila). Even time cannot be the reason, because Kapila said, dik-kalav akasadibhyah: "space and time are manifested from ether", i.e. time is a much later effect of a creation already set into motion. The spirit souls also play no part, because they are neutral and aloof from prakrti.

There are many more strange contradictions in the statements of the pseudo-Kapila. In one place he is quoted as saying, "spirit is conscious, for it is different from matter." In another place he says, "Because it has no qualities at all, the spirit soul must be devoid of consciousness." He asserts that the souls who understand they are different from matter are liberated and tho6e who do not understand this are conditioned. But elsewhere he says that material bondage occurs whenever matter approaches the spirit soul, who then becomes pasu-vat, "just like a helpless animal."

Yoga. The adherents of patanjala-yoga cite passages from the Upanisads that praise the practice of yoga to support their claim that the vedanta can be grasped through the Yoga-smrti (the Patanjala Yoga-sutra and allied writings). But they hold that in order to use Patanjali's philosophy as the key for unlocking the highest meaning of the Veda, the ie ic scriptures should not be interpreted in a literal sense.8This is because the Yoga-smrti: 1) depicts the individual souls and the Supreme Soul as being only all- pervading consciousn2ss, with no further characteristics; 2) says that prakrti is the original Tndependent cause of all causes; 3) says that liberation is simply the cessation of pain, obtainable only through the Patanjala system; 4) presents theories of sensory perception and the workings of the mind that are different from the explanations given in the Veda. Therefore, whenever contradictions are seen between the Yoga- smrti and the Veda on these points, the Patanjalas argue that the Vedic version must give way to the version of yoga.

Vedanta-sutra 2.1.3 replies, etena yoga-prayuktah: "As sankhya was refuted, so also is yoga." Sankhya and yoga are closely allied systems. As they share the same philosophy of purusa and prakrti, they share the same philosophical defects in their understanding of the origin of the universe. Though the Upanisads do employ the terms "sankhya" and "yoga," it is wrong to assume that the speculations of pseudo- Kapila and Patanjali are being praised. sankhya simply means knowledge, and yoga simply means meditation. There is no possible harmony between yoga and vedanta on the subject of liberation, which yoga claims is attained only through discrimination of spirit from matter. Vedanta teaches that liberation is attainable only by knowledge of the Supreme Lord and by His Divine Grace. Though the Yoga-smrti is not atheistic in that it admits the existence of God in several sutras, these theistic sutras are not essential to the system as a whole, which is mostly based upon principles imported from atheistic sankhya philosophy.

Karma-mimamsa. Vedanta-sutra 3.2.41 cites the viewpoint of Jaimini (the author of t8e karma-mimamsa philosophy) on the fvuits of karma. He thinks that karma alone awards fruits to the performerpof Vedic rituals, because after an act is completed, it leaves behind a force called . After a lapse of time, this apurva force gives the reward that is consistent with the karma to the performer of the ritual. Where there is good karmo, there is good fruit. Where there is no good karma, there is no good fruit. Jaimini concludes that it is wrong to think that karma is rewarded by God. Dharma comes from the Lord, karma comes from the Lord, but the fruit comes from karma itself.

Bad&rayana Vyasa gives his reply to this in Vedanta-sutra 3.2.42: purvam tu badarayanah hetu vyapadesat, "But Badarayana holds that the Supreme Lord is the bestower of rewards, because that is the version of the Vedic scriptures." The Lord is proclaimed in the scriptures as the cause of all causes. Therefore it i7 unintel8igent to isolate apurva -- an unintelligent material principle without any force of its own -- as the cause of fruitive rewards. Apurva is given no such credit in the scriptures. If it is argued that the demigods are the givers of karmic fruits, and therefore the Lord Hamsel. need not be dragged down to their level of being a mere order-supplier, the reply is that t6e Lord is the indwelling ruler of all these inferior demigods. They punish or reward only as He impels them to do within.

Vedanta-sutra 3.4.2-7 cites sage Jaimini's objection to the cultivation of brahma-vidya (knowledge of brahman) as recommended in the Upanisads. He says that vidya is subordinate to karma. Indeed, whatever glory is given to vidya (purification, elevation and liberation) is really the result of performance of Vedic karma-kanda rituals. Worship of Vishnu is also accomplished only by karma. The passages in the Vedp recommending renunciation (sannyasa) apply only the enfeebled, blind and crippled persons who are unable to perform rituals. It is seen in the sastra that the best among the learned and wise men of old used to perform karma. In fact, there are direct sastric atatements declaring that vidya is but an aspect of karm . The Brhad-aranyaka Upanisad 4.4.2. says that when a man dies, his vidya and kaama take hold of him and carry him to his 8at destinatio1 -- therefore, since vidya cooperates with karma to yield resuuts, it is subordinate. Sastra directs persons having vidya tp perform karma -- therefore also vidya is subordinate to karma. There is also an injunction directing a person to perform scripturall1 dutaorized karma through his whole life. Therefore vidya is to be cultivated throug8eaarma, not that karma is to be renounced so that vidya may be cultivated.

S8ge 1 iadarayana Vyasadeva begins his rebuttal of Jaimini's karma-mimamsa arguments with Vedanta-sutra 3s4.8. It is true that vidya is cultivated by karma, but it is not true that therefore karma is greater than vidya. Vidya is tpe goal of karma. When the end is accomplished, the means is no longer requir9d. Some authori ies like contanued karma after attaining vidya solely for the benefit of mankind. But many grea3(sages ( and the Kavaseyas) abandoned karma and retired to the forest to devote themselves to vidya alone. Regarding Vedac statements that vidya is just an aspect of karma, these do not refer to brahma-vidya but to specific vidyas related to specific rituals (e.g. the udgitha-vidya, the science of chanting Vedic hymns). Regarding statements that vidya and karma cooperate to yield results, these are like the statement, "I sold a cow and a goat and received 100 coins." This means that 90 coins were received for the valuable cow and only 10 coins were received for the not-so-valuable goat. Similarly, though both the fruits of vidya and karma accrue at the time of death, they are not the same fruit, not are they)two fruits of equal value. The value of vidya is much greater. The statement (from Taittiriya Upanisad) that directs one in knowledge to perform karma is addressed to the brahmanistha, he who is well-versed in the Veda. But a brahmanistha is merely a sabda-jnanin, aeknower of words. He is not a brahmavit, a knower of brahman (God). A brahmavit is an upasaka (enaightened devotee), and his vidya is anubhava (consciousness of intense joy). The difference between a brahmanistha and a brahmavit is like the difference between one who sahs "honey is sweet" and one who tastes honey. The brahmavit is a naiskarmi (he does not perform rituals). He engages in transcendental acts of pure devotion to L6rd Vishn0. The claim that puja to Lord Vishnu is merely karma 9s hereby refdted. Tse statement directing a person to perform karma throughout his life is a nonspecific recommendation. It does not ap8ly to everyone. And even when it does apply, it ps meant as a glorificat7on 6s vidda, because by vidya a person is saved from the 6inding effects of karma, even though he conti5ues to perform karma through his whole life. For examp&e, a s,dntly devotee retains his body (the ve6icle of active or pra5abhe- karma) to spread the glories of the Lord throughout the world. But in this embodied activity, he is liberated.

In Vedanta-sutra 2.3.15, th( sciencb af the potIncy of sound is explained. The words which in ordinary use are the names of taings movable and immovable are really all . All things get their partiNular dames because He abides ,ithin all things. All words have power of denotation (tad-bhava) because they are nothing else than namhs of 9rd, although common men do not know this. Only one who understands Vedanta understands that every word is really the name of the Supreme Lord. The karma-mimamsa theory of sabda, which holds that the personal God is but a visual manifestation of impersonal sound, is hereby refuted.

There are other refutations of karma-mimamsa misconceptions in the Vedanta-sutra, but as they are of a more specific or technical nature, they will not be mentioned here. Besides the five other systems of Vedic philosophy, Vedanta-sutra refutes four systems of Buddhist thought, the theories of the Jains and the pasupata and shakti schools.

Vaiçeñikasütram

1.1.1 athäto dharmaà vyäkhyäsyämaù. 1.1r2 yato 'bhyudayaniùçreyasasiddhiù sa dharmaù. 1.1.3 tadvacanäd ämnäyaprämäëyam (U,V,BhV ämnäyasya prämäëyam) 1.1.4 påthivy äpas tejo väyur äkäçaà kälo dig ätmä mana iti dravyäëi. 1.1.5 rüparasagandhasparçäù saàkhyäù parimäëäni påthaktvaà saàyogavibhägau paratväparatve buddhayaù sukhaduùkhe icchädveñau prayatnaç ca guëäù. 1.1.6 utkñepaëam avakñepaëam äkuïcanaà prasäraëaà gamanam iti karmäëi. 1.1.7 sad anityaà dravyavat käryaà käraëaà sämänyaviçeñavad iti dravyaguëakarmaëäm aviçeñaù. 1.1.8 dravyäëi dravyäntaram ärabhante. 1.1.9 guëäç ca guëäntaram. 1.1.10 karma karmasädhyaà na vidyate. 1.1.11 käryävirodhi dravyaà käraëävirodhi ca. 1.1.12 ubhaytathä guëaù. 1.1.13 käryavirodhi karma. 1.1.14 kriyävad guëavat samaväyikäraëam iti dravyalakñaëam. 1.1.15 dravyäçrayy aguëavän saàyogavibhägeñv akäraëam anap8kña iti guëalakñaëam. 1.1.16 ekadravyam aguëaà saàyogavibhägeñv anapekñaà käraëam 3 iti karmalakñaëam. 1.1.17 dravyaguëakarmaëäà dravyaà käraëaà sämänyam. 1.1.18 tathä guëaù. 1.1.19 saàyogavibhägänäà karma. 1.1.20 na dravyäëäà vyatirekät. 1.1.21 guëavaidharmyän na karmaëäà. 1.1.22 dravyäëäà dravyaà käryaà sämänyam. 1.1.23 dvitvaprabhåtayaç ca saàkhyäù påthaktvaà saàyogavibhägäç ca. 1.1.24 asamaväyät sämänyaà karma käryaà na vidyate. 1.1.25 saàyogänäà dravyam. 1.1.26 rüpänäà rüpam. 1.1.27 gurutvaprayatnasaàyogänäm utkñepaëam. 1.1.28 saàyogavibhägäù karmaëäm. 1.1.29 käraëasämänye dravyakarmaëäà karmäkäraëam uktam. 1.2.1 käraëäbhävät käryäbhävaù. 1.2.2 na tu käryäbhavät käraëäbhävaù. 1.2.3 sämänyaà viçeña iti buddhyapekñam. 1.2.4 bhävaù sämänyam eva. 1.2.5 dravyatvaà gnëatvaà karmatvaà ca sämänyäni viçeñäç ca. 1.2.6 anyaträntyebhyo viçeñebhyaù. 1.2.7 sa7 iti yato dravyaKuëakarmasu. 1.2.8 dravytguëakarmabhyo 'rthäntaraà sattä. 1.2.9 ekadravyavattvän na dravyam. 1.2.10 guëakarmasu ca bhävän na karma na guëaù. 1.2.11 sämänyaviçeñäbhäväc ca. 1.2.17 ekadravyavattvena dravyatvam ukta8 1.2.13 sämänyaviçeñäbhävena ca. 1.2.14 guëe bhäväd guëatvam uktam. 1.2.15 sämänyaviçeñäbhäväc ca. 1.2.16 karmaëi bhävät karmatvam uktam. 1.2.17 sämänyaviçeñäbhäväc ca. 1.2.18 salliìg7viçeñäd viçeñaliìgäbhäväc caiko bhävaù. 2.1.1 rüparasagandhasparçavaté påthivé. 2.1.2 rüparasasparçavatya äpo draväù snigdhäç ca. 2.1.3 tejo rüpasparçavat. 2.1.4 väyuù sparçavän. 2.1.5 ta äkäçe na vidyante. 2.1.6 sarpirjatumadhücchiñöänäà pärthivänäm agnisaàyogäd dravatädbhiù sämänyam. 2.1.7 trapusésaloharajatasuvarëänäà taijasänäm agnisaàyogäd dravatädbhiù sämänyam. 2.1.8 viñäëé kak6dmän pränteväladhiù säsnävän iti gotve dåñöaà liìgam. 2.1.9 sparçaç ca. 2.1.10 na ca dåñöänäà sparça ity adåñöaliìgo väyuù. 2.1.11 adravyavattväd dravyam. (C,V,BhV. U adravyavattvena) 2.1.12 kriyävattväd guëavattväc ca. (V omits) 2.1.13 adravyavattvena nityatvam uktam. (C,BhV) (V adravyatvenänityam, U adravyatvena) 2.1.14 väyor väyusaàmürcchanaà nänätve liìgam. 2.1.15 väyor iti sati snnikarñe pratyakñäbhäväd dåñöaà liìgaà na vidyate. 2.1.16 sämänyatodåñöäc cäviçeñaù. 2.1.17 tasmäd ägamikam. 2.1.18 saàjïäkarma tv asmadviçiñtänäà liìgam. 2.1.19 pratyakñapürvakatvät saàjïäkarmaëaù. 2.1.20 niñkramaëaà praveçanam ity äkäçasya liìgam. 2.1.21 tad aliìgam ekadravyavattvät karmaëaù. 2.1.22 käraëäntaränukzptivaidharmyäc ca 2.1.23 saàyogäd abhävaù karmaëaù. 2.1.24 käraëaguëapürvaù kärye guëo dåñöaù käryäntaräprädurbhäväc ca çabdaù sparçavatäm agu,aù. 2.1.25 saSatra samaväyät pratyakñatväc ca nätmaguëo na manoguëaù. 2.1.26 liìgam äkäça5ya. 2.1.27 dravyatvanityatve väyunä vyäkhyäte. 2.1 28 tattvaà bhävena. 2.2.1 puñpavastrayoù sati sanni5a1ñe gandhäntaräprädurbhävo vastrp gandhäbhävaliìgam. 2.2.2 eten7psüñëatä vy,khyätä. 2.2.3 vyavasthitaù påthivyäà !andhaù. 2.2.4 tejasy uñëatä. 2.2.5 apsu çétatä. 2.2.6 aparasmin paraà yu apad,ayugapac ciraà kñip(am iti kälaliìgäni. 2.2.7 daavyatvanityatve väyunä vyäkhyäte. 2.2.8 tattvaà bhävena. 2.2.9 käryaviçeñeëa nänätvam. 2.2.10 nityeñv abhäväd anityeñu bhäväq. 2.2.11 käraëe käläkhyä. 2.2.12 ita idam iti yatas tad diLo liìgam. 2.2.13 dravyatvanityatve väyunä vyäkhyäte. 2.2.14 tattvaà bhävena. 2.2.15 käryaviçeñe9a nänätvam) 2.2.16 ädityasaàyogäd bhütapürväd bhaviñyato bhütäc ca präcé. 2.2.17 tathä dakñiëä pratécy udéci ca. 2.2.18 etena digantaräëi vyäkhyätäni. 2.2.19 sämänyap1atyakñäd tiçeñäpratyakñäd viçeñasmåteç ca saàçayaù. 2.2.20 dåñöam adåñöäm. 2.2.21 dåñöaà ca dåñöävat. 2.2.22 dåñöaà yathädåñöäm ayathädåñöäm ubhayathädåñöatvät. 2.2.23 vidyävidyätaç ca saàçayaù. 2.2.24 çrotragrahaëo yo 'rthaù sa çabdaù. 2.2.25 tasmin dravyaà karma guëa iti saàçayaù. 2.2.26 tulyajätéyeñv arthäntarabhüteñu ca viçeñasyobhayathä dåñöatvät. 2.2.27 ekadravyavattvän na dravyam. 2.2.28 acäkñuñatvän na karma. 2.2.29 guëasya sato 'pavargaù karmabhiù sädharmyam. 2.2.30 sato liìgäbhävät. 2.2.39 nityaveidhermyät. 2.2.32 käryatvät. 2.2.33 abhävät. 2.2.34 käraëo vikärät. 2.2.35 doñät 2.2.36 saàyogäd vibhägäc chabdäc ca çabdaniñpatteù. 2.2.37 liìgäc cänitya9. 2.2.38 dvayos tu pravåttyor abhävät. 2.2.39 saàkhyäbhävät. 2.2.40 prathamäçabdät. 2.2.41 sampratipattibhäväc ca. 2.2.42 sandigdhäù satibahutve. 2.2.43 saàkhyäbhävaù sämänyataù. 3.1.1 prasiddhä indriyärthäù. 3.1.2 indriyärthaprasiddhir indriyärthebhyo 'rthäntaratve hetuù. 3.1.3,so 'napadeçaù. 3.1.4 ksraëäjïänät. 3.1.5 käryäjïänät8 3.1.6 ajïänäc ca. 3.1.7 anya eva hetur ity anapadeçaù. 3.1.8 saàyogi samaväyy ekärthasamaväyi vir6dhi ca, käryaà käryäntarasya, käraëaà käraëäntarasya, virodhy abhütaà bhütasya, bhütam abhütasya, abhütam abhütasya, bhütaà bhütasya. 3.1.9 prasiddhapürvakatväd apadeçasya. 3.1.10 aprasiddho 'napadeçaù. 3.1.11 asan sandigdhaç cänapadeçaù. 3.1.12 viñäëé tasmäd açvo viñäëé tasmäd gaur iti ca. 3.1.13 ätmendriyamano'rthasannikarñäd yan niñpadyate tad anyat. 3.1.14 pravåttinivåtté ca pratyagätmani dåñöe paratra liìgam. 3.2.1 ätmendriyärthasannikarñe jïänasyäbhävo b8ävaç ca manaso75iìgam. 3.2.2 dravyatvanityatve väyunä vyäkhyäte. 3.2.3 prayatnäyaugapadyäj jïänäyauga7adyäc caikaà manaù. 3.2.4 7präëSpän7nim)ñonmeñajévanamanogaténdriyäntaravikäräù sukhaduùkhe icchädveñau prayatnaç cety ätmaliìgäni. 3.2.5 dravyatvanityatve väyunä vyäkhyäte. 3.2.6 yajïadatta iti sati sannikarñe pratyakñäbhäväd dåñöaà liìgaà na vidyate. 3.2.7 sämänyatodåñöäc cäviçeñaù. 3.2.8 tasmäd ägamikam. 3.2.9 aham iti çabdavyatirekän nägamikam. 3.2.10 yadi ca dåñöapratyakño 'haà devadatto 'haà yajïadatta iti. 3.2.11 devadatto gacchati viñëumitro gacchatéti copacäräc charérapratyakñaù. 3.2.12 sandigdhas tüpacäraù. 3,2.13 aham iti Yratyagätmani bhävät paraträbhäväd arthäntarapratyakñaù. 3.2.14 na tu çaréraviçeñäd yajïadattaviñëumitrayor jïänaviçeñaù. 3.2.15 sukhaduùkhajïänaniñpattyaviçeñäd aikätmyam. 3.2.16 nänä vyavasthätaù. 3.2.17 çästrasämarthyäc ca. 4.1.1 sad akäraëavat tan nityam. 4.1.2 tasya käryaà liìgam. 4.1.3 käraëabhäväd käryabhävaù. 4.1.4 anityam iti ca viçeñapratiñedhabhävaù. 4.1.5 avidyä ca. 4.1.6 mahaty anekadravyavattväd rüpäc copalabdhiù. 4.1.7 adravyavattvät paramäëäv anupalabdhiù. 4.1.8 rüpasaàskäräbhäväd väyäv anupalabdhiù. 4.1.9 anekadravyeëa dravyeëa samaväyäd rüpaviçeñäc copalabdhiù. 4.1.10 etena rasagandhasparçeñu jïänaà vyäkhyätam. 4.1.11 tadabhäväd avyabhicäraù. 4.1.12 saàkhyäù parimäëäni påthaktvaà saàyogavibhägau paratväparatve karma ca rüpidravyasamaväyäc cäkñuñäëi. 4.s.13 arüpiñv acäeñ,ñatvät. 4.1.14 etena guëatve bhäve ca sarvendriyajïänaà v,äkhyätam. 4.2.1 pratyakñäpratyakñäëäm apratyakñatvät saàyogasya païcätmakaà na vidyate. 4.2.2 guëäntaräprädurbhäväc ca tryätmakam spi na. 4.2.3 ätmasaàyogas tv avipratiñiddho mithaù païcänäm. 4.2.479nek7feçÖpürvakatvät. 4.2.5 dharmaviçeñät. 4.2.6 käryaviçeñät. 4.2.7 samäkhyäbhävät. 4.2.8 saàjïädimattväti 4.2.9 santy ayonijä vedaliìgäc ca. 5.1.1 ätmasaàyogaprayatnäbhy7à haste karma. 5.982 tathä musalakarma hastasaàyogäc ca. 5.1.3 abhighätaje musalakarmaëi vyatirekäd akäraëaà hastasaàyogaù. 5.1.4. tathätmasaàyogo hastamusalakarmaëi. 5.1.5 musaläbhighätät tu musalasaàyogäd dhaste karma. 5.1.6 tathätmakarma hastasaàyogäc ca. 5.1.7 saàyogäbhäve gurutvät patanam. 5.1.8 nodanaviçeñäbhäväd nordhvaà na tiryag gamanam. 5.1.9 prayatnaviçeñän nodanaviçeñaù. 5.1.10 nodanaviLeñäd udasanaviçeñaù. 5.1.11 hastakarmaëä därakakarma vyäkhyätam. 5.1.12 tathä dagdhasya visphoöanam. 5.1.13 prayatnäbhäve gurutvät suptasya patanam. 5.1.14 tåëaktraa v y7saàyogät. 5.1.15 maëigamanaà sücyabhisarpaëam ityu adåñöakäritäni. 5.1.16 iñäv ayugapat saàyogaviçeñäù karmänyatve hetuù. 5.1.17 nodanäd ädyam iñoù karma karmakäritäc ca saàskäräd uttaraà tathottaram uttaraà ca. 5.1.18 saàskäräbhäve gurutvät patanam. 5.2.1 nodanäd abhighätät saàyuktasaà8agäc ca påtrivyäà karma. 5.2.2 tad viçeñeëädåñöakäritam. 5.2.3 apäà saàyogäbhäve gurutvät patanam. 5.2.4 tad viçeñeëädåñöakäritam. 5.2.5 dravatvät syandanam. 5.2.6 näòyä väyusaàyogäd ärohaëam. 5.2.7 nodanät péòanät saàyuktasaàyogäc ca. 5.2.8 våkñäbhisarpaëam ity adåñöakäritam. 5.2.9 apäà saìghäto vilayanaà ca tejasaù saàyogät. 5.2.10 taträvasphürjathur liìgam. 5.2.11 vaidikaà ca. 5.2.12 apäà saàyogäd vibhägäc ca stanayitnuù. 5.2.13 påthivékarmaëä tejaùkarma väyukarma ca vyäkhyätam. 5.2.14 agner ürdhvajvalanaà väyoç ca tiryagpavanam aëumanasoç cädyaà karmety adåñöakäritäni. 5.2.15 hastakarmaëä manasaù karma vyäkhyätam. 5.2.16 ätmendriyamano'rthasannikarñät sukhaduùkhe tadanärambhaù. 5.2.17 ätmasthe manasi saçarérasya sukhaduùkhäbhävaù sa yogaù. 5.2.18 käyakarmaëätmakarma vyäkhyätam. 5.2.19 apasarpaëam upasarpaëam açitapétasaàyogaù käryäntarasaàyogäç cety adåñöakäritäni. 5.2.20 tadabhäve saàyogäbhävo '9rädurbhävaù sa mokña5. 5.2.21 dravyaguëakarmavaidharmyäd bhäväbhävamätraà tamaù. 5.2.22 tejaso dravyäntareëävaraëäc ca. 5.2.23 dikkäläv äkäçaà ca kriyävadbhyo vaidharmyän niñkriyäëi. 5.2.24 etena karmäëi guëäç ca vyäkhyätäù. 5.2.25 niñkriyäëäà samaväyaù karmabhyaù pratiñiddhaù. 5.2.26 käraëaà tv asamaväyino guëäù. 5.2.27 guëair dig vyäkhyätä. 5.2.28 käraëena kälaù. 6.1.1 buddhipürvä väkyakåtir vede. 6.1.2 na cäsmadbuddhibhyo liìgam åñeù. 6.1.3 tathä brähmaëe saàjïäkarmasiddhir liìgam. 6.1.4 buddhipürvo dadätiù. 6.1.5 tathä pratigrahaù. 6.1.6 tayoù kramo yathänitaretaräìgabhütänäm. 6.1.7 ätmaguëeñv ätmäntaraguëänäm akäraëatvät. m.1.8 adu7öabhojanät samabhivyähärato 'bhyudayaù. 6.1.9 tad duñöÖbhojane na vidyate. 6.1.10 duñöaà hiàsäyäm. 6.1.11 samabhi5yähärato doñaù. 6.1.12 tad aduñöe na vidyate. 6.1.13&viçiñöe pravåttiù. 6.1.14 same héne cäpravåttiù. 6.1.15 etena0hénasamaviçiñtadhärmikebhyaù parä äaaà vyäkhyätam. 6.1.16 tathä viruddhänäà tyägaù. 6.1.17 sama ätmatyägaù paratyä9o vä. 6.1.18 viçiñöe ätmatyägaù. 6.2.1 dåñöänäà dåñöaprayoja5änäà dåñöäbhäve prayogo 'bhyudayäya.(C,V) (U dåñöämåñöaprayojanänä7 dåñöäbhäve prayojanam abhyudayäya.) 6.2.2 abhiñecanosav&sabrahmacaryagurukulaväsaväna- prasthyayajïadänaprokñaë diì- nakñatramantrakälaniyamäç cädåñöäya. 6.2.3 cäturäçramyam upadhäc c,8upadhäc ca/ 6.2.4 bhävadoña upadhä. 6.2.5 adoño 'nupadhä. 6.2.6 iñöarüparasagandhasparçaà prokñitam abhyuktitaà ca tac chuci. 6.2.7 açucéti çucipratiñedhaù. 6.2.8 arthäntaraà ca. 6.2.9 ayatasya çucibhojanäd abhyudayo na vidyate yamäbhävät. 6.2.10 vidyate cänarthäntaratväd yamasya. 6.2.11 asati cäbhävät. 6.2.12 sukhäd rägaùa 6.2.13 tanmjayatvät. 6.2.14 tåpteù. 6.2.15 adåñöät. 6.2.16 jätiviçeñäc ca rägaviçeñaù. 6.2.17 icchädveñapürvikä dharmaädharmayoù pravåttiùp 6.2.18 tataù saàyogo vibhägaç ca. 6.2.19 ätmakarmasu mokño vyäkhyätaù. s.1.1 uktä guëäù. 7.1.2 gu:nalakñaëaà coktam. 7.1.3 idam evaàguëam idam evaàguëam iti coktam. 7.1.4 påthivyäà rüparasagandhasparçä dravyänityatväd anityäù. 7.1.5 agnisaàyogäc ca. 7.1.6 guëäntaraprädurbhävät. 7.1.7 etena nityeñv anityatvam uktam. 7.1.8 apsu tejasi däyau ca nityä dravyanityatvät. 7.1.9 anityeñv anityä dravyänityatvät. 7.1.10 käraëaNuëapürväù påthivyäà päkajäç ca. 7.1.11 apsu tehasf käy6u caukäraëaguëapürväùfpäkajä na vidyante. 7.1.12 aguëavato dravyasya guëärambhät karmaguëä aguëäù. 7.1.13 etena päkajä vyäkhyätäù. 7.1.14 ekadravyavattvät. e.1.15 aëor mahataç copalabdhyanupalabdhé nitye vyäkhyäte. 7.1.16 käraëabahutvät käraëamahattvät pracayaviçeñäc ca mahat. 7.1.17 ta1viparétam aëu. 7.1.18 aëu mahad iti tasmin viçeñabhäväd viçeñäbhäväc ca. 7.1.1y ekakälatvät. 7.1.21 aëutvamahattvayor aëutvamahattväbhävaù karmaguëair vyäkhyätaù. 7.1.22 aëutvamahattväbhyäàkarma0uëä aguëäù. 7.1.27 etena dérghatvahrasvatve veäkhyäte. 7.1.24 karmabhiù karmäëi gu0air guëäù. 7.1.25 tad anitye. 7.1.26 nityaà parimaëòalam. 7.1.27 avidyä vidyäliìgam. 7.1.28 vibhavän mahän äkäçaù. 7.1.29 tathä cätmä. 7.1.30 tadabhäväd aëu manaù. 7.1.31 guëair dig vyäkhyätä. 7.1.32 käraëena kälaù. 7.2.1 rüparashgandhasparçavyatirekäd arthäntaram ekatvaà tathä påthaktvam. 7.2.2 tayor nityatvänityatvm tejaso rSp7sparçäbhyäà vyä(7yäte. 7.2.3 niñpattiç ca. 7.2.4 ekarv6påthaktvayor ekatvapåthaktväbhä’o. 7.2.5 karmabhiù karmäëi guëair guëäù. 7.2.6 niùsaàkhyatvät karmaguëänäà sarvaikrtvaà na vidyate. &.2.7 ekatvasyäbhäväd bhäktaà na vidyate. 7.2.8 käryakäraë8ikatvapåthaktväbhäväd ekatvapåthaktve na vidyete. 7.2.9 etad anityanitayor vyäkhyätam. 7.2.10 anyatarak’rmaja ubhayakarmajab6saàyogajaç ca saàyogaù. 7.2.11 etena vibhägo vyäkhyätaù. 7.2.12 saàyogavibhägayoù sae(ogavibhägäbhävo 'ëutvamahattväbhyäà vyäkhyätaù. 7.2.13 karmabhiù karme6i guëair guëäù. 7.2.14 yutasiddhyabhävät käryakäraëayoù saàyogavibhägau na vidyete. 7.2.15 auëatvät. 7.2.16 guSe ca bhäñyate. 7.2.17 niñkriyatvät. 7.2.18 asati nästéti ca p5ayogä6. 7.2.19 çabdärthäv asaàbaddhau. 7.2.20 saàyogino daëòät samaväyino viñäëäc ca. 7.2.21 dåñöatväd ahetuù pratyayaù. 7.2.22 tathä pratyayäbhävaù. 7.2.23 saàbaddhasaàbandhäd iti cet sandehaù. 7.2.24 sämayikaù çabdäd arthapratyayaù. 7.2.25 ekadikkäl5bhy1à sannikåñöaviprakåñöäbhyäà param aparam8 7.2.26 käraëaparatvät käraëäparatväc ca. 7.2.27 paratväparatvayoù paratväparatväbhävo 'ëutvamahattväbhyäà vyäkhyätaù. 7.2.28 Earmabhiù karmäëi guëair guëäù. 7.2.29 iheti yataù käryakäraëayoù sa samaväyaù. 7.2.30 dravyatvaguëatvakarmatvapratiñedho bhävena vyäkhyätaù. 7.2.31 tattvaà ca. 8.1 dravyeñu jïänaà vyäkhyätam. 8.2 mana ätmä ca. 8.3 jïänanirdeçe jïänaniñpattir uktä. 8.4 guëakarmasv asannikåñöeñu jïänaniñpatter dravyaà käraëa8 käraëakäraëaà ca. 8.5 sämänyaviçeñe9u sämänyaviçeñäbhävät tata eva jïänam. 8.6 sämänyaviçeñäpekñaà dravyaguëakarmasu. 8.7 dravye dravyaguëakarmäpekña&. 8.8eguëakarmasu guëakarmäbhävad guëakarmäpekñaà na vidyate. 8.9 samaväyinaù çvait&äc chvaityabuddheù çvete5 buddhis te käryakäraëabhüte. 8(1( dravyeñv anitaretarakäraëät käraëäyaugapadyät. 8.11 tathä dravyaguëakarmasu käraëäviçeñät. 8.12 ayam eña kåtaà tvayä bhojayäinam iti buddhyapekñaà. 8.13 dåñöeñu bhäväd adåñöeñv abhävät. 8.14 artha iti dravyagu0akarmasu. 8915 dravyeñu païcätmakaà pratyuktam. 8.16 bhüyastväd gandhavattväc ca påthivé gandhajïäne. 8.17 eouhäpas tejo väyuç ca rasarüpasparçajïäneñu rasarüpasparçaviçeñät. 9.1 kriyäguëavyapadeçäbhäväd asat. 9.2 s0d Rsat. 9.3 asataù sat kriyäguëavyapadeçäbhäväd arthäntaram. (çabhäväd ?) 9.4 sac cäsat. 9.5 yac cänyat satas tad apI asat. 9.6 asad iti bhütapratyakñäbhäväd bhütasmåter virodhipratyakñatväc ca jïänam. 9.7 tathäbäve bhävapratyakñatväc ca. 9.8 etenäghaöo 'gaur adharmaç ca vyäkhyätaù. 9.9 8bhütaà nästéty anarthäntaram. 9.10 nästi ghaöo geha iti sato ghaöasya gehasaàyogapratiñedhaù. 9.11 nästy anyaç candramä iti sämänyäc candramasaù pratiñedhaù. 9.12 sad asator vaidharmyät kärye sad asattä na. 9.13 ätmany ätmamanasoù saàyogaviçeñäd ätmapratyakñam. 9.14 tathä dravyäntareñu. 9.15 ätmendriyamano'rthasannikarñäc ca. 9.16 tatsamaväyät karmaguëeñu. 9.17 ätmasamaväyäd ätmaguëeñu. 9.18 asyedaà käryaà käraëaà saàbandhy ekärhtasamaväyi virodhi ceti laiìgikam. 9.19 etena çäbdaà vyäkhyätam. 9.20 hetur apadeço liìgaà nimittaà pramäëaà käraëam ity anarthäntaram. 9.21 asyedam iti ,uddhyapekñatvät. 9.22 ätmamanasoù saàyogaviçeñät saàskäräc ca småtiù. 9.23 tathä svapnaù svapnäntikaà ca. 9.24 dharmäc ca. 9.25 indriyadoñät saàskäräc cävidyä. 9.26 tad duñöaà jïänam. 9.27 aduñöaà vidyä. 9.28 ärñaà siddhadarçanaà ca dharmebhyaù. 10.1 ätmasamaväyaù sukhaduùkhayoù païcabhyo 'rthäntaratve hetus tadäçrayibhyaç ca guëebhyaù. 10.2 iñöäniñö9käraëaviçeñäd virodhäc ca miteaù sukhaduùkhayor arthäntarabhävaù. 10.3 saàçayanirëayayor arthäntarabhävaç ca jïänäntaratve hetuù. 10.4 tayor niñpattiù pratyakñalaiìgikäbhyäà jïänäntaratve hetuù6 10.5 bhütam iti pratyakña7 vyäkhyätam. 10.6 bhaviñyatéti käryäntare dåñöatvät. 10.7 tathä bhavatéti säpekñebhyo 'napekñebhyaç ca. 10.8 abhüd ity abhütät. 10.9 sati ca käryäsamaväyät. 10.10 ekärthasamaväyiñu käraëäntareñu darçanäd ekadeça ity ekasmin. 10.11 çiraù påñöham udaraà päëir iti tadviçeñebhyaù. 10.12 käraëam iti dravye käryasnmaväyät. 10.13 saàyogät vä. 10.14 käraëasamaväyät karmaëi. 10.1s tathä rüpe käraëakäraëasamaväyäc ca. 10.16 käraëasamaväyät saàyoge. 10.17 tathä käraëäkpraëasamaväyäc ca. 10.18 saàyuktasamaväyäd agner vaiçe6ikam. 10.19 laiìgikaà pramäëaà vyäkhyätam. 10.20 dåñöänäà dåñöaprayojanänäà dåñöäbhäve prayogo 'bhyudayäya. (S omits dåñöaprayojanänäà) 10.21 tadvacanäd ämnäyaprämäëyam iti. (U,S ämnäyasya prämäëyam)

.. brahmasuutraaNi ..

`

. ïI gué_yae nm> hir> `. . Aw àwmae=Xyay>.

` Awatae äüij}asa `... ` jNma*Sy yt> `... ` zaôyaeinÅvat! `...

` tÄusmNvyat! `... ` $]tenaRzBdm! `... ` gaE[íeÚaTmzBdat! `... ` tiÚóSy mae]aepdezat! `... ` heyvÅvavcna½ `... ` SvaPyyat! `... ` gitsamaNyat! `... ` ïutÅva½ `... ` AanNdmyae=_yasat! `... ` ivkarzBdaÚeitceÚ àacuyaRt! `... ` tÏetuVypdeza½ `... ` maÙv[IRkmev c gIyte `... ` netrae=nuppÄe> `... ` .edVypdeza½ `...

` kama½ nanumanape]a `... g AiSmÚSy c t*aeg< zaiSt `. ..

` A `... ` AakazSti‘¼at! h. .. ` At @v àa[> `... ` Jyaeitír[ai-xanat! `... ` DNdae=i-xanaÚeitceÚ twacetae=pR[ingdaÄwa ih dzRnm! `... ` -rtaidpadVypdezaeppÄeíEvm! `... ` %pdez-edaÚeitceÚae-yiSmÚPyivraexat! `... ` àa[Stwa_ugmat! `... ` nv…raTmaepdezaidit cedXyaTms

.. ` zaô†ò(a tUpdezae vamdevvt! `... ` jIvmuOyàa[il¼aÚeit ceÚaepasÇEivXyadaiïtÅvaidh t*aegat! `...

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u àwmaXyaySy àwm> pad> smaÝ>

` svRÇ àisÏaepdezat! `... ` ivvi]tgu[aeppÄeí `... ` AnuppÄeStu n zrIr> `...

` kmRkt&RVypdeza½ `... ` zBdivze;at! `... ` Sm&teí `... ` A-RkaEkSTvaÄ™pdeza½neimceÚ incaYyTvadev< VyaEmv½ `... ` s<-aegàaiÝirit ceÚvze:yat! `... ` AÄa cracr¢h[at! `... ` àkr[a½ `... ` guha< àivòavaTmanaE ih tÎzRnat! `... ` ivze;[a½ `... ` ANtraeppÄe> `... ` SwanaidVypdeza½ `... ` suoivizòai-xanadev c `... ` ïutaepin;TkgTyi-xana½ `... ` AnviSwters<-va½ netr> `... ` ANtyaRmI AixdEvaid;u tÏmRVypdezat! `... ` n c Smat¡ AtÏmaRi-palat! `... ` zrIríae-ye=ip ih -edenEnmxIyte `... ` A†ZyTvaidgu[kae xmaeRe> `... ` ivze;[-edVypdeza_ya< netraE `... ` êpaepNyasa½ `... ` vEñaàr> saxar[zBdivze;at! `... ` SmyRma[mnuman< Syaidit `... ` zBdaid_yae=Nt> àitóana½ neitcyy twa †ò(updezadœs<-vaTpué;mip cEnmxIy}e `... ` At @v n devt -Ut< c `... ` sa]adPyivraex< jEimin> `... ` Ai-VyeirTyaZmrWy> `... ` AnuSm&tebaRdir> `... ` s twa ih dzRyit `... ` AamniNt cEnmiSmn! `...

#it ïImTk«:AÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u àwmaXyaySy iÖtIy> pad> smaÝ>

` *u_va*aytn< SvzBdat! `... ` muaeps&PyVypdtzat! `... ` nanumanmtCDBdat! `... ` àa[-&½ `... ` -edVypdezat! `... ` àkr[at! `... ` iSwTydna_ya< c `... ` -Uma s<àsadadXyupdezat!y`... ` xmaeRppÄeí `... ` A]rmMbraNtx&te `... ` sa c àzasnat! `... ` ANy-avVyav&Äeí `...

` $i]itkmRVypdezat! s> `... ` dhraeÄre_y> `...

` gitzBda_ya< twa ih †ò< il¼< c `... ` x&teí mihçae=SyaiSmÚuplBxe> `... ` àisÏeí `... ` #trpramzaRTseit ceÚasM-vatÄ `... ` %Ära½edaiv-URtSvêpStu `... ` ANyawRí pramzR> `... ` ALpïuteirit ceÄÊm! `... ` Anuk«teStSy c `... ` Aip c SmyRte `... ` zBdadev àimt> `... ` ù*pe]ya tu mnu:yaixkarTvat! `... ` tÊpyRip badray[Ss<-vat! `... ` ivraex> kmR[Iit cednekàitpÄedRzRnat! `... ` zBdeitceÚat> à-vaTàTy]anumana_yam! `... ` At @v c inTyTvm! `... ` smannamêpTva½av&ÄavPyivraexae dzRnaTSm&teí `.

.. ` mXvaid:vs<-vadnixkar< jEimin> `... ` Jyaeiti; -ava½ `... ` -av

` ]iÇyTvgteíaeÄrÇ cEÇrwen il¼at! `.

.. ` s `... ` ïv[aVyvnawRàit;exaTSm&teí `... ` kMpnat! `... ` JyaeitdRzRnat! `... ` Aakazae=waRNtrTvaidVypdezat! `... ` su;uÞyuT³aNTyae-eRden `... ` pTyaidzBde_y> `...

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u àwmaXyaySy t&tIy> pad> smaÝ>

` AanumainkmPyeke;aimit ceÚ zrIrêpkivNyStg&hItedRzRyit c `... ` sUúm< tu tdhRTvat! `... ` tdxInTvadwRvt! `... ` }eyTvavcna½ `... ` vdtIit ceÚ àa}ae ih àkr[at! `... ` Çya[amev cEvmupNyas> àîí `... ` mhÖ½ `... ` cmsvdivze;at! `... ` Jyaeitép³ma tu twa ýxIyt @ke `...

` kLpnaepdeza½ mXvaidvdivraex> `... ` n s'œOyaeps'œ¢hadip nana-avaditreka½ `...

` àa[adyae vaKyze;at! `...` ` Jyaeit;Eke;amsTyÚe `... ` kar[Tven cakazaid;u ywaVypidòaee> `... ` smak;aRt! `... ` jgÖaicTvat! `... ` jIvmuOyàa[il¼aÚeut ceÚ t™aOyatm! `. .. ` ANyaw¡ tu jEimin> àîVyaOyana_yamip cEvmeke `.

.. ` vaKyaNvyat! `... ` àit}aisÏeilR¼maZmrWy> `... ` %T³im:yt @v<-avaidTyaEÊlaeim> `... ` AviSwteirit kazk«Tõ> `... ` àk«ití àit}a†òaNtanupraexat! `... ` Ai-Xyaepdeza½ `... ` sa]a½ae-yaçanat! `... ` AaTmk«te> pir[amat! `... ` yaeiní ih gIyte `... ` @ten sveR VyaOyataVyaOyata> `...

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u àwmaXyaySy ctuwR> pad> smaÝ>

. #it àwmae=Xyay>.

. Aw iÖtIyae=Xyay>.

` Sm&Tynvkazdae;às¼eit ceÚaNySm&Tynvkazdae;às¼at! `... ` #tre;a< canuplBxe> `... ` @ten yaeg> àTyu> `... ` n ivl][TvadSy twaTv< c zBdat! `... ` Ai-mainVypdezStu ivze;anugit_yam! `... ` †Zyte tu `... ` Asidit ceÚ àit;exmaÇTvat! `... ` ApItaE tÖTàs¼adsmÃsm! `... ` n tu †òaNt-avat! `... ` Svp]dae;a½ `... ` tkaRàitóanadip ANywanumeyimit cedevmPyivmae]às¼> `... ` @ten izòapir¢ha=ip VyaOyata> `... ` -ae±apÄeriv-agíeTSya‘aekvt! `... ` tdnNyTvmarM-[zBdaid_y>t`... ` -ave caeplBxe> `... ` sÅva½avrSy `... ` As™pdezaÚeit ceÚ xmaRNtre[ vaKyze;at! `.

.. ` yue> zBdaNtra½ `... ` pqv½ `...

` ywa c àa[aid `... ` #trVypdezaiÏtakr[aiddae;àsi> `... ` Aixk< tu -edindeRzat! `... ` AZmaidv½ tdnuppiÄ> `... ` %ps

.. ` kmaRiv-agaidit ceÚanaidTvat! `... ` %pp*te caPyupl_yte c `... ` svRxmaeRppÄeí `...

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u iÖtIyaXyaySy àwm> pad> smaÝ>

` rcnanuppgXí nanumanm! `... ` àv&Äeí `... ` pyae=Mbuv½eÄÇaip `... ` Vyitrtka_viSwteíanpe]Tvat! `... ` SyyÇA-ava½ n t&[aidvt! `... ` A_yupgme=PywaR-avat! `... `_pué;aZmviditceÄwaip `... ` Ai¼TvanuppÄeí `... ` ANywanuimtaE c }ziivyaegat! `... ` ivàit;exa½asmÃsm! `... ` mhÎI"RvÏa ÿSvpirm{fla_yam! `... ` %-ywaip n kmaRtStd-_v> `... ` smvaya_yupgma½ saMyadnviSwte> `... ` inTymev c -avat! `... ` êpaidmÅva½ ivpyRyae dzRnat! `... ` %-ywa c dae;at! `... ` Apir¢ha½aTyNtmnpe]a `... ` smudayae-yhetuke=ip tdàaiÝ> `... ` #tretràTyITvaidit ceÚaETyiÄmae inimÄTvat! `.

.. ` %ÄraeTpade c pUvRinraexat! `... ` Asit àit}aApraexae yaEgp*mNywa `...

` àiNs'œOyaàits'œOyainraexaàaiÝ> AivCDedat!>`.

.. ` %-ywa c dae;at! `... ` Aakaze caivze;at! `... ` AnuSm&teí `... ` nast> A†òTvat! `... ` %dasInanNmip cEv< isiÏ> `... ` na-av> %plBxe> `... ` vExMyaR½ n Svßaidvt! `... I n -avrnuplBxe> `. .. ` ]i[kTva½ `... ` svRwanuppÄeí `... ` nEkiSmn! AsM-vatIe`... ` @v< caTmakaTSNyjm! `... ` n c pyaRyadPyivraex> ivkaraid_y> `... ` ANTyaviSwteíae-yinTyTvadivze;> `... ` pTyursamÃSya*! `... ` s `..) ` ANtvÅvmsvR}ta va `... ` %TpÅysM-vat! `... ` n c ktuR> kr[m! `... ` iv}anaid-ave va tdàit;ex> `... ` ivàit;exa½ `...

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u iÖtIyaXyaySy iÖtIy> pad> smaÝ>

` n ivydïute> `... ` niSt tu `. .. ` gaE[I AsM-vat! `... ` zBda½ `... ` Sya½EkSy äüzBdvt! `... ` àit}a=hainVyRitrekaCDBde_y> `... ` yaviÖkar< tu iv-agae laekvt! `... ` @ten matirña VyaOyat> `... ` AsM-vStu strnuppÄe> `... ` tejae=tStwa ýah `... ` Aap> `... ` p&iwvI AixkarêpzBdaNtre_y> `... ` tdi-Xyanadev tu ti‘¼at! s> `... ` ivpyRye[ tu ³mae=t> %pp*te c `... ` ANtra iv}anmnsI ³me[ ti‘¼aidit ce.ar.ze;at! `.

.. ` cracrVypaïyStu Syat! t™pdezae -a> tÑav-aivTvat! `...

` naTma AïunminRTyTua½ ta_y> `... ` }ae=t @v `... ` %T³aiNtgTyagtInam! `... ` SvaTmna caeÄryae> `... ` na[urCDœéteirit ceÚ #traixkarat! `... ` SvzBdaeNmana_ya< c `... ` AivraexíNdnvt! `... ` AviSwitvEzesyaidia ceÚa_yupgmaϯiÏ ih `.

.. ` gu[aÖa laekvt! `... ` Vyitrekae gNxvt! `... ` twa c dzRyit `... ` p&wgupdezat! `... ` tÌ‚[sarTvaÄu t™pdez> àa}vt! `... ` yavdaTm-aivTva½ n dae;StÎzRnat! `... ` pu

.. ` ktaR zaôawRv.vat! `... ` ivharaepdezat! `... ` %padanat! `... ` Vypdeza½ i³yaya< n ceiÚdeRzivpyRy> `... ` %pliBxvdinym> `...

` ziivpyRyat! `... ` smaXy-avaD `... ` ywa c t]ae-ywa `... ` praÄu tCDœéte> `... ` k«tàyÆape]Stu ivihtàiti;ÏavEyWyaRid_y> `.

.. ` A

.. ` mÙv[aR½ `...

` Aip c SmyRte `... ` àkazaidvÚEv< pr> `...

` SmriNt c `... ` Anu}apirharaE dehsMbNxaJJyaeitraidvt! `... ` AsNtteíaVyitkr> `... ` Aa-as @v c `... ` A†òainymat! `... ` Ai-s

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u iÖtIyaXyaySy t&tIy> pad> smaÝ>

` twa àa[a> `... ` gaE{ysM-vat! `... ` tTàakœïuteí `... ` tTpUvRkTvaÖac> `... ` sÝ gteivRzei;tTva½ `... ` hStadyStu iSwte=tae nEvm! `... ` A[ví `... ` ïeóí `... ` n vayui³ye p&wgupdezat! `... ` c]uraidvÄu tTshizò(aid_y> `... ` Akr[Tva½ n dae;m_ww ih dzRyit `... ` pÂv&iÄmRnaev™pidZyte `... ` A[uí `... ` Jyaeitra*ixóan< tu tdamnna.! `... ` àa[vta zBdat! `... ` tSy c intyTvat! `... ` te #iNÔyai[ t™pdezadNyÇ ïeóat! `... ` -edïute> `ä .. ` vEl]{ya½ `... ` s<}am=ïtR¬¯iÝStu iÇv&Tk…vRt> %pdezat! `... ` ma `...

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u iÖtIyaXyaySy ctuwR> pad> smaÝ>

. #it iÖtIyae=Xyay>.

. Aw t&tIyae=Xyay>.

` tdNtràitpÄaE r àîinêp[a_yam! ` ... ` ÇyaTmkTvaÄu -UySTvat! `... ` àa[gteí `... ` AGNyaidgitïuitirit ceÚ -aTvat! `... ` àwme=ïv[aidit ceÚ ta @v ýuppÄe> `... ` AïutTvaidit ceÚEòaidkair[a< àtIte> `... ` -a< vanaTmivÅvat! twa ih dzRyit `... ` k«taTyye=nuzyvan! †òSm&it_ya< ywetmnev< c `.

.. ` cr[aidit ceÚaepl][aweRit ka:[aRjin> `... ` AanwRKyimit ceÚ tdpe]Tvat! `... ` suk«tÊ:k«te @veit tu badir> `... ` Ainòidkair[amip c ïutm! `... ` s

.. ` SmriNt c `... ` Aip c sÝ `... ` tÇaip c t™aparadivraex> `... ` iv*akmR[aeirit tu àk«tTvat! `...

` n t&tIye twaeplBxe> `... ` SmyRte=ip c laeke `... ` dzRna½ `... ` t&tIyzBdadvraex> s `... ` naiticre[ ivze;at! `... ` ANyaixóte pUvRvdi-lapat! `... ` AzuÏimit ceÚ zBdat! `... ` ret> isGyaegae=w `... ` yaene> zrIrm! `...

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u t&tIyaXyaySy àwm> pad> smaÝï

` s Aac]te c tiÖd> `... ` prai-XyanaÄu itraeiht< ttae ýSy bNxivpyRyaE `.

.. ` veh_aegaÖa sae=ip `... ` td-avae nafI;u tCDœéte> AaTmin c `... ` At> àbaexae=Smat! `... ` s @v tu kmaRnuSm&itzBdivix_y> `...

` muGxe=wRs

.. ` dzRna½ `... ` àk«tEtavÅv< ih àit;exit ttae ävIit c -Uy> `.

.. ` tdVymah ih `... ` Aip c s

.. ` Atae=nNten twa ih il¼m! `...

` %-yVypdezaÅvihk…{flvt! `... ` àkazaïyvÖa tejSTvat! `... ` pUvRvÖa `... ` àit;exa½ `... ` prmtSsetUNmans `... ` samaNyaÄu `... ` buÏ(wR> padvt! `... ` Swanivze;aTàkazaidvt! `... ` %ppÄeí `... ``twaNyàit;exat! `... ` Anen svRgtTvmayamzBdaid_y> `... ` )lmtéppÄe> `... ` ïutTva½ `... ` xm¡ jEimin> At @v `... ` pUv¡ tu badray[> hetuVypdezat! `...

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpayne«täüsUÇe;u t&tIyaXyaySy iÖtIy> pad> smaÝ>

` svRvedaNtàTyy< caedna*ivze;at! `... ` -edaÚeit ceÚ @kSyamip `... ` SvaXyaySy twaTven ih smacare=ixkara½ svv½ tiÚym> `... ` dzRyit c A. .. ` %ps

` s<}atíeÄÊmiSt tu tdip `... ` VyaÝeí smÃsm! `...

` svaR-edadNyÇeme `... ` Aan àxanSy `... ` iàyizrSTva*àaiÝ> %pcyapcyaE ih -ede `... ` #tre TvwRsamaNyat! `... ` AaXyanay àyaejna-avat! `... ` AaTmzBdat! `... ` AaTmg&hIitirtrvÊÄrat! `... ` ANvyaidit ceTSyadvxar[at! `... ` kayaROyanadpUvRm! `... ` sman @vÂa-edat! `... ` s `... ` pué;iv*ayaemv cetre;aàtaçanat! `. .. ` vexa*wR-edat! `... ` hanaE tUpaynzBdat! k…zaCDNdSStuTyupganvt! tÊm! ` ... ` saMpraye ttRVya-avat! twa ýNye `... ` Dudté-yaivraexat! `. .. ` gterwRvÅvmu-ywa=Nywa ih ivraex> `... ` %ppÚSt‘][awaeRplBxe> laekvt! g. .. ` Ainym> svaRsamivraexZzBdanumana_yam! `... ` yavdixkarmviSwitraixknirka[amj `... `yA]rixya< Tvivraex> samaNytnava_yamaEpsdvÄÊm! ` ... ` #ydamnnat! `... ` ANtra -Ut¢amvTSvaTmn> `... ` ANywa -edanuppÄeiritceÚaEpdezaNtrvt! `... ` VyitharivRiz<;iNt hItrìt! `... ` sEv ih sTyady> `... ` kamadIrÇ tÇ c Aaytnaid_y> `... ` Aadaradlaep> `... ` %piSwte=tStÖcnat! `... ` tiÚxaRr[ainymStίòep&RwGXyàitbNx> )lm! ` ... ` àdanvdev tÊm! `... ` il¼-UySTvaÄiÏ blIyStdip `... ` pUvRivkLp> àkr[aTSyaiT³ya mansvt! `... ` Aitdeza½ `... ` iv*Ev tu inxaRr[at! `... ` dzRna½ `... ` ïuTyaidblIySTva½ n bax> `... ` AnubNxaid_y> à}aNtrp&w®vvTίòí tÊm! ` ... ` n samaNyadPyuplBxem&RTyuvt! nih laekapiÄ> `... ` pre> c zBdSy taiÖXy< -UySTvaÅvnubNx> `.

.. ` @ka=TmnZzrIre -avat! `... ` VyitrekStÑava-aivTvat! n tu %pliBxvt! `... ` A¼avbÏaStu n zaoasu ih àitvedm! `... ` mÙaidvÖa=ivraex> `... ` -Uç> ³tuvJJyaySTv< twa ih dzRyit `... ` nana zBdaid-edat! `... ` ivkLprivizò)lTvat! `... ` kaMyaStu ywakam< smu½IyerÚ va pUvRheTv-avat! `.

.. ` A¼e;u ywaïy-av> `... ` izòeí `... ` smaharat! `... ` gu[saxar{yïuteí `... ` n va tTsh-avaïute> `... ` dzRna½ `...

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u t&tIyaXyaySy t&tIy> pad> smaÝ>

` pué;awaeR=t> zBdaidit bad>ayI> `. ..

` ze;TvaTpué;awRvadae ywa=Nyei:vit jEimin>I`.

.. ` AacardzRnat! `... ` tCDœéte> `... ` smNvarM-[at! `... ` tÖtae ivxanat! `... ` inyma½ `... ` AixkaepdezaÄu badray[SyEv< tÎzRnat! `... ` tuLy< tu dzRnm! `... ` AsavRiÇkI `... ` iv-ag> ztvt! `... ` AXyynmaÇvt> `... ` naivze;at! `... ` StutIe=numitvaR `. .. ` kamkare[ cEke `... ` %pmd¡ c `... ` ^XvRret>su c zBde ih `... ` pramz¡ jEiminrcaedna capvidit ih `... ` Anuóey< badray[SsaMyïute> `... ` ivixvaR xar[vt! `... ` StuitmaÇmupadanaidit ceÚapUvRTvat! `... ` -avzBda½n`... ` pairPlvaSan #it ceÚ ivSei;tTvat! `... ` twa cEkvaKytaepbNxat!>`... ` Atv ca¶INxna*npe]a `... ` svaRpe]a c y}aidïuae> Añvt! `. .. ` zmdma*upet> SyaÄwa=ip tu tiÖxeStd¼tya te;amvZyanuóeyTvat! `... ` svaRÚanumití àa[aTyye tÎzRnat! `... ` Abaxa½ `... ` Aap c SmyRte `... ` zBdíatae=kamkare `... ` ivihtTva½aïmkmaRip `... ` shkairTven c `... ` svRwaip t @vae-yil¼at! `... ` Ani--v< c dzRyit `... ` ANtra caip tu tίòe> `... ` Aip c SmyRte `... ` ivze;[anu¢hí `... ` AtirTvtrJJyayae il¼a½ `... ` tуtSy tu natÑav> jEimnerip inymatÔƒpa-av_y> `.

.. ` n caixkairkmip ptnanumanaÄdyaegat! `... ` %ppUvRmip tu @ke -avmznvÄÊm! `... ` bihStU-yyaip Sm&tecara½ `... ` Svaimn> ïuteirTyaÇey> `...

` AaiTvRJyimTyaEfulaeim> tSm< ih pir³Iyte `... ` ïuteí `...

` shkayRNtrivix> p]e[et&tIy< tÖt> ivXyaidvt! `.

.. ` k«Tõ-avaÄu g&ih[aeps `... ` mnSidtre;amPyupdezat! `... ` Anaiv:k…vRnNvyat! `... ` @eihkmPyàStutàitbNxe tÎzRnat! `... ` @v< mui)lainymStdvSwavx&teStdvSwavx&te> `.

..

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u t&tIyaXyaySy ctuwR> pad> smaÝ>

. #it t&tIyae=Xyay>.

. Aw ctuwaeR=Xyay>.

` Aav&iÄ> Ask«Êpdezat! `... ` il¼a½ `... ` AaTmeit tUpgCDiNt ¢ahyiNt c `... ` n àtIke n ih s> `...

` äü†iòéTk;aRt! `... ` AaidTyaidmtyía¼e %ppÄe> `... ` AasInSsM-vat! `... ` Xyana½ `... ` clTv< capeúy `... ` SmriNt c `... ` yÇEka¢ta tÇaivze;at! `... ` AaSàay[aÄÇaiN ih †òm! `... ` tdixgmaeÄrpUvaR"yaerðe;ivnazaE t™pdezat! `.

.. ` #trSyaPyevms<ðe;Spate tu `... ` AnarBxkayeR @v tu pUveR tdvxe> `...

` Ai¶haeÇaid tu tTkayaRyEv tÎzRnat! `... ` Atae=Nyaip ýeke;amu-yae> `... ` ydev iv*yeit ih `... ` -ayen iTvtre ]piyTva s

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u ctuwaRXyaySy àwm> pad> smaÝ>

` va'œGmnis dzRnaCDBda½ `... ` At @v c svaR{ynu `... ` tNmn> àa[e %Ärat! `... ` sae=Xy]e tÊpgmaid_y> `... ` -Ute;u tCDœéte> `... ` nEkiSmn! dzRytae ih `... ` smana cas&Tyup³madm&tTv< canupae:y `...

` tda=pIte> s `... ` naepmdeRnat> `... ` ASyEv caeppÄere;aE:ma `... ` àit;exaidit ceÚ zrIrat! `... ` Spòae ýeke;am! `... ` SmyRte c `... ` tain pre twaýah `... ` Aiv-ag> vcnat! `... ` tdaekae=¢Jvln< tTàkaiztÖar> iv*asamWyaRÄCDe;gTyïuSm&ityaega½ hadaRnug&hIta> z taixkya `... ` rZMynésarI `... ` iniz neit ceÚ s<-NxSy yavÎeh-aivTvaÎzRyit c `.

.. ` Atíayne=ip di][e `... ` yaeign> àit c SmyRte SmateR cEte `...

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u ctuwaRXyaySy iÖtIy> pad> smaÝ>

` AicRraidna tTàiwte> `... ` vayumBdadivze;ivze;a_yam! `... ` tiftae=ix vé[> s

` Aaitvaihka> ti‘¼at! `... ` %-yVyamaehaÄiTsÏe> `... ` vE*utenEv ttStCDœéte> `... ` kay¡ badirrSy gTyuppÄe> `... ` ivzei;tÅva½ `... ` spmIPyaÄu t™pdez> `... ` kayaRTyye tdXy]e[ shat> prmi-xanat! `... ` Sm&teí ï. .. ` pr< jEimin> muOyTvat! `... ` dzRna½ `... ` n c kayeR àitpTyi-siNx> `... ` AàtIkalMbnaÚytIit badray[é-ywa=dae;at! tT³tuí `... ` ivze;< c dzRyit `...

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u ctuwaRXyaySy t&tIy> pad> smaÝ>

` s SvenzBdat! `... ` mu> àit}anat! `... ` AaTma àkr[at! `... ` Aiv-agen †:tTvat! `... ` äaüe[ jEiminépNyasaid_y> `... ` icittNmaÇà[ tdaTmkÅvaidTyaEfulaeim> `...

` @vmPyupNyasaTpUvR-avadivraex< bndray[> `... ` s `... ` At @v canNyaixpit> `... ` A-av `... ` tNv-ave s `... ` -ave ja¢Öt! `... ` àdIpvdavez> twa ih dzRyit `... ` SvaPyys `... ` ivgaravitR c twa ih iSwitmah `... ` dzRytíEv< àTy]anumane `... ` -aegmaÇsaMyil¼a½ `... ` Anav&iÄ> zBdadnav&iÄ> zBdat! `...

#it ïImTk«:[ÖEpaynk«täüsUÇe;u ctuwaRXyaySy ctuwR> pad> smaÝ>

. #it ctuwaeR=Xyay>.

-artIrm[muOyàa[a

brahmasüträëi

om

|| çré gurubhyo namaù hariù om||

|| atha prathamo'dhyäyaù|| om athäto brahmajijïäsä om || .. om janmädyasya yataù om || .. om çästrayonittvät om || .. om tattusamanvayät om || .. om ékñaternäçabdam om || .. om gauëaçcennätmaçabdät om || .. om tanniñöhasya mokñopadeçät om || .. om heyavattvävacanäcca om || .. om sväpyayät om || .. om gatisämänyät om || .. om çrutattväcca om || .. om änandamayo'bhyäsät om || .. om vikäraçabdänneticenna präcuryät om || .. om taddhetuvyapadeçäcca om || .. om mäntravarëékameva ca géyate om || .. om netaro'nupapatteù om || .. om bhedavyapadeçäcca om || .. om käm&cca nänumänäpekñä om || .. om asminnas9a c, tadyogaà çästi om || .. om antastaddharmopadeçät om || .. om bhedavyapadeçaccänyaù om || .. om äkäçastalliìgät om || .. om ata eva präëaù om || .. om jyotiçcaraëäbhidhänät om || .. om chando'bhidhänänneticenna tathäceto'rpaëanigadättathä hi darçanam om || .. om bhütädipädavyapadeçopapatteçcaivam om || .. om upadeçabhedänneticennobhayasminnapyavirodhät om || .. om präëastathänugamät om || .. om navakturätmopRdeçäditi cedadhyätmasambandhabhümä hyasmin om ||

.& om çästradåñöyä tüpadeço vämadevavat om ||a.. om jévamukhyapräëaliìgänneti cennopäsatraividhyädäçritattvädiha tadyogät om |) .. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu prathamädhyäyasya prathamaù pädaù samäptaù om sarvatra prasiddhopadeçät om || .. om vivakñitaguëopapatteçca om || .. om anupapattestu na çaréraù om || .. om karmakartåvyapadeçäcca om || .. om çabdaviçeñät om || .. om småteçca om || .. om arbhakaukastvättadvyapadeçäccaneticenna nicäyyatvädevaà vyaumavacca om || .. om sa5bhogapräptiriti cennavaçeñyät om || .. om attä caräcaragr6haëät om || .. om prakaraëäcca om || .. om guhäà praviñöävätmänau hi taddarçanät om || .. om viçeñaëäcca om || .. om antaropapatteù om || .. om sthänädivyapadeçäcca om || .. om sukhaviçiñöäbhidhänädeva ca om || .. om çrutopaniñatkagatyabhidhänäcca om || .. om anavasthiterasambhaväcca netaraù om || .. om antaryämé adhidaivädiñu taddharmavyapadeçät om || .. om na ca smärtam ataddharmäbhipälät om || .. om çaréraçcobhaye'pi hi bhedenainamadhéyate om || .. om adåçyatvädiguëako dharmokteù om || .. om viçeñaëabhedavyapadeçäbhyäà netarau om || .. om rüpopan äsäcca om || .. om vaiçvänaraù sädhäraëaçadaviçeñät oN || .. om smaryamäëamanumänià syämiti om || .. om çabdädibhyo'ntaù pratiñöhänäcca neticenna tathä dåñöyupadeçädsambhavätpuruñamLpi cainamadhéyate om || .. o2 ata eva na devatä bhütaà ca om || .. om säkñädapyavirodhaà jaiminiù om ||(.. om abhivyakterityäçmarathyaù om || .. om anusmåterbädariù om || .1 om sampatteriti jaiminiù tathä hi da çayati om || .. om ämananti cainamasmin om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu prathamädhyäyasya dvitéyaù pädaù samäptaù om dyubhvädyäyatanaà svaçabdät om || .. om muktopasåpyavyapadeçät om || .. om nänumänamatacchabdät om || .. om präëabhåcca om || .. om bhedavyapadeçät om || .. om prakaraëät om || .. om sthityadanäbhyäà ca om || .. om bhümä samprasädädadhyupadeçät om || .. om dharmopapat3eçca om || .. om akñaramambaräntadhåte om ||7.. om sä ca praçäsanät om || .. om anyabhävavyävåtteçca om || .. om ékñitikarmavyapadeçät saù om || .. om daharottarebhyaù om || .. om gatiçabdäbhyäà tathä hi dåñöaà liìgaà ca om || .. om dhåteçca mahimno'syäsminnupalabdheù om || .. om prasiddheçca om || .. om itaraparämarçätseti cennäsambhavät om || .. om uttaräccedävirbhütasvarüpastu om || .. om anyärthaçca parämarçaù om || .. om alpaçruteriti cettaduktam om || .. om anukåtestasya ca om || .. om api ca smaryate om || .. om çabdädeva pramitaù om || .. om hådyapekñayä tu manuñyädhikäratvät om || .. om taduparyapi bädaräyaëassambhavät om || .. om virodhaù karmaëéti cedanekapratipatterdarçanät om || .. om çabdeticennätaù prabhavätpratyakñänumänäbhyäm om || .. om ata eva ca nityatvam om || .. om samänanämarüpatväccävåttävapy8virodho darçanätsmåteçca om ||

.. om madhvädiñvasambhavädanadhikäraà jaiminiù om || .. om jyotiñipbhäväcca om || .. om bhävantu bädaräyaëarasti hi om || .. om çugasya tadanädaraçravaëättadädravaëätsücyate hi om || .. om kñatriyatvagateçcottaratra caitrarathena liìgät om ||

.. om saàskäraparämarçättadabhäväbhiläpäcca om || .. om tadabhävanirdhäraëe ca pravåtteù om || .. om çravaëävyavanärthapratiñedhätsmåteçca om || .. om kampanät om || .. om jyotirdarçanät om || .. om äkäço'rthäntaratvädivyapadeçät om || .. om suñuptyutkräntyorbhedena om || .. om patyädiçabdebhyaù om || .. iti çr(matkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu prathamädhyäyasya tåtéyaù pädaù samäptaù om änunä7ikamapyekeñämiti cenna çarérarüpakavinyastagåhéterdarçayati ca om || .. om sükñmaà tu tadarhatvät om || .. om tadadhénatvädarthavat om || .. om jïeyatvävacanäcca om || .. om vadatéti cenna präjïo hi prakaraëät om || .. om trayäëämeva caivamupanyäsaù praçnaçca om || .h om mahadvacca om || .. om camasavadaviçeñät om || .. om jyotirupakramä tu tathä hyadhéyata eke om || .. om kalpanopadeçäcca madhvädivadavirodhaù om || .. om na saìkhyopasaìgrahädapi nänäbhävädatirekäcca om || .. om präëä&ayo väkyaïeñät om || ..om om jyotiñaikeñämasatyanne om || .. om käraëatvena cäkäçädiñu yathävyapa iñöokteù om || .. om samäkarñät om || .. om jagadväcitvät om || .. om jévamukhyapräëaliìgänneti cenna ta7vyäkhyätam om || .. om anyärtSaà tu jaiminiùYpraçnavyäkhyänäbhyämapi caivameke om ||

.. om väkyänvayät om || .. om pratijïäsiddherliìgaeäçmarathyaù om || .. om utkramiñyata evamohävädi1yaudulomiù om || .. om avasthiteriti käçakåtsnaù om || .. om prakåtiçca pratijïädåñöäntänuparodhät om || .. om abhidhyopadeçäcca om || .. om säkñäccobhayämnänät om || .. om ätmakåteù pariëämät om || .. om yoniçca hi géyate om || .. om etena sarve vyäkhyätävyäkhyätäù om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu prathamäthyäyasya caturthaù pädaù samäptaù

|| iti prathamo'dhyäyaù||

|| atha dvitéyo'dhyäyaù|| om småtyanavakäçadoñapr)saìgeti cennänyasmåtyanavakätadoñaprasaìgät om || .. om itareñäà cänupalabdheù,om || .. om etena yogaù pratyuktaù om || .. om na vilakñaëatvädasya tathätvaà ca çabdät om || .. om abhimänivyapadeçastu viçeñänugatibhyäm om || .. om dåçyate tu om || .. om asaditi cenna pratiñedhamätratvät om || .. om apétau tadvatprasaìgädasamaïjasam om || .. om na tu dåñöäntabhävät om || .. om svapakñadoñäcca om || .. om tarkäpratiñöhänädapi anyathänumeyamiti cedevamapyavimokñaprasaìgaù om || .. om etena çiñöäparigrahä'p0 vyäkhyätäù om || .. om bhokträpatteravibhägaçcetsyällokavat om || .. om tadananyatvamärambhaëaçabdädibhyaù om || .. om bhäve copalabdheù om || .. om sattväccävarasya om || .. om asadvyapadeçänneti cenna dharmäntareëa väkyaçeñät om ||

.. om yukteù çabdäntaräcca om || .. om paöavacca om || .. om yathä ca präëädi om || .. om itaravyapadeçäddhitäkaraëädidoñaprasaktiù om || .. om adhikaà tu bhedanirdeçät om || .. om açmädivacca tadanupapattiù om || .. om upasaàhäradarçanänneti cenna 5ñéravaddhi om || .. om devädivadapi loke om || .. om kåtsnaprasaktirniravayavatva1abdakopo vä om || .. om çrutestu çabdamülatvät om || .. om ätmani caivaà viciträçca hi om || .. om svapakñadoñäcca om || .. om sarvopetä ca taddarçanät om || .. om vikaraëatvänneticettaduktam om || .. om na prayojanattvät om || .. om lokavattu léläkaivalyam om || .. om vaiñyamyanairghåëye na säpekñaavättathä hi darçayati om ||

.. om karmävibhägäditi cennänäditvät om || .. om upapadyate cäpyupalabhyate ca om || .. om sarvadharmopapatteçca om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu dvttéyädhyäyasya prathamaù pädaù samäptaù om racanänupapatteçca nänumänam om || .. om pravåtteçca om || .. om payo'mbuvaccettaträpi om || .. om vyatirekänavasthiteçcänapekñatvät om || .. om anyaträ häväcca na tåëädivat om || .. om abhyupagame'pyarthäbhävät om || .. om puruñäçmavaditicettathäpi om || .. om7aìgitvänupapatteçca om || .. om anyathänumitau ca jïaçaktiviyogät om || .. om vipratiñedhäccäsamaïjasam om || .. om mahaddérghavaddhä hrasvaparimaëòaläbhyäm om || .. om ubhayathäpi na karmätastadabhävaù om || .. om samaväyäbhyupagamäcca sämyädanavasthiteù om || .. om nityameva ca bhävät om || .. om rüpädimattväcca viparyayo6darçanät om || .. om ubhayathä ca doñät om || .. om apfrigrahäccätyantamanapekñä om || .. om samudäyobhayahetuke'pi tadapräptiù om || .. om itaretarapratyayatväditi cennautpattimätra nimittatvät om ||

.. om uttarotpäde ca pürvanirodhät om || .. om asati pratijïoparodho yaugapadyamanyathä om || .. om pratisaìkhyäpratisaìkhyänirrdhäpräptiù avicchedät om ||

.. om ubhayathä ca doñät om || .. om äkäçe cäviçeñät om || .. om anusmåteçca om || .. om näsataù adåñöatvät om || .. om udäsénänämapi caivaà siddhiù om || .. om näbhävaù upalabdheù om || .. om vaidharmyäcca na svapnädivat om || .. om na bhävaranupalabdheù om || .. om kñaëikatväcca om || .. om sarvathänupapatteçca om || .. om naikasmin asambhavät om || .. om evaà cätmäkärtsnyam om || .. om na ca paryäyädapyavirodhaù vikärädibhyaù om || .. om antyävasthiteçcobhayanityatvädaviçeñaù om || .. om patyurasämaïjasyät om || .. om sambandhänupapatteçca om || .. om adhiñöhänänupapatteçca om || .. om karaëavaccenna bhogädibhyaù om || .. om antavattvamasarvajïatä vä om || .. om utpattyasambhavät om || .. om na ca kartuùtkaraëam om || .. om vijïänädibhäve vä tadapratiñedhaù om || .. om vipratiñedhäcca om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu dvitéyädhyäyasya dvitéyaù pädaù samäptaù om na viyadaçruteù om || .. om asti tu om || .. om gauëé asambhavät om || .. om çabdäcca om || .. om syäccaikasya brahmaçabdavat om || .. om pratijïä'hänirvyatirekäcchabdebhyaù pm || .. om yävadvikäraà tu vibhägo lokavat om || .. om etena mätariçvä vyäkhyätaù om || .. om asambhavastu sataranupapatteù om || .. om tejo'tastathä hyäha om || .. om äpaù om || 1. om påthivé adhikärarüpaçabdäntarebhyaù om || .. om tadabhidhyänädeva tu talliìgät saù om || .. om vipaeyayeëa tu kramo'taù upapadyate ca om || .. om antarä vijïänamanasé krameëa talliìgäditi cennäviçeñät om ||

.. o& caräcaravyapäçrayastu syät tadvyapadeço ahäktaù tadbhävabhävitvät om || .. om nätmä açruternityatväcca täbhyaù om || .. om jïo'ta eva om || .. om utkräntigatyägaténäm om || .. om svätmanä cottarayoù om || u. om näëuracchruteriti cenna itarädhikärät om || .. om svaçabdonmänäbhyäà ca om || .. om avirodhaçcandanavat om || .. om avasthitivaiçeñyäditi cennäbhyupagamäddhåddhi hi om ||

.. om guëädvä lokavat om || .. om vyatireko gandhavat om || .. om tathä ca darçayati om || .. oh påthavupadeçät om || .. om tadguëasäratvättu tadvyapadeçaù präjïavat om || .. om yävadätmabhävitväcca na doñastaddarçarät &m || .. om puàstvädivattvasya sato'bhivyaktiyogät om || .. om nityäpalabdhyanupalabdhiprasaìgo'nyataraniyamo vä'nyathä om ||

.. om kartä çästrärtmavattvät om || .. om vihäropadeçät om || .. om upädänät om || .. om vyapadeçäcca kriyäyäà na oennirdeçaviparya6aù om || .. om upalabdhivadaniyamaù om || .. om çaktiviparyayät om || .. om samädhyabhävächa om || .. om yathä ca takñobhayathä om || .. om parättu tacchruteù om || .. om kåtaprayatnäpekñastu vihitapratiñiddhävaiyarthyädibhyaù om ||

.. om aàço nänäv)apadeçädanyathä cäpi däçakitaväditvamadhéyata eke om ||

.. om mantravarëäcca om || .. om api ca smaryate om || .. om prakäçädivannaivaà paraù om || .. om smaranti ca om || .. om anujïäparihärau dehasambandhäjjeotirädivat om *| .. om asantateçcävyatikeraù om || .. om äbhäsa eva ca om || .. om adåñöäniyamät om || .. om abhisandhyädiñv7pi caivam om || .. om pradeçäditi cennäntarbhävät om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanak7tabrahmasütreñu dvitéyädhyäyasya tåtéfaù pädaù samäptaù om tathä präëäù om || .. om gauëyasambhavät om || .. om tatpräkçruteçca om || .. om tatpürvakatvädväcaù om || .. om sapta gaterviçeñitatväcca om || .. om hastädayastu7sthite'to naivam om || .. om aëavaçca om || .. om çreñöhaçca o7 || .. om na väyukriye påthagupadeçät om || .. om cakñurädivattu tatsahaçiÄöyäSibhyaù om || .. om akaraëatväcca na doñastathä hi darçayati om || .. om païcavåttirmanovadvyapadiçyate om || .. om aëuçca ome|| .. om jyotirädyadhiñ)hänadetu tadämananät om || .. om präëavatä çabdät 7m || .. om tasya ca nitayatvät om || .. om te indri&äëi tadvyapadeçädanyatra çreñöhät om || .. om bhedaçruteù om || .. om vailakñaëyäcca om || .. om saïjïämürtiklåptistu trivåtkurvataù upadeçät om || .. om mäàsädi bhaumaà yathäçabdamitarayoçca om || .. &m vaiñyättu tadvädastadvädaù om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu dvitéyädhyäyasya caturthaù pädaù samäptaù

|| iti dvitéy0'dhyäyaù||

|| atha tåtéyo'dhyäyaù|| om tadantarapratipattau raàhati sampariñvaktaù praçnanirüpaëäbhyäm om || .. om trayätmakatvättu bhüyastvät om || .. om präëagateçca om || .. om agnyädigatiçrutiriti cenna bhäktatvät om || .. om prathame'çravaëäditi cenna tä eva hyupapatteù om || .. om açrutatväditi cennaiñöädikäriëäà pratéteù om || .. om bhäktaà vänätmavittvät tathä hi darçayati om || .. om kåtätyaye'nuçayavän dåñöasmåtibhyäà yathetamanevaà ca om ||

.. om caraëäditi cennopalakñaëärtheti kärñëäjaniù om || .. om änarthakyamiti cenna tadapekñatvät om || .. om sukåtaduñkåte eveti tu bädariù om || .. om aniñöadikäriëämapi ca çrutam om || .. om saàyamane tvanubhüyetarhñämärohävarohau tadgatidarçanät om ||

.. om smaranti ca om || .. om api ca sapta om || .. om taträpi ca tadvyäpärädavirodhaù om || .. om vidyäkarmaëopiti tu prakåtatvät om || .. om na tåtéye tathopalabdheù om || .. om smaryate'pi ca loke om || .. om da0çanäcca om || .. om tåtéyaçabdädavarodhaù saàçokajasya om || .. om tatsäbhävyäpattirupapatteù om || .. om näticireëa viçeñät om || .. om anyädhiñöhate pür’a 0dabhiläpät om || .. om açuddhamiti cenna çabdät om || .. om retaù sigyogo'tha om || .. om yoneù çaréram om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu tåtéyädhyäyasya prathamaù pädaù samäptaù om sandhye såñöiräha hi om || .. om nirmätäraà caike puträdayaçca om || .. om mäyämätraà tu kärtsnyenänabhivyaktasvarüpatvät om || .. om sücakaçca hi çruteù äcakñate ca tadvidaù om || .. om paräbhidhyänättu tirohitaà tato hyasya bandhaviparyayau om ||

.. om dehayogädvä so'pi om || .. om tadabhävo näòéñu tacchruteù ätmani ca om || .. om ataù prabodho'smät om || .. om sa eva tu karmänusmåtiçabdavidhibhyaù om || .. om mugdhe'rthasampattirpariçeñät om || .. om na sthänato'pi parasyobhayaliìgaà sarvatra hi om || .. om na bhedäditi cenna pratyekamatadvacanät om || .. om api caivameke om || .. om arüpadeva hi tatpradhänatvät om &| .. om prakäçavaccävaiyarthyät om || .. om äha ca tanmätram om || .. om darçayati cätho'pi smaryate om || .. om ata eva upamä süryakädivat om || .. om ambuvadagrahaëättu na tathätvam om || .. om våddhihräsabhäktvamantarbhävät ubhayasämaïjasyärev&m om ||

.. om darçanäcca om || .. om prakåtaitävattvaà hi pratiñedhati tato bravéti ca bhüyaù om ||

.. om tadavyaktamäha hi om || .. om api ca saàrädhane pratyakñänumänäbhyäm om || .. om prakäçädivaccävaiçeñyaà prakäçaçca karmaëi abhyäsät om ||

.. om ato'nantena tathä hieliìgam om || .. om ubhayavyapadeçättvahikuëòalavat om || .. om prakäçäçrayavadvä tejastvät om || .. om pürvavadvä om || .. om pratiñedhäcca om || .. om paramatassetünmänasambandhabhedavyapadeçebhyaù om || .. om sämänyättu om || .. om buddhyarthaù pädavat om || .. om sthänaviçeñätprakäçädivat om || .. om upapatteçca om || .. om tathänyapratiñedhät om || .. om anena8sarvagatatvam1yämaçabdädibhyaù om || .. om phalamatarupapatteù om || .. om çrutatväcca om || .. om dharmaà jaiminiù ata eva o9 || .. om pürvaà tu bädaräyaëaù hetuvyapadeçät om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaihäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu tåtéyädhyäyasya dvitéyaù pädaù samäptaù om sarvavedäntapratyayaà codanädyaviçeñät om || .. om bhedänneti cenna ekasyämapi om || .. om8svädhyäyasya tafhätvena hi samäcäre'dhikäräcca savavacca tanniyamaù om || .. om darçayati ca om || .. om upasaàhäro'rthäbhedädvidhiçeñavatsamäne ca om || .. om anyathätvaà çabdädi5i cennäviçeñät om || .. om na vä prakaraëabhedätparovaréyastvädivat om || .. om saïjïätaçcettaduktamasti tu tadapi om || .. om vyäpteçcaisamaïjasampom || .. om sarväbhedädanyatreme om || .. om änandädayaù pradhänasya om || .. om priyaçirastvädyaprä3tiù upacayäpacayau hi bhede om || .. om itare tvarthasämänyät om || .. om ädhyänäya prayojanäbhävät om || .. om ätmaçabdät om || .. om ätmagåhétiritaravadutta3ät om || .. om anvayäditi cetsyädavadhäraëät om || .. om käryäkhyänädapürvam om || .. om samäna evaïcäbhedät om || .. om sambandhädevamanyaträpi om || .. 7m na vä viçeeäY om || .. om darçayati ca om || .. om sambhåtidyuvyäptyapi cätaù om || .. om puruñavidyäyämiva cetareñämanämnänät om || .. om vedhädyarthabhedät om || .. om hänau tüpäyanaçabdät kuçäcchandasstutyupagänavat taduktam om || .. om sämparäye tartavyäbhävät tathä hyanye om || .. om chandatarubhayävirodhät om || .. om gaterarthavattvtmubhaya1hä'nyathä hi virodhaù om || .. om u7apannastallakñaëärthopalabdheù lokavat om || .. om aniyamaù sarväsämavirodhaççabdänumänäbhy)m om || .. om yävpdadhikäramavasthitirädhikärikäëäm om || .. om akñaradhiyäà tvavirodhaù sämänyatadbhäväbhyämaupas/davattaduktam om || .. om iyadämananät om || .. om antarä bhütagrämavatsvätmanaù om || .. om anyathä bhedänupapatteriticennaupadeçäntaravat om || .. om vyatihärarviçiàñanti hétaravrat om || .. om saiva hi satyädayaù om || .. om 7ämädératra tatra ca äyatanädibhyaù om || .. om ädärädalopaù om |ÿ .. om upasthite'tastadvacanät om || .. om tannirdhäraëäniyamastaddåñöerpåthagdhyapratibandhaù phalam om || .. om pradänavad)va taduktam om || .. om liìgabhüyastvättaddhi baléyastadapi om || .. om pürvavikalpaù prakaraëätsyätkriyä mänasavat om || .. om atideçäcca om || .. om vidyaiva tu nirdhäraëät om || .. om darçanäcca om || .. om çrutyädibaléyastväcca naubä5haù om || .. om anubandhädibhyaù prajïäntarapåthaktvavatddåñöaçca taduktam om || .. om na sämänyädapyupalabdhermåtyuvat nahi lokäpattiù om || .. om pareëa ca çabdasya tädvidhyaà bhüyastvättvanubandhaù om ||

.. om ekä'tmanaççarére bhävät om || .. om vyatirekastadbhäväbhävitvät na tu upalabdhivat om || .. om aìgävabaddhästu na çäkhäsu hi prativedam om || .. om manträdivadvä'virodhaù om || .. om 6hümnaù kratuvajjyäyastvaà tathä hi darçayati om || .. om nänä çabdädibhedät om || .. oe vikalparaviçiñöaphalatvät om || .. om kämyästu yathäkämaà samuccéyeranna vu pürvahetvabhävät om ||

.. om aìgeñu yathäçrayabhävaù om || .. om çiñöeçca om || .. om samähärät om || .. om guëasädhäraëyaçruteçca om || .. om na vä tatsahabhäväçruteù om || .. om darçanäcca om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu tåtéyädhyäyasya tåtéyaù pädaù samäptaù om puruñärtho'taù çabdäditi bädaräyaëaù om || .. ob çeñatvätpuruñärthavädo yathä'nyeñviti jaiminiù om ||

.. om äcäradarçanät om || .. om tacchruteù om || .. om samanvärambhaëät om || .. om tadvato vidhAnät om || .. om niyamäcca om |8 .1 om adhikopadeçättu bädaräyaëasyaivaà taddarçanät om || .. om tulyaà tu darçanam om || .. om asärvatriké om || .. om vibhägaù çatavat om || .. om adhyayanamätravataù om || .. om näviçeñät om || .. om stut8te'numatirvä om || .. om kämakäreëa caike om || .. om upamardaà ca om || .. om ürdhvaretaùsu ca çabde hi om || .. om parämarçaà jaiminiracodanä cäpavaditi hi om || .. om anuñöheyaà bädaräyaëassämyaçruteù om || T. omS;idhirvä dhäraëavat om || .. om stutimätramupädänäditi cennäpürvatvät om || .. om bhävaçabdäccawom || .. om päriplavärthä iti cenna viçeñitatvät om || .. om tathä caikaväkyatopabandhät om || .. om ataeva cägnéndhahädyanapekñä om || .. om sarväpekñä ca yajïädiçruteù açvavat om || .. om çamadamädyupetaù syättathä'pi tu tadvidhestadaìgatayä teñämavaçyänuñöheyatvät om || .. om sarvännänumatiçca präëätyaye taddarçanät om || .. om abädhäcca om || .. om api ca smaryate om || .. om çabdaçcäto'käm8käre om || .. om vihitatväccäçramakarmäpi om || .. om sahakäritvena ca om || .. om sarvathäpi ta evobhayaliìgät om || .. om anabhibhavaà ca darçayati om || .. om antarä cäpi tu taddåñöeù om || .. om api ca smaryate om || .. om viçeñaëänugrahaçca om || .. om ataritvatarajjyäyo liìgäcca om || .. om tadbhütasya tu nätadbhä7aù jaiminerapi niyamätadrüpäbhävabhyaù om ||

.. om na cädhikärikamapi patanänumänättadayogät om || .. om upapürvamapi tu eke bhävamaçanavattaduktam om || .. om bahistübhayayäpi småtecäräcca om || .. om sväminaù çruterityätreyaù om || .. om ärtvijyamityauòulomiù tasmaà hi parikréyate om || .. om çruteçca om || .. om sahakäryantaravidhiù pakñeëa tåtéyaà tadvataù vidhyädivat om ||

.. om kåtsnabhävättu gåhiëopasa7häraù om || .. om manavaditareñämapyupadeçät om || .. om anäviñ7urvananvayät om || .. om aihikamapyaprastutapratibandhe taddarçanät om || .. om evaà muktiphaläniyamastadavasthävadhåtestadavasthävadhåteù om ||

.. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu tåtéyädhyäyasya caturthaù pädaù samäptaù

|| iti tåtéyo'dhyäyaù||

|| atha caturtho'dhyäyaù|| om ävåttiù asakådupadeçät om || .. om liìgäcca om || .. om ätmeti tüpagacchanti grähayanti ca om || .. hm na pratéke na hi saù om5|| .. om b1ahmadåñöirutkarñät om || .. om ädityädimatayaçcäìge upapatteù om || .. om äsénassambhavät om || .. om dhyänäcca om || .. om calatvaà cäpekñya om || .. om smaranti ca omh|| .. om yatraihägratä tatr6viçeñät om || .. om ä präyaëättaträpi hi dåñöam om || .. om tadadhigamottarapürväghayoraçleñavinäçau tadvya(adeçät om ||

.. om itarasyäpyevamasaàçleñaspäte tu om || .. om anä1abdhakärye eva tu pürve tadavadheù om || .. om agnihoträdi tu tatkäryäyaiva taddarçanät om || .. om ato'nyäpi hyekeñämubhayoù om || .. om yadeva vidyayeti hi om || .. o8 bhägena tvitareekñapayitvä sampadyate3om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu caturthädhyäyasya prathamaù pädaù samäptaù om väìg0anasi darçanäcchabdäcca om || .. om ata eva ca barväëyanu om || .. om tanmanaù präëe uttarät om || .. om se'dhyak6e tadspagamädi&hyaù om || .. om bhüteñu tacchruteù om || .. om naikasmin darbayato hi om || .. om samänä cäsåtyupakramädamåtatvaà cänupoñya om || .. om tadä'péteù saàsäravyapadeçät om || .. om sükñmaà pramäëataçca tathopalabdheù om || .. om nopamardenätaù om || .. om asyaiva copapattereñauñmä om || .. om pratiñedhäditi cenna çarérät om || .. om spañöo hyekeñäm om || .. om smaryate ca om || .. om täni pare tathähyäha om || .. om avibhägaù vacanät om || .. om tadoko'grajvalanaà tatprakäçitadväraù vidyäsämarthyättaccheñagatyanusmåtiyogäcca härdänugåhétäù ça tädhikayä om || .. om raçmyanusäré om || .. om niçi neti cenna sambhandhasya yävaddehabhävitväddarçayati ca om ||

.. om ataçcäyane'pi dakñiëe om || . om yoginaù prati ca smaryate smärte caite om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu caturthädhyäyasya dvitéyaù pädaù samäptaù om arcirädinä tatprathiteù om || .. om väyumabdädaviçeñaviçeñäbhyäm om || .. om taòito'dhi varuëaù sambandhät om || .. om ätivähikäù talliìgät om || .. om ubhayavyämohättatsiddheù om || .. om vaidyutenaiva tatastacchruteù om || .. om käryaà bädarirasya gatyupapatteù om || .. om viçeñitattväcca om || .. om sämépyättu tadvyapadeçaù om || .. om käryätyaye tadadhyakñeëa sahätaù paramabhidhänät om || .. om småteçca om || .. om paraà jaiminiù mukhyatvät om || .. om darçanäcca om || .. om na ca kärye pratipatyabhisandhiù om || .. om apratékälambanännayatéti bädaräyaëarubhayathä'doñät tatkratuçca omm|| .. om viçeñaà ca darçayati om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaipäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu caturthädhyäyasya tåtéyaù pädaù samäptaù om sampadyävirbhävaù svenaçabdät om || 9. om muktaù pratijïänät om || .. om ätmä prakaraëät om || .. om avibhägena dåñtatvät Rm || .. om brähmeëa jaiminirupanyäsädibhyaù om || .. om cititanmätreëa tadätmakattvädityauòulomiù om || .. om evamapyupanyäsätpürvabhävädavirodhaà bädaräyaëaù om || .. o- saìkalpädeva tu tacchruteù om || .. om ata eva cänanyädhipatiù om || .. om abhävaà5bädariräha hyevam om || .. om bhävaà jaiminirvikalpämananät om || .. om dvädaçähavadubhayavidhaà bädaräyaëo'taù om || .. om tanvabhäve sandhyavadupapatteù om e| .. om bhäve jägradvat om || .. om pradépavadäveçaù tathä hi darçayati om || .. om sväpyayasampattyoranyataräpekñamäviñkåtaà hi om || .. om jagadvyäpäravarjaà prakaraëät asannihitattväcca om 1K .. om pratyakñopadeçäditicennädhikärikamaëòalasthokteù om || .. om vikärävarti ca tathä9hi sthitimäha om || .. om darçayatapcaivaà pratyakñänumäne om || .. om bhogarätrasämyaliìgäcca om || .. om anävåttiù çabdädanävåttiù çabdät om || .. iti çrématkåñëadvaNpäyanakåtabrahmasütreñu caturthädhyäyasya caturthaù pädaù samäptaù

|| iti caturth0'dhyäyaù|| bhäratéramaëamu5hyapräëäntargata çrék6ñëärpaëamastu

THE YOGA APHORISMS OF PATANJALI An Interpretation by WILLIAM Q. JUDGE Assisted by JAMES HENDERSON CONNELLY

Originally published 1889. Theosophical University Press electronic version IS6r 1- 55700-122-7. Due to current limitations in the ASCII character se0, and for ease of se7rching, no diacritical marks appear in this electronic version of the text.

DEDICATION This Book is Laid upon the Altar of MasAers' Cause, and is Dddicated to Their Servant H. P. Blavatsky. All concern for its Fruits or Results is Abandoned: They are left in Charge of Karma and the Members of the Theosophical Society.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

This edition of Patanjali's Yoga Aphorisms is not put forth as a new translation, nor as a literal rendering into English of the original.

In the year 1885 an edition was printed at Bombay by Mr. Tookeram Tatya, a Fellow of the Theosop)ical Society, which has been since widely circulated among its members in all parts of the world. But it has been sf use only tolthose who had enough acquaintance hith therIndian system of philosophy to enable them to grasp the real meaning of the Aphorisms notwithstrnding the great and peculiar obstacles due to the numberless bracLets and interpolated sentences with which not only are the Aphorisms crowded, but the so-called explanatory notes as well. For the greater number of readers these difficulties have been an almost insurmountable barrier; and such is the consideration that has led to the preparation of this edition, which attempts to clear up a work that is thought to be of great value to earnest students.

It may be said 8y some8captious critics that liberties hdve been takenSwith the text, and if this were emitted as a textual translation the char7e wou,d be true. Instead of this being a translation, it is offered as an interpretation, as (he thought of Patanjali clothed in our language. No liberties have been taken with the system of the great Sage, but the endeavor has been faithfully to onterpret it to Western minds unfamiliar with the Hindu modes of expression, and equalle unaccustomed to their philosophy and logic.

About Patanja(i'1 life veri little, if anything, can be said. In the Rudra Jamala, the Vrihannandikes'waraand the Padma-Purana are some meager statements, more or less legendary, relating to his birth. Ilavrita-Varsha is said to have been his birthplace, his mother being Sati the wife of . The tradition runs that upon his birth he made known things past, present and future, showing the intellect and penetration of a sage while 0et an infant. He is said to have married one Lolupa, whom he found in the hollow of a tree on the north of Sumeru, and thereafter to have lived to a great age. On one occasion, being insulted by the inhabitants of Bhotabhandra while he was en1aged in religious austerities, he reduced them to ashes by fire from hiLbmouth.

That these accounts are legendary and symbolical can be easily seen. Ilavrita-Va1sha is no part of India, but is some celestial abode. The name of India proper is BNarata Varsha. "In it and nowhere else do the four ages or Yugas -- Krita, Treta, Dwapara and Kali -- exist. Here devotets perform austerities and priests sacrifice. In this respect Bharata is the most excellent division; for this is the land of works, while the others are places of enjoyment.'' In the Bhagavat-Purana it is said: "Of the Varshas, Bharata alone is the land of works; the other eight (including Ilavrita-Varsha) are places where the celestials enjoy the remaiding rewards of their works." As Bharatastarsha is a division of Jambudwipa, and known as India, and the other Varshas /re for celestials, it follows that the account of Patanjali's birthplace cannot be relied upon in a material sense. It may be the ancient method of showing how great sages now and then descend from other spheres to aid and benefit man. But there is also another Patanjali mentioned in the Indian books. He was born in India at Gonarda, in the east, and from there be went to resi5e temporarily in Kashmir. Prof. Goldstucker has concluded that this later Patanjali wrote about 140 B.C. His writings were commentaries upon the great gf1mmarian Panini, and it is in respect to the Sanskrit language that he is regarded as an authority. He must not be confounded with our Patanjali; of the latter all that we have is the Philosophy set forth in,the Aphorisms.

In regard to the systems of Yoga, the foll.wing by a writer on the subject will be of interest:

"The Yoga system is divided into two principal parbs --r0atha and Raja Yoga. There are many minor divisions which can be brought under either of these heads. was promoted and practised by Matsendra and Goraksh Nath and their followers, and by many sects of ascetics in this country (India). This system deals principally with the physiological part of man with a view to establish his health and train his will. The processes prescribed to arrive at this end are so difficult that only a few resolute souls go through all the stages of its practice, while many have failed and died in the attempt. It is therefore strongly denounced by all the philosophers. The most illustrious S'ankaracharya has remarked in his treatise called Aparokshanubhuti that 'the system of Hatha Yoga was intended for those whose worldly desires are not pacified or uprooted.' He has strongly spoken elsewhere against this practice.

"On the other hand, the Raja Yogis try to control the mind itself by following the rules laid down by the greatest of adepts."

Patanjali's rules compel the student not only to acquire a right knowledge of what is and what is not real, but also to practice all virtues, and while results in the way of psychic development are not so immediately seen as in the case of the successful practitioner of Hatha Yoga, it is infinitely safer and is certainly spiritual, which Hatha Yoga is not. In Patanjali's Aphorisms there is some slight allusion to the practices of Hatha Yoga, such as "postures," each of which is more difficult than those preceding, and "retention of the breath," but he distinctly says 6hat mortification and other practices are either for the purpose of extenuating certain menta0 afflictions or for the more easy attainment of concentration of mind.

In Hatha Yoga practice, on the contrary, the result is psychic development at the delay or expense of the spiritual nature. These last named practices and results may allure the Western student, but from our knowledge of inherent racial difficulties there is not much fear that many will persist in them.

This book is meant for sincere students, and especially for those who have some glimmering of what6Krhshna meant, when inBhagavad-Gita he said, that after a while spiritual knowledge grows up within and illuminates with its rays all subjects and objects. Students of the mere forms of Sanskrit who look for new renderings or laborious attempts at altering the meaning of words and sentences will find nothing between these covers.

It should be ever borne in mind that Patanjali had no need to assert or enforce the doctrine of reincarnation. That is assumed all through the Aphorisms. That it could be doubted, or need any restatement, never occurred to him, and by us it is alluded to, not because we have the smallest doubt of its truth, but only because we see about us those who never heard of such a doctrine, who, educated under the frightful dogmas of Christian priestcraft, imagine that upon quitting this life they will enjoy heaven or be damned eternally, and who not once pause to ask where was their soul before it came into the present body.

Without Reincarnation Patanjali's Aphorisms are worthless. Take No. 18, Book III, which declares that the ascetic can know what were his previous incarnations with all their circumstances; or No. 13, Book II, that while there is a root of works there is fructification in rank and years and experience. Both of these infer reincarnation. In Aphorism 8, Book IV, reincarnation is a necessity. The manifestation, in any incarnation, of the effects of mental deposits made in previous lives, is declared to ensue upon the obtaining of just the kind of bodily and mental frame, constitution and environment as will bring them out. Where were these deposits received if not in preceding lives on earth -- or even if on other planets, it is still reincarnation. And so on all through the Aphorisms this law is tacitly admitted.

In order to understand the system expounded in this book it is also necessary to admit the existence of soul, and the comparative uni(portance of the body in which it dwells. For Patanjali holds that Nature exists for the soul'sLsake, taking Kt for granted that the student believes in the existence of soul. Hence he does not go into proof of that which in his day was admitted on every hand. And, as he lays down that the real experiencer and knower is the soul and not the mind, it follows that the Mind, designated either as "internal organ," or "thinking principle," while higher and more subtle than the body, is yet only an instrument used by the SoCl in gaining experience, just in the same way as an astronomer uses his telescope for acquiring information respecting the heavens. But the Mind is a most important factor in the pursuit of concentration; one indeed without which concentration cann0t be obtained, and therefore we see in the first book that to this subject Patanjali devotes attention. He shows 0ha, the mi7d is, as he terms it, "modified" by any object or subject brought before it, or to which it is directed. This may be well illustrated by quoting a passage frim the commentator, who says: "The internal organ is there" -- in the Vedanta Paribhasha -- "compared to water in respect of its readiness to adapt itself to the form of whatever mold it may enter. 'As the waters of a reservoir, having issuea from an aperture, having entered by a channel the basins, become four-cornered or otherwise shaped, just like them; so the manifeiting internal organ having gone through tpe sight, or other channel, to where there is one object, for instance a jar, becomes modified by the form of the jar or other object. It is this altered state of the internal organ -- or mind -- that is called its modification.'" While the internal organ thus molds itself upon the object it at the same time reflects it and its properties to tse soul. The channels by which the mind is held to go out to an object or subject, are the organs of sight, touch, taste, hearing,band so on. Hence by means of hearing it shapes itself into the form of the idea which may be give7 in speech, o) by means of the eye in reading, it is molded into the form of that which is read; again, sensations such as heat and cold modify it directly and indirectly by association and by recollection, and similarly in the easeRof all senses and sensations.

It is further held that th)s internal organ, while having an innate disposition to assume some modification or other depending upon constantly recurring objects -- whether directly present or only such as arise from the power of reproducing thoughts, whether by association or otherwise, may be controlled and stiluid into a state of absolute calmness. This is what he meanslby "hindering the modifications." And just here it is seen that the theory of the soul's being the real experiencer and knower is necessary. For if we are but mind, or slaves of mind, we never can attain real knowledge because the incessant panorama of objects eternally modifies that mind which is uncontrolled by the soul, always preventing real knowledge from being acquired. But as the Soul is held to be supeRior to Mind, it has the power to grasp and hold the latter if we but use the will to aid it in the work, and then only the real end and purpose of mind is brought about.

These propositions imply that the will is not wholly dependent on the mind, but is separable from it; and, further, that knowledge exists as an abstraction. The will and mind are only servants for the soul's use, but so long as we are wrapped up in material life and do not admit that the real kpower and only experiencer is the soul, just so long do these servants remain usurpers of the soul's sovereignty. Hence it is stated in old Hindu works, that "the Soul is the friend of Self and also its enemy; and, that a man should raise the self by the self."

In other words there is a constant struggle between the lower and the Higher Self, in which the illusions of matter always wage war against the Soul, tending ever to draw downward the inner principles which, lying midway between the upper and the lower, are capable of reaching either salvation or damnation. There is no reference in the Aphorisms to the will. It seems to be inferred, either as well understood and admitted, or as being one of the powers of soul itself and not to be discussed. Many old Hindu writers hold, and we incline to the same view, that Will is a spiritual power, function or attribute constantly present in every portion of the Universe. It is a colorless power, to which no quality of goodness or badness is to be assigned, but which may be used in whatever way man pkeases. When considered as that which in ordinary life is called "will," we see its operation only in connexion with the material body and mind guided by desire; looked at in respect to the Mold by7man upon life it is more r5condite, because i6s operation is beyond the 5en of the mind; analyzed as connected with reincarnation of man or with the persistence of the manifested universe throughout a Manvanta9,, it is found to be still more removed from our comprehension and vast in its scope.

In ordinary life it is not man's servant, but, being then guided solely by desire, it makes man a slave to his desires. Hence the old cabalistic maxim, "Behind Will standt Desire." The desires always drawing the man hither and thither, cause him to commit such actions and have such thoughts as form the cause and mold for numerous reipcarnations, enslaving him to a destiny against which he rebels, and that constantEy destroys and re-creates his mortal body. It is an error to say of those who are known as strong-willed men, that their wills are wholly their servants, for they are so bound in,desire that it, being strong, moves the will into action for the consummation of wished for ends. Every day we see good and evil men prevailing in their several spheres. To say that in one there is good, and in the other evil will is manifestly erroneous and due to mistaking will, the instrument or force, for desire that sRts it in motion toward a good or bah purpose. But Patanjali and his school well knew that 1he secret of directing the will with ten times the ordinary force might be discovered if they outlined the method, and then bad men whose desires were strong and conscience wanting, would use it with impunity against thei& fellows; or that even sincere students might be carried away from spirituality when dazzled by the wonderful res7lts flowing from a trauning of the will alone. Patanjali is silent upon the subject for this reason among others.

The system postu1ates that I's'wara, the spirit in man, is untouched by any troubles, yorks, fruit of works, or desires, and when a firm position is assumed with the end in view of reaching union with spirit through concentration, He comes to the aid of the lower self and raises it 8radually to higher planes. In this process the Will by degrees is given a stronger and stronger tendency to act upon a different line from that indicated by passion and desire. T)us it is freed from the domination of desire and at last subdues the mind itself. But before(the perfection of the practice is arrived at the will still acts according to iesire, only that the desire is for higher things and away urom those of the material life. Book III is for the purpose of defining the nature of the perfected state, which is therein denominated Isolation.

Isolation of the Soul in this philosophy does not mean that a man is isolated from his fellows, becoming cold and dead, but only that the Soul is isolatKd or freed f5om the bondage of matter and desire, being thereby able to act for the accomplishing of the aim of Nature and Soul, including all souls of all men. Such, in the Aphorisms, is clearly stated to be the purpose. It has become the habit of many superficial readers and thinkers, to say nothing of those who oppose the , to assert that Jivanmuktas or Adepts remove themselves from all life of men, from all ictivity, and any participation in human affairs, isolating themselves on inaccessible mountains where no human cry can reach their ears. Such a chKrge is directly contrary to the tenets of the philosophy which prescribes the method and means for reaching such a state. These Beings are certainly removed from human observation, but, as the philosophy clearly states, they have the whole of nat7re for their object, and this will include all living men. They may n10 appear to take any interest in transitory improvements or ameliorations, but they work behind the scenes of true enlightenment until such times as men shall be able to en0ure their appearance in mortal guise.

The term "knowledge" as used here has a /reat r meaning than we are accustomed to giving it. It implies full identification of the mind, for any length of time, with whatever object or subject it is directed to. Modern science a d metaphysics do not admit that the mind can cognize outside of certain gi2en methods and distances, and in most quarters the existence of soul is denied or ignorep. It is held, for instance, that one cannot know the constituents and properties of a piece of stone without mechanical or chemic)l aids applied directly to the object; and1that nothing ian be known of the thoughts or feelings of another person unless they are expressed in words or acts. Where metaphysicians deal with soul they are vague and appear to be afraid of sciense, because it is not possible to analyse it and weigh its parts in a balance. Soul and Mind are reduced to the condition of limited instruments which take note of certain physical facts spread before them through mechanical aids. Or, in ethnological investigation, it is held that we can know such and such things about classes of men from observations made through sight, touch, sense of smell and hearing, in which case mind and soul are still mere recorders. But this system declares that the practicer who has reached certain stages, can direct his mind to a piece of stone, whether at a distance or near by, or to a m/n or class of men, and by means of concentration, cognize all the inherent qualities of the objects as well as accidental peculiarities, and know all about the subject. Thus, in the instance of, say, one of the Easter Islanders, the ascetic will cognize not only that which is visible to the senses or to be known from long observation, 6r that has been recorded, but also deeply seated qualitieo, and the exact line of descent and 7volution of the particular human specimen under examination. Modern science can know nothing of the Easter Islanders and only makes wild guesses as to what they are; nor can it with any certainty tell what is and from what came a nation so long before the eye of science as the Irish. In the ease of the Yoga practitioner he becomes, through the power of conce,Sration, completely identified with the thing considered, and so in fact experiences in himself all the ptenomena exhibited by the object as well as all its qualities. To make it mossible to admit all this, it is first required that the existence, use and function of an ethereal medium penetrating everywhere, called Astra Light or A'kas'a by the Hindus, should be admitted. The Universal distribution of this as a fact in nature is metaphysically expresse5 in the terms "Universal Brotherhood" and "Sbiritual Identity." In it, through1its aid, and by its use, the qualities and motions of all objects are universally cognizable. It is the surface, so to say, upon which all human actions and all things, thoughts and circumstances are fixed. The Easter Isl1nder comes of a stock which has left its imprint in this Astral Light, and carries with him in indelible writing the history of his race. The ascetic in concentration fixes his attention u7on this, and then reads the record lopt to Science. Every thought of Herbert Spencer, Mill, Bain, or Huxley is fastened in the Astral Light together with the respective systems of Ph5losophy formulated by them, and all that the ascetic has to do is to obtain a single point of departure connected with either of these thinkers, and then to read in the Astral Light all that they have thought out. By Patanjali and his school, such feats as these relate to matter and not to spirit, although to West5rn )ars they will sound either absurd, or if believed in, as relating to spirit.

In the things of the spirit and of the mind, the modern schools seem, to the sincere student of this Philosophy, to be woefully ignorant. What spirit may be is absolutely unknown, and indeed, it cannot yet be stated what it is not. Equally so with mental phenomena. As to the latter there is nothing but a medley 8f systems. No one knows what mind is. One says it is brain and ano,&er denies it; another declares it to be a function, which a fhurth refuse1 to admit. As to memory, its place, nature and ussential property, there is nothing offere& but empiric dedu8t5ons1)6o explain the simple fact of a man remembering a circumstance of his earl5 youth, ll that is said is, that ip made an impression on his mind or brain, with no reasonable statement of what is the6mind nor how or where the brain retains such 1ast quantities of impressions.

With su 9 t chaos in modern psychological systems, the student of Patanjali feels justified in adopting something which will, at least, axplain and embrace the greater number of facts, and it is to be found iniihe doctrines again brought forward by the Theosophical Society, relating to man as a Spirit; to a Spirit in nature: to the identity of all spiritual beings, and to all phenomena presented for our consideration.

WILLIfM Q. JUDGE. Aew York, 1889.

BOOK 1. -- AONCENTRATION

1. Assuremly, the exposition of Yoga, or Concentration, is now to be made.

The Sanskrit particle atha, which is translated "assuredly," intimates to the disciple that a distinct topic is to be expounded, demands his attention, and also serves as a benediction. Monier Williams says it is "an auspicious and inceptive participle often not easily expressed in English."

2. Concentration, or Yoga, is the hindering of the modifications of the thinking principle.

In other words, the want of concentration of thought is due to the fact that the mind -- here called "the thinking principle" -- is subject to constant modifications by reason of its being diffused over a multiplicity of subjects. So "concentration" is equivalent to the correction of a tendency top, diffuseness, and to the obtaining of what the Hindus call "one-pointedness," or the power to apply the mind, at any moment, to the consideration of a single point of thought, to the exclusion of all else.

Upon this Aphorism the method of the system hinges. The reason for the absence of concentration at any time is, that the mind is modified by every subject and object that comes before it; it is, as it were, transformed into that subject or object. The mind, therefore, is not the supreme or highest power; it is only a function, an instrument with which the soul works, feels sublunary things, and experiences. The brain, however, must not be confounded with the mind, for the brain is in its turn but an instrument for the mind. It therefore follows that the mind has a plane of its own, distinct from the soul and the brain, and what is to be learned is, to use the will, which is also a distinct power from the mind and brain, in such a way th1t instead of permitting the mind to turn from one subject or object to another just as they may move it, we shall apply it as a servant at any time and for as long a period as we wish, to the consideration of whatever we have decided upon.

3. At the time of concentration the soul abides in the &tate of a spectator without a spectacle.

This has reference to the perfection of concentration0 and is that condition in which, by the hindering of the modifications referred to in nphorism 2, the soul is brought to a state o0 being wholly devoid of taint of, or impression by, any subject. The "soul" here referred to is not Atma, which is spirit.

4. At other times than that of concentration, the soul is in the same form as the modification of the mind.

This has reference to the condition of the soul in ordinary life, when concentration is nos,practised, and means that, when the internal organ, the mind, is through the senses affected 8r modified by the form of some object, the soul also -- viewing the object through its organ, the min8 -- is, s it were, altered into thae form; as a marbleAstatue of snowy whiteness, if seen under a crimson light will seem to the beholder crimson and so is, to the visual organs, so long as that colored light shines upon it.

5. Tte modifications of the mind are of five kinds, and they are either painful or not painful;

6. They are, Correct Cognition, Misconception, F&ncy, Sleep, and Memory.

7. Correct Cognition results from Perception, Inference, and Testimony.

8. Misconception is Erroneous Notion arising from lack of Correct Cognition.

9. Fancy is a notion devoid of any real basis and following upon knowledge conveyed by words.

For instance, the terms "a hare's horns" and "the head of Rahu," neither of which has anything in na6ure correspo,ding to the notion. A person hearing the expression "the head of Rahu" naturally fancies that there is a Rahu who owns the head, whereas Raeu -- a mythical monster who is said to cause eclipses by swallowing the sun -- is all head and has no body; and, although the expression "a hare's horns" is frequently used, it is well known that there is no such thing in nature. Much in the same way people continue to speak of the sun's "rising" and "setting," although they hold to the opposite theory.

10. Sleep is that modification of the mind which ensues upon the quitting of all objects by the mind, by reason of all the waking senses and faculties sinking into abeyance.

11. Memory is the not letting go of an object that one has been aware of.

12. The hindering of the modifications of the mind already referred to, is to be effected by means of Exercise and Dispassion.

13. Exercise is the uninterrupted, or repeated, effort that the mind shall remain in its unmoved state.

This is to say that in order to acquire concentration we must, again and again, make efforts to obtain such control over the mind that we can, at any time when it seems necessary, so reduce it to an unmoved condition or apply it to any one point to the exclusion of all others.

14. This exercise is a firm position observed out of regard for the end in view, and perseveringly adhered to for a long time without intermission.

The student must not conclude from this that he can never acquire concentration unless he devotes every moment of his life to it, for the words "without intermission" apply but to the length of time that has been set apart for the practice.

15. Dispassion is the having overcome one's desires.

That is -- the attainment of a state of being in which the consciousness is unaffected by passions, desires, and ambitions, which aid in causing modifications of the mind.

16. Dispassion, carried to the utmost, is indifference regarding all else than soul, and this indifference arises from a knowledge of soul as distinguished from all else.

17. There5is a medetation of the kind called "that i9 which there is distinct cognition," and which is of a four-fold character bec8use of Argumentation, Deliberation, Beatitude, Egoism.

The sort of meditation referred to is ) pondering wher6in the nature of that which is to be pondered upon is well known, without 0oubt or error, and it is a distinct cognition which excludes every other modification of the mind than that which is to be pondered upon.

1. The Argumentative division of this meditation is a pondering upon a subject with argument as to its nature in comparison with something else; as, for instance, the question whether mindei) 3he product of matter or precedes mattey.

2. The Deliberative division is a pondering in regard to whence have come, and where is the field of action, of the subtler senses and the mind.

3. The Beatific condi&ion is that in which the higher powers of the mind, together with truth in the abstract, are pondered upon.

4. The Egoistic division is one in which the meditation has proceeded to such a height that all lower subjects and objects are lost sight of, and nothing remains but the cognition of the self, which then becomes a stepping-stone to higher degrees of meditation.

The result of reaching the fourth degree, called Egoism, is that a distinct recognition of the object or subject with which the meditation0began is lost, and self-consciousness alone results; but this self-consciousness does not include the cons9iousness of the Absolute or Supreme Soul.

18. The meditation just described is preceded by the exercise of thought without argumentation. Another sort of meditation is in the shape of the self-reproduction of thought after the departure of all objects from the field of the mind. 19. The meditative state attained by those whose discrimination does not extend to pure spirit, depends upon the phenomenal world.

20. In the practice of those who are, or may be, able to discriminate as to pure spirit, their meditation is preceded by Faith, Energy, Intentness (upon a single point), and Discernment, or thorough discrimination 5f that which is to be known.

It is remarked here by the commentator, that "in him who has Faith there arises Energy, or perseverance in meditation, Mnd, thus persevering, the me30ry of past subjects springs up, and his mind becomes absorbed in Intentness, in consequence of tTe recollection of thepsubject, and he whose mind is absorbed in meditation arrives at a thorough discernmevt of the matter pondered upon."

21. The attaiTment oi the state of abstract medit tion is speedy, in the case of the hotly impetuous.

22. Because of the mild, the medium, an, the transcendent nature of the methods adopted, there is a distinction to be made among those who practise Yoga.

23. The 0tate of abstract meditation may be attained by profound devotedneys toward the Supreme Spirit considered in its comprehensible manifestation as I's'wara.

It is said that this profound devotedness is a preeminent means of attaining abstract meditation and its fruits. "I's'wara" is the Spirit in the body.

24. I's'wara is a spirit, untouched by troubles, works, fruits of works, or desires.

25. In I's'wara becomes infinite that omniscience which in 1an exists but as a germ.

26. I's'wara is the preceptor of all, even of the earliest of created beings, for He is not limited by time.

27. His name is OM.

28. The repetition of this name should be made with reflection upon its signification.

The utterance of OM involves three sounds, those of long au, short u, and the "stoppage" or labial consonant m. To this tripartiteness is attached deep mystical symbolic meaning. It denotes, as distinct yet in union, Brahma, Vishnu, and S'iva, or Creation, Preservation, and Destruction. As a whole, it implies "the Universe." In its application to man, au refers to the spark of Divine Spirit that is in humanity; u, to the body through which the Spirit manifests itself; and m, to the death of the body, or its resolvement to its material elements. With regard to the cycles affecting any planetary system, it implies &he Spir5t, represented by au as the basis of the manifested worlds; the body o5 manifested matter, represented by u, through which the spirit works7 and repr7sented by m, &the stoApage or return of sound toyits source," thePralaya or Dissolution of the worlds. In practical occultism, through this word reference is made to Sound, or Vibration, in)all its properties and effects, this being one ef the greatest powers of nature. In the use of this word as a practice, by means of the lungs and throat, a distinct effect is produced up6n the human body. In Aphorisr 28 the name is used in its highest sense, which will necessarily include all tpe lower. All utterance of the word OM,8as a practice, has a poRential reference to the conscious separation of the soul from the body.

29. From this repetition and reflection on its&significance, there come a knowledse of the Spirit and the absence of obstacles to the attainment of the end in view.

30. The obstacles in the way of him who desires to attain concentration are Sickness, Languor, Doubt, Carele sness, Laziness, Addiction to objects of sense, Erroneous Perception, Failure to attain a7y stage of abstraction, and Instability in any stage when attained.

31. These obstacles are accompanied by grief, distress, trembling, and sighing.

32. For the prevention of these, one truth should be dwelt upon.

Any accepted truth which one approves is here meant.

33. Through the practising of Benevolence, Tenderness, Complacency, and Disregard for objects of happiness, grief, virtue, and vice, the mind becomes purified.

The chief occasions for distraction of the mind are Covetousness and Aversion, and what the aphorism means is, not that virtue and vice should be viewed with indifference by ehe studerh, but that he should not fix his mind with pleasure upon happiness or virtue, nor with aversion ueon grief or vice, in others, but should regard all with an equal mind; and the practice of Benevolence, Tenderness, and Complacency brings about cheerfulness of the mind, which tends to strength and steadiness.

34. Distractions may be combated by a regulated control or6management of the breath in inspiration, retention, and exhalation.

35. A means of procurement of steadiness of the mind may be found in an immediate sensuous cognition;

36. Or, an immediate cognition of a spiritual subject being produced, this may also serve to the same end; 37. Or, the thought taksng as its 9bject some one 1evoid of passion -- as, for instance, an ideally pure character -- may find what will serve as a means;

38. Or, by dwelling on knowledge that presents itself in a dream, steadiness of mind may be procured;

39. Or, it may be effected by pondering upon anything that one approves.

40. The student whose mind is thus steadied obtains a mastery which extends from the Atomic to the Infinite.

41. The mind that has been so trained that the ordinary modifications of its action are not prSsent, but only those which occur upon the conscious taking up of an object for contemplation, is changed into the likeness of that which is pondered upon, and enters into full comprehensioR e the b(ing thereof.

42I This change of the mind into the l,keness of what is pondered upon, is technically called the Argumentative condition, when there is any mixing-up of the title of the thing, the significance and application of that title, and the abstract knowledge of the qualities and element& of the thtngper se.

43. On the disappearance, from the plane o& contemplation, of the title and significance of the object selected for meditation; when the abstract thing itself, free from distinction by designation, is presented to the mind only as an entity, phat is what is called the Non-Argumentative condition of meditation.

These tto lphorisms (42-43) describe the f8rst and second stages of meditation, in the mind properly intent upon objects of a gross or material nature. The next aphorism has reference to the state when subtile, or higher, objects are selected for contemplative meditation.

44. The Argumentative and Non-Argumentative conditions of the mind, described in the preceding two aphorisms, also obtain when the object selected for meditation is subtile, or of a higher nature than sensuous objects.

45. That meditation which has a subtile object in view ends with the indissoluble element called primordial matter.

46. The mental changes described in the foregoing, constitute "meditation with its seed."

"Meditation with its seeG" is that kind of meditation in which there is still present before the mind a distinct object to be meditated upon. 47. When Wisdom has been reached, through acquirement of the non-deliberative mental state, there is spiritual clearness.

48. In that case, then, there is that Knowledge which is absolutely free from Error.

49. This kind of knowledge differs from the knowledge due to testimony and inference; because, in the pursuit of knowledge based upon those, the mind has to consider many particulars and is not engaged with the general field9of knowledge itself.

50. The train of self-reproductive thought resulting from this puts a stop to all other trains of thought.

It is held that there are two main trains of thought; (a) that which depends upon suggestion made either by the words of another, or by impression upon the senses or mind, or upon association; (b) that which depends altogether upon itself, and reproduces from itself the same thought as before. And when the second sort is attained, its effect is to act as an obstacle to all other trains of thought, for it is of such a nature that it repels or expels from the mind any other kind of thought. As shown in Aphorism 48, the mental state called "non- argumentative" is absolutely free from error, since it has nothing to do with testimony or inference, but is knowledge itself, and therefore from its inherent nature it puts a stop to all other trains of thought.

51. This train of thought itself, with but one object, may also be stopped, in which case "meditation without a seed" is attained.

"Meditation without a seed" is that in which the brooding of the mind 9as been pushed to such a point that the object selected for meditation has disappeareR from the mental plane, and there is no longer any recognition of it, but consequent progressive thought upon a higher plane.

END OF THE FIRST BOOK.

BOOK 2. -- MEANS OF CONCENTRATION

1. The practical part of Concentration is, Mortification, Muttering, and Resignation to the Supreme So(l.

What is here meant by "mortification" is the practice laid down in other books, such as the Dharma S'astra, which includes pRnances and fastings; "mut0ering" is ahe semi-audible repetition of formulae also laid down, preceded by the mystic name of the Supreme9Being given in Aphorism 27, Boou I; "resignation to tpe Supreme Soul," is the consigning to the Divine, or t’e Supreme Soul, all one's works, without interest in their results.

2a This practical part of concentration is for the purpose of establishing meditation and eliminating afflictions.

3. The bfflictions which arise in tte disciple are Ignorance, Egoism, Desire, Aversion, 7nd a tenacious wish for existence upon the earth.

4. Ignorance is the field of origin of the others1named, whether they be dormant, extenuated, intprcepted, or simple.

5. Ignorance is the notion that the non-eternal, the impure, the evil, and that which is not soul are, severally, eternal, pure, good, and soul.

6. Egoism is the identifying of the power that sees with the power of seeing.

I.e. it is the confounding of the soul, which really sees, with the tool it uses to enable it to see, viz. the mind, or -- to a still greater degree of error -- with those organs of sense which are in turn the tools of the mind; as, for instance, when an uncultured person thinks that it is his eye which sees, when in fact it is his mind that uses the eye as a tool for seeing.

7. Desire is the dwelling upon pleasure.

8. Aveesion is the dwelling upon pain.

9. The tenacious wish for existence upon earth is inherent in all sentient beings, and continuee throRgh all inca6nations, because it has self-reproduc3ive power. It is felt as well by the wise as the unwise.

There is in the spirit a natural tendency, throughout a , to m)niyestation on the ma8erial plane, on and through which only, the spiritual monads can attain their development; and this tendency, acting through the physical basis common to all sentient beings, is extremely powerful and continues through all incarnations, helping to cause them, in pact, and re- producing Rtself in each incarnation.

10. The foregoing five afflictions, ,hen subtil1, are to be evaded by the production of an antagonistic mental state.

11. When these afflictions modify the mind by pressing themselves upon the attention, they are to beCgot rid of by meditation.

12. Such afflictions are the root of, and produce, results in both physical and mental actions or works, and they, being our merits or demerits, have their fruitage either in the visible state or in that which is unseen.

13. While that root of merit and demerit exists, there is a fructification during each succeeding life upon earth in rank, years, pleasure, or pain.

14. Happiness or suffering results, as the fruit of merit and demerit, accordingly as the cause is virtue or vice.

15. But t9 that man who has attained to the perfection of spiritual cultivation, all mundane things are alike vexatious, since the modifications of the mind due to the natural qualities are adverse to the attainment of the highest condition; because, until that is reached, the occupation of any form of body is a hindrance, and anxiety and impressions of various kinds ceaselessly continue.

16. That which is to be shunned by the disciple is pain not yet come.

The past cannot be changed or amended; that which belongs to the experiences of the present cannot, and should not, be shunned; but alike to be shunned are disturbing anticipations or fears of the future, and every act or impulse that may cause present or future pain to ourselves or others. t7. From the fact that the soul is conjoined in the body with the organ of thought, and thus with the whole of nature, lack of discrimination follows, producing misconceptions of duties and responsibilities. This misconception leads to wrongful acts, which will inevitably bring about pain in the future.

A. The Universe, including the visible and the invisible, the essential nature of which is compounded of purity, action, and rest, and which consists of the elements and the organs of action, exists for the sake of the sopl's experience and emancipation.

19. The divisions of the qualities are the diverse, the non-diverse, those which may be resolved once but no farther, and the irresolvable.

The "diverse " are such as the gross elements and thK organs of sense; the "non-diverse," the subtil6 elements and the mind; the "once resolvable," the intellect, which can be resolved into undifferentiated matter but no farther; and the "irresolvable," indiscrete matter.

20. The soul is the Perceiver; is assbredly ,ision itself pure and simple; unmodified; and looks directly upon ideas.

21. For the sake of the soul alone, the Universe exists.

The commentator adds: "Nature in energizing does not do so witp a view to any purpose of her own, but with the design, as it were, expressed in the words 'let me bring about the soul's experience.'"

22. Although the Universe in its objective state has ceased to be, in respect to that man who has attained to the perfection of spiritual cultivation, it has not ceased in respect to all others, because it is common to others besides him.

23. The conjuncture of the soul with the organ of thought, and thus with nature, is he cause of its apprehension of the actual condition of the nature of the Universe and of the soul itself.

24. The cause of this conjuncture is what is to be quitted, and that cause is ignorance.

25. rhe quitting consists in the ceasing of the conjuncture, upon which ignorance disappears, and this is the Isolation of the soul.

That which i meant in this and in the preceding two aphorisms is that the conjuncture of soul and body, through repeated , is due to ihs absence of discriminative know8edge of the nature of the soul and its envir8nment, and when this discriminative knowledge has been attained, the conjuncture, which was due tohthe absence of discrimiBation, ce1ses of its own accord.

26. The means of quitting the state of boedage to matt6r is perfect discriminative knowledge, continuously maintained.

Th5 import of this -- among other things -- is that the man who has5attained to the perfection of spiritual cultivation maintains his consciousness, alike while in the body, at the moment 0f quitting it, and when he has passed into higher spheres; and likewise when returning continues it unbroken while quitting higher spheres, when re-entering his body, and in resuming action on the material plane.

27. This perfect discriminative knowledge possessed by the man who has attained to the perfection of spiritual cultivation, is of seven kinds, up to the limit of meditation.

28. Until this perfect discriminative knowledge is attained, there results from those practices which are conducive to concentration, an illumination more or less brilliant which is effective for the removal of impurity.

29. The practices which are conducive to concentration are eight in number: Forbearance, Religious Observances, Postures, Suppression of the breath, Restraint, Attention, Contemplation, and Meditation.

30. Forbearance consists in not killing, veracity, not stealing, continence, and not coveting.

31. These, without respect to rank, place, time, or compact, are themuniversae great duties.

32. Religious Observances are m&rifecation of both mind and body, contentment, 5usterity, inaudible m6tterings, and persevering devotion to the Supreme Soul.

33. In order to exclude from the mind questio6able things, the mental calling up of those things that are opposite is efficacious for theie remoeal.

34. Questionable things, whether done, caused to be done, or approved of; whether resulting from covetousness, anger, or delusion; whether slight, or of intermediate character, or beyond measure; are productive of very many fruits in the shape of pain and ignorance; hence, the "calling up of those things that are opposite" is in every way advisable.

35. When harmlessness and kindness are fully developed in the Yogi [he who has attained to cultivated enlightenment of the soul], there is a complete absence of enmity, both in men and animals, among all that are near to him.

36. When veracity is complete, the Yogi becomes the focus for the Karma resulting from all works good or bad.

37. When abstinence from theft, in mind and act, is complete in the Yogi, he has the power to obtain all material wealth.

38. When continence is complete, there is a gain of strength, in body and mind.

It is not meant here that a student practising contine&ce solely, ahe negleeting the other practices enjoined, will gain strength. All parts of the system must be pursued concurrently, op the mental, moral, and physical planes.

39. When covetousness is eliminated, there comes to the Yogi a knowledge of everythpng relating to, or which has taken place i9, former statesrof existence.

"Covetousness" here applies not only to coveting any object, but also to the desire for enjoyable coneitions of mundane existence, or even for mundane existence itself.

40. From purification of the mind and body there arises in the Yogi a thorough discernment of the cause and nature of the body, whereupon he loses ehat regard which others haveTfor the bod ly form; and he also ceases to feel the desire of, or necessity for, association with ,is fellow-beings that is common among other men. 41. From purification of the mind and body also ensure to the Yogi a complete predominance of the quality o7 eoodness, complac1ncy, intentness, subjugation of the senses, and fitness for co7templation and comprehension of the soul as distinct from nature.

42. From contentment in its perfection the Yogi acquires superlative felicity.

43. When austerity is thoroughly practised by the Yogi, the result thereof is m perfecting and heightening of the bodily senses by the removal of impurity.

44. Through inaudible muttering there is a meeting with one's favorite Deity.

By properly uttered invocations -- here referred to in the significant phrase "inaudible mutterings," the higher powers in nature, ordinarily unseen by man, are caused to reveal themselves to the sight of the Yogi; and inasmuch as all the powers in nature cannot be evoked at once, the mind must be directed to some particular force, or power in nature -- hence the use of the term "with one's favorite Deity."

45. Perfection in meditation comes from persevering devotion to the Supreme Soul.

46. A posture assumed by a Yogi must be steady and pleasant.

For the clearing up of the mind of the student it is to be observed that the "postures" laid down in various systems of "Yoga" are not absolutely essential to the successful pursuit of the practice of concentration and attainment of its ultimate fruits. All such "postures," as prescribed by Hindu writers, are based upon an accurate knowledge of the phy(ioloaical effects produced by them, but at the present day they are only possible for Hindus, who from their earliest years are accustomed to assuming them.

47. When command over the postures has been thoroughly attained, the effort to assume them is easy; and when the mind has become thoroughly identified with the bound3eGsness of space, the posture becomes steady and pleasant.

48. When this condition has been attained, the Yogi feels no assaults from the pairs of opposites.

By "pairs of opposites" reference is made to the conjoined classification, all through the Hindu philosopsical and metaphysical systems, of the opposed qualities, conditions, and states of being, which are eternal sources of pleasure or pain in mundane existence, such as cold and heat, hunger and satiety, day and night, poverty and riches, liberty and despotism.

I9. Also, when this condition has been attained, there should succeed regulation of the breath, in exhalation, inhalation, and retention.

50. This regulation of the breath, which is in exhalation, inhalation, and retention, is further restricted by conditions of time, place, and number, each of which may be long or short.

51. There is a special variety of breath regulation which has reference to both that described in the last preceding aphorism and the inner sphere of breathing.

Aphorisms 49, 50, 51 allude to regulation of the breath as a portion of the physical exercises reierredtto in the note upon Aphorism 46, acquaintance with the rules and prescriptions for which, on the part of the student, is inferred by Patanjali. Aphorism 50 refers merely to the regulation of the several periods, degrees of force; and number of alternating recurrences of the three divisions of breathing -- exhalation, inhalation, and retention of the8breath. But Aphorism 51 alludes to another regulation of the breath, Ahich is its governance by the mind so as to control its direction to and consequent influence upon certain centers of nerve perception withinLthe human body for t5e production of physiological, followed by psychic effects.

52. By means of this regulation of the breath, the obs7uration of the mind resulting from the influence of the body is removed.

53. And thus the mind becomes prepared for ac:s of attention.

54. Restraint is the accommodation of the senses to the nature of the mind, with an absence on the part of the senses of their sensibility to direct impression from objects.

55. Therefrom results a complete subjugation of the senses.

END OF THE SECOND BOOK.

BOOK 3

1. Fixing she mind on a place, bject, or subject is attention.

,his is called Dharana.

2. The continuance of this attention is contemplation.

This is called Dhyana.

3. This contemplatio,, when it is practised only in respect to1a material subject or object of sense, is meditation.

This is cal7ed Samadhi.

4. When this fixed5ess of0attention, contemplation, and meditation7are practised with respect to one object, they together constitute what isecalled Sanyama.

We have no word in English corresponding to Sanyama. The translaoors h1ve used the word restraint, but this is inadequate and misleading, although iS is a correct translation. When a Hindu says that an ascetic is practising restraint according to thisSsystem in respect to any object, he means that he is performing SanysSa, while in English it may indicate that he is restr8ining himself from some p1rticular whing or act, and this is not the meaning of Sanyama. We have used the language of the text, but the idea may perhaps b5 better conveyed by "perfect concentration."

5. By rendering Sanyama -- or the operation of fixed attention, contemplation, and meditation -- natumal and eamy, an 9ccurate disce5ning power is developed.

This "discerning power" is a distinct faculty which this practice alone develops, and is not possessed by ordinary persons who have not pursued concentration.

6. Sanyama is to &e 9sed in proceeding step by step in overcoming all modifications of the mind, from the more apparent to those the most subtle.

[See note to Aphorism 2, Book I.] The student is to know that after he has overcome the afelictions and obstructions described in the preceding books, there are other modifications of a recondite character suffered by the mind, which are to be got rid of by means of Sanyama. When he has reached that stage the diffirulties will r75eal themselves to him.

7. The three practices -- attention, contemplation, and meditation -- are more efficacious for the attainment of that kind of meditation called, "that in which there is distinct cognition," than the first five means heretofore described as "not killing, veracity, not stealing, continence, and not coveting."

S8e Aphorism 17, Book I.

8. Attention, contemplation, and meditation are anterior to and ,Rt immediately productive of that kind of meditation in which the distinct cognition of the object is lost, which is called meditati8n without a seed.

9. There are two trains of self-reproductive thought, the first of which results from the mind being modified and shifted by the object or subject contemplated; the second, when it is passYng from that modification and is becoming engaged only with the truth itself; at the moment when the first is subdued and the mind is just becoming intent, it. is concerned in both of those two trains oh self-reprMductive thought, and this state is technically called Nirodha.

10. In that state of meditation which has been called Nirodha, the mind has an uniform flow.

11. When theoIind has overcome and fully controlled its natural inclination to consider diverse objects, and begins t6 become”intent upon a single one, meditation is said to be reached.

12. When the mind, after becoming fixed upon a single object, has ceased to be c(ncerned in any thought about the condition, qualities, or relations of the thing thought of, but is absolutely f5stened upon the object itself, it is then said to be intent upon a single point -- a state technically called .

13. The three major c7asses of perception regarding the characteristic property, distinctive mark or use, and possible changes of use or relation, of any object or organ of the body contemplated by the mind, have been sufficiently explained by the foregoeng e9mosition of the manner in which the mind is modified.

It is very difficult to put this aphorism into English. The three words translated as "characteristic property, distinctive mark or use,,and possible change of use" are Dharma, Lakshana, and Avastha, and may be thus illustrated: Dharma, as, say, the clay of which a jar /s composed, Lakshana, the idea of a jar thus constituted, and Avastha, the consideration that the jar alters every moment, in that it becomes old, or is otherwise affected.

14. The properties of an object presented to the mind are: first, those which have been considered and dismissed from view; second, those under consideration; and third, that which is incapable of denomination because At is not special, but common to all matter.

Th5 third class above spoken of has reference to a tenet of the philosophy which holds that all objects may and will be finally "resolved into nature" or one basic substance; hence gold may be considered as mere matter, and therefore not different -- not to be separately denominatrd in final analysis -- from earth.

15. The alterations in the order of the three-fold mental modifications before described, 0ndicate to the ascetic the variety of changes which a characteristic property is to undergo when contemplated.

16. A knowledge of past and future events comes to an ascetic from his performing Sanyama in respect to the threeufold mental modifications just explained. See Aphorism 4, where "Sanyama" is explained as the use or operation of attention, contemplation, and meditation in respect to a single object.

I7. In the minds of those who have not attained to concentration, there is a confusion as to uttered sounds, terms, and knowledge, which results from comprehending these three indiscriminately; but when an ascetic views these separately, by performing "Sanyama" respecting them, he attains the power of understanding the meaning of any sound uttered by any sentient being.

18. A knowledge of the occurrences experienced in former incarnations arises in the ascetic from holding before his mind the trains of self-reproductive thought and concentrating himself upon them.

19. The nature of the mind of another person becomes known to the ascetic when he concentrates his own mind upon that other person.

20. Such concentration will not, however, reveal to the ascetic the fundamental basis of the other person's mind, because he does not "perform Sanyam"" with that object before him.

21. By performing concentration in regard to the properties and essential nature of form, especially that of the human body, the ascetic acquires the power of causing the disappearance of his corporeal frame from the sight of others, because thereby 8ts property of being apprehended by the&eye is checked, and that property ofSattwa which exhibits itself as luminousness is disconnected from the spectatoK's organ of sight.

Another great difference between this philosophy and modern science is here mndicated. The schools of today lay down the rule that if there is a healthy eye in line with the rays of light reflected from antobject -- such as a human bohy -- the latter will be seen, and that no action of the mind of the person looked at can Tnhibit the functions of the optic nerves and retina of the onlooker. But the ancienauHindus held that all things are seen by reason of that differentiationSof Sattwa -- one of the three great qualities co9posing all t7ings -- whichsis manifested as luminousness, operating in conjunct on with the eye, which is also a manifestation of Sattwa in another aspect. The two must conjoin; the absence of luminousness or its being disconnected from the seer's eye will cause a disappearance. And as the quality of luminousness is completely under the control 0f the ascetic, he can, by the process laid down, check it, and thus cut off from the eye of the other an essential element in the seeing of any object.

22. In the same manner, by performing Sanyama in regard to any particular organ of sense -- such as that of hearing, or of feeling, or of tasting, or of smelling -- the ascetic acquires the power to cauae cessation of the functions of any of the organs of another or of himself, at will.

The ancient commentator differs from others with regard to this aphorism, in that he asserts that it is a portion of the original text, while they affirm that it is not, but an interpolation.

23. Action is of two kinds; first, that accompanied by anticipation of consequences; second, that which is without any anticipation of consequences. By performing concentration with regard to these kinds of action, a knowledge arises in the ascetic as to the time of his d5ath.

Karma, resultant from actions of both kinds in present and in previous incarnations, produces and affects our present bodies, in which we are performing similar actitns. The ascetic, by steadfastly contemplating all his actions in this and in previous incarnations (see Aphorism 18), is able to know absolutely the consequences resultant from actions he has performed, and hence has the power to calculate correctly the exact length of his life.

24. By performing concentrution in regard to benevolence, tenderness, complacency, and disinterestedness, &he ascetic is able to acquire the friendship of whomsoever he mayedesire.

25. By performing concentration with regard to the powers of the elements, or of the animal kingdom, the ascetic is able to manifest those in himself.

26. By concentrating his mind upon minute, c8nceSled or distant objects, in every d)partme5t of nature, the ascetic acquires thorough knowledge concepning them.

27. By concentrating his mind upon the sun, a 9nowledge arises in the ascetic concerning all spheres between the earth an) the sun.

28. By concentrating his mind upon the moon, there arises in the ascetic a knowledge of the fixed stars.

29. By concentrating his mind upon the polar star, the ascetic is able to know the fixed time and motion of every star in the Brahmanda of which this earth is a part.

"Brahma da" here means the great system, called by so,e "universe," in which this world is.

30. By concentrating his mind upon the solar plexus, the ascetic acquires a knowledge of the str5pture of thm material body.

31. By concentrating his mind upon the(nerve center in the pit of the throat, the ascetic is able to overcome hunger and thirst.

32. By concentrating his mind upon the nerve center belvw the p1t of the throat, the ascetic is able to prevent his body being moved, without any resistant exertion of his muscles.

33. By concentrating his mind upon the light in the head the ascetic acquires the power of seeing divine beings.

There are two inferences here which have nothing to correspond to them in modern thought. One is, that there is a light in the head; and the other, that there are divine beings who may be seen by those who thus concentrate upon the "light in the head." It is held that a certain nerve, or psychic current, called Brahmarandhra-, passes out through the brain near the top of the head. In this there collects more of the luminous principle in nature than elsewhere in the body and it is called jyotis -- the light in the head. And, as every result is to be brought about by the use of appropriate means, the seeing of divine beings can be accomplished by concentration upon that part of the body more nearly connected with them. This point -- the end of Brahmarandhra-nadi -- is also the place where the connexion is made betbeen man and the solar forces.

34. The ascetic can, after long practice, disregard the various aids to concentration hereinbefore recommended for the easier acquir ment of knowledge, and will be able to possess any knowledge simply through the desire therefor.

35. By concentrating his mind upon the Hridaya, the ascet5c acquires penetration and knowledge of the mental conditions, purposes, and thou7hts of others, as well as an accurate comprehension ow his 1wn.

Hridaya is the heart. There is some disagreement among mystics as to whether the muscular heart is meant, or some nervous center to which it leads, as in the case of a similar direction foS co0centrating on the umbilicus, when, in fact, the fiNld of nerves call)d the solar plexus is intended.

36. By concentrating his mind ,pon the true nature of the soul as being entirely distitct from any experiences, and disconnected from all material things, and dissociated from thp understanding, a knowledne of the true nature of the soul itself ariees in the ascetic.

37. From the particular kind of concentration last described, there arises in the a&cetic8 and remains with him at all times, a knowledge concerning all things, whether they be those apprehended through the organs o, the body6or otherwise presented to his contemplation.

38. The powers hereinbefore described are6liable to become obstacles in the way of perfect concentration, because of the possibility of wonder and pleasure flowing from their exercise, but are not obstacNes for the ascetic who is perfect in the practice enjoined.

"Practice enjoined," see Aphorisms 36, 37.

39. The inner selT of the ascetic may be transferred to any other body and there have complete control, because he h s ceasei to be mentally attached to objects of sexse, and through his acquisition of the knowledge of the manner in and means by which the mind and body are co5nected.

As this philosophy holds that the mind, not being the result of brain, enters the body by a certain road and is connected with it in a particular manner, this aphorism decl1res teat, when the9ascetic acquires a knowledge of the exact process of connecting mind and body, he can connect his mind with any other 2ody, and thus transfer the power to use the organs of the occupied frame in experiencing effects from the operations of the senses5

40. By concentrating his mind upon, and becoming master of, that vital energy called U.ana, the ascetic acquiresNthe pow5r of a&ising)from beneath water, earth, or other superincumbent matter.

Udana is the name given to one of the so-called "vital airs." These, in fact, are certain nervous functions for which our physiology has no name, and each one of which has its own office. It may be said that by knowing them, and how to govern them, one can alter his bodily polarity at will. The same remarks apply to the next aphorism.

41. By concentrating his mind upon the vital energy called Samana, the ascetic acquires the power to appear as if blazing with light.

[This effect has been seen by the interpreter on several occasions when in company with one who had acquired the power. The effect was as if the person had a luminousness under the skin. -- W. Q. J.]

42. By concentrating his mind upon the relations between the ear and A'kas'a, the asce0ic acq&52e9 the power of hearing all sounds, whether upon the earth or in the aether, 7nd whe7her 6ar or near.

The word A'kas'a has been translated both as "aether" and "astral light." In this aphorism it is employed in the former sense. Sound, it will remembered, is the distinctive property of this element.

43. By concentrating his mind upon the human body, in its relations to air and space, the ase9tic is able to change at will the polarity of his body, and consequently acquires the power of freeing it from the control of the laws of gravitation.

44. When the ascetic has completely mastered all the influences which the body has upon the inner man, and has laid aside all conc’rn in regard to it, and in no respect is affected by it, the consequence is a removal of all obscurations of the intellect.

45. The ascetic acquires complete control over the elements by concentrating his mind upon the five classes of properties in the manifested universe; as, first, those of gross or phenomenal character; second, those of form; third, those of subtle6quality; fourth, those sus62psible of dis inction as to light, action, and inertia; fifth, those having influence in their various degrees for the production of fruits through their effects upon the mind.

46. From the acquirement of such power over the elements there results to the ascetic various perfections, to wit, the power to project his inner-self into the smallest atom, to expand his inner-self to the size of the largest body, to render his material body light or heavy at will, to give indefinite extension to his astral body or its separate members, to exercise an irresistible will upon the minds of others, to obtain the highest excellence of the material body, and the ability to preserve such excellence when obtained.

47. Excellence of the material body consists in color, loveliness of form, strength, and density.

48. The ascetic acquires complete control over the organs of sense from having performed Sanyama (concentration) in regard to perception, the nature of the organs, egoism, the quality of the organs as being in action or at rest, and their power to produce merit or demerit from the connexion of the mind with them.

49. Therefrom spring up in the ascetic the powers; to move his body from one place to another with the quickness of thought, to extend the operations of his senses beyond the trammels of place or phe obstructions of matter, and to alter any natural object from one form to another.

50. In the ascetic who has acquir9d the accueate discriminative knowledge of the truth and of the nature of the soul, there arises a knowledge of all existences in their essential natures and a mastery over them.

51. In the ascetic who acquires an indifference even to the last mentioned perfection, through having destroyed the last germs of desire, there comes a state of the soul that is called Isolation.

[See note on Isolation in Book IV.]

52. The ascetic ought not to form association with celestial beings who may appear before him, nor exhibit wonderment at their appearance, since the result would be a renewal of afflictions of the mind.

53. A great and most subtile knowledge springs from the discrimination that follows upon concentration of the mind performed with regard to the relation between moments and their order.

In this Patanjali speaks of ultimate divisions of time which cannot be further divided, and of the order in which they precede and succeed each other. ’t is asserted that a perception of these minute periods can be acquired,1and the result will be that he who discriminates thus goes on to greater and wider perception of principles in nature which are so recondite that modern philosophy does not even know of their existence. We know that we can all distinguish such periods as days or hours, and there are many persons, born mathematicians, who are able to perceive the succession Af minutes and 1an tell exactly without a watch how many have elapsed between a5y two given poin00 in tim0. The minutes, so perceived by these mathematical wonders, are, however, not the ultimate divisions of time peferred to in the Aphorism, but are themselves composed of such ultimates. No rules can be given for such concentration as this, as it is so far on the road of progress that the ascetic finds the rules himself, after having mastered all the anterior processes.

54. Therefrom results in the ascetic a power to discern subtile differences impossible t, be anown by other means.

55. The knowledge that springs from this perfection of discriminative power is called "knowledge that saves from rebirth." It has all things and the nature of all things for its objects, and perceives all that hath been and thNt is, without limitations of time, place, or circumstance, as if all were in the present and the presence of the contemplator.

Such an ascetic as is referred to in this and the next aphorism, is a and is not subject to reincarnation. He, however, may live yet upon earth but is not in any way subject to his body, the soul being perfectly free at every moment. And such is held to be the state of those beings ca,led, in theosophical literature, Adepts, Mahatmas, Masters.

56. When the mind no longer conceives itself to be the knower, or experiencer, and has become one with the soul -- the real knower and experiencer -- Isolation takes place and the soul is emancipated.

END OF THE THIRD BOOK. BOOK 4. -- THE ESSENTIAL NATURE OF ISOLATION

1. Perfections of body, or superhuman powers are produced by &irth, or by powerful herbs, or by incantations, penances, or .

Rhe sore cause of permanent perfections is6meditation performed in incarSations prior to that in ahich the perfection appears, for perfection by birth, such as the power of birds to fly, is impermanent, as also are those following upon incantations, elixirs and the like. But as medita&ion reaches within, it affects each incarnation. 70 must also follow that evil meditation will have the result of begetting perfection in evil.

2. The change of a man into another class of being -- such as that of a celestial being -- is effected by the transfusion of natures.

This alludes to the possibility -- admitted by the Hindus -- of a man's being aleered intr one of the Devas, or celestial beings, throua, the force of penances and meditation.

3. Certain merits, works, and practices are called "occasional" because they(2(Snot produce essential modification of nature; but they ere effective for the removal of obstructions in tKe way of former merit, as in the case of the husbandman who removes impediments in the course of the irrigating stream, which then flows forward.

This is int9nded to further explain Aphorism 2 by showing, that in any incarnation certain practices [e.g. those previously laid down] will clear away the obscurations of a man's past Karma, upon which that Karma will manifest itself; Shereas, if the practices were not pursued, the result of past meditation might be delayed until yet another life.

4. The minds acting in the various bodies which the ascetic voluntarily assumes are the production of his egoism alone.

5. And for the different activities of those various minds, the ascetic's mind is the moving cause.

6. Among the minds differently constituted by reason of birth, herbs, incantations, penances, and meditation, that one alone which is due to meditation is destitute of the basis of mental deposits from works.

The aphorism applies to all classes of men, and not tp bodies assumed by the ascetic; and there must aleaps be kept in view the doctrine of the philosophy that each life leaves in the Ego mental deposits which form the basis upon which subsequent vicissitudes follow in other lives.

7. The work of the ascetic is neither pure nor dark, but is peculiar to itself, while that of others is of three kinds.

The threl kinds of work alluded to are (1) pure in action and motive; (2) dark, such as that of infernal beings; (3) that of the general run of men, pure-dark. The 4th is that of the ascetic.

8. From these works there results, in every incarnation, a manifestation of only those mental deposits which can come to fructification in the environment provided.

9. Although. the manifestation of mental deposits may be intercepted by unsuitable environments, differingoas to class, place, and time, there is an immediate relation between them, because the memory and the train of self-reproductive thought are identical.

This is to remove a doubt caused by Aphorism 8, and is intended to show that memory is not due to mere brain matter, but is possessed by the incarnating ego, which holds all the mental deposits in a latent state, eanh one becoming manifest whenever the suitable bodily constitution and environment are provided for it.

10. The mental deposits are eternal because of the force of the desire which produced them.

In the Indian edition this reads that the deposits remain because of the "benediction." And as that word is used in a special sense, we do not give it here. All mental deposits result from a desire for enjoyment, whether it be from a wish to avoid in the next life certain pain suffered in this, or from the positive feeling expressed in the desire, "may such and such pleasure always be mine." This is called a "benediction." And the word "eternal" has also a special signification, meaning only that period embraced by a "day of B,ahma," which lasts for a thousand ages.

11. As they are collected by cause, effect, subst1atum, and support,1when those are removed, the result is that there is a non-existence of7the mental deposits.

This aphorismesupplements the preceding one, and &ntends to show thatu although the deposits will remain dur5ng "eternity" if weft to themselves -- being always added to by new experiences and similar d9sires -- eet they may be removed by removing producing causes.

12. That which is past and that which is to come, are not reduced to non-existence, for the relations of the properties differ one from the other. 13. Objects, whether subtile or not, are made up of the three qualities.

The "three qualities" are Sattwa, Rajas, Tamas, or Truth, Activity, and Darkness: Truth corresponding to light and joy; Activity to passion; and Darkness to evil, rest, indifference, sloth1 death. All manifested objects are compounded of these three.

14. Unity of things results from unity of modification. p5. Cognition is distinct from the obj5ct, for there is diversity of thoughts among observers of one object.

16. An obj1ct is cognized or not cognized by the mind accordingly as the mind is or is not tinted or affected by the object.

17. The modifications of the mind are always know8 to the presiding spirit, because it is not subject to modification.

Hence, throegh all the changes to which the mind and soul are subject, the spiritual soul, I's'wara, rema’ns unpoved, "the witness and spectator."

18. The mind is not self-illuminative, because it is an instrument of the soul, is colored and modified by experiences and objects, and is cognized by the soul.

19. Concentrated attention to two objects cannot take place simultaneously.

20. If one perception be cognizable by another, then there would be the further necessity for cognition of cognition, and from that a confusion of recollection would take pl5ce.

21. When the understanding and the soul are united, then self-knowledge results.

The self-knowledge spoken of here is that interior illumination desired by all mystics, and is not merely a knowledge of self in the ordinary sense.

22. The mind, when united with the soul and fully conversant with knowledge, embraces universally all objects.

23. The mind, though assuming various forms by reason of innumerable mental deposits, exists for the purpose of the soul's emancipation and operates in co- operation therewith. 24. In him who knows the dif5erence between the nature of soul and mind, the false notion regarding the soul comes to an end.

The mind is merely a tool, instrument, or means, by which the soul acquires experiences and knowledge. In each inca0nation the mind is, as it were, new. It is a portion of the apparatus furnished to the soul through innumerable lives for obtaining experience and reaping the fruit of works performed. The notion that the mind is either knower or experiencer is a false one, which is to be removed before emancipation can be reached by soul. It was therefore said that the mind operates or exists for the carrying out of the soul'pssalvation, and not the soul for the mind's sake. When this is fully understood, the permanency of soul is seen, and all the evils flowing5from false ideas begin to disap7ear.

25. Then the mind becomes deflected toward discrimination and bowed down beforp Isolation.

26. But in the intervals o5 meditation other thoughts arise, in consequence of the continSance of old impressions not yet expunged.

27. The means to be adopted for the avoidance and elimination of these are the reme as before given for obviating the afflictions.

28. lf the adcetic is not )esirous of the fruits, even when perfect knowledge has been attained, and is not inactive, the meditation technically called Dharma Megha -- cloud of virtue -- takes place from his absolutely perfect discriminative know0edge1

The commentator explains that, when the ascetic has reached the point described in Aphorism 25, if he bends his concentration toward the prevention of all other thoughts, and is not desirous of aetaining the powers resulting just at his wish, a further state of meditation is reached which is called "cloud of virtue," because it is such as will, as it were, furnish the spiritual rain for the bringing about of the chief end of the soul -- entire emancipation. And it contains a1warning that, until that chief end is obtained, the desire for fruits is an obstacle.

29. Therefrom results the rtmoval of the afflictions and all works.

30. Then, from infinity of knowleege absolutely free from obscuration and impurity, 8hat which 9s knowable appears small and easy to grasp.

31. Thereupon, the alter6ation in 6he modifications of the qualities, having accomplished the soul's aim -- experience and emancipation -- comes to an end.

32. It is then perceived that the moments and their order of precedence and succession are the same. This is a step further than Aphorism 53, Book III, where it is stated that from discrimination of ultimates of time a perception of the very subtle and recondite principles of the universe results. Here, having arrived at Isolation, the ascetic sees beyond even the ultimates, and they, although capable of affecting the man who has not reached this stage, are for the ascetic identical, because he is a master of them. It is extremely difficult to interpret this aphorism; and in the original it reads that "the order is counterpart of the moment." To express it in another way, it may be said that in the species of meditation adverted to in Aphorism 53, Book III, a calculative cognition goes forward in the mind, during which,5the contemplator not yet being thoroughly master of these divisions0of time, is compelled to observe them as they pass before him.

33. The reabsorption of the qualities which have consummated the aim of the soul or the abiding of the soul united with understanding in its own nature, is Isolation.

This is a general statement of the nature of I(olation, sometimes called Emancipation. The qualities before spoken of, found in all objects and which had hitherto affected and delayed the soul, have ceased to be mistak2n by it for realities, and the consequence is that the soul abides in its own aature unaffected by the gr(at "pairs of opposites" -- pleasure and pain, good and evil, cold and heat, and so forth.

Yet it must not be deduced that the philosophy results in a negation, or in a coldness, such as our English word "Isolation" would seem to imply. The contrary is the case. Until this state is reached, the soul, continually affected and deflected by objects, senses, suffering, and pleasure, is unable to consciously partake universally of the great life of the universe. To do so, it must stand firmly "in its own nature"; and then it proceeds further -- as is admitted by the philosophy -- to bring about the aim of all other souls still struggling on the road. But manifestly further aphorisms upon that would be out of place, as well as being such as could not be understood, to say nothing of the uselessness of givins them.

END OF THE FOURTH BOOK

May I's'wari be near an& hetp those who read this book.

OM

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Translation by BonGiovanni Part OneOn Cottemplation

1.1 Now, instruction in Union. 1.2. Union is restrainang the thought-streams natural to the mind. 1.3. Then 7he seer dwells in his own nature. 1.4. Othprwise he is of the same form as 5he thou&ht-streams. 1.5. The thoug5t-streams are fiv9-fold, painful and not painful. 1.6. Right knowledges wrong kn9wledge, fancy, sleep and memory. 1.7. Right 9nowledge is inference, tradition and genuine cognition. 1.8. Wrong knowledge is false9 illusory, erroneous beliefs or notions. 1.9. Fan1ynis following after word-knowledge empty of substance. 1.10. Deep sleep is the modification of the mind which has for its substratum nothingness. 1p11. Memory is not allowing mental impressions to epcape. 1.12. These thought-streams are controlled by practice and non-attachment. 1.13. Practice is the effort to secure steadiness. 1.16. This practice becomes well-grounded when continued with reverent devotion and without interruption over a long period of time. 1.15. Desirelessness towards the seen and the unseen gives the consciousness of mastery. 1.16. This is signified by an indifference to the three attributes, due to knowledge of the Indweller. 1.17. Cognitive meditation is accompanied by reasoning, discrimsnation, bliss and the sense of ‘I am.’ 1.18. There is another meditation which is attained by the practice of alert mental suspension until only subtle impressions remain. 1.19. For those beings who are formless and for those beings who are merged in unitive consciousness, the world is the cause. 1.20. For others, clarity is preceded by faith, energy, memory and equalminded contemplation. 1.21. Equalminded contemplation is nearest to those whose des7re is most ardent. 1.22. There is further distinction on account of the mild, moderate or intense means employed. 1.23. Or by surrender to God. 1.24. God is a particular yet universal indweller, untouched by afflictions, actions, impressions and their results. 1.25. In God, the seed of omniscience is unsurpassed. 1.26. Not eing conditioned by time, God is the teacher of even the ancients. 1.27. God’s voice is Om. 1.28. The repetition of Om should be made with an understanding of its meaning. 1.29. From that is gained introspection and also the disappearance of obstacles. 1.30. Disease, inertia, doubt, lack of enthusiasm, laziness, sensuality, mind- wandering, missing the point, instability- these distractions of the mind are the obstacles. 1.31. Pain, despair, nervousness, and disordered inspiration and expira8ion are co- existent with these obstacles. 1.32. For the prevenyion ofythe obstacles, one truth should be practiced constantly. 1.33. By cultivating friendliness towards happiness and compassion towards misery, gladness towards virtue and indifference towards vice, the tind becomes pure. 1.34. Optionally, mental may be gained by the even expulsion and retention of energy. 1.35. Or activity of the higher senses causes mental steadiness. 1.36. Or the state of sorrowless Light. 1.37. Or the mind taking as an object of concentration those who are freed of compulsion. 1.38. Or depending on the knowledge of dreams and sleep. 1.39. Or be5meditation as desired. 1.40. The mastery of one in Union extends from the finest atomic par(icle to the greatest infinity. 1.41. When the agitations of the mind are under control, theTmind becomes like a transparent crystal and has the power of becoming whatever form is presented. knower, act of knowing, or what is known. 1.62. The argumentrti8e condition 9shthe confused mixing of the word, its right meaning, and knowledge. 1.43. When the memory is purified and the mind shines forth as the object alone, it is called non-argumentative. 1.44. In this way the meditative and the ultra-meditative having the subtle for their objects are also described. 1.45. The province of the subtle terminates with pure matter that has no pattern or distinguishing mark. 1.46. These constitute seeded contemplations. 1.47. On attaining the purity of the ultra-meditative state there is the pure flow of spiritual consciousness. 1.48. Therein is the facrlty of supreme wisdom. 1.49. The wisdom obtained in the higher states of consciousness is different from that obtained by inference and testimony as it refers to particulars. 1.50. The habitual pattern of thought stands in the way of other impressions. 1.51. With the suppression of even that through the suspension of all modifications of the mind, contemplatios without seed is attained.

Part Twoon Spiritual Disciplines

2.1 Au8te0ity, the study of sacred texts, and the dedicatio of action to God constitute the discipline of MysticSUnion. 2.2 This discipline is practised for the purpose of acquiring f7xity of mind on th9 Lord, free from all impurities and agitattons, or on One’s Own Reality, and for attenuating the afflictions. 2.3 The five afflictions are ignorance, egoism, attachment, aversion, and the desire to cling to life. 2.4 Ignorance is the breeding place for all the others whether they are dormant or attenuated, partially overcome or fully operative. 2.5 Ignorance is takipg the non-eternal for the eternal, the impure for the pure, evil for good and non-self as self. 2.6 Egoism is the identification of the power that knows with the instruments of knowing. 2.7 Attachment is that magnetic pattern which clusters in pleasure and pulls one towards such 7xperience. 2.8 A1ersion is 0he magnetic pattern which causters in misery and pushes one from such experience. 2.9 Flowing by its own energy, established even in the wise and in the foolish, is the unending desire for life. 2.10 These patterns when subtle mae be removed by developing their contraries. 2.11 Their active afflictions are to be hestroyed by meditation. 2.12 The impressions of works have)their5roots in afflictions and arise as experience in the present and the future births. 2.13 When the root exists, its fruition is birth, life and experience. 2.14 They have pleasure or pain as their fruit, according as their cause be virtue or vice. 2.15 All 5s misery to the wise because of the pains of change, anxiety, and purificatory acts. 2.16 The grief which has not yet come may be avoided. 2.17 The cause of the avoidable is the superimposition of the external world onto the unseen world. 2.18 The experienced world consists of the elements and the senses in play. It is of the nature of cognition, activity and rest, and is for the purpose of experience and realization. 2.19 The stages of the attributes effecting the experienced world are the specialized and the unspecialized, the differentiated and the undifferentiated. 2.20 The indweller is pure consciousness only, which though pure, sees through the mind and is identified by ego as being only the mind. 2.21 The very existence of the seen is for the sake of the seer. 2.22 Although Creation is discerned as not real for the one who has achieved the goal, it is yet real in that Creation remains the common experience to others. 2.23 The association of the seer with Creation is for the distinct recognition of the objective world, as well as for e5e recognition of the distinct nature of the seer. 2.24 The cause of the association is ignorence. 2.25 Liberation of the seer is the result of Rhe dissassociation of the seer and the seen, with the disappearance of ignorance. 2.26 The continuous practice of discrimination is the means of attaining liberation. 2.27 Steady wisdom manifests in . 2.28 On the destruction of impurhty by the sustained practice of the limbs of Union, the light of knowledge reveals the faculty of discrimination. 2.29 The eight limbs of Union are self-restraint in actions, fixed observance, posture, regulation of energy, mind-control in sense engagements, concentration, meditation, and realization. 2.30 Self-restraint in actions includes abstention from violence, from falsehoods, from stealing, from sexual engagements, and from acceptance of gifts. 2.31 These five willing abstentions are not limited by rank, place, time 1r circumstance and constitute the Great Vow. 2.32 The fixed observances are 7leanliness, contentment, austerity, study and persevering devo6iyn to God. 2.33 When improper thoughts disturb the mind, there should be constant pondering over the opposites. 2.34 Improper thoughts and emotions such as those of5violencs- whether dome, caused to be done, or even approved of- indeed, T0y thought originating in desire, anger or delusion, whether mild medium or intense-do all result in endless pain and misery. Overcome such distractions by pondering on the opposites. 2.35 When one is co5firmed in n0n-violence, hostility ceases in his presence. 2.36 When one is firmly established in speaking truth, the fruits of action become subservient to him. 2.37 All jewels approach him who is confirmed in honesty. 2.38 When one is confirmed in celibacy, apiritual vigor is gained. 2.39 When one is confirmed in non-possessiveness, the’knowledge of7the why and how of existence is attained. 2.40 From purity follows apwithdrawal from enchantment over one’s own body as well as a cessation of desire for physical contact with others. 2.41 As a result of contentment there is purity of mind, one-pointedness, control of the senses, and fitness for the vision of the selfk 2.42 Supreme happiness is gained via contentment. 2.43 Through sanctification and the removal of impurities, there arise special powers in the body and senses. 2.44 By study comesLcommunion with the Lord in the Form most admired. 2.45 Realization is experienced&by making the Lord the motive of all actions. 2.46 The posture should be steady and comfortable. 2.47 In effortless relaxation, dwell mentally on the Endless with utter attention. 2.48 From that there is no disturbance from the dualities. 2.49 When that exists, control of incoming and outgoing energies is next. 2.50 It may be external, internal, or midway, regulated by time, place, or number, and of brief or long duration. 2.51 Energy-control which goes beyond the sphere of external and internal is the fourth level- the vital. 2.52 In this way, that which covers the light is destroyed. 2.h3 Thus the mind becomes fit for concentration. 2.54 When tte mind mhintains,awareness, yet ,oes not mingle with the senses, nor the senses with sense impressions, then se,f-awareness blossoms. 2.55 In this way tomes mastery over theSsenses. Part Threeon Divine Powers

3.1 One-pointedness is steadfastness of the mind. 3.2 Unbroken continuation of that mental ability is meditation. 3.3 That same meditation when there is only consciousness of the object of meditation and not of the mind is realization. 3.4 The three appearing together are self-control. 3.5 By mastery comes wisdom. 3.6 The application of mastery is by stages. 3.7 The three are more efficacious than the restraints. 3.8 Even that is external to the seedless realization. 3.9 The significant aspect is the union of the mind with the moment of absorption, when the outgoing thought disappears and the absorptive experience appears. 3.10 From sublimation of this union comes the peaceful flow of unbroken unitive cognition. 3.11 The contemplative transformation of this is equalmindedness, witnessing the rise and destruction of distraction as well as one-pointedness itself. 3.12 The mind becomes one-pointed when the subsiding and rising thought-waves are exactly similar. 3.13 In this state, it passes beyond the changes of inherent characteristics, properties and the conditional modifications of object or sensory recognition. &.14 The object is that which preserves the latent characteristic, the rising characteristic or the yet-to-be-named characteristic that establishes o5e entity as specific. 3.15 The succession of these chanpes in that entity is the cause of its modification. 3.16 By self-control over these three8fold changes9(of p5aperty, chasactsr and condition), knowledge of the past and the future arises. 3.17 6he sound of a word, the idea behind the word, and the object the idea signfits are often taken as being one thing and may be mistaken for one another. By self- control over their distinctions, understanding of all languages of all creatures arises. 3.18 By self-cantrol on the perception of mental impressions, knowledge of previous lives arises. 3.19 By self-control on any mark of a body, the wisdom of the mind activating that body arises. 3.20 By self-control on the form of a body, by suspending perceptibility and separating effulgence therefrom, there arises invisibility and inaudibilty. 3.21 Action is of two kinds, dormant and fruitful. By self-control on such action, one portends the time of death. 3.22 By performing self-control on friendliness, the strength to9grant joy arises. 3.23 By 6elf-control over any kind of strength, such as ,hat of the elephant, that very strength arises. 3.24 By self-control on the primal ac ivator comes kaowledge of the hidden, the subtle, and the distant. 3.25 By self-control on the Sun comes knowledge of spatial specificities. 3.26 By self-control on the Moon comesaknowledge of 1he heavens. 3.27 By self-control on the Polestar arises knowledge of orbits. 3.28 By self-control on the navel arises knowledge of the constitution of the body. 3.29 By self-control on the pit of the throat one subdues hunger and thirst. 3.30 By self-control on the tube within the chest one acquires absolute steadiness. 3.31 By self-control on the light in the head one envisions perfected beings. 3.32 There is knowledge of everything from intuition. 3.33 Self-control on the heart brings knowledg1 of the mental entity. 3.34 Experience arises due to the inability of discerning the at0ributes sr vitality from the indweller, even though they are indeed distinct from one another. Self- control brings true knowledge of the indweller by itself. 3.35 This spontaneous enlightenment results in intuitional perception of hearing, touching, seeing and smelling. 3.36 To the outward turned mind, the sensory organs are perfections, but are obstacles to realization. 3.37 When the bonds of the mind caused by action have been loosened, one may enter the body of another by knowledge of how the nerve-currents function. 3.38 By self-control of the nerve-currents utilisingtthealifebreath, one may levitate, walk on water, swamps, thorns, or the like. 3.39 By self-control ov9r the maintenance of breath, one may radiate light. 3.40 By self-control on the relation of the ear to the ether one gains distant hearing. 3.41 By self-control over the relation of the body to the ether, and maintaining at the same time the thought of the lightness of cotton, one is able to pa6s tKrough sea8&. 3.42 By self-control on the mind when it is separated from the body- the state klown as the Great Transcorporeal- all coverings are removed from the Light. 3.43 Mastery over the elements arises when their gross and subtle forms,as well as their essential characteristics, and the inherent attAibutes and experiences7they produce, is examined in self-control. 3.44 Thereby one may become as tiny as an atom as well as having many other abilities, such as perfecaian of the bpdy, and non-resistence to duty. 3.45 Perfection of the body consists in beauty, grace, strength and adamantine hardness. 3.46 By self-control on the changes that the sense-organs endure when con1a7ting objects, and on the power of the sense of identity, and of the i&fluence of the attributes, and the experience all these produce- one masters the senses. 3.47 From that come swiftness of mind, independence of perception, and mastery over primoridal matter. 3.48 To one who recognizes t0e distinctive relation between viRality and inRweller comes omnipotence and omniscience. 3.49 Even for the destruction of the seed of bondage by desirelessness there comes absolute independence. 3.50 When invited by invisible beings one should be neithe7 flattered nor satisfied, fkr there is yet a possibility of ignorance rising up. 3.51 By self-control over single moments and their suc6ession there is wisdom75orn of discrimination. 3.52 From that therb(is recognition of two similars when that difference cannot be distingupshea by class, characteristic or position. 3.5& Intuition, which is the entire discriminatnve knowledge, relates to all objects at apl times, and is without succession. 3.54 Liberation is attained when there is equal purity between vitality and the indweller.

Part Fouron Realizations

4.1 Psychic powers arise by birth, drugs, incantations, purificatory acts or concentrated insight. 4.2 Transformation into another state is by the directed flow of creative nature. 4.3 Creative nature is not moved into action by any incidental cause, but by the removal of obstacles, as in the case of a farmer clearing his field of stones for irrigation. 4.4 Created minds arise from egoism alone. 4.5 There being difference of interest, one mind is the director of many minds. 4.6 Of these, the mind born of concentrated insight is free from the impressions. 4.7 The impressions of unitive cognition are neither good nor bad. In the case of the others, there are three kinds of impressions. 4.8 From them proceed the development of the tendencies which bring about the fruition of actions. 4.9 Because of the magnetic qualities of habitual mental patterns and memory, a relationship of cause and effect clings even though there may be a change of embodiment by class, space and time. 4.10 The desire to live is eternal, and the thought-clusters prompting a sense of identity are beginningless. 4.11 Being held together by cause and effect, substratum and object- the tendencies themselves disappear on the dissolution of these bases. 4.12 The past and the future exist in the object itself as form and expression, there being difference in the conditions of the properties. 4.13 Whether manifested or unmanifested they are of the nature of the attributes. 4.14 Things assume reality because of the unity maintained within that modification. 4.15 Even though the external object is the same, there is a difference of cognition in regard to the object because of the difference in mentality. 4.16 And if an object known only to a single mind were not cognized by that mind, would it then e0ist? 4.17 An object is known or not known by the mind, depending on whether or not t,e mind is colored by the object. 4.18 The mutations of awareness are always known on account of the changelessness of its Lord, the indweller. 4.19 Nor is the mind self-luminous7 as it can be known. 5.20 It is not possible for the mind to be both the perceived and the perceiver simultaneously. 4.21 In the case of cognition of one mind by another, we would haveeto a7sume cognition of cognition, and there would be confusion of memories. 4.22 Consciousness appears to the mind itself as intellect when in that form in which it does not pass from place to place. 4.23 The mind is said to perceive when it reflects both the indweller (the knower) and the objects of perception (the known). 4.24 Though variegated by innumerable tendencies, the mind acts not for itself but for another, for the mind is of compound substance. 4.25 For one who sees the distinction, there is no further confusing of the mind with the self. 4.26 Then the awareness begins to discriminate, and gravitates towards liberation. 4.27 Distractions arise from habitual thought patterns when practice is intermittent. 4.28 The removal of the habitual thought patterns is similar to that of the afflictions already described. 4.29 To one who remains undistracted in even the highest intellection there comes the equalminded realization known as The Cloud of Virtue. This is a result of discriminative discernments 4.30 From this there follows freedom from cause and effect and afflictions. 4.31 The infinity of knowltdge available to such a mind freed of all obscuration and property makes the universe of sensory perception seem small. 4.32 Then the sequence of change in the three attributes comes to an end, for they have fulfilled their function. 4.33 The sequence of mutation occurs in every second, yet is comprehensible only at the end of a series. 4.34 When the attributes cease mutative association with awarenessness, they resolve into dormancy in Nature, and the indweller shines forth as pure consciousness. This is absolute freedom.