CHAPTER - III JAIN PHILOSOPHY and PRACTICES Our Age Is Not Only the Age of Science but Also the Age of Anxiety and Mental Tension

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CHAPTER - III JAIN PHILOSOPHY AND PRACTICES Our age is not only the age of Science but also the age of anxiety and mental tension. Our life is full of excitements, emotional disorders and conflicts of values. We know much about the atom but not enough about the values needed for meaningful life. Jainism is not only a religion, but a unique philosophy of self that prescribes a code of conduct for all human beings irrespective of creed, caste and colour. The Jain philosophy fully advocates limitless power and energy of the human soul and its independency. The right thinking and the right conduct of Jains are auxiliary colours spread on the vast canvas of non-violence, which is the backbone of Jain philosophy. The word Jina means the enlightened, the perfected human who has conquered the internal passions and annihilated even the subtlest of attachment and aversion by one‟s own efforts. Such enlightenment slowly and progressively results into omniscience. Jina-s teach the path of soul purification and perfection, called Jainism, only after attaining self-perfection. According to Jain philosophy, they believe in and worship Tirthankars, who were human beings attaining the state of perfect enlightenment through meditation and self-realization. A detailed discussion on philosophy, principles and spiritual practices in Jainism are discussed here under coverage of following topics: I. History of Jainism and Biography of Lord Mahāvīra II. Fundamental Principles, Metaphysics of Jainism III. Stages of spiritual elevation (Guṇasthānaka-s) IV. Jain scriptures and Spiritual teachers V. Spiritual Practices prescribed for Jain ascetics - monks and nuns VI. Spiritual Practices prescribed for Jain householders VII. Celebrations/ Festivals, Prayers and Prime symbol in Jain traditions I. History of Jainism and Biography of Lord Mahāvīra: Jainism is considered as the eternal philosophy and one of the oldest religions. It existed long before the last tīrthaṅkara Lord Mahāvīra and his teachings were based on those of his predecessors. He thus was more of a reformer and propagator of an 158

existing religious order than founder of any new faith. He recognised the philosophical tenets of Jainism to correspond to his times. Lord Mahāvīra is the twenty fourth and last tīrthaṅkara of this era of Jain religion, who is founder of current concepts and philosophy of Jainism. Lord Ṛṣabhadeva or Ādinātha was the first tīrthaṅkara of this group, who existed millions of years before. Among the most disturbed state of all religions and sacrifices in very violent form, th Mahāvīra was born on 13 day of the rising moon half of Caitra month in 599 B.C. at Kshatriyakuṇḍa (currently known as Kuṇḍalpura) in the state of Bihar, India. His father, King Siddhārtha began to prosper ever since his wife, queen Triśalā became pregnant. So, parents gave him name of „Vardhamāna‟ means increasing. He was popularly known as Mahāvīra since he showed high degree of courage and fearlessness during his childhood. As he got matured and got married, he firmly realised that worldly happiness and pleasures do not last and based mainly on miseries and unhappiness of others. At the age of 30, he renounced the worldly life and became a monk. He spent initial twelve and half years in deep silence and meditation to conquer his desires, feeling and attachments. He observed severe austerities, fasting for most of the time, moving to places bare-footed and no clothes on. He also continued facing all types of hardships during this entire period of renounced life. He developed highest quality of love towards all living creatures. With this progress in spirituality at the age of 42, he could destroy all types of karma and realized perfect perception, knowledge, power and total bliss attaining the ultimate state of knowledge known as kevalajñāna (omniscience) in Jainism. Next thirty years, he travelled around the whole country, preaching the eternal truth realised by him to the people. Lord Mahāvīra is the founder of Jainism prevailing today. All his teachings are preserved in the form of fundamental scripture in Jainism called as Āgama-s. Lord Mahāvīra organized his followers into four fold order namely: 1. sādhu or śramaṇa (monk) 2. sādhvī or śramaṇī (nun) 3. śrāvaka (layman) and 4. śrāvikā (laywoman). 159

Together as a group, they are called as Jain Saṅgha, a big family or society. Śrāvaka or śrāvikā is one who listens or who has recourse to faith or whose sins flow away from him278. These śrāvaka-s are of four catagories as under: 1. nāmaśrāvaka (by birth or default) 2. sthāpanāśrāvaka (statue of a layman) 3. dravyaśrāvaka (carries out rites but devoid of spirituality) and 4. bhāvaśrāvaka, who is a true believer of Jain Philosophy. Lord Mahāvīra made religion simple and natural, free from elaborate ritual complexities. He said, “A living body is not merely an integration of limbs and flesh but it is the abode of the soul, which potentially has perfect perception (anantadarśana), perfect knowledge (anantajñāna), perfect power (anantavīrya) and perfect conduct (anantacaritra).”279 His message reflects the freedom and spiritual joy of living being, preaching the gospel of universal love. He rejected the concept of God as a creator, a protector and a destroyer of the universe and denounced the worshipping of gods and goddesses as a means of material gains and personal benefits. II. Fundamental Principles: Jainism is spiritualistic as it believes in existence of soul. It is eternal and transmit- grates to another body after death. Every soul is potentially divine. The ultimate goal of Jainism is how to attain total freedom from the cycle of birth and death and therefore from pain, suffering and misery of the life. Thus, like other Indian Philosophies, final goal of Jainism is liberation, absolute freedom which is termed as mokṣa. In its pure state, soul has the following four characteristics: 1. Infinite knowledge (anantajñāna) 2. Infinite faith (anantadarśana) 3. Infinite energy (anantavīrya)

278 R.Williams, Jaina Yoga - a survey of the Mediaeval Śrāvakācāras, Oxford University Press, London, 1963, p.36 279 Jain Philosophy and Practice -1, Jain Education Committee, North America, p. 18, 2002

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4. Infinite bliss, happiness (anantānanda) Worldly soul is impure, polluted with karmic matter. Lord Mahāvīra explained through various sermons that every living being (soul, jīva) is ignorant about his/her true self and also is in bondage of karmic particles. These particles are continuously accumulated by our good or bad deeds. And accordingly we enjoy pleasures in materialistic belongings and possessions. This is the deep-rooted cause of self-centered violent thoughts, anger, hatred, greed and other vices. And that‟s how more karma gets accumulated. In order to get rid of this cycle, one has to follow the right path consists of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. This trio also called as triratna of Jainism is termed by Mahāvīra as samyak-darśana, samyak-jñāna and samyak-caritra respectively. These are not three ways to moksha, but integration of these three only can take us to liberation. All three constitutes the mokṣa mārga as explained in the beginning of Tattvārthasūtra.280 These three gems together called as triratna, destroys bhāvakarma and afterwards, the dravyakarma gets dissolved automatically. These three gems form foundation of entire spiritual path of Jainism. "There's no knowledge without right faith, No conduct is possible without knowledge, Without conduct, there's no liberation, And without liberation, no deliverance" - Lord Mahāvīra281 Each one of three gems is explained below: 1. Right perception (samyak darśana) Jainism insists on real faith, the real darśana which only can give us the real happiness. It is the right way of perceiving and understanding any object or situation. One needs to remove the false perception about everything (mithyā darśana) to attain samyak darśana. Mithyā is wrong perception (avidyā).

280 सम्यग्दर्शनऻानचाररत्राणणमोऺमागश: | T.S, 1.1, Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, July, 2007 281 Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, Chapter- 27, Translation of Verse 30 161

Ratnakāṇḍa Śrāvakācāra (sūtra-34) tells that nothing in this triloka (entire universe) and trikāla (all time and eras) is better than samyak darśana for a jīva and nothing is worse than mithyātva. Belief in substances ascertained as they are is right faith282. Upon what right faith is to be developed? How? The scriptures including Tattvārthasūtra tells us how one can practice Samyak darśana on 28 tattvas (elements) with full awareness, consistent efforts (adhigama) and with the support of pramāṅa, naya, nirdeśādika and satsamkhyādika. Right Faith (samyak darśana or samyak śradhhā) is of three types283 as under: a. Aupaśamika: Aupaśamika means suppression. It happens due to the suppression of passions (non-living particles of kaṣāya-s). Here, all these ājīva particles of mithyātva karma are settled down or become inactive. b. Kṣayopśamika: Kṣayopśamika means the mixer of suppression and destruction. This state is due to the partial suppression and partial destruction of passions. c. Kṣayika: Kṣayika means destruction. This samyakatva or right faith is due to the destruction of all passions. Right perception can be attained either by intuition, automatic instinct or without support of the scriptures, by acquiring knowledge284, education, listening, nisarga or pūrvasamskāra or by others‟ advices (bāhya nimitta) or sermons and support (adhigamaja) through pramāṇa or naya. Samyaktva (right perception) is considered as pre-requisite for observance of restraints. Doubtfulness (śaṅkā), expectations (ākāṅkṣā), wavering mind (vicikitsā), praising the wrong viewpoint and adoration (anyadṛṣṭi praśamsā) thereof are five transgressions of right perception285.

282 तत्तत्तवाथशश्रद्धानं सम्यग्दर्शनम।् T.S. 1.2, Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, July, 2007 283 Umaswati, Mokshashastra, Kanji Swami Smarak Trust, Devlali, V.S. 2047, pp.10, 11

284 तन्ननसगाशदधधगमा饍वा। T.S. 1.3

285 र्ंकाकाङऺाववधचकत्तसानय饃न्टि प्रर्ंसा संस्तवा् सम्यग्饃टिेरतीचारा्। T.S. 7.23 162

Having firm faith in existence of the eternal soul and its knowing property is the basis of right perception. One has to repeatedly contemplate and meditate over the true nature of the soul. This can take him to directly experience the soul. There will not be any scope for any doubt. Such doubtfulness or shankā is the first transgression. With the faith in the right perception, one tends to behave in the right direction. Then he needs to get involved in some wholesome activities, which might earn to him wholesome karma. With this, one earns favourable situations in life. But, sometimes the aspirant starts expecting such consequences as a result of right perception, which is ākāṅkṣā, the second transgression. Inspite of faith in existence of soul, his mind starts wavering due to exposure to strong viewpoint to a different concept with a strong logic and motivation. This wavering is termed as vichikitsa, the third transgression. At different times, such viewpoints are so strongly presented that the aspirant may be impressed and be overcome thereby. He may be led to praise that viewpoint. This admiring wrong viewpoint and conduct and praising it (anyadṛṣṭi praśamsā) constitutes fourth and fifth transgressions of samyakatva (right perception). Hence, the right believer should become aware of these obstructions and avoid them during his spiritual journey. 2. Right knowledge (samyak jñāna) Samyak jñāna can only be acquired after attainment of samyak darśana. After these two only, samyak caritra is possible. For liberation, one need to know the existing position, what is to be known (jñeya mimāmsa) and then, consider what needs to be done for going ahead (cāritra mimāmsā). Therefore, equal importence is given to both knowledge and conduct in Jainism. The complete knowledge of an entity (e.g. a pot) could be attained as per Tattvārthasūtra286, by nāma nikṣepa (name), sthāpanā nikṣepa (symbol), dravya nikṣepa (past or original state) and bhāva nikṣepa (present state).

286 नामस्थाऩना द्रव्य भावतस्तननयास्। T.S.1.5 163

Jainism talks of five types of knowledge287which are pramāṇa-s (valid knowledge) as mentioned Tattvārthasūtra. Each one of them is explained below: a) Intellectual and cognitive knowledge (matijñāna) b) Scriptural and articulate knowledge (śrutajñāna) c) Clairvoyance or extra-sensory knowledge (avadhijñāna) d) Mind reading capability or Telepathy (manaḥparyāyajñāna) e) Omniscience, ultimate knowledge (kevalajñāna) This knowledge is of two types. The first two are indirect knowledge and others are direct as per Tattvārthasūtra288. In other words, matijñāna and śrutajñāna are parokṣa pramāṇa (indirect Perception), as they are attained through external factors like senses and mind289. The other three avadhi, manaḥparyāya and kevalajñāna are pratyakṣa pramāṇa (modes of direct knowledge). Each one is explained below: a) Matijñāna: This knowledge is empirical and gained through senses. It includes intellect, memory, recognition, reasoning and deduction. This knowledge, also called as abhinibodhika jñāna arises in four stages, namely avagraha or apprehension (one comes to know that something exists), Īhā or faint perception (one gets vague idea whether a rope or snake is there), avaya or comprehension (one confirms that it is rope) and dhāraṇā or imprint (one retains impression of rope, if it is not there). Six organs of senses i.e. five organs of perception and mind are involved in gaining knowledge in these four stages. Thus, considering all combinations, there are 24 ways of gaining this knowledge. b) Śrutajñāna: This knowledge is conceptualized through language. It is acquired by reading texts, scriptures or by oral instructions from the authorized

287 मततश्रुतावधधमन् ऩयशय केवऱातन ऻानम।् T.S.1.9, तत्तप्रमाणे। T.S. 1.10, Acharya Umaswati, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, July, 2007

288 आ饍ये ऩरोऺम।् T.S. 1.11, प्रत्तयऺमनयत।् T.S.1.12

289 तददन्नद्रयातनन्नद्रयतनममत्ततम।् T.S.1.14 164

persons. Śrutajñāna 290is preceded by matijñāna (sensory knowledge) and is of many types. The person having both matijñāna and srutajñāna knows all dravya-s, areas, kāla and bhāva. Such person is known as śrutakevali. c) Avadhijñāna: (Clairvoyance) It is a direct means of knowledge and is perception of things that are out of the natural range of senses. This extra sensory knowledge is acquired specifically by Yogī-s and is of two types291: i) Bhāvapratyaya292: This clairvoyance is associated with a particular state of existence and arises to all heavenly and infernal beings. ii) Guṇapratyaya293: This knowledge is a result of eradication and purification of karma and is of six types on basis of internal purity. These are anugāmika (clairvoyance stays with the person wherever he goes), ananugāmika (restricted to certain areas), vardhamāna (increasing level of clairvoyance), hīyamāna (decreasing level), avasthita (steady level, continues) and anavasthita (fluctuating, unsteady). The scope of clairvoyanace is the substance which has a shape (the matter)294. d) Manaḥparyāya jñāna295: This is also direct means of gaining the knowledge. It is the act of seeing the objects of other‟s mind. This also is of two types. Ṛjumatī manaḥparyāya or simple, where one can read mind upto some extent and vipulamatī manaḥparyāya or comprehensive, where one can read mind upto great extent and it continues till next stage of kevaljñāna. Vipulamatī is special as compared to Ṛjumati on account of higher purity and infallibility.

290 श्रुतं मततऩूव ं ह्यनेक饍वादर्भेदम।् T.S. 1.20 291 Umaswati Maharaj, Shri Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra, Part-1, Shri Jain Shreyaskar Mandal, Mehsana, 1959, Chapt.6, sūtra p.72

292 भवप्रत्तययोऽवधधदेवनारकाणाम।् T.S. 1.21, Acharya Umaswati, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar,

Ahmedabad, July, 2007

293 ऺयोऩर्मतनममत्तत् ष蕍ववक쥍ऩ् र्ेषाणाम।् T.S. 1.22

294 셂वऩटववधे्। T.S. 1.27

295 ऋजुववऩुऱमती मन्ऩयशय्। T.S. 1.23 165

Telepathy (manaḥparyāya) and clairvoyance (avadhi) differ with regard to purity, space, knower and objects. Telepathy is purer than clairvoyance, but clairvoyance extends to larger space. Those with telepathy maintain special restraint while clairvoyance can be had in all four conditions of existence296. e) Kevalajñāna297: It is the knowledge of all other substances in all their modes. Here, the object is known directly by the soul. With attainment of all other types of knowledge and following various spiritual practices prescribed in the scriptures, gradually partial suppression and elimination of karma takes place. Continuous practice of this takes the aspirant towards the highest kind of knowledge called Omniscience or kevalajñāna. One to four types of knowledge can be held by a soul. But when one holds only one type, it has to be Omniscience (kevalajñāna). If two are held, they are sensory and scriptural; in case of three, these are sensory, scriptural and clairvoyance or telepathy; and if four types are held, they are sensory, scriptural, clairvoyance and telepathy.298 Kevalajñāna can not be lost once it has been received. Range of sensory and scriptural knowledge can extend to all objects, but relates to a few modes. That of clairvoyance can extend to all tengible objects but relates to some of their modes. That of mind reading capacity can extend only to a small section of tangible objects and relates to only a few modes. But, the scope of omniscience extends to all the objects in all their modes. Other than omniscience, all other categories are mixture of knowledge and ignorance. Omniscience is perfect innate, pure enlightenment. A person can have at a time minimum one and maximum four types of knowledge out of above five. Matijñāna, śrutijñāna and avadhijñāna can be of erroneous and misleading types299. They arise due to lack of discriminating view point. There are

296 ववर्ुवद्धऺेत्रस्वाममववषयोऽवधधमन् ऩयशययो्। T.S. 1.25

297 सवद्रश व्यऩयाशयेषु केवऱस्य। T.S. 1.29

298 एकादीतन भा煍यातनयुगऩदेकन्स्मननाचतुर्भय्श । T.S. 1.30

299 मततश्रुतावधयो ववऩयशयश्च। T.S. 1.31 166

five view points (naya) namely common, linear, practical, verbal and literal300. There are many perspectives from which an object or situation can be viewed. All these naya could be broadly classified into two: The first is niścaya naya, which is absolute point of view e.g. the soul can be described as spotlessly pure, where as from worldly viewpoint; it is smeared with karma, which is vyavahāra naya, which is practical point of view. Sameway, there are many types, classifications or other subdivisions of naya. The nine kinds of disposition arising from destruction are the destruction of karma-s affecting the knowledge, perception, charity, gain, enjoyment, re-enjoyment, prowess, right belief and conduct301. 3. Right conduct (samyak câritra) Samyak câritra could be called as prime practice of Jainism and samyak darśana and samyak jñāna are necessary pre-requisites for this. Samyak cāritra can only be possible after attaining above two i.e. samyak jñāna and samyak darśana. It is actually perfect mental purification resulting into pure soul. The ultimate state of equilibrium is right conduct. Various types of conduct are mentioned by various scholars in scriptures like niścaya câritra (absolute conduct) and vyavahāra câritra (practical/actual conduct). Five types of conduct recommended by Tattvārthasūtra (2.2) are chief means of liberation. They are: a) Samyak cāritra (equanimity of mind, refraining from sins) b) Chedopasthāpanīya câritra (observance of penalties for faults committed through negligence or inadvertence) c) Parihāraviśuddhi câritra (refraining from all kinds of injury-physical, mental and vocal) d) Sūkṣma samparaya câritra (control of the passions like greed) e) Yathākhyāta câritra (characteristics of those monks who have annihilated all of their passions, lusts and desires).

300 नैगमसंग्रहव्यवहारजुसश ूत्रर्ब्द सममभ셂ढैवंभूता नया्। T.S. 1.33

301 ऻानदर्शनदानऱाभभोगोऩभोगवीयाशणण च। T.S. 2.4 167

Jainism always put more emphesis on attitude than the actions of the aspirant. Therefore main focus of right conduct is holding of five vows (mahāvrata-s for ascetics), twelve vows (aṇuvrata-s) for laymen, following five samiti-s (carefulness) and three gupti-s (restrains) at the centre of our lives as described below. Five vows (pañcavṛtta-s) The vrata or vow is a specific code of conduct dealing with the ethical code of householders and ascetics. It is defined in scripture as “vrata is a (religious) rule (of behaviour) observed with determination for a particular or indefinite period and always indicates aversion or abstinence from doing foul or shameful acts or deeds302”. It reveals an inclination towards doing good and virtuous acts or deeds. Vows to be followed by ordinary common men or Śrāvaka are called Aṇuvratas or śrāvakācāra, whereas, vows which are laid down for monks are Mahāvratas or śramaṇāchāra. These vows are considered very significant from social and religious point of view. Desisting from injury, falsehood, stealing, unchastity and attachment is the fivefold vow303. One should always keep on trying to implement as per one‟s capacity all these vows. There are five transgressions for each of the vows, minor vows and the

304 supplementary vows. The consequences of these acts of violence and others are calamity and reproach in this world and in the next birth.305So, these five sins should be considered and thought off as the cause of all sufferings.306While following the vows, one knowingly or unknowingly acts adversely or follows them with lots of impurities, called as aticāra-s. Jain scriptures have mentioned five aticāra-s for each

302 Jain Philosophy and Practice-1, Jain Education Committee, North America, 2002, p.58

303 दहंसाव-तस्तेयाब्रह्मऩररग्रहेर्भयौ ववरततर्व्तश म।् T.S. 7.1, Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, July, 2007

304 र्व्तर्ीऱेषु ऩ祍च ऩ祍च यथाक्रमम।् T.S. 7.24

305 दहसं ाददटवहामुत्रा ऩायाव饍यदर्शनम।् T.S. 7.9

306 द्ु खमेव वा। T.S. 7.10 168

vow, one has to avoid. The five vows (Prākṛta names are given in addition) are as under: i) Ahiṃsā (Non-violence) or sthūlaprāṇatipātavaramaṇa Ahiṃsā paramo dharmaḥ307 (non-violence is the supreme religion) Non-violence has long been central to the religious traditions of India, especially Jainism. Religion in India has consistently upheld the sanctity of life, whether human, animal or the most elemental. More than refraining from violence, it is a deep reverence for all life. This philosophy is a living practice. When anger, jealousy or unfulfilled ambitions provoke us, when we use critical words for others, the one whom we damage first is our own self. Ahiṃsā is the cardinal principle of Jainism. The true meaning of ahiṃsā is to not to harm any living beings directly or indirectly. A person must not intentionally hurt any such living creature or their feelings either by thought, word or deed by himself or through others or approving such an act committed by somebody else. Violence caused unintentionally is also a sin. Control of speech, control of thought, observing the ground in front while walking, care in taking and placing things or objects, and examine the food in the sunlight before eating/drinking are five observances of non-violence.308 Lord Mahāvīra made a simple yet profound statement based on the inclusion of Non-violence into every fabric of his consciousness, “All of life is just like me. I want to live. So do all souls, all living beings. The instinct of self-preservation is universal. Every living being clings to life and fears the death. Each one of us wants to be free from pain. So let me carry out all my activities with great care so that I am not harmful to any living being”309

307 Acāraṅga sūtra – IV, Indian Philosophical Terms, Somaiya Publication, 2004, p.448

308 वा敍गमनोगुप्तीयाशदान तनऺेऩण सममत्तयाऱोककतऩान भोजनातन ऩंच। T.S. 7.4 309 Jain Philosophy and Practice-1, Jain Education Committee, North America, 2002, p.61 169

“All breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away.” Lord Mahāvīra310. Each one has right to exist or survive, so nobody has right to harm, injure or kill any other living being. This phenomenon is based upon the positive quality of universal love and compassion. The more developed its sensory apparatus is, the more a life form is sensitive to pain. We must refuse to be a cause of agony and pain by killing and eating fish, birds and animals. The choice of a strict vegetarian diet is an expression of a sincere consideration for the ecology of the planet as well. The nature of violence is classified according to Ācāraṅga Sūtra in four categories:311 a. Premeditated violence: To attack somebody knowingly, should be prohibited. b. Defensive violence: To commit intentional violence in defense of one‟s own life. Maintain complete detachment. c. Vocational violence: To incur violence in the execution of one‟s means of livelihood. When there is no other option, have detachment while committing. d. Common violence: To commit violence towards one sense living beings such as plants in the performance of daily activities. This should be minimized by filtering water, not eating meals after sunset, vegetarianism and abstinence from alcohol. Violence is also defined as312“the severance of vitalities through pramattayoga (the mind, the speech and the body out of passion) is injury or violence.”

310 Ācāraṅga Sūtra, Volume-1, Lect.4, lesson 1, The Sacred Books of the East, ed.& tr.H.Jecobi 311 Ibid., p.24 312 Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, (July, 2007),

प्रमत्ततयोगात्तप्राणव्यऩरोऩणं दहंसा। T.S. 7.13 170

It means deprival of life on account of non-vigilance (negligence, wrong motive) constitutes violence. Violence can also be of two types: dravyahiṃsā (physical) and bhāvahiṃsā (mental). Five types of samiti-s or attitudes to prevent violence and to implement other vratas are mentioned later in this chapter in details under the topic of saṃvara under the description of nine tattva-s. ii) Satya (Truthfulness) or sthūlamṛṣāvādaviramaṇa It requires moral courage to always speak only harmless truth and believe in truth and never lie. But with that practice, one can conquer greed, fear, anger, jealousy and ego. The truth should be wholesome and pleasant, else remain silent. One should not utter an untruth, ask others to do so or approve of such activities. Speaking through pramattayoga what is not commendable is falsehood. Lie consists of uttering what is not true313. iii) Asteya (Non-stealing) or sthūla adattādānavaramaṇa Taking through pramattayoga anything what is not given is stealing314. Stealing also consists of taking the property of others without their consent or by unjust or immoral methods. The vow says not to steal or take anything that does not belong to us or properly given to us. Without permission of the

owner, one should not take anything even if it is worthless from anywhere. It also indicates not to take or to earn and keep more than one‟s need. iv) Brahmacarya (Chastity/Celibacy) or paradāratyāgaḥ: Total abstinence from pleasure derived by five senses is called celibacy. Not to indulge in sensual pleasure, to have control over our senses in order to

concentrate on spirituality. Society today, needs this value more than any other time, because, sensual pleasure is an infatuating force, which sets aside all virtues and reasoning at the time of indulgence. One may refrain from physical indulgence but may still think of it, which also is prohibited here.

313 असदमभधानमनतृ म।् T.S. 7.14

314 अदत्ततादानं स्तये म ्। T.S. 7.15 171

Indulgence in sex and any type of sensual pleasure is unchastity and not conducive of soul, if we take Brahman as soul.315 Samvāyāṅgasūtra prescribes 18 types of non-chastity (abrahmacarya), 29

types of scripts of non-wholesome activities (pāpaśruta) and 32 types of 316 wholesome activities (śubhayoga).

v) Aparigraha (Non-possession/non-attachment) or parigraha- parimāṇa-aṇuvṛtaḥ Not to accumulate anything that is not needed today, complete detachment from people, places and material things. Infatuation is the desire through pramattayoga for acquisition,317safeguarding and addition to external and internal possessions. The more wealth a person possesses, the more he is likely to commit sin to acquire and maintain the possessions and in long run he will be unhappy. Wealth creates attachment, which results in continued greed, jealousy, selfishness and violence. Wants and desires have no limit. This attachment leads to bondage of karma and finally cycle of birth and death.

Apart from these five main restraints, other subsidiary restraints are318: i. Digvirati: limiting areas of operation in different directions ii. Deśavirati: restricting area of operation for a certain period iii. Anarthadaṇḍavirati: averting the purposeless violence iv. Sāmāyika: stipulates exercising of equanimity

315 मैथुनमब्रह्म। T.S. 7.16 316 Āvaśyakasūtra, Shri Akhil Bharatiya Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, pp. 98-101

317 मूर्चछाश ऩररग्रह्। T.S. 7.17

318 ददग्देर्ानथशदण्ड ववरततसामातयक प्रोषधोऩवासोऩभोगऩररभोगऩररमाणाततधथसंववभागर्व्तसंऩननश्च । T.S. 7.16 172

v. Pauṣāḍhopavāsa: practicing the monastic code for a day or pre-fixed period either pratipurna without any food or deśa with water and food. vi. Bhogopabhoga parimāṇa: laying restrictions on the use and consumption of certain articles vii. Atithisamvibhāga: serving monks, nuns and others First three (i, ii and iii) are auxiliary and minor vows mainly for the householders, which should be observed through out the life. All our activities whether related to business or not should be restricted to certain fixed areas, direction and limited to certain period of operation. Others (iv to vii) are disciplinary restraints, to be observed from time to time to a certain extent. Bhogopabhoga parimāṇa is prohibiting oneself of using many articles except the necessary ones for the life. These restrictions are two types, food related and work/business related. To use an article once only is upabhoga and those being used frequently are paribhoga. Fifteen aticāra-s are prescribed in Ācāraṅga Sūtra for various types of restrictions. Sallekhanā,319which is fasting until death, is an additional restraint being observed in some of the sects of Jains. One who wants to observe restraints has to be faultless320. Deceptive instincts, strong urge for any worldly aspect and wrong perception are main faults or obstructions on the path of spiritual pursuits. Jainism puts emphasis on four essential aspects for a layman, dāna321(donation, charity, giving of one‟s wealth to another for mutual benefit), śīla (conduct), tapas (austerities) and bhāvanā (mode, attitude). Its significance depends upon the methods of charity, article to be donated and worthiness and approach of the donor as well. The distinction with regard to the effect of a gift consists in the manner, the

319 मारणान्नतक ं स쥍ऱेखना जोवषता। T.S. 7.22

320 तन्र्쥍यो र्व्ती। T.S. 7.13

321 अनुग्रहाथस्श य स्याततसगो दानम।् T.S. 7.38 173

thing given, the nature of the giver and the nature of the recipient. The desired qualities are the manner – with reverence, the thing – promotes austerities and study. The giver should be free from envy and dejection, and the recipient‟s qualities which lead to salvation322. Jain monks and nuns follow all these vows strictly and totally as great vows (mahāvrata), while common people can follow as per their ability, desire and permit as aṇuvrata323. One should not commit any of above sin by speech, thoughts or deeds. Few more fundamental principles of Jainism are explained under the different heading as under. III. Doctrines of Jainism According to Prof. R. H. Singh,324 “Jainism is a metaphysical realism, a philosophical non-absolutism, an ethical Puritanism and a psychological rationalism. Jaina attitude is empirical and realistic based on logic and experience”. The main and unique doctrines along with others are anekāntavāda and nayavāda. Jain‟s perspective of approach towards the truth is mainly through three modes: Doctrine of non-absolutism (anekāntavāda), Philosophical stand-points (nayavāda) and sevenfold predication (sapta-bhanginiya). 1. Anekāntavāda and Syādvāda Above referred vows can be comfortably implemented if one starts accepting philosophy of non-absolutism (anekāntavāda) and the theory of relativity (ayādvāda). It is a theory of relativity of knowledge. Our knowledge is partial and can be only a view point.

322 ववधधद्रव्यदातऩृ ात्रववर्ेषात्तत饍ववर्ेष्। T.S. 7.39

323 अणुर्व्तोऽगारी । T.S. 7.20 324 R.H.Singh, The Foundation of Contemporary Yoga and Yoga Therapy, Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan, Delhi, 2009, p.77

174

Principle of anekāntavāda refers to aneka + anta i.e. indefinite ends or unlimited solutions. Every object has infinite aspects and except kevalī, each person with limited potentiality can not know each and every aspect of an object. Each concept has many meanings and all can be true from different points of view. Acarya Siddhasena Divakar gave this terminology anekāntavāda, saying that any reality can not be expressed only in one way. A thing can be one and many at the same time. According to this principle, soul is one and eternal. Though, individually, it is different or many. It‟s a law of multiple nature of reality. It is a key to unlock the mystery of the paradoxical nature of Reality. The nature of the reality can be in the form of substance, quality or modes. The same reality can be viewed from different stand-points. Anekāntavāda is an infinite approach or angle of looking at an element or event, and to prevent it relatively is syādvāda. This principle teaches us to try to understand others‟ thoughts and keep a neutral approach towards our own thoughts by “may be” attitude. Each thing has many characteristics, but when understood it as a whole unit, we know the reality. So, instead of creating doubt or uncertainty, syādvāda helps a correct, precise and thorough comprehension of the reality. Based as it is on anekāntavāda and the related nayavāda, the theory manifests the realistic, rational and highly tolerant spirit of Jainism. The very foundation of the Jainism is the conception of reality which is manifold, hence highly complex and pluralistic in character. Therefore Jainism is also called the philosophy of anekāntavāda. Non-violence can be practiced in two ways, by vyavahāranaya and niścayanaya. Approach of niścayanaya mentions it as a free and independent entity. It enables us to understand the reality from view point of the substance without denying the existence of modes (e.g. Gold and jwellery). One of the illustrations as it is mentioned above is ratnatrayī sādhanā (samyak darśana, samyak jñāna and samyak cāritra), which is self awareness of highest level. But, according to vyavahāranaya, soul is a bound entity. It allows us to comprehend the reality from perspective of its 175

attributes and modes, but deny existence of the substance (e.g. necklace)325. Few examples are austerity, detachment, and control over senses. This relativity principle or thought process can bring universal peace, unity and integrity in the universe. The way to implement this principle is syādvāda. Syādvāda is a way of living or thinking, whereas anekāntavāda is a policy, philosophy or principle, the Jain doctrine of many-sided reality, a true Jain follows. „syāt‟ means „may be‟ and „vāda‟ means „assertion‟. Thus, assertion of possibilities is syādvāda. Syāt is only partly known, much to be known. When things have many characters, naturally they are objects of all-sided knowledge. Any particular object can be viewed from different points of view. So when we speak of a particular aspect, we have to use the word `syāt' i.e., from a particular point of view, or as related to this aspect, this objects is such and not otherwise. So syādvāda is the doctrine of relativity of Judgment which is born out of the non-violent and non-absolutistic attitude of the Jains. It led to the uttermost cautiousness of speech of "explaining problems with the help of siyāvāya (syādvāda)”. Naya: (knowledge of all view-points): The scriptures refer to concept of relativity or theory of seven fold predictions where a specific significance with logic of statistical inference is mentioned as saptabhaṅgī naya. These seven naya-s326(naigama, saṅgraha, vyavahāra, ṛju, śabda, samabhirūḍha, evambhūta) are the view points having their separate organization. They all take shelter in nature of the things. One who is ideal in character should respect all. Originally, there are three possibilities i.e. may be, may not be and can not be expressed. But out of these, seven possibilities of different points of views can be framed as under:

325 T.Sethia, (ed.), Ahiṃsā, Anekanta and Jainism, Motilal Banarsidass publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 2004, 164 326 Yashovijay, Jnanasara, Jaina Sahitya Mandala, Bombay, p. 249, 1986 176

Existence Non-existence

Inexpressibility

1. syād asti: (it) may be. e.g. In a certain sense, the pot is 2. syād nāsti: may not be. In a certain sense, the pot is not. 3. syād asti- nāsti: may be and may not be. In a certain sense, the pot is and is not. 4. syād avaktavya: cannot be said. In a certain sense, the pot is inexpressible.

5. syād asti avaktavya: may be but, cannot be expressed. In a certain sense, the pot is and is inexpressible.

6. syād nāsti-avaktavya: may not be but, cannot be expressed. In a certain sense, the pot is not, and is inexpressible.

7. syād asti - nāsti - avaktavya: may be and may not be but, can not be expressed. In a certain sense, the pot is, is not, and is inexpressible. If we combine these seven options or possibilities (syāt) together, it becomes anekāntavāda. Our thought is relative. Our expressions are relative. Thus the doctrines of ahimsā, anekāntavāda and syādvāda are organically related. Anekāntavāda and syādavāda are complimentary to each other. According to Lord Mahāvīra, we can minimize attachments and aversions and establish harmony in our life by following this principle. It means total non-violence and forbearance in our thoughts because we think respectfully on anybody‟s views and review our own thoughts truthfully, critically and honestly. Each element has 177

many characteristics. Anekāntavāda makes us realize the whole of it. It minimizes our ego, attachment and aversion i.e. rāga and dveṣa.327 Series of questions and responses appeared in Bhagavatisūtra later on, because of the basis of the evolution of anekāntavāda. Naya is partial expression of the truth. 2. The inherent purity of the self: Fundamentally, each soul is pure in the original form. The innate potentiality of all the souls is to achieve final liberation. So, with total purification and intense efforts, one can attain liberation later or sooner. 3. The doctrine of naya: Each substance changes modes continuously. So, any judgement based on a particular mode of it is only partially or relatively true. Naya enables us to apprehend an object from a particular aspect at a time and also enables us to gain insight in the complex nature of Reality. It has two catagories: 1) Transcedental aspect (niścayanaya - ultimate, fundamental and integrated point of view). 2) Empirical aspect or pragmatic view (vyavahāranaya). This doctrine is already explained under the title of anekāntavāda. 4. The theory of knowledge: The knowledge originally comes from an omniscient, as he has complete and pure knowledge. So, one should have full faith in him to attain the state of „right faith‟, followed by the next state of „right knowledge‟. The different types of knowledge are discussed previously under the topic „Right Knowledge‟. The spiritual progress starts with matijñāna and śrūtijñāna. Then, the aspirant with his consistent enrichment of knowledge and intense desire of liberation attains the higher states avadhi, manah-paryāya and finally, kevalajñāna.

5. The Doctrine of Karma: The origin and development of the doctrine of karma is in Brahmanical, Budhhist and Jaina traditions. Especially in regards to its Genesis, doctrine of karma in Jainism is unique in many respects. Here, Karma is a form of matter, called as „pudgala‟ and is atomic in nature.

327 Vora Arti, “Samparksetu”, monthly, Nov.2011, p.9, Sri Zalawad Jain S.M.Mandal, Ghatkopar, Mumbai 178

“The number of atoms in every karman is infinite and are found in all six directions of space” as per The Uttaradhyāyana Sūtra (33.17-18)328. It is this micro sized atomic matter which binds all souls with downwards property (adhoguruttva), whereas pure soul has upward gravity (ūrdhvaguruttva). As per Bhagavatisūtra329 in Jainism, each and every activity involves karma. Whether one indulges in activity by mind, words or physical action, one does acquire karma-s. As worldly soul continually stays involved in one or another activity, the resulting karma-s continue to flow towards it. All the sources or causes of karma can be classified into two: a) Bhāvasrāva: Influx of karma due to our attitude. It is reflection or state of our soul at every moment. It is not a physical particle but, a form of our soul, (paryāya) such as angry soul, happy soul or greedy soul. These are of five types, namely:

1. mithyā darśana-s (Wrong perception and lack of faith) 2. āvirati (Intense attachment) 3. kaṣāya-s (like anger, greed and ego) 4. pramāda (Indolence) 5. śarīra (body) b) Dravyasrāva: These are physical karmic particles attached to (karma) or not attached to the soul (karma particle). Influx of this karma is of eight types as per Bhagavatisūtra as under. The sources and causes of all types are mentioned later under the topic of āsrava. 1. Jñānāvaraṇīya: This karma conceals wisdom and acts as an obstruction to the infinite right knowledge. If it is minimized or reduced, one gets more intelligence and learns more easily. Knowledge is of five types (mati, śruti, avadhi, manaḥparyāya and kevalī) as explained earlier, which is obscured by this karma.

328 H.Jacobi (tr.), Jaina Sūtras, SBEXLV, pt. II, Delhi, 1964 329 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8455/14/14_chapter%2010.pdf, Chapter-10, p.285 (Retrieved on 01.08.2016) 179

All practices mentioned under topics of saṃvara and nirjarā tend to minimise these karma particles. 2. Darśanāvaraṇīya: This karma conceals right insight and acts as an obstruction to faith or infinite perception power. It diminishes power of perceiving the right meaning and cognition. Thus, it prevents acceptance of the Jain code of conduct. 3. Mohanīya: This karma causes delusion, which is most dangerous. As it creates doubts about spiritual teachers, it destroys faith and right conduct or belief of soul. This karma can be darśanāmohanīya (perception related delusion) or caritramohanīya (character related delusion). 4. Antarāya karma: This obstructive karma prevents a person from engaging in virtuous activities like dāna (charity), lābha (benefits), upabhoga (enjoyment of fruits), virya (strength).330 It obstructs enjoyment of consumables and re-enjoyment of non-consumables and also making use of their powers to progress. 5. Vedanīya: It is Aghati karma, that can‟t be destroyed and which leads to experiences of pain (ashāta) and pleasure (shāta). 6. Āyuḥ karma: It is also Aghati Karma that which determines life span and type (gati) i.e. form of existence (hell or infernal, sub-human or tiryañca, human or celestial age creation). 7. Nāmakarma: It is Aghati Karma that determines the individuality, specific form of existence i.e. Body of human being. It can be ṣubh (good) or aṣubh (bad). Nāmakarma determines the physique331. Wrong or evil exercising of verbal, physical or mental faculties and raising disputes and quarrels lead to unwholesome nāmakarma providing poor physique. The contrary activities promoting unity and harmony among others lead to wholesome nāmakarma that give good physique and healthy body. Tattvārthasūtra 6.24 and 6.35 stipulate that criticizing others, praising the self, concealing the virtues and publicizing the vices of others result in acquisition of low

330 ववघ्नकरणमनतरायस्य। T.S. 6.27 331 T.S. 6.21, 6.22 180

status karma, giving us birth in the lower families. Whereas, the contrary types of high status karma give us birth in the higher families. Tīrthaṅkara Nāmakarma is the highest type of wholesome karma. For such nāmakarma, sixteen aspects or qualities as eligibilities are mentioned below as per Tattvārthasūtra332. a) Purity of perception b) Utmost modesty c) Faultless observance of restraints and spiritual code d) Maintaining pure awareness e) Acute desire for liberation f) Charity g) Austerities to the extent possible h) Extending peace and security to the religious order, monks and nuns i) Selfless servicing j) Dedication to the cause of Omniscient Lords k) Dedication to the heads of order l) Dedication to the learned people m) Dedication to the sacred books n) Observance of six essentials o) Promoting the right path p) Affection towards the fellow religionists

8. Gotra karma: That karma which determines social or economical status. Out of above karma-s, first four are ghātiya karma-s (destructive in nature). They obscure true nature of soul. The remaining four are aghāti karma-s (non- destructive).

332 दर्शनववर्ुवद्धतननश य सम्ऩननता र्ीऱवर्व्तेटवनतीचारोऽभीक्ष्ण ऻानोऩयोगसंवेगौ र्न्तत तस्त्तयागतऩसी

साधु समाधधवैयावत्तृ त्तयकरण महशदाचायश बहुश्रुत प्रवचन भन्ततरावश्य का ऩररहाणणमाशगं प्रभवनाप्रवचन वत्तसऱत्तव ममतततीथशकरत्तवस्य। T.S. 6.24 181

At the time of kevala jñāna, ghātiya karma-s (first four from the above) get destroyed. Then, the other four aghatiya karma-s get destroyed upon death. The soul attains ultimate liberation reaching to the final state known as state of siddha. Here, there is no more karmic bondage; the soul is permanently freed from the cycle of birth and death. Physical body, desires, requirements are not there, only eternal bliss is left. It is now a pure consciousness whose nature of infinite enlightenment and infinite happiness manifests by itself. As per Uttarādhyayana (34.1), karma produces leṣya-s, which determines character or personality of a man like his merits and demerits. Six types of leṣya-s are mentioned in Bhagavatisūtra333. They are kṛṣna, kāpota, nīla, tejo, padma and śukla. As per Umāswātī (T.S. - 6.1), karma operates through activities of our body, mind and speech (creation of matter). These three activities are done in three different ways: a) We do these activities ourselves b) We ask someone else to do for us c) We encourage or motivate someone else to carry out Thus, there are nine different ways that cause bondage of the karma to the soul. The quantity of the bondage of karma depends on physical vigor of activities and so is the result. The duration depends on quality of our passions at the time of activity. And the intensity depends on how intense are our passions at the time of activity. The capacity of soul to attract matter (which is „yoga‟ as per Jainism) and to absorb or assimilate it (kaṣāya) and capacity of karma to bind to the soul (bandha) facilitate the inflow (āsrava) of karma pudgala, karmic matter into soul as a result of mundane activities. The volume of the inflow (āsrava) of karmic matter depends upon the intensity of desires, intention, the power and position of an individual acting knowingly and of free will or out of compulsion. Freedom from bondage of karma is achieved by all spiritual activities like a. Preventing accumulation of karma (saṃvara) by vinaya (dharma) b. Stopping inflow of karma (āsrava)

333 Bhagavatisūtra, p.295 182

c. Purging or liquidating the existing stock (nirjarā) From activity in time point of view, karmas are classified334 into three headings: 1. Sattā karma: These are accumulated in past existence (similar to sañcita in Hindu religion). They are non-operative now, and maturity is not fixed. 2. Bandha karma: These are produced in present existence, but are effective later (agāmi or vartamāna). They constitute efforts for future fruits. 3. Udaya karma: These are previously generated, effective now. Consequences are currently destined (prārabdha) and fruits of karma are operative now. They are of two types, nikicat are those which must be experienced and the others are śithila, which can be avoided with Yogic and other spiritual practices. Puṇya and pāpa are categories of karma, earned depending on our activities, whether good or bad respectively and accordingly, they bring results like happiness, comfort or suffering and miseries. This philosophy is comparable with Hindu mythological stories which tell us: “You reap what you sow”. Thus through proper practice of meditation, we can sow a good thought and reap a good action. When a good action is sown, we can reap a good habit, which in turn can give us a good spiritual character. Any ritual or meditative practice in Jainism takes us towards spirituality. “Emancipation results from the dwindling of karma and that are achieved through self-absorption (ātma-dhyāna)335” Concept of puṇya (virtues) and pāpa (sins) and relevant effect of karma are more or less identical with most of philosophies and religions. Indian philosophies take into consideration not only the actual act but also the intention behind it. Depending on this, karma can also be classified in Jainism336 in following manner. 1. Puṇyānubandhi puṇya

334 “Jain Philosophy and Practice”, compiled by JAINA Education Committee, North America, (2002), p.103 335 George Feuerstein (2002), The Yoga Traditions, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi, 2002, Pg.194 336 “Jain Philosophy and Practice”, JAINA Education Committee, North America, (2002), pp.84-85

183

The earning of new Puṇya karma while enjoying the fruits of earlier ones, which also was puṇya karma, is puṇyanubandhi puṇya. During good time also, if someone intends and tries to perform good acts, the bondage of wholesome karma-s further bring good results. Though, very few people endeavor to earn it. 2. Pāpānubandhi puṇya While enjoying the fruits of wholesome karma, one may acquire through his active- ties pāpkarma-s and that is called pāpānubandhi puṇya. Here, the wholesome karma-s lead to unwholesome activities. Misery would be destined for them in the end. 3. Puṇyānubandhi pāpa While suffering the consequences of unwholesome karma, one may acquire puṇya karma-s is called punyānubandhi pāpa. It is very difficult to keep a sense of detachment while suffering from miseries. This is possible only if one can realize and think positively that this pain is due to one‟s previous karma. 4. Pāpānubandhi pāpa If one acquires pāpa karma while suffering the consequences of pāpa, it is called pāpānubandhi pāpa. Most of the people who suffers miseries and pains, normally blame others or some extraneous factors for causing miseries. He indulges in anger, jealousy, animosity and even terrorism in some extreme cases. Such person reacts violently or wrongly to suffering, inviting new pāpa karma and further accumulates them. Actually both these pāpa or puṇya karma are hurdles on the path of liberation. No karma can attach to a person if his or her action is done without any attachment or feeling of accomplishments by cultivating a sense of detachment in all situations, favourable or unfavourable. Inorder to have effective demolition of all karma, Jainism has nicely prescribed Tri- ratna-s i.e. triple attack towards liberation as mentioned earlier. Here, all achievements are by self-efforts and not by grace. So, meditation is focused on these efforts as mentioned below: 1. Samyak darśana: To know, perceive, believe, realize and experience total faith on right path as shown by tirthankaras, who is omniscient. 2. Samyak jñāna: To know and absorb the real form of jīva and ajīva. 184

3. Samyak cāritra: Meditate on our attitude and efforts towards implementation of pañca-vratas, pañca-samitis, tri-guptis and meditative techniques prescribed in scriptures. Jainism lays emphesis on undertaking puruṣārtha (present karma) so as to get rid of accumulated karma (sattā or prārabdha), and to reach increasingly higher state. Thus, instead of being a fatalistic concept, the theory of karma shows how to reach a higher and superior level by steadily removing karma making full efforts. All Jain literature tries to explain the ways how karma can be acquired and how that can be overcome through observances of restrains, austerities, inner reflections, meditation and various spiritual practices. In this birth of human being only, it is possible to get liberated from all limiting and restraining influences of karma and thereby to attain the blissful state. There is a definite cause and effect relations in this theory. Nothing happens suddenly without any past karma. More you enjoy pleasure and happiness (sukha), more śubha karma gets diminished. Similarly, more you enjoy or experience duḥkha or pain without grumbling, aśubha karma starts getting diminished. Finally the current state of meditation decides balance of karma and future fruits of the same. 6. The doctrine of five bodies (subtle physiology)337: The Jain scriptures classify our existence into five types of bodies. They are successively more subtle has his Hindu counterpart in the form of pañcakośa in teachings of Taittirīya-Upaniṣad. This is also called as Subtle Sūtrachology. These subtle five bodies are: 1. Karman śarīra: It is the inner most and subtlest layer. Here, karma matter with soul forms instrumental body which acts as a receptacle of karma and transmigrates at death and is reborn in different forms of life depending upon its karma. 2. Audārika śarīra: The other forms of body are physical human body.

337 G.Feuerstein, The Yoga Traditions, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi, 2002, p.194 185

3. Vaikarīya śarīra: The transformation body that is acquired by ascetics and natural for higher beings like deities. 4. Āhāraka śarīra: The procurement body to be projected anywhere for temporary purpose. 5. Taijasa śarīra: The fiery body is indestructible and survives death. The lower three bodies (2, 3 and 4) operate through its energy only. There are two types of animate entities, those who are trapped in the cosmos of dependence and suffering are samsārin-s, and those who have escaped samsāra, the wheel of continual becoming are siddha-s or perfected ones. They are without spatial location and experience unlimited bliss of infinite consciousness.

JAIN METAPHYSICS The entire philosophy in Jainism is based on concept of „self‟ or ātman. Jain‟s spiritual entities are comparable to Sāṃkhya‟s puruṣa or pure consciousness. The purpose of all spiritual practices is to know the self in its pure form and to identify one‟s own soul with this immaculate and transcendental reality. The fundamental basis of Jain philosophy is the belief that the pure and perfect (emancipated) state is integral to all the souls. A true Jain has always been conscious of the innate potentiality of achieving perfection and the possibility of realization of eternal disembodied and pure self-perfection. There are nine basic elements to be known to have knowledge of entire universe and for further actions in human life according to the āgama-s and Tattvārthasūtra (seven elements). These are explained in details here:

Nine Elements (nava-tattva-s): Basically there are nine fundamental elements (navatattva-s) in Jainism which are independent characters and also nature of matter. The Omniscient has explained the existence of the soul and its relationship with karma through these nine aspects as per Samavāyāṅgasūtra. Without having proper knowledge of these tattva-s, a person can‟t attain Right Faith (Samyak darśana), one of the Tri-ratna and progress spiritually. 186

Tattvārthsūtra mentions only seven elements338, where two elements pāpa and puṇya are not included and they are considered as part of the third element āsrava. These seven elements are Soul (jīva), Non-soul (ajīva), Influx of karmic particles (āsrava), Bondage of karma (bandha), Stoppage of karma (saṃvara), Gradual dissolutionand falling away of karma (nirjarā) and complete Liberation from worldly bondage (mokṣa) constitute reality. The detailed discussion on nine elements, including wholesome acts (puṇya), unwholesome acts (pāpa) will analyze the state of worldly soul and the factors that help or prevent in attaining the liberation. It is Philosophical arrangement and administration of this universe by following nine elements. We can categorize these nine elements into three types for our actions as: 1. jñeya (which is to be known): It includes first two i.e. jīva and ajīva. 2. heya (which are to be avoided): It includes āsrava, bandha and pāpa. 3. upādeya (which are to be adopted): It includes puṇya, saṃvara, nirjarā and mokṣa. The details of each element are given below:

1. Jīva (self, soul): It is soul, living being or consciousness. Though, modern science may not believe in the existence of soul, which is not seen or perceived by our senses. But then, it is not clear what exactly makes our body active and how activity comes to the end, though the organs have life in them when a person dies. The invisible energy or life force which keeps us alive and disappears when we die is the main difference between life and death. Even Oxygen can not give life to a dead body. Soul is invisible, shapeless, colorless, tasteless, formless and eternal. A given body of man or animal is temporary residence of a soul. The transmigration from one body to another and new embodiment birth after birth has been going on since the time without beginning as per Jainism. Ignorant of its true nature, the jīva aspires to get maximum happiness within the framework of its given embodiment and surrounding situations. This attachment gives rise to the disposition of craving for

338 जीवजीवास्रव बनधसंवरतनजरश ामोऺास्तत्तत्तवम।् T.S. 1.4 187

the desirable and of aversion for the undesirable. These craving and aversion are the main causes of the bondage of karma. We do not experience lasting happiness, because we don‟t realize the true properties of the soul. Happiness is the inherent property of the soul. Our seers, after thoroughly exploring the nature of the soul, concluded that true property of soul that distinguishes it from lifeless matter is the capability to know, to become aware. None of the five lifeless substances possesses this property. The three inherent nature of soul are the principle of life (consciousness), capacity for salvation and

339 incapacity for salvation . Consciousness is the distinctive characteristic of the soul340. Also, capability to know is the characteristic of the soul341. The principal characteristics of jīva are infinite awareness and eternal bliss. Sanskrit words for eternity, consciousness and bliss respectively are sat, citta and ānanda. Thus the perfect soul is saccidānanda.

Each soul (jīva) is capable of and gifted with infinite knowledge, faith and conduct. So, virtues like jñāna, darśana and caritra are not separate from our soul.342 Different catagories of jīva, their modes, sense organs, objects of senses, types of bodies and life span are described in Jain literature. Mainly five types of jīva are described here343. The distinctive characteristics of the soul are the dispositions (thought-activities) arising from subsidence, destruction, destruction-cum-subsidence of karma, the rise

339 जीवभव्याभव्यत्तवातन च । T.S. 2.7,

Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, (July, 2007)

340 उऩयोगो ऱऺणम।् T.S. 2.8 341 “Jain Philosophy and Practice”, JAINA Education Committee, North America (2002), p.82

342 एक एव दह तत्रात्तमा स्वभावे समवन्स्थत्I ऻान-दर्शन-चाररत्रऱऺण् प्रततऩाददत् II Adhyātmasāra (6/18/6)

343 औऩर्ममकऺातयकौ भावौ ममश्रश्च जीवस्य स्वतत्तत्तवमौदतयकऩाररणाममको च । T.S. 2.1, Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, (July, 2007) 188

of karma and the inherent nature or capacity of the soul. Thus, there are five modes or states of soul as under: a) Aupaśamika or suppressive jīva: Pacification or suppression of operative karma is done temporarily with right perception and right conduct. Aupaśamika mode of jīva relates to two categories of deluding karma namely, darśana-mohanīya and caritra-mohanīya i.e. Perception deluding and conduct deluding. b) Kṣayika or Destructive or elimination mode of jīva: This everlasting mode arise when all karma are destroyed. Here, two types of Omniscience-obscuring karma namely, kevala-jñānavaraṇīya and kevala-darśanavaraṇīya karma and five types of obstructing karma relating to charity, benefit, availing of consumer and durable goods and vigor and two kinds of deluding karma mentioned above get destroyed. c) Kṣayopaśamika or mixed mode: The above two modes arise when impact of karma either get destroyed or suppressed. But, when it is partly suppressed or destroyed, the state is called kṣayopaṣama. d) Audāyika or operative mode: It is possible that one may not resort to any of above mentioned modes or while resorting to any of such modes in respect of some karma, he may not be able to do so in respect of other karma, then the mode stays in consonance with the operative karma. As the rise of karma is called udaya, the mode in accordance with that is audāyika. There are four types of existence (human, heavenly, animal or infernal), four types of defilement, three types of sex inclination, wrong perception, one type of nescience and one type of non-restraint, embodiment and six types of aura. These twenty one categories relate to audāyika mode of jīva. e) Pāriṇāmika or intrinsic mode: This intrinsic nature of soul does not depend on any external factor. Consciousness and being worthy or unworthy of liberation are three innate characteristics of the soul. Jain traditions maintain that some souls are so addicted to wrong concepts that they can not see the truth.

Jīva (Souls) are divided into two categories: saṃsārik or worldly souls (transmigrat- ing) and siddha or liberated (emancipated) ones344. The wordly souls can be with or

344 संसाररणो मुतताश्च। T.S. 2.10 189

without minds (brain)345. Wordly souls can be mobile (trasa) or immobile (sthāvara)346. Immobile ones are sthāvara jīva, one-sensed, earthly, aquatic beings or plants. They are of five types347: a) Prithvikāya jīva: These are earth bodied like sand, clay. b) Āpakāya: These are water bodied like dew, fog, water. c) Tejokāya are innaminate types of fire bodies like flame, blaze, lightening. d) Vāyukāya or air bodies like wind, cyclone. e) Vanaspatikāya or plants bodies like leaves, branches, flowers and seeds. Depending on number of bodies in a plant they are of two types: pratyeka vanaspatikāya, which has single soul in plant body and sādharaṇa vanaspatikāya which has more than one soul or infinite souls in one body (anantakāya) like roots of potato, onion and garlic. Mobile ones or trasa are either two or more sensed bodies348. Jīva-s with two senses are (beyindriya jīva) like worms, insects and termites. They have sense of touch and taste. And others are more than two sensed beings, lusterous and gaseous. Three sensed jīva (treindriyas) have additional sense of smell. They are bugs, white ants, lice and others. Four sensed (cauindriyas) jīva have additional sense of sight or vision. They are scorpions, crickets, spiders, flies and others. Five senses, pañcendriya jīva, which are physical organs with additional sense of hearing, namely skin, tongue, nose, ears and eyes, can be material or dravyendriya. Examples are human beings, monkeys, cow, fish, birds and others. Mind which is an internal organ (bhāvendriya) has intellectual and spiritual capacity to know. The following are four sub-categories of the pañcendriya jīva-s. a) Nārakī (Infernal) – jīva-s living in hell.

345 समनस्कामनस्का्। T.S. 2.11

346 संसाररणस्त्रसस्थावरा्। T.S. 2.12

347 ऩधृ थव्यप्तजे ोवायुवनस्ऩतय् स्थावरा्। T.S. 2.13

348 饍वीन्नद्रयादयस्त्रसा्। T.S. 2.14 190

b) Tiryañca - Non-human beings i.e. elephants, lions, birds, fish, insects and others c) Deva (Celestial) - heavenly beings, d) Mānuṣya - Human beings. Those pañcendriya jīva without mind are called as asanjñi jīva. According to Tattvārthsūtra, a soul can take birth in three ways349: through pregnancy (Garbhajanya), spontaneous emergence (Upāpaātajanya) for heavenly and infernal bodies and agglutination (Sammoorchchhin) where soul absorbs the material particles lying on the spot and converts them into the agglutinated body. Garbhajanya jīva can be of three types: andaj (born from egg like birds), potaj (infant like elephant) and jarayuj (placenta like man, cow). Sammoorchchhin (asexual origin like flies, mosquitos) can be of four type: rasaj (out of liquid like bacteria), samavedaj (born out of sweat like bugs, mites), udbhij (burst out of earth) and aupāpātik (spontaneous births in hell of heaven). Souls moving from one body to another have only Karman body. Liberated souls move straight upward, whereas worldly souls can move straight or with turns. According to Tattvarthsūtra, madhyalok is the the area where we live and the infernal world (Nark) is the down most where infernal jīva live. There are seven layers of infernal abodes 350(sapta naraka) below our madhyaloka, named ratnaprabhā, śarkaraprabhā, vālukaprabhā, panka, dhūma, tamas and mahātamas. They are in- fested with increasingly unwholesome leṣya (aura) and with maximum lifespan of 1, 3, 5, 10, 17, 22, 33 sagaropams351. These jīva-s have poor metabolism, ugly bodies, horrible experiences and appalling shapes352. They cause pain to one another.353

349 संमूर्चछंनगभौऩरादा जनम। T.S. 2.32

350 रत्तनर्कश राबाऱुकाऩंक धूमतमोमहातम् प्रभा भूमयो घनाम्बुवाताकार् प्रततट्ा् सप्ताधोऽध्।T.S. 3.1

351 तेटवेकत्रत्र सप्त दर्सप्तदर्त्तदवा ववंर्तत त्रयन्स्त्रंर्त्तसागरोऩमासत्तत्तवानां ऩरा न्स्थत्। T.S. 2.8. 1Sagaropam = trillions of Palyopams, can‟t be explained in mathematical figures, but only by similies. For instance, if we make a chasm of 512cubic miles and tightly fill with fine particles of hairs or fibres and if 1hair is removed out of it every 100 years, time taken to empty it is one Palyopam.

352 नारका तनत्तयार्ुभतरऱेश्याऩररणाम देहवेदनाववकक्रया्। T.S. 3.3 191

Madhyalok consists of series of iselands, oceans is named as Jamboodweep, the ocean as Lavansamudra and mountain Meru. Tattvārthasūtra (3.16) states that out of 35 continents in Madhyalok, five Bharats, five Airavats and five Mahavidehs are karmabhoomis where people work for their livelihood. Tirthankars are born only in these karmabhoomis. Our Bharatkṡetra lies on extreme south of Jamboodweep. Maximum lifespan of human being or other creature is three Palyopams and minimum is antarmuhurta, which is less than 48minutes. Above our Madhyaloka is located Urdhvalok, Celestial abode. We need to study how the minds of ancient seers were working to form Jain concept of Geography and Cosmology which are not in accordance with current Science. The entire study indicates that we must have been born in all these wholesome and unwholesome abodes at different times and would continue to do so unless we undertake the spiritual pursuit for ending the cycle of birth and death. Jīva-s in Urdhvalok are Cosmic beings or Devas. They are imbibed with much physical strength, can move in any part of this universe and live luxurious life due to their austerities, restraints observed in previous lives. They are of four types Bhāvanāpati, Vyantar, Jyotishka and Vaimanik.354 Jīva-s are mutually helpful. Living beings are interdependent is a well known percept of Jainism. We know the interdependency of human and bacteria. The truth lies between two extremeties. Concept of modified constancy in Jainism says that everything remains constant within its property, but its states keep on changing.355 Soul is eternal and is always imbibed within its properties of knowing and perceiving. However, it assumes heavenly, human or other states like male and female from time to time. Everything retains its existence while undergoing changes in its states and forms. Each one has two aspects; one is constant which its inherent property and another is everchanging states of its forms. Everything is constant from

353 ऩरस्ऩरोदीररतद्ु खा्। T.S. 3.4 354 Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, 2007, T.S. 4.1 and 4.2 355 T.S. 5.29 - 5.31 192

absolute point of view, while from the practical point of view, it is temporary. Giving multiplicity of views is inexpressible and it leads to Saptabhangi. Guṇaparyāyavāda dravyam356, another principle of Jainism, explains that every substance is imbibed with its properties and changing modes. Thus, all living beings are embodied souls. Every soul is an independent entity and has been undergoing cycles of birth and death as a result of bondage of karma. A soul can abide in innumerable parts by virtue of its capability to expand and contract like light of a lamp. Jīva varies from body to body. The maximum size of jīva occurs at the time of liberation. One expands the body to the extent of the entire cosmic Universe when an Omniscient being is on the point of being liberated. This state is Kevali Samudghaṭa. 2. Ajīva (Insentient substances) Anything that does not have life or consciousness is called ajīva. Worldly life arises on account of interaction of soul with it. As there is no soul, it can not accumulate Karma. A box, car, table, book are few examples of non-sentient entities. ajīva-s don‟t have birth, death, pain or pleasure. According to one of the great Jain scholars, Acārya Kundakunda, the Reality or Cosmos consists of six eternal substances (dravyas) and each one is associated with guna. Jain philosophy has classified ajīva into five categories. These five non-santient substances (pañcastikāya) are as under357: Dharma (Priciples or medium of Motion) Adharma (Priciples or medium of Rest) Ākāśa (Space) Pudgal (Physical order of existence, matter) Kāla (Time) a) Dharmāstikāya: It denotes medium of motion. It prevails in loka (cosmic space) and absent in aloka (Trans cosmic space). Its primary function is to help in movement of soul and matter. It exists in entire cosmic universe. Ether like invisible substance is constant and eternal.

356 Ibid, 5.38 357 Ibid.,5.1 to 5.24 193

b) Adharmāstikāya: It denotes medium of rest. It helps to rest the movement of soul and matter. Thus, dharmāstikāya and adharmāstikāya are instrumental in motion and stability. Both these dharmāstikāya and adharmāstikāya 358substances are unique to Jain thought depicting the principles of motion and rest. They are said to pervade the entire universe. Dharma-tattva and adharma-tattva are by themselves not motion or rest but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without dharmāstikāya motion is not possible and without adharmāstikāya rest is not possible in the universe. c) Ākāśāstikāya (Space): It accommodates all other substances except Pudgal. It is all- pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points. Jainism divides Ākāṣa into two parts: Lokākāṣa and Alokākāṣa as mentioned above. Alokākāṣa is an empty space and does not contain any jīva, pudgala, kāla, dharmāstikāya and adharmāstikāya unlike Lokākāsha. It provides space or accommodation to soul and matter of their actions. d) Pudgalāstikāya (Matter): That continuously changes by addition (pud) and/or division (gal) is called matter or Pudgal. It is a tangible object like Prakṛti. Matter is non-living substance, which possesses a body consisting of mass and volume. They do not have consciousness and are of infinite in number. They can be seen by eyes, can aggregate and disaggregate others into indivisible and inactive substances. They can not exercise their own capability to move without medium of dharma, and capability to remain steady can be exercised with medium of adharma. Matter can be in the form of whole (skandha), part (skandha-deśa), smallest particle (skandha-pradeśa), atom (paramāṇu) or karma (karma-pudgala). Pudgala-s are responsible for body, speech and mind, inhalation and exhalation, pleasure and pain, life and death, touch, taste, odour, color, sound, darkness and light. It is nothing but matter which is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-fine matter or ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particles are considered the basic building block of all matter. One of the qualities of the paramāṇu

358 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattva_(Jainism) (Retrieved on 02/09/2014)

194

and pudgala is that of permanence and indestructibility. It combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the same. According to Jainism, it can neither be created nor destroyed. e) Kāla (Time): Time measures changes in living beings and non-living substances. According to Jainism, Samay is the smallest and indivisible portion of time, which is infinitely small part of a second. Time is linked to a wheel with twelve spokes divided into Avasarpiṇi (regressive, descending) and Utsarpiṇi (progressive or ascending) half cycles with six stages, each of immense duration estimated at billions of sāgaropamā or ocean years (For Kālacakra, Refer Appendix no. I on page no.348). According to Jains, sorrow increases at each progressive descending stage and happiness and bliss increase in each progressive ascending stage. Each half cycle is made up of six ārās (era) each one of unequal periods. Currently, we are in 5thEra or ārā of unhappiness (dukham kāla) which has been started after nirvāṇā of Lord Mahāvīra and is going to last for 21000 years. The function of Time is becoming, changing, moving and the concept of before and after. Time is a real entity according to Jainism and all activities, changes or modifications can be achieved only through time. The part of the universe, where dharmāstikāya and adharmāstikāya exist is called lokākāṡa (Cosmic universe). As per Jainism, finest part of pudgal is paramāṇu, which is finer than any sub- atomic particle. One paramāṇu occupies space known as pradeṡa. Binding of two or more paramāṇu is called Skandha. Jīva, dharma and adharma occupy innumerable pradeṡas, so the term āstikāya is attached. Dharma and adharma occupy the entire Universe; pudgala can occupy one or more parts. 3. Āsrava (influx of Karmic pudgala to ātman or jīva) With respect to bondage of karma, two fundamentals, namely āsrava and bandha are closely related. āsrava is made up of two words; „Aa‟ means from all sides, „Srav‟ means dripping in. Thus, inflow of karma is āsrava and bondage of these incoming karmas into our soul is bandha. The influx of karma occurs when the karmic particles are attracted to the soul on account of vibrations created by activities of 195

mind, speech and body. Exercising of physical, vocal and mental faculties constitutes yoga in Jainism. And that leads to āsrava. These three types of yoga cause vibration/throbbing in the space points of soul resulting in influx (āsrava) i.e. incoming of karma359. Āsrava acts as doors through which Karma enters. This is beautifully explained in Jain scripture Tattvārthasūtra360. If the soul gets involved in virtuous activities, āsrava happens to be wholesome karma and that leads to acquisition of Puṇya. If the soul is involved in sinful activities due to defilements (kaṣāyas) that exist in soul, Āsrava happens to be of unwholesome karma that leads to acquisition of pāpa361. Only undue exercising of the faculties can be deemed as causing āsrava. One acquires karma when one exercises faculties with attachement or resentment. Thus, āsrava are of two types: Samparāyik and Iryapathik. Exercising the faculties under the influence of defilement with passions, which extends transmigration gets resulted into samparāyika āsrava. Absence of restraints, kaṣāya, sense of attachment or aversion through sense organs and few specific activities like violence leads to samparayika āsrava. Exercising our faculties without defilement or with detached mind free from passions gets resulted into Iryapathik āsrava 362. Normally, a layman or householder observes activity with minor restraints. No worldly activity, in true sense, can be entirely wholesome or unwholesome. The difference of merits and demerits lies in degrees363. Influx is differentiated on the basis of intensity or feebleness of thought activity, intentional or unintentional nature

359 स आस्रव्। T.S. 6.2, Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, 2007

360 कायवा敍मन् कमश योग्। T.S. 6.1

361 र्ुभ् ऩुण्यस्यार्ुभ् ऩाऩस्य । T.S. 6.3

362 सकषायाकषाययो् सांऩरातयकेयाशऩथयो्। T.S. 6.4

363 तीर्व्मनदऻाताऻात भावाधधकरण वतयशववर्ेषेर्भयस्त饍ववर्ेष्। T.S. 6.6 196

of action, the substratum and its peculiar potency. If meritorious portion is higher, the activity is termed as wholesome and if unmeritorious part is higher, it is termed as unwholesome. The karmic inflow on account of yoga driven by passions and emotions cause a long term inflow of karma prolonging the cycle of reincarnations. On the other hand, the karmic inflows on account of actions that are not driven by passions and emotions have only a transient, short-lived karmic effect. The primary causes of āsrava are364: a) Mithyāva: False perception or ignorance b) Avirati: Attachment or lack of self restraint c) Pramāda: Stupor, unawareness or lack of mindfulness d) Kaṣāya: Passions or afflictions like anger, pride, deception and greed are four defilements. e) Yoga: Activities of mind, speech and body. If activity is done with these, then the karma acquired is relatively stronger and long duration. The intensity of karma depends on four factors: i. Degree of attachment, higher the degree, higher the intensity ii. Conditions under which activity is done knowingly or unknowingly iii. Vigor put in the activity, if stronger then, intensity is higher iv. Means employed for the purpose, if violent and objectionable means are employed then, the intensity of karma will be higher. Following activities lead to knowledge and perception obscuring karma365 which is unwholesome type: i. Vilification: Resenting a true presentation or wholesome display ii. Concealing: To hide the name of true benefactor iii. Withholding: Not to confer knowledge to a deserving person iv. Obstruction: Raising obstacles in the way of knowledge

364 Amarmuni, Acharangasūtra, sūtra-112, p.168

365 तत्तप्रदोष तनह्रवमात्तसयाशनतरायासादनोऩघाता ऻानदर्शनावरणयो् । T.S. 6.10 197

v. Disrespect: deliberate disregard towards the knowledge or means of knowledge vi. Condemning of the sources of acquiring knowledge: Outright opposition or total absence of appreciation Distress, lamentation, pain, wailing, violence and affliction caused to the self or others are the cause of acquiring aśātāvedanīya (uncomfortable situation conferring unwholesome) karma366, whereas love and compassion to all living beings, observance of restraints with the sense of attachment, charity, asceticism with attachment, involuntary dissociation of karmas without effort, austerities not based on right knowledge, contemplation, equanimity, freedom from greed forbearance and purity are the cause of acquiring śātāvedanīya (comfortable situation conferring wholesome) karma.367 Delusion is of two types, perception related and character related, i.e. darśanāmohaniya and caritramohaniya respectively. Attributing faults and slanderously talking about Omniscient Lords, scriptures, religious doctrines or heavenly beings leads to influx of perception-deluding karma368. Acutely perverted mode of soul by virtue of defilement, intense feelings induced by the rise of the passions leads to influx of character related deluding karma369. Indulging in excessive infliction of injury, very violent activity and excessive possessiveness cause influx of karma that leads to infernal life. Indulging in deception leads to animal, sub-animal or immobile (like one to four sensed being) life.370Antarāya or obstructing karma creates obstructions in good activities. Little infliction of injury or

366 द्ु ख र्ोकताऩा क्रनदन वधऩररदेवनान्नयत्तमऩरोभयस्थानयस饍वेघस्य। T.S. 6.11

367 भूतर्व्त्तयनुकम्ऩादानसराग संयमाददयोग् ऺान्नत् र्ौचममतत स饍वे饍यस्य। T.S. 6.12

368 के वमऱश्रुतसंघ धमश देवावणशवादो दर्शनमोहस्य। T.S. 6.13

369 कषायोदयात्ततीर्व्ऩररणामश्चाररत्रमोहस्य। T.S. 6.14

370 बह्वारम्भऩररग्रहत्तवं नारकसयायुष्।। T.S. 6.15, मायाततयशग्योनस्य। T.S. 6.16. 198

pain (domestic works) and little attachment, and also natural mildness cause the influx of life-karma that leads to human life.371 Restraint with attachment, restraint-cum-non-restraint, involuntary dissociation of karma-s and austerities accompanied by perverted faith, cause the influx of life- karma leading to celestial birth.372 Right belief also is the cause of influx of life- karma leading to celestial birth in the Heavens.373 Crooked and deceptive actions of mind, speech and body, and criticising the right actions and prompting for wrong actions cause the influx of inauspicious physique-making karma-s. The opposites of these (namely straightforward activity and honestry or candour) cause the influx of

374 auspicious physique-making karma-s . Censuring others and praising oneself, concealing good qualities present in others and proclaiming noble qualities absent in oneself, cause the influx of karma-s which lead to low status.375 The opposites of those mentioned in the previous sūtra and humility and modesty

376 cause the influx of karma-s which determine high status. Laying an obstacle in charity, gains, consumption and power of others is the cause of the influx of

377 antarāya-s i.e. obstructive karma-s. The influx of the highest type i.e. Tirthankara nāma-karma is caused by sixteen observances as mentioned earlier.

371 अऱऩारम्भऩररग्रहत्तवं मानुषस्य। T.S. 6.17, स्वभावमादशवं च। T.S. 6.18.

372 सरागसंयम संयमासंयमा काम तनजशराबाऱतऩांमस दैवस्य। T.S. 6.20

373 सम्यतत्तवं च। T.S. 6.21

374 योगवक्रता ववसंवादनंचार्ुभस्य नाम्न्। T.S. 6.22, त饍ववऩरीतं र्ुभस्य। T.S. 6.23

375 ऩरात्तमतननदा प्रर्ंसे सदस饍गुणोर्चछादनोावने च नीचैगौत्रस्य। T.S. 6.25

376 त饍ववऩयशयो नीचैवत्तशृ त्तयनुत्तसकौ चोत्ततरस्य। T.S. 6.26

377 ववघ्नकरणमनतरायस्य। T.S. 6.27 199

4. Bandha (Bondage of karma) Asrava is the cause, which leads to the influx of good and evil karmas and which leads to the bandha (bondage) of the soul. The soul assimilates the lifeless particles (pudgala-s) suitable for karma by indulging in defilement and that constitutes the bondage. The karmas have effect only when they are bound to the consciousness. This binding of the karma to the consciousness is called bandha. However, the yoga or the activities alone do not produce bondage. Out of the many causes of bondage, passion is considered as the main cause of bondage. The karmas are literally bound on account of the stickiness of the soul due to existence of various passions or mental dispositions. There are five primary causes of karmic bondage as said earlier. Wrong belief,

378 attachment, negligence, passions and activities are the causes of bondage. Āsrava and bandha both occur on account of ignorance of the soul about its true nature. And the cause of ignorance of soul could be its delusion. One believes that body, relatives, wealth and everything belong to him. This wrong perception is known as mithyātva. Due to this the soul views any given situation as the cause of its own happiness or unhappiness. If the situation is pleasing to the senses, the soul identifies itself with that feeling and craves for continuance of such situation, and if not pleasing, tries to avoid it with sense of aversion. This craving and aversion defiles the true nature of soul of staying in equanimity. These defilements are expressed in the form of four kaṣāya-s namely krodha (anger), māna (ego and arrogance), māyā (deception) and lobha (greed and attachment). These four passions drag the soul downwards. Owing to this, the self attracts subtle matter pervading the same space points occupied by the self, capable of turning into karmic matter, which is called influx. When such karmic matter is combined by interpenetration with the space points of

379 the self, it is called bondage.

378 ममथ्यादर्शनाववरततप्रमादकषाययोगा बनधहेतव्। T.S. 8.1

379 सकषायत्तवा煍जीव् कमणश ोयोग्यान ् ऩु饍गनानादत्तते स बनध्। T.S. 8.2 200

Depending upon four aspects of it, i.e. type, duration, intensity and plenitude of bondage of karma, there are eight main types of bandha-s380 with 97 categories. They are knowledge-obscuring, perception-obscuring, feeling-producing, deluding, life-determining, name-determining (physique making) status-determining and obstructive karma-s as mentioned below: i. Jñānavaraṇīya (knowledge-obscuring): Concealing, obstcuring knowledge and knowing capabilities of soul is knowledge obscuring karma and it has five categories. Bonding of such karma is Jñānavaraṇīya karma-bandha. ii. Darśanāvaraṇīya (perception-obscuring): Perception obscuring karma is darśanāvaraṇīya type. It is further divided into visual, non-visual, clairvoyant, kaivalyaprāpti and other nine types depending on type and level of perception. iii. Vedanīya (feeling-producing): Vedaniya karma is of two types, śatavedanīya, that provides favourable and comfortable situation and aśatavedanīya are those which provides us uncomfortable situation. iv. Mohanīya (deluding): Moha means delusion. It is delusion deluding karma. It dulls faculty of discrimination. It can be of various types like darśanamohaniya (three types of perception deluding karma), charitramohaniya (character deluding are of 25 types) karma. Thus there are twenty eight varieties. v. Ayushya (life-determining): This is life span determining karma and also decides type of life called as Yoni, i.e. infernal, animal, human or divine yoni. These are four types; any one would get bound to the soul. vi. Nāmakarma (name-determining): It determines outward appearance and inner conditioning also called as physique- making bondage. The topmost one is Tīrthaṅkara Namkarma. Here, we have 42 varities. vii. Gotra (status-determining): This karma determines status of family i.e. noble, prosperous, low or highly literate where one is going to take birth. Two types of gotrakarma are mentioned in the scripture. viii. Antarāya karma (obstructive): This karma raises obstacles in doing something. It creates obstacles in all wholesome activities like dāna, lābh, bhoga,

380 आ饍यो ऻान दर्शनावरणवेदनीय मोहनीयायुनाशमगोत्रानतराया्। T.S. 8.4 201

upabhoga and vīryantarāya. For the five types of senses also, we have five types of antarāya-s. Jñānavaraṇīya, darśanāvaraṇīya, mohanīya and antarāya are ghatiya (defiling) karma as they hinder the manifestation of the soul‟s natural attributes, whereas other four vedanīya, nāma, gotra and āyuṣya karma are aghatiya karma as they do not adversely affect the nature of the soul. The soul has simply to bear the consequences. The further details of bonding of and effects of karma are already given in the beginning of this chapter as a separate topic called “The doctrine of karma”.

5. Puṇya (Favourable condition through wholesome deeds) All our activities, physical or mental and verbal expression should be wholesome or pious and thoughts also should be pure to earn puṇya. Puṇya and pāpa are nothing but categories of karma, whether they are good or bad. When we do something good, comforting to others or we ask someone else to do something good, influx of karma would be wholesome and we accumulate Puṇya. The good variety of feeling- producing karma and the auspicious life, name and status-determining karma constitute merit or Puṇya.381Tattvarthsūtra mentions these eight types of puṇya karma as under: sātāvedanīya, samyakatvamohanīya, hāsya, rati, puruṣaveda, śubha-āyuṣya, śubha- nāma and śubha-gotra If we properly understand the implications of Lord Mahāvīra‟s message, “Live and let live”, it will go long way in molding our attitude towards all living creatures. As a result, we stop coming in the way of others seeking the same comforts of life, which we also seek. We always try to provide comfort and security to others. Such Puṇya karma brings happiness during this life and following lives. All spiritual and meditative practices mentioned in this Thesis are initially for earning Puṇya. 6. Pāpa (Unfavourable condition, Unwholesome deeds) When our activities are bad, cause suffering to others, we earn Pāpa karmas. When matures, it results into suffering and miseries. Unfortunately, most Pāpa karmas do

381 स饍वे饍यर्ुभायुनाशमगोत्राणण ऩुण्यम।् T.S. 8.25 202

not show their results immediately, people do not care about the consequences. Pāpa karma brings sufferings, diseases in this and future lives. All deeds that are not good are Pāpa.382 Jain scripture “Bhagvati sūtra383”, the fourth Agam describes eighteen kinds of sinful activities (pāpasthānaka,ऩाऩस्थानक) in which one should not get involved. Or do it with regrets, if must, and repent for doing such act, never enjoy doing it. They are as under: a) Prānātipat (hurting or killing life, starving, verbal violence): Every aspect of life we do the violence knowingly or unknowingly. b) Mṛṣāvād (telling lie, spreading rumors, writing false documents): It has become part of our life and getting more and more difficult to stick to the truth. c) Adattadan (stealing, theft, to take without permission) d) Maithun (unchaste, sensual enjoyment, lust): mostly, we are slave of our senses through out our life. e) Parigrah (possessiveness): Under the influence of our greed, we forget that one day, we have to leave all here and nothing comes with us after death. f) Krodh (anger, intolerance): In no time, it destroys the fruits of all good deeds and spiritual practices. g) Mān (arrogance, ego): It is very harmful on the path of spirituality. h) Māyā (cheating, deceit): It is very difficult to get out of clutch of it and to be simple and sober. i) Lobh (greed, which leads to anger, jealousy and war): Greed leads to many other Pāpa-karma. j) Rāg (attachment): We normally get and remain attached to our body, belongings and relatives. k) Dvesh (hatred, enmity): It‟s lust for comfort, hatred for pain and miseries. l) Kalah (quarreling): Greed, lust and rag-dwesh leads to this Pāpa.

382 अतोऽनयत्तऩाऩम।् T.S. 8.26 383 Bhagvatisūtra, p.299 203

m) Abhyākhyan (accusation): Our common nature of putting allegation on others for our faults leads to this Pāpaa. n) Paiśunya (gossip): Nobody likes to get victimized of it. o) Rati-arati (liking and disliking): pleasure and displeasure for sensual activities. Lack of equanimity, partiality and prejudice. p) Parparivād (criticism): It leads to hurting others and painful for us too. q) Māyā mṛshāvād (malice, telling a malicious lie): It is a combination of b) and h) Mithyātva śalya (wrong habits, to keep faith in false beliefs): The biggest root cause of other Pāpa mentioned above is this mithyātva or Avidyā. Acarya Hemchandra defines mithyātva as "belief in false divinities, false gurus and false scriptures384". This leads to suffering. Above referred pāpasthānakas are also called as kaṣāyas. “kaṣa” means worldly life and “aya” means gain. And with this gaining of worldly life, there is no chance of liberation. Thus, these kaṣāyas are hurdles on the spiritual path. One can understand that anger and ego are part of dveṣa and deceit and greed are part of rāga. Each of these kaṣāyas are classified into four catagories385 as under: 1. Anantanubandhi: This level of kaṣaya is extremely severe. It obstructs right faith and conduct. 2. Apratyakhyaniya: Intensity here is severe. It obstructs partial renunciation and partial vows. 3. Pratyakhyaniya: The intensity is moderate here. It obstructs total renunciation. The aspirant is unable to take vritts, can‟t follow or implement. It is compared with a line drawn on sand which gets eliminated with few efforts. 4. Saņjvalan: The intensity is slight and hardly lasts for 15days. It obstructs total faith and knowledge. It is compared with a line drawn on water, gets pacified without much efforts. There are few additional pāpasthānakas (pseudo-passions) as given below:

384 Robert Williams, Jaina Yoga: A Survey of the Mediaeval Śrāvakācāras, Motilal Banarsidass, 1998, p. 47 385 http://www.jainworld.com/philosophy/passions.asp, (Retrieved on 28/09/2015 ) and “Look N Learn” magazine dt.10/06/2013, Parasdham, Mumbai 204

1. Hāsya (laughing or joking) 2. Rati and A-rati (passionate) 3. Śoka (sadness) 4. Bhaya (fear) 5. Jugupsā (disgust) 6. Puruṣveda (cause of male sexual desire for women) 7. Striveda (cause of female sexual desire for men) 8. Napuṃsakaveda (cause of androgynal sexual desire - for both male and female) 7. Saṃvara (Stoppage of influx of karma) Saṃvara means prevention of Āsrav or the incoming karma386. It is restraining the influx of Karma pudgals. The first step to emancipation or the realization of the self is to see that all channels through which karma has been flowing into the soul have been stopped, so that no additional karma can accumulate. This is referred to as the stoppage of the inflow of karma or saṃvara. There are two kinds of saṃvara: that which is concerned with mental life (bhava-saṃvara), and that which refers to the removal of karmic particles (dravya-saṃvara). This stoppage is possible by self- control and freedom from attachment. The practice of vows, carefulness, self- control, observance of ten kinds of dharma, meditation, and the removal of the various obstacles, such as hunger, thirst, and passion stops the inflow of karma and protect the soul from the impurities of fresh karma. The soul can prevent influx of new karma while facing the consequences of the current operative karma, if it can avoid atleast main four kaṣāyas (passions) namely krodha, māna, māyā, lobha out of eighteen referred earlier. Though, it is difficult to stay in equanimity, one can try to change a given situation. Making efforts is also karma and if that happens to give instant results, the situation may change. One should learn the techniques given in the scriptures to prevent or minimise these four prime passions (kaṣāyas). Developing an attitude of forgiveness, penace and

386 आस्रवतनरोध् संवर्। T.S. 9.1, Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārth-Sūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, 2007 205

repentance will reduce the anger. For annihilation of lobha (greed), develop a habit of helping others, and also try to understand that our gain is somebody‟s loss. Humility and surrendering to God attitude definitely reduces our ego (mān). Honesty is the best practice to take care of māyā-kaṣāya. The main cause of these kaṣāyas is fruitation of mohaniya karma. One should avoid the sense of pride and arrogance in favourable circumstances and stop blaming anything or anybody else for unfavourable circumstances. Thus, staying free of kaṣāyas is Saṃvara and it helps prevent the inflow of new karmas. To attain Saṃvara, constant practice of following elements is required. a) Right belief b) Observance of vows c) Awareness d) Passionlessness e) Peacefulness of vibratory activities Jain literature explains 57 (5 Samitis +3 Guptis +10 Yatidharma +12 Bhāvanās +22 Pariśala +5 Caritra) practical ways to stop influx of karma as under: Uttarādhyayansūtra is one of the Mūla sūtras (fundamental principles) and the Jain scripture of direct utterances and last sermon by lord Mahāvīra before his nirvāṇa and it describes the essence of Mahāvīra‟s thoughts regarding social and spiritual life of man. In this holy literature, five samitis and three guptis are described in 24th chapter “Pravacan-māta” (mother of all discourses). These samitis and guptis are also described in Tattvārthasūtra. Samitis are rules of conduct which ensures indulgence in the right or auspicious practices and guptis are avoiding misconduct or abstaining from indulgence in wrong or inauspicious practices. Five types of Samitis387 (Carefulness, circumspection), which purify the actions by maintaining vigilance are Iryā. Bhāshā, Eshnā, Ādāna-nikśepa and Utsarga as explained below:

387 ईयाशभाषैषणा दान तनऺेऩोत्तसगाश सममतय्।T.S. 9.1 206

1. Īryā samiti (carefulness in movements): Taking care while walking not to harm and hurt any living creature like insects or any movement with full mental awareness and attention to the acts results into purification. 2. Bhāṣā samiti (carefulness in speech): No indulgence in anger, conceit, greed, pride, laughter, fear, gossip and slandering. Only use faultless language with brevity and proper time. 3. Eṣaṇā samiti (carefulness in exploring alms): while begging or accepting and using the required articles and bed one should ensure purity of all. Acquire only necessary items innocently. 4. Ādāna Nikśepa samiti (Circumspection in taking, moving and keeping any object including bowls): A careful ascetic should observe and check himself while picking up and putting down both common and special equipment and items. 5. Utsarga or Paristhāpanika samiti (carefulness in disposing waste): One should dispose stool, urine, mucus, slim from the nose, body dirt, waste things and even his body with due care at a suitable solitary place for disposal so as not to cause any inconvenience to anybody by becoming a source of nuisance, unsanitation or contamination. As this waste may cause generation of germs and insects and death of them. As it is almost impossible to restrain all possible activities as mentioned in guptis below, one has to carry on many activities till he or she is alive, one can follow samitis by keeping awareness while performing them. Three guptis (restraints or preservation) are prescribed in the scriptures, which curb sinful activities. It is restraining yoga which is mental, vocal and physical faculties388. 1. Manogupti (Mental restraint): The ascetic should prevent his mind with full awareness from wishing thoughts of causing injury or destruction of others. One should guard his mind from impture thoughts like anger, hate, greed, jealous and ego. Four types of thoughts or words are there namely: truth, untruth, partial truth and neither truth or untruth. One should be proper selective while inviting thoughts.

388 सम्यग्योगतनग्रहो गुन्प्त्। T.S. 9.4 207

2. Vacanagupti (Vocal restraints): It is regulation of speech. No words harming or embarrassing others should be uttered. 3. Kāyagupti (Physical restraints): It is regulation of body movements. One should prevent bodily activities directed at misfortune, causing misery to or destruction of other living beings. While walking, jogging or moving anywhere, one should be alert enough not to kill, harm any bugs, insect on the path. Guptis and Samitis are closely related. Samitis purify our actions and Guptis prohibit any seenful activities by our body, mind or speech and so included for practicing Saṃvar. Both are very much useful to the spiritual aspirants. They are included in observing right conduct. Yati dharmas, ten religious virtues also called as daśalakṣaṇadharma389 according to Tattvārthasūtra which stipulates these attributes as the topmost (uttam) religion were discussed earlier under „spiritual practices for householders‟. 12 types of attitudes or practice of Reflections or cintanānuprekṣā: Tattvārthasūtra also prescribes twelve positive thoughts of contemplation designed with one-pointed mind to serve as an aid to spiritual progress leading to the path of renunciation. They are called as anuprekṣā or bhāvanā or chintanānuprekshā.390 These are reflections as meditation on transitoriness, helplessness, trans-migration, loneliness, distinctness, impurity, influx, stoppage, dissociation, the universe, rarity of enlighten-ment and the truth proclaimed by religion explained as under: a) Anitya bhāvanā or anityanucintanānuprekṣā:391 One has to meditate profoundly on Tirthankar‟s words on impermanence of the world and all worldly things including our body. All these and places or genus where we are living are transitory, nothing is permanent and all is perishable and hence, we should not get attached to any of them. This practice is comparable with one of the meditative

389 उत्ततमऺमामादशवाजशवसत्तय र्ौचसंयम तऩस्त्तयागा कक祍चनय ब्रह्मचयाशणण धमश्। T.S. 9.5

390 अतनत्तयार्रण संसारैकत्तवानयत्तवार्ुर्चयास्रवसंवर तनजशरा ऱोकबोधध दऱु भश

धमस्श वाख्यातत्तत्तवानुधचनतनमनुप्रेऺा् । T.S. 9.7 391 Amarmuni, Achārangasūtra, sūtra-400, p. 557 208

practices based on the same principle of non-permanency in Buddhism which is also called as „Anitya Bhāvnā‟. b) Āśaraṇa Bhāvanā (Aṣaraṇucintanānuprekṣā): Āśaraṇa means unsheltered, helpless. Meditate on thought that no one else is going to give us protection, shelter and nobody can share my pains and sufferings except the ultimate. I have to experience all myself. So, surrender to him. At the time of death, we become helpless as nobody can save us. No worldly things can provide refuge so why should we depend upon them. c) Samsāra Bhāvanā: Saṃsārānucintanānuprekṣā means contemplating on worldly order. Meditate on thought that there is no permanent relationship with anyone in this universe. During the cycle of birth and death, any friend becomes enemy and vice versa. Our own people, samsarik mother, sister keep on changing, sometimes in the same cycle too. So, we should not have any attachment for any type of relationship. We should make attempts to attain permanent happiness. d) Ekatva Bhāvanā: Ekatattvānicintanānuprekṣā is contemplation on solitude of the soul. e.g. “I am alone, was born alone will die alone, am sick alone, am going to suffer alone. I have to experience the karmas, which I have acquired alone.” This meditation can free us from sense of attachment and accelerate towards liberation. e) Anyatva Bhāvanā: Anyatvanucintanānuprekṣā means the otherness, different from everything else. Think and realize that this body is separate from the soul. Realize that this body, wealth and family are not mine and different from me. f) Aṣuci Bhāvanā: Aṣucicintanānuprekṣā is contemplation on contents and components of our body. Actually, they are in no way adorable or pleasing. This body is made up of and is producing lots of impurities is the thought which minimizes our attachment towards it. g) Āsrava Bhāvanā: Asravanucintanānuprekṣā is to become aware of influx of karmās and their consequences. All sources and causes that create the inflow of karmās should be discarded. Sensual desires bring lots of bad karmās. We come to know by this contemplation that every indulgence in the sense objects leads to Asrava. The root cause of all miseries is relation of soul with karma pudgals, so get detached. Minimise and stop accumulation of karmās. 209

h) Saṃvara Bhāvanā: Saṃvaranucintanānuprekṣā is to meditate on wishful implementation of all mahavruttas, to appreciate all great souls and try to adopt those characteristics that they lived. Above reflection on Asrava leads us to contemplate on stoppage of influx karmās and various methods thereof. One should carry out those activities including contemplation on Samiti, Gupti, Yati and dharmā mentioned earlier which reduce or block new bondages of karma. i) Nirjarā Bhāvanā: Nirjaranucintanānuprekṣā burns all karmās giving faster results. Make efforts for „sakāma nirjarā‟ and automatic arousal of good karma or experiencing fruits of all karma is „akāma nirjarā‟. Contemplate on shedding of accumulated karma, and various spiritual practices for destroying them. One must contemplate on twelve kinds of austerities, peacefully bearing the hardships and discomforts that one may come across by virtue of karma without grumbling. j) Loka Bhāvanā: Lokanucintanānuprekṣā is to know about self, universe or their interdependency. Loka means cosmos (vishvaracana), which is made up of panchāstikay. Meditate on transitoriness of this universe, on three Lokas, namely the Upper world, the middle and the lower world filled with souls and pudgala-s. It improves metaphysical knowledge and philosophy. k) Bodhi-durlabha Bhāvanā: Bodhidurlabhanuchintananuprekṣā is to meditate on this birth and its uniqueness. It also includes thoughts of repentance about unattainability of the right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. One must contemplate on how difficult it is for the souls that are wandering aimlessly in the four stages of existence in this vicious cycle, where there is a rare chance of right guidance and enlightenment. l) Dharma Bhāvanā: Dharmanuchintananuprekṣā is to meditate on our true religion, duties and aim of the life. Thoughts of repentance about unattainability of true preceptor, scripture and religion and appreciate the omniscient who has expounded an excellent śṛta Dharma and Caritra Dharmā. Thus, adoring the spiritual aspects laid by Tirthankars amounts to attitude called as Dharmā- svakhyatattvānuprekshā. This helps to stay firm on the spiritual path. These states of mind and this attitude teach us to utilize the spiritual knowledge in developing and expanding one‟s own soul. It inspires to purify and develop the inner 210

soul. Apart from these twelve reflections, there are four more additional reflections that represent the positive means of supporting the five vows. They play very important role in the day-to-day life of a householder as they are intended to develop purity of thoughts and sincerity in the practice of religion. They can be practiced very easily to attain the right sentiments. They are maitri (amity), pramod (appreciation), karunā (compassion) and madhyastha (equanimity)392. Maitri Bhāvanā is contemplation of friendship. Lord Mahāvīra‟s philosophy is cultivating friendliness towards all living beings and adores the virtuous which brings love and respect to others. Result of this meditation is removal of harsh thoughts, words and actions which will hurt others. It leads to a supportive, tolerant, caring and forgiving attitude. Pramod Bhāvanā is admiring the success of our friends or others including spiritual leaders. Friendship combined with admiration, destroys jealousy. At the end, negative impulses get turned into positive ones resulting into peace. By appreciating the virtues of others, we develop that virtue. Karuṇā Bhāvanā is expressing compassion towards weak, helpless, addicted with vices, poor and people in distress instead of disgust or hate. We can show such people the right path with patience, tolerance and forgiveness. Thus, we can avoid accumulating bad karmas for us as well as for them. Madhyastha Bhāvanā is remaining in equanimity, instead of provoking turmoil in our mind when situation does not work out favorably or somebody behaves abnormally causing terrorism in the society. Instead of being disappointed, angry or getting disturbed, try to be calm thinking that you have done your best to resolve the situation. Develop objectivity towards the inveterate. It is not in our hand to change others, so change our own approach, attitude and neglect reaction of others. Thus, we can avoid influx of bad karma and live peacefully in the worldly life by developing friendship with all living beings, admiring their success, holding their hands when they are in distress, and leaving them alone at the times when they do

392 मैत्रीप्रमोद का셁ण्यमाध्यस्थ्यातन च सत्तत्तवगुणाधधक न्तऱश्यमानाववनयेषु।T.S. 7.11

211

not understand what is right or wrong. One should continue contemplating on these attitudes or bhāvanā till it becomes the natural way of life to observe them. Twenty two hardships (Pariṣahā) are mentioned in Tattvārthasūtra. One has to experience hardships in the form of hurdles or obstacles on this path just as result of the past karma. These hardships393are hunger, thirst, cold, heat, insect-bites, nakedness, absence of pleasures, women, pain arising from roaming, discomfort of postures, uncomfortable couch, scolding, injury, begging, lack of gain, illness, pain inflicted by blades of grass, dirt, reverence and honour (good as well as bad reception), arrogance of learning, despair or uneasiness arising from ignorance and lack of faith. They are mainly for testing if we could maintain calmness or the state of equanimity, to stay on the right path for eradicating the bondage of karma. Inspite of all hardships, if one can ignore the bodily concerns, he can prevent acquisition of new karma. A spiritual aspirant should remain aware that hardships arise as the consequence of karma and need to be borne with patience. More than nineteen pariṣāha-s or afflictions can not occur simultaneously394since one out of cold and heat and one out of pain arising from roaming, discomfort of postures and uncomfortable couch can occur at a time. Tattvārthasūtra describes fourteen stages of spiritual elevation395and development for stopping of karma inflow and how much one has to bear with the above hardships in each stage. It also specifies types of karma that lead to different hardships (pariṣāha-s). Only Jnānāvaraniya (knowledge obscuring), darṣanāvaraṇīya (perception obscuring), Mohaniya (perception-deluding), caritramohaniya (character-deluding), vedaniya (situation conferring) and antaraya (obstructing) karma are responsible for causing hardships (pariṣāha-s).

393 ऺुन्त्तऩऩासार्ीतोटणदंर्मर्कनाग्नयारततस्त्रीचयाशतनष饍यार्य्याक्रोधवधयाचनाऱाभरोगतणृ स्ऩर्शमऱसत्तकार

ऩुरस्कारप्रऻानां दर्शनातन । T.S. 9.9

394 एकादयो भा煍या युगऩदेकन्स्मनन ै कोनववंर्ते् । T.S. 9.1

395 सूक्ष्मसांऩरायछस्थवीतरागयोश्चतुदशर् । T.S. 9.10 212

Five cāritras396 (conduct) are also included in these 57 ways of Saṃvara. These practices should be considered as steps towards liberation. They are Sāmāyika, chedopasthāpana, pariharāviṣuddhi, sukṣma-Samparāya and yathākhyātāmiti. They are explained below: a) Sāmāyika: „sām‟ is equanimity and „āy‟ means incoming, Sāmāyika is effort to cultivating equilibrium of mind throughout life. b) Chhedopasthāpana Cāritra: After initiation and adoption of Sāmāyika attitude, one has to live a life of an ascetic. There is a reinitiation in case of failure to keep the vow by taking to the vow again after penance. Jain monks stay in Sāmāyika forever, for which they take vow known as Vadi-Dikṣā. c) Pariharāviṣuddhi cāritra: It is a stage of higher purification. One has to follow special types of penance as an ascetic. It involves adopting various hard postures. d) Sukṣma-Samparāya-cāritra: To live a life without any kaṣāya or afflictions or a subtle degree of defilement. Here, almost all types of defilements are overcome, except a few wholesome attachments. Those attachments can stay upto tenth stage of spiritual elevation. e) Yathākhyāta or Vitarāga cāritra is the last, twelfth stage of spiritual elevation. It is a state of total detachment and dissociation of deluding karma and living a life of an Arihant. More and more, we practice these virtues, faster we attain spiritual upliftment. The superior level of observance, the higher one rises on the ladder of spiritual elevation. 8. Nirjarā (exhaustion of the accumulated karma) Nirjarā is partial eradication of acquired karmas. Previously acquired karma that becomes operative, get exhausted as they mature. When karmas after giving the end results get exhausted on their own and no active effort was made to eradicate them, it is called akām Nirjarā, which happens automatically. Efforts in the form of twelve types of penance or austerity can eradicate accumulated karmas which are bonded with the soul in the dormant form currently, before they become operative. This

396 सामातयकर्चछेदोऩस्थाऩना ऩररहार ववर्ुवद्धसूक्ष्म सांऩराय थाख्यातममततचाररत्रम ्। T.S. 9.18 213

process of eradication by deliberate effort is sakām Nirjarā or avipāka Nirjarā. Twenty two hardships397 (parisāha-s) mentioned above for Saṃvara could actually be included in sakām nirjarā. This eradication or shedding or destruction process has two stages. The state of omniscience or Kevaljnān is attained when one totally overcomes delusion and also when all defiling (Ghāti) karmas are destroyed. After attaining Kevaljnān, one may continue to live as he has to destroy other Aghāti karmas like Ayu, Nām, Gotra and Vedaniya karma. These karmas get destroyed only upon death. Lord Mahāvīra lived for thirty years after attaining Kevaljnān. The soul is like a mirror which looks dim when the dust of karma is deposited on its surface. When karma is removed by destruction, the soul shines in its pure and transcendent form. It then attains the goal of mokṡa. Nirjarā can also be classified as of two types: the psychic aspect of the removal of karma (bhāva-nirjarā) and destruction of the particles of karma (dravya-nirjarā). Acārya Umasvati wrote in „Tatvārthasūtra‟ that Nirjarā can be achieved by Tapa or austerities.398 Jain Agamas have prescribed six types of internal and six types of external austerities or Tapa. Fasting is just one of the external austerities. Austerities not only prevent influx of karma (Saṃvara), but eradicate accumulated karma (Nirjara) too. Tapa was given prime importance by Lord Mahāvīra also which is described in Acārang sūtra399 Three stanzas from „Pancācār sūtra‟ state as follows:400 When these twelve types of tapa are observed, without getting perturbed or any other consideration, it becomes code of austerity called as Tapāchār. These are the principle ways of Nirjarā.

397 Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, 2007

मागाशर्चयवनतनजशराथशऩररषोढव्या् ऩरीषहा्। T.S. 9.8

398 तऩसा तनजशरा च। T.S. 9.3 399 “Acāranga sūtra”, 6/47, 66, 107, 108 400 “Jain Philosophy and Practice” JAINA Education Committee, North America, 2002, p.91 214

I. Tatvārthasūtra mentions six types of external austerities401. They are fasting, reduced diet and special restrictions while accepting food from a household, giving up stimulating and delicious dishes, lonely habitation and mortification of the body. They are explained as under: a) Anaṣan (Fasting): It is going without food or not eating for aspecified time. b) Avamaudārya or Uṇodari: It insists on eating less than needed. With this, spiritual aspirants, when they don‟t get enough to eat, with little empty stomach can stay unperturbed. c) Vṛtti-sankṡep or Vṛtti Sāṃkhyan is curtailing desires or eating within the limits of predetermined restrictions of material, area, time and mode. Number and type of materials to be used is curtailed here. One has to remain satisfied inspite of all these restrictions. One can not go for spiritual development without contentment and tranquility of mind in all circumstances. d) Rasatyāga or Āyambila is relinquishing tasty food. Give up attachment for the taste, as it is unsatiable craze. Hankering for taste does not allow a person peace of mind. Diet should not create a hurdle on the spiritual path. Detail of „Āyambil tap‟ is given later in this chapter. e) Kāyā-kleṣa is tolerating or bearing physical pain voluntarily. It is a physical hardship. Meditation with Kāyā-kleṣa in Kāyotsarga mudra inspires the aspirant to get detached from the body and focused on the soul. f) Sāllinatā or Viviktaṣayyāsan is staying in forlon place, occupying minimum space and braving discomfort. Varieties of external austerities or also called as Tapasyās in Jainism are of following types in ascending order: i) Navkārsi: Taking food or water only 48 minutes after sunrise. ii) Porsi: Taking food or water only three hours after sunrise. iii) Sādh-porsi: Taking food or water only 4.5 hours after sunrise. iv) Purimiddha: Taking food or water only six hours after sunrise.

401 Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārth-Sūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, 2007,

अनर्ानावमोदयवश न्ृ त्ततऩररसंख्यानरसऩररत्तयागववववततसय्यासनकायतऱेर्ा बाह्य तऩ्। T.S. 9.19 215

v) Avadhdh: Taking food or water only nine hours after sunrise. vi) Chauvihar / Tivihār: One must not take anything after sunset or only water once. vii) Biyāsaṇa: Taking food only twice a day in one seat, one place. Boiled water only between Sunrise and Sunset. viii) Ekāsaṇa: Taking food only once a day in one seat, one place. Boiled water only between Sunrise and Sunset. ix) Āyambil: Taking food only once, while sitting at one place. The food has no taste, spices, milk, sugar, oil or any vegetables or fruits. x) Upavāsa: One must not take any food for about 32 hours for one fast i.e. from previous night to next morning of the day of Upavās. In Tivihār Upavās, boiled water can be taken between sunrise and sunset only. In Chauvihār Upavās, even water also is not allowed. xi) Chhath: Upavās for two consecutive days xii) Attham: Upavās for three consecutive days xiii) Atthāi: Upavās for eight consecutive days xiv) Māsakṣamaṇ: Upavās for thirty consecutive days (only on boiled water for one month) xv) Varsi-tapa: Alternate days Upavās for fourteen months. xvi) Navpad Olἷ: Twice in every year Āyambil as mentioned in ix) done for nine consecutive days. Sometimes, it is restricted to one type of grain only in a day. External tapa is important as far as it is helpful and is conducive to internal tapa. The actual tapa for Nirjarā is internal tapa. Such Tapa in the form of various types of fasting called as „Upavās‟ is very popular among Jains. „Upa‟ means closer and „Vās‟ means abode. Thus Upavās really means abiding in proximity with or in tune with the soul. If a person sincerely tries to stay in accordance with the real nature of soul, he cannot indulge in any sense of craving or aversion and can reach up to a higher level of Nirjarā. When someone observes the penance of Upavās, he should spend his day in meditation, prayers and spiritual activities. 216

Austeriries bring a sense of detachment towards worldly pleasures as they are ephemeral and nothing stays forever. Without the sense of detachment and acute desire for liberation, it would be hard to adhere to the restraints. The main purpose of observing all these above referred austeritiesis to enable oneself for internal austeriries. II. Internal Tapa includes six types of austerities402. They are as under: a) Prāyaṣcitta (repentance, atonement) b) Vinaya (modesty) c) Veyāvaccha (service to all monks) d) svādhyāya (self-study) e) dhyāna (meditation) and f) kāusagga (Japa meditation) are internal Tapa as explained under: a) Repentance (Prāyaṣchitta) is attonement for our indulgence in wrong activities or evil tendencies. The sense of remorse should enable one to avoid the recurrence of such indulgences. Nine categories of repentances are mentioned in Tattvārthasautra403namely Ālochan (confession), Pratikamaṇ (recalling the lapses with a view to attoning), Tadubhay (Confession and attonement), Vivek (discriminating wisdom), Vyutsarga (giving up physical and mental involvement), Tapa (austerities), Chhed (reduction in proportion and delay in initiation of faults), parihāra (remaining in a quarantine for a specific period), Upasthāpan (re-adoption of vows). b) Reverence (Vinay) means modesty, humility and respect for others. With this egoless attitude, one may feel inclined to develop the wholesome attributes by noticing the virtues of others which leads one to increasingly higher spiritual level. c) Rendering selfless service (Veyāvachcham):404 Respectful service to the head (ācārya), the preceptor, the ascetic, the disciple, the ailing ascetic, the congregation of aged saints, the congregation of disciples of a common teacher, the congregation of the four orders (ascetic, nuns, laymen and laywomen), the long-standing ascetic and the ascetic of high reputation are the ten kinds of service. A spiritual aspirant

402 प्रायन्श्चववनय वैया वत्तृ त्तयस्वाध्याय व्युत्तसगध्श यानानयुत्ततरम।् T.S. 9.20

403 आऱोचनप्रततक्रमणतदभु य वववेक व्युतसगतश ऩश्छेदऩररहारोऩस्थाऩना्। T.S. 9.22

404 आचायोऩाध्याय तऩन्स्वर्ैऺ ग्ऱानगण कु ऱ संघ साधु मनोऻानाम।् T.S. 9.24 217

knows that all living beings have the same type of soul. So, he needs to develop regards for others, thus a will to serve others without expecting in return. d) Self-study (Svādhyāy): Svādhyāya or “self study” is of great importance in Jainism. The study of self is conducted to learn and to know the true nature of the soul. Study of those scriptures and meditation which has potential of uplifting self towards liberation is Svādhyāy. The Bhāṣya of the Agama „Sthānānga Sūtra‟ says: Shobhanam amaryadaya adhyayan srutesyadhikamanusaranam swadhayah Svādhyāya is methodological, systematic study and implementation with full of awareness and control of what is heard (srut). It is also self-study or study of self, soul i.e. Svasyah ātmannah adhyayanam svadhyayah When the closest disciple Gautam asks Lord Mahāvīraa, “Sahajjanam bhante jīve ki jāṇayi?” It means “What one gains out of Svādhyāya?” Mahāvīra replies, “Sajjanam nāṇāvarnijja kammam khaveh” It means “all accumulated Jnānāvarṇiya karma can be destroyed instantly with Svādhyāya.” The proper form of words could be understood and explained in the right meaning with Svādhyāya. His words are more effective and influencial, who is true practitioner of Svādhyāya. Daṡavaikālika sūtra explains that monks with pure mind can wash out all past bondages as gold and silver get purified by heating them in fire if they do Svādhyāya and meditation with full concentration. e) Renunciation of body (Vyutsarga, Kāyotsarga) means to give up or renounce from the body. Giving up external and internal attachments are two types of renunciations.405 f) Dhyāna is meditation. Tattvārthasūtra refers to concentration on one subject by a person of a very strong physique which can extend upto one prahar or 48 minutes406.

405 बाह्यार्भयनतरोऩध्यो्। T.S. 9.26 218

The Acāranga Sūtra based on teachings of Lord Mahāvīra dating back to 500 B.C., describes Jain meditation and spiritual practices elaborately and in minute detail of philosophy. The Sūtraktianga, Bhagavati and Sthānāng also give directions on contemplation, Yogāsana, meditation and other practices. Aupapāttika has organised presentation of Tapoyoga which is a kind of right conduct.

The Agamas and other scriptures in Jainism mention four types of meditation or Dhyāna407namely, ārta or the painful (sorrowful), raudra or the cruel, dharma or the virtuous (righteous) and ṡukla or the pure meditation. The first two namely ārtadhyāna and raudradhyāna are Aśubh-dhyāna (inauspicious) and the other two namely dharma and śukladhyāna are Śubh-dhyāna (auspicious). The last two are

408 mainly for liberation . The details of each one is given below: a) Ārtadhyāna: (Meditation on Pain, sorrow)

“ऋत े भव ं आतमं ”् (Focussing on pain or causes of the pain is Artadhyāna). To be troubled, to feel sorry, to cry and to lament loudly constitute the characteristics of Ārtadhyāna. Upon receipt of a harmful object, thinking again and again for its removal is the first kind of sorrowful meditation409. Upon loss of a favourable object, thinking again

410 and again for its repossession is the second kind of sorrowful meditation . In the case of suffering from pain and disease, thinking continuously for its removal is the

411 third type of sorrowful meditation . Thinking about fulfilment of the wishes for

406 उत्ततमसंहननस्यैकाग्रधचनतातनरोधो ध्यानमानतमुहश ूताशत।् T.S. 9.27

407 आतरश ौद्रधम्यर्श ुतऱातन। T.S. 9.28

408 ऩरे मोऺहेतू। T.S. 9.29

409 आतशममनोऻस्य साप्रयोगे त饍ववप्रयोगाय स्मतृ तसमनवाहार्। T.S. 9.30

410 ववऩरीतं मनोऻस्य। T.S. 9.31

411 वेदनायाश्च। T.S. 9.32 219

enjoyment and to see that available comforts and enjoyment are not lost is the fourth sorrowful meditation412. Thus, Ārtadhyāna is worrying all the time about getting attached to unwanted objects or getting detached from desirable objects or rāga and dveśa or physical and mental pain or expecting non-achievable pleasures in life. These sorrowful meditations occur in the case of laymen with and without small vows and non-vigilant ascetics413. In the same way, some of the Jain scholars like Acārya Yashovijay, Acārya Shubhchandra and others have classified Ārtadhyāna into following types:

अतनटियोगजनमाध्य ं तथेटिाथाशत्तययात्तऩरम ् I

셁तप्रकोऩात्तततृ ीय ं स्यान्ननदानात्ततयु मश 敍धगनाम ् II (ऻानाणशव, २३/२२)

1. Aniṣṭasaṃyog: worries of getting things which we don‟t want.

2. Rogacintā: worries of disease and suffering.

3. Iṣṭaviyog: worry of loosing things which we want to keep.

4. Nidāna: worries of non-achievement of desirable objects. Most people continuously worry and complain about their painful and unhappy situations. They wish to remain in comfort zone, get attached to pleasures, get attracted to some persons and objects (Rāga), and try to avoid unpleasant experiences and persons (Dveṣa). They worry to avert disagreeable, unwanted objects and painful situations, to regain the lost favourable situations and get strongly inclined to stake everything for some worldly gain. They have intense desire to acquire desirable objects. These situations are classified in Tattvārthsūtra as under: 1. Amanojna-samprayoga-viyoga-cinta-ārtadhyāna 2. Manojna-viyoga-samprayoga-cinta- ārtadhyāna 3. Dukhakar-vedanā-samprayoga-viyoga-cintā- ārtadhyāna 4. Sukhakar-vedanā-viyoga-samprayoga-cintā- ārtadhyāna

412 तनदानं च। T.S. 9.33

413 तदववरतदेर्ववरतप्रमत्ततसंयतानाम।् T.S. 9.34 220

All these categories prevail during initial five stages of spiritual elevation. Mind occupied in these thoughts is doing Ārtadhyāna. Pāpakarma incurred by Ārtadhyāna is comparatively less; as involvement in wrong activity in it is less. The result or the symptoms of Ārtadhyāna are fear, doubt, stress, despair, irritation, tearfulness, frustration, depression, worries, uneasiness, madness, lust for objects, physical stiffness and rarely unconsciousness. Finally the jīva doing artadhyāna gets Tiryanchgati (next birth as insect, animal or bird) according to scriptures like Jnānārnav and Adhyātmasāra. b) Raudradhyāna: To think in a cruel and murderous manner or inclination is „Raudra Dhyāna‟. It consists of continuously occupying mind with intense and cruel thoughts of violence, lies, stealing, harassing, killing or harming others, and sense-objects414. Accordingly the categories are:

1. Himsārtha or Himsānandi raudra-dhyāna: Sedist who enjoys violence gets involved in this Dhyāna. He has intensepurpose of having pleasure of violence. 2. Asatyārtha or Mruśānandi raudra-dhyāna: Intense purpose of untruthfulness. 3. Steyārtha or Chauryanandi raudra-dhyāna: Intense purpose of stealing. 4. Viśay-saṅrakṣanārtha or sanrakshānandi raudra-dhyāna: Intense purpose of protecting objects of pleasure. This occurs in unrestrained and partly restrained stages. A person is strongly inclined to resort to wrong means. That can prevail in first five stages of spiritual elevation. The intensity of thoughts is very high as compared to Artadhyāna. Here, finally the jīva doing raudradhyāna gets Narakgati (complete suffering in infernal state or hell) according to Jnānārnav and Adhyātmasār. c) Dharmadhyāna: To interpret and contemplate on the meaning of Āgama-s (Scriptures) and the words of the Vitarāgas is “Dharmadhyāna”. When delusion is minimized or overcome by contemplating about percepts and commandments of the Lords like blissful nature of

414 दहसं ानतृ स्तये ववषय संरऺणेर्भयो रोद्रमववरतदेर्ववरतयो्। T.S. 9.19 221

the soul (Ajnāvicay), on impact of karma on worldly soul and way to get free from that, it is termed as dharmadhyāna. To create interest in the words of the Vitarāgas and Tirthankaras, to show feelings and make attempts to behave according to their advice - these are the characteristics of this dhyāna. Dharmadhyāna or the virtous meditation are of four types – concentration on realities (tattva) through pramāṇa and naya, ways and means to help living beings to take the right belief, knowledge and conduct, fruition of karmas and the reasons thereof, and state of universe415. Meditation on sermons (of Vitarāg/Tirthankar), regarding the path which takes away from suffering, emergence of new karma and fruits there of, the great architecture of the entire universe or any religious activity is Dharmadhyāna. Those who have subdued or destroyed all kleśa-s can have Dharmadhyāna. Various types of Vicaydhyāna are suggested as part of it. Vicay is symbolic practice of meditation and detachment. It points at valour and endeavour. „Samprekṡa‟ is one of them where soul is witnessed through the soul. Prekṡādhyān is a practice to see deeply or minutely i.e. to witness416. Other Jain scriptures like Agamas, Yogashastra (10/7), Jnānārnav and Adhyātmasār (2/16/35) have mentioned four types of Dharmadhyāna namely: 1. Agnyāvicay: In one of the oldest scriptures agnya vicaya, which is the first pillar of dharmadhyāna, it is suggested that the aspirant has to think and contemplate upon sermons of Jin Tirthankars and to accept, believe and tries to follow the Lord‟s agnyas (orders) or orders of the authority. Here, one contemplates on seven facts, namely - life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal of karmas, and the final accomplishment of liberation. 2. Apayvicay: In apaya vicaya, which is second pillar of dharmadhyāna, one has won over anger, pride, deceit and greed. Here, one contemplates on the incorrect insights one indulges into (avidyā) and that eventually develops right insight. It is to think and contemplate upon the miseries and various practices for destruction of

415 आऻाऩायववऩाकसंस्थानववचयाय धम्यमश ्। T.S. 9.36 416 Acharya Kundkunda, Samaysara, “sampikkhae appagamappaenam”, pp.200-201 222

karma. Apayvicay is pondering over causes of distress and unhappiness and minimizing them. This helps in exercising Saṃvara and Nirjarā, prevention and eradication of karma. 3. Vipākvicay: In vipāka vicaya which is the third pillar of and based on dharmadhyāna is where one has to accept the stone thrown at him as the maturation of own karma and also one reflects on the eight causes or basic types of karma as mentioned earlier. It is also to think and contemplate upon emergence of various fruits of karma accumulated previously. The law of karma is supreme and inexorable. Nobody is immune from its operation. We should not crave for the comforts and should not feel unhappy in uncomfortable situation. We should make use of comfortable situations for undertaking the virtuous activities and in adverse situations, we should think of not repeating the unwholesome activities. That type of contemplation is called Vipākvicay. 4. Sansthānvicay: In sansthānvicay which is fourth pillar of dharmadhyāna, one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul.417 It is to contemplate upon the universe and the shape and state of eternal Lokas, interaction between jīva and ajīva. Worldly life arises from interaction of Pudgal (ajīva) with soul (jīva). Dhyānaṣatak and Adhyātmasār have mentioned following twelve points and pre- requisites for Dharmadhyāna: 1. Bhāvanā: Four types of attitude are necessary before practicing Dharmadhyāna. They are Jnāna (true knowledge increases confidence level in soul), Darśana (faith), Cāritra (conduct) and Vairāgya (detachment). 2. Deśa: Place of meditation (should be peaceful) 3. Kāla: Anytime 4. Āsana: Any comfortable meditative posture like Vīrāsana, Simhāsana, Kayotsargāsana, Paryankāsana.

417 Rudi Jansma & Sneh Rani Jain, Yoga and Meditation Published by Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur, 2006.

223

5. Ālambana: Four media for Dhyāna are mentioned in Sthanāngasūtra. They are Vancana (Study of sūtra and scriptures), Pruchhana (enquire for any doubts), Parivartana (revision, repeat the sūtras already learnt), Anuprekṣā (analyse and contemplate on Sūtra-meanings etc.). Thus, the aspirant gets established in dhyāna and never returns. Ālambana is comparable with Savikalpa dhyāna where as Nirambalana is with Nirvikalpa dhyāna 6. Krama (Sequence): First control Manoyog, then Vacanyog and Kayāyog 7. Dharma or Dhyey: Ajnāvicay dhyeya, Apay, Vipāk, Sansthān 8. Dhyātā: Different scriptures have given different eligibilities at different levels of elevation for an aspirant who can practice dhyāna. Ideal examples are Stithaprajna, Muni. 9. Anuprekṡā: It is deeper, steady and undisturbed contemplation. A continuous observation accompanied by contemplation is Anuprekṡā. This is the most important aspect. Four types of Anuprekṡa are mentioned in the scriptures418: Ekattva, Anitya, Āṣaran and Sansār. Others have mentioned twelve types of attitude. 10. Leṣyā: Leṣyā is an aura around the soul. It is a result and reflexion of all activities at the soul level. Jain darśana refers to two types of leṣya-s, namely Dravya lesyā and Bhāva-lesya. It may be pure or impure. Six types of leṣya-s are described in the scriptures. Tejo, Padma, śukla leṣya-s are very auspicious in Dharmadhyāna and take the aspirant upwards. Krisna, Neel and Kapot leṣya-s are inauspicious or bitter ones and are causes of downfall on spiritual path. All six lesyās prevail till six stages of spiritual elevation (gunasthānas). At seventh guṇasthānaka, Tejo, Padma and Ṥukla remain. From 8th to 13th stages, only Ṥukla exists. There is no lesyā at the last 14th and highest stage of gunasthāna. The result or fruit of Krisna lesyā is Nārki (infernal state), Neel lesya is sthāvar state (plant), Kapot lesyā is Tiryancha state (next birth is animal, insect), Tejoleṣyā is human birth, Padma lesyā is Devloka or celestial state and Ṥukla lesyā is mokṣa (liberation)419.

418 Sthānāngsūtra (4/1/247), Dhyānashatak p.65 419 Chimanlal Kaladhar, Jain Darsana- article appeared in daily newspaper “Mid-day” dt. 20.12.2015, p.29

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11. Linga: Indications of Dharmadhyāna are mentioned. Detached attitude, kindness, body fragrance, cheerfulness, Faith, Sidhhis, Rutambharā budhhi – Samatā – Pratibhājnān. 12. Phala: As a result one develops steadiness and one-pointedness in dhyāna, inner joy, gets entry into swarga and finally makes himself eligible for Ṥukladhyāna, the source of mokṡa. Dharmadhyāna is feasible in 7th to 12th stages of spiritual elevation. Another classification of Dhyāna as mentioned by Acāryas Shubhchandra and Hemchandra is again of four types: 1. Piṇḍastha: visualization through medium of body. It is of five types: a) Pārthivi Dhāraṇā: Establish idols, worship and meditate. b) Agnivi Dhāraṇā: Focus and contemplate on burning of karma in fire. c) Vāyavi or Māruti Dhāraṇā: Contemplate on flying off by wind all the ash or impuruties sticking to the self/soul. d) Varuni Dhāraṇā: The impurities will be carried away by water. e) Tattvabhu Dhāraṇā: Visualizethe destruction of impurities through the medium of basic elements. All these five Pindastha dhyāna given above are types of visualization. 2. Pādastha (pāda, mantra like “Arham”, “Namo arihantanam”, “Om”). 3. Rupastha: Direct visualization of Tīrthaṅkara e.g. sermon of Jineswar in Samvasarana. Meditate on this nature of Arihanta. 4. Rupātit: Formless Siddha. Nirambalan Nirvikalpa dhyān i.e. meditation with no object and independent of any God or Tirthankar. All qualities of soul are actualized. All eight main karmas (Jnanavarniya and others) are composed of material atoms of karmavargana and are alien to the soul. Fruitation of karma results into pleasure and pain and can not be identified with the self. The enlightened soul knows that: Ahamekko khalu suddho damsananamaio sayaruvinaviatthi majja kimcivi annam paramāṇumettam pi (Sthānāngasūtra - 38) 225

Meaning: I am single and instrically pure, am possessed of knowledge and intuition. I am totally devoid of sense data such as taste, touch etc. and therefore totally formless (arupi), not a single atom of the alien substance matter is mine420 iv. Ṥukladhyāna Dharmadhyāna practice makes one‟s mind steady, calm, composed and gets aborbed into one single object chosen for meditation. Ṥukladhyāna makes such mind more matured, peaceful and brings cittavṛtti s under full control. This is the highest level of meditation where no desires are left. The aspirant continues his journey with pure mind while washing all karma-mala completely towards Ṥukladhyāna now. It is pure white state. Acārya Hemchandra has explained in his Yogashastra as under that above referred environment and states are very difficult in current times. The practice of śukladhyāna has become almost non-attainable (due to accelerated multiplication the impurities in our life). But this unbroken tradition should continue to benefit even few rare aspirants; the explanation of Yogashastra is given below.

अनवन्र्चछत्तत्तयाम्नाय् समागतो敍स्येतत क त्तयशते敍स्मामभ् I

दटु करमप्याधतु नकै ् र्ुतऱध्यानं यथार्ास्त्र ं II (योगर्ास्त्र, ११/४) Ṥukladhyāna is pure form of meditation421. It can be resorted by those who are atleast at the 8th stage of spiritual elevation and well versed in Poorvas. Four catagories of Ṥukladhyān is described in Sthānāngasūtra (4/247), Bhagvatisūtra (25/7), Adhyātmasār (5/16/74-80) and Tattvārthasūtra (Sūtra 9/39 to 9.46) as under indicating their progressive order. The first two types of pure meditation are attained by the saints well-versed in the purvas, the Shrutkevali.422The last two types of pure

423 meditation arise in the omniscients. The result of this is Mokṡa. These four types of Ṥukladhyāna are:

420 Ibid p.44 421 Tattvarthadhigamsūtra, part-2, Chapter 9, 10, Sri Jain Sreyaskar Mandal, Mehsana,1960

422 र्ुतऱे चा饍ये ऩूववश वद्। T.S. 9.37

423 ऩरे केवमऱन्। T.S. 9.38 226

a) Pṛthaktvavitarka savicār: It is multi-tiered contemplation on different states about different aspects and different types of soul or any other object on the basis of scriptural knowledge. It is oscillation of mental concentration between subtle aspects of the same object or the subject and word e.g. Parsvanāth. So, it is not absolute meditation. This dhyāna is purely analytical and internally influential. It is also called as Bheda-cintana (Contemplation of difference) - To contemplate that the body and the soul are different. For transcendental aspect, Jains accept only true scriptures (Āgamas) which are findings of Tirthankaras. b) Ekatvavitarka vicār: Abheda-cinatna (Contemplation of non-difference). To contemplete on the form of the soul - I am the soul - is called Ekatvavitarka vicāra. It is unitary contemplation on only one aspect of soul or any other object on the basis of the knowledge acquired. It is a progress towards single pointedness. It can not be influenced by words, body or mind, so it is called „avichār‟. This knowledge is Nirvikalpa kevaljnān. Due to non availability of other aspects of other objects, fluctuations of mind do not take place. It is free from shifting.424Ghātikarma easily get destroyed in this state. One can achieve Kevaljnāna in this. The above two categories represented by „ṡukla-leṣyā‟ are stages can be resorted by those, whose delusion is calm down or overcome, who knows poorvas. Vitarka denotes sacred literature. Vicār denotes meaning, connotation and moving from one Yog to another. Nirvicār denotes absence of such varying contemplation and staying steady on one aspect. These first two types are based on one substratum and are associated with scriptural knowledge and shifting.425 Following two categories could arise with discolouration of leṣyās to the omniscient Lords. c) Sookṣma-kriyā-apratipati: It is a subtle contemplation of an omniscient Lord, when one forsakes all physical, mental and verbal faculties and resort to the subtle body. Only Ayu antarmuhurta remains with him. “Samudghat Kriyā” is

424 अवीचार 饍ववतीयम।् T.S. 9.42

425 एकाश्रयेसववतकशवीचारे ऩूवे।T.S. 9.41 227

recommended in Yogashastra (11/50) to enjoy and finish all Vedaniya karma of an aspirant. This practice is comparable with Patañjali‟s Bahukaynirman Kriyā to enjoy Sopkarma. This represents „paramṡukla leṣyā‟. d) Vyuparata-Kriyā-anivrtti or Ṥaileṡikaran or Utsanna Kriyā or Samucchinna Kriyā nivrutti: Here, above referred Ṥūkṡma Kriyā also is stopped. With this small stage of dhyāna, remaining four Aghātikarmas also get destroyed. It is a subtle contemplation of an omniscient Lord at the time of liberation. It leads to the irreversible stillness of the soul. It is „leṣyātit‟ (beyond any leṣyā) state. Steady condition under suppression of subtle activity like breathing is called samucchinna Kriyā anivrtti. Discreption, renunciation, absence of delusion and steadiness in the face of difficult- ties - these are the characteristics of the four types of ṡukla Dhyāna. He who takes to the ṡukla dhyāna attains mokṡa (liberation) and attains to the class of Siddhas. Thus, these are stages of almost getting rid of desires followed by freedom from rāga, dveṣa and moving to stage of liberated soul. The aspirant with minimum knowledge (alpajnāni) can practice first two types of ṡukladhyāna. The result is Devloka426. The remaining two should be practiced by kaṣay-free kevaljnānis, who are in the state of equilibrium.The result is Mokṡa. Thus depending upon the stages of spiritual elevation, one can have the Ṥukladhyāna. Thus, four types or stages of pure concentration are that of many substances through the activity of mind, speech and body, that of one substance through the activity of mind, speech and body, that of subtle activity and that of complete destruction of activity.427These four types of pure concentrations are achieved by those having all the three activities i.e. the mind, the speech and the body, one activity, body activity and no activity respectively.428 Meditation has been the central practice of spirituality in Jainism for ages. Jain meditation and spiritual practices system is referred to as salvation-path. Its three important constituents are three jewels as mentioned earlier.

426 Adhyātmasara 5/16/80

427 ऩथृ तत्तवैकत्तवववतकश सूक्ष्म कक्रयाप्रततऩा ददव्युऩरत कक्रयातनवतॉतन । T.S. 9.39

428 त्र्येक योग काययोगा योगानाम ्। T.S. 9.40 228

Ten degrees of Nirjarā in ascending order are described in Tattvārthasūtra depending on various liberation seekers of different levels. The dissociation of karma increases innumerable-fold from stage to stage in the ten stages of the right believer ( Samyakdraṡti), the householder with partial restraints (Śrāvaka ), the ascetic with full restrains (Virat), the separator of the passion leading to infinite births as at this level, one is capable of destroying infinitely binding defilement (Anantānubandhiviyojak), the destroyer of faith-deluding karma (Darśanamokṣapāka), the suppressor of conduct-deluding karma (Upaṡamak), the saint with quiescent passions (Upaṡāntmoh), the destroyer of delusion (Kṡapak), the saint with destroyed delusion and the spiritual victor (Kṡinmoh and Jin)429. At this level, where one has already destroyed delusions and achieved level of omniscience. Saṃvara and Nirjarā describe the ways one can use to prevent the karmic bondage and to get rid of karma in order to get liberation. If bondage of karma is considered a disease that afflicts the soul and Āsrava the door through which the disease enters, Saṃvar is the prevention of the disease and Nirjarā is the cure. As prevention is better than cure, practice of Saṃvara is given more importance and next is Nirjarā. 9. Mokṡa (Liberation) Liberation is the last one of the nine fundamentals. It is total liberation of the soul after complete exhaustion of all karmas. It is also known as salvation, Mokṡa,

430 Nirvāņā, Mukti or emancipation. Jain Agama uses the word “ध्रुवस्थान” (permanent destination):

अन्त्तथ एगम ् ध्रुवं थानम ् I (Uttaradhyayan, 23/81) Mokṡa is a blissful state of existence of a soul, completely free from the karmic bondage, free from sansara, the cycle of birth and death. Jainism believes and states very emphatically that wordly soul has been wandering since infinity due to ignorance of its true nature and would still continue to wander till it attains

429 सम्यग्饃न्टि श्रावक ववरताननत ववयोजक दर्शन मोहऺऩ कोऩर्मकोऩर्ानतमोहऺऩकऺीणमोहन्जना्

क्रमर्ोऽसंख्येय गुणतनजरश ा्। T.S. 9.45 430 Amarmuni, Achārāngasūtra, p.102 229

liberation. Now, it is well explained that the soul interacts with pudgal particles (tangible lifeless matter) and acquires karma. The principles of Jainism show how the soul can be free from all these karma and get liberated and attain a state of omniscience. A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine nature of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge and infinite perception. Such a soul is called siddha and considered as supreme soul or God. In Jainism, it is the highest and the noblest objective that a soul should strive to achieve. It fact, it is the only objective that a person should have; other objectives are contrary to the true nature of soul. With right faith, knowledge and efforts all souls can attain this state. That is why, Jainism is also known as ‘mokṣamārga’ or the ‘path to liberation’. Tenth chapter of Tattvarthsūtra explains the concept of Kaivalya, a state of pure nature of the soul, which is inherently imbibed in every soul. This state is similar to and comparable to the Kaivalya state which is the end result of Aṣṭāṅgayoga as mentioned by sage Patañjali. Though, it is not manifest in wordly state under the influence of karma. The defiling karmas like deluding, knowledge obscuring, obstructing and perception obscuring karmas are the main cause of obstruction on the way to liberation431. The prime root cause is deluding karma. It is necessary to stop the acquisition of new karma and eradicate the bondage of old ones (Saṃvara and Nirjara). Owing to the absence of the cause of bondage and with the functioning of the dissociation of karma, the annihilation of all karmas leads to liberation.432 Emancipation is attained on the destruction of sūtrachic factors also like quietism

433 and potentiality. Total destruction of all karmas is liberation. But, four states continue to exist even in the state of kaivalya. These are states of infinite enlightenment, infinite knowledge, infinite perception and perfection434.

431 मोहऺया煍ऻान दर्शनावरणानतरायऺयार्चच के वऱम।् T.S. 10.1

432 बनधहेत्तव भावतनजशरार्भयां कृ त्तस्न कमशववप्रमोऺो मोऺ्। T.S. 10.2

433 औऩर्ममकाददभव्यत्तवानां च। T.S. 10.3

434 अनयत्र केवऱ सम्यतत्तवऻान दर्शन मसद्धत्तवेर्भय्। T.S. 10.4 230

A liberated soul regains totally its original attributes of perfect knowledge, perfect vision, perfect power and total bliss. It travels to the top of universe (Siddhakṡetra or Lokakaṡ) and remains there permanently in its blissful and unconditional existence. It never returns to the cycles of birth, life and death. This upward rise occurs by virtue of Poorva prayog, Asangatva, Bandhchhed and Tathagatiparinam435. Because of the first precedent cause, poorva prayog, soul separated from the body continue to move upward through the medium of Dharmastikay till it reaches the top of Lokakaṣ or the Universe436, where it stops as there is no Dharmastikay beyond it.It is explained in the scripture by an example of Potter. A potter initially, applies some force to move the wheel and then gives it up. Like the potter‟s wheel once rotated, keeps rotating, like gourd with the mud sinks, but comes up once mud is removed, like castor seed goes upwards on the flower, like flame goes upwards, the

437 same way upon liberation from the karmas, thesoul goes upwards. The force of Dharmastikay stops and soul moving upwards gets stopped at the top of Lokakaṣ438. Asangatva means loss of contact. It can be explained by an example of a muddy gourd, when placed in water, it would initially go down by virtue of weight of the mud. But as the mud recedes by the impact of the water, the gourd starts coming up. Similarly the worldly soul stays downward on account of the impact of the karma and then, starts coming up as the bondage of karma recede by virtue of Nirjara. Bandhchhed is removal of shell, analogous to the fleeing of castor seed out of the shell. The seed initially shoots upwardswith the opening of the bud. The soul rises upwards as it comes out of the embodiment.

435 ऩूव श प्रयोगादसंगत्तवा饍बनधर्चछेदात्ततथागततऩररणामार्चच। T.S. 10.6

436 तदननतरमूध्वं गर्चछत्तयाऱोगनतात।् T.S. 10.5

437 आववद्धकु ऱाऱ चक्रब饍व्यऩगतऱेऩाऱांबुवदेरण्डबीजादन्ग्नमर्खाबर्चच। T.S. 10.7

438 धमाशन्स्तकाया भावात।् T.S. 10.8

231

Tathagatiparinam is by virtue of the nature. Out of all substances, jīva and ajīva (soul and pudgal) are mobile ones and continue to move on their own in the presence of Dharmastikay. Upward movement of the soul is by its inherent nature. The liberated states of all souls are equal without any difference, but can be classified in respect of their previous lives in terms of Place (from where it was liberated: 15 types of karmabhoomis), Time (Rushabhdev got liberated in the beginning and Lord Mahāvīra attained it at the end of fourth era), Gati (out of four states of worldy existence, liberation is possible only in the human life), Gender or Ling (It can be termed as specific number of males or females getting liberated, though it is irrespective of gender or symbol), Tirtha (some souls get liberated as Tirthankars and some are not as Tirthankars, only as Siddhas), Coduct (five types of charitra are mentioned in Tattvārthasūtra, chapter-9), Pratyekbodhita or Buddhabodhit (liberation with help of others or independently), Jñāna (liberation attained by howmany types of knowledge out of five), Antar or interval (The order of liberation can be intermittent or incessant), Number (Minimum one or maximum 108 souls can be liberated in one samay) and Alpabahutva439(means more or less, different numbers in different states of liberation in defferent era). By destroying all eight types of karma-s, the liberated souls or siddha-s acquire eight unique attributes. They are as follows: ananta jñāna (Infinite knowledge), ananta darśana (Infinite perception), avyābāddha sukha (Eternal happiness), ananta cāritra (Perfect conduct), akṡaya sthiti (Immortality), nirākāra svarūpa (Formlessness), aguru laghutva (No Social Status) and ananta vīrya (Infinite Power and Energy). All liberated souls are Godly being as per Jainism. Since Tirthankars among them show us and lead us to the path of liberation, they are considered Gods to whom we pray and revere. The short summarization of above details is to understand that Yog of Jainism is the cause of Āsrav, prevention of Yog or mental and bodily acitivity is the cause of Saṃvar and Nirjarā and finally, removal of Yog leads to Mokśa or liberation.

439 ऺेत्र काऱगततंमऱग तीथश चाररत्र प्रत्तयेकबुद्धबोधधत ऻानावगाहनानतरसंख्या쥍ऩबहुत्तवत् साध्या्। T.S. 10.9 232

III. Stages of spiritual elevation (Gunasthanaks)440 or jīva-sthanakas441 An aspirant may reach upto various stages or states of virtues called as “Gunasthanaks” during his journey of spiritual pursuit, which are indicators of his spiritual progress as per Jain scriptures. In order to understand the spiritual development of an aspirant, proper knowledge of the Gunasthanakas is of prime importance. Each one is also an inner state of jīva. Each stage is described below: Basically, our soul consists of infinite virtues, but is covered with various sheaths of karmas. The most influencial karmas are Darśana mohaniya and Caritra mohaniya. These virtues are manifested with progressive purification as these sheaths are removed one by one and spiritual development takes place step by step. These steps can be treated as 14 rungs or levels of elevation on the ladder of the spiritual elevation or ladder to emancipation. Each stage name given below also includes the original Prakṛt name as mentioned in the Agam. 1. First Stage: Mithyādṛṣṭi guṇasthāna This is the lowest state and is known as stage of false vision (Mithyātvadṛṣṭi), impure beliefor the stage of wrong faith and gross ignorance. Most of the people are at this stage, just waiting on the ground floor for an elevator. The life in this state is instinctive with impulsive reactions to any given situation. One is busy with the body and its comforts with hardly any sense of the true discrimination. The person is under the full sway of the forces of karmaand may get attached to wrong or evil activities and rituals and comes under influence of wrong guides, teachers or gurus. He is not interested in finding the truth and unable to discriminate between the right and the wrong duties (dharma). He might also harbor dislike or disregards for the true faith. If he can overcome these hurdles of wrong faith on any given chance, he gets uplifteddirectly to the fourth stage of elevation. This state of mind is comparable with “Avidyā-kleśa” of Patañjali. 2. Second stage: Sasvadan samyakdṛṣṭi guṇasthāna

440 G.Feuerstein, The Yoga Tradition, Motilal banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 2002, p.196

441 कम्मववसोदहमग्गणम ् ऩडुर्चच चउददस जीवि्ाणा ऩनणत्तता | (समवायानगसूत्र, १४/१) 233

It means the stage of retaining the taste (right vision). One can not elevate himself from first stage to this second stage, but he may come down from 4th or higher stage to this transitory stage, from where he may fall down to first or goes up to the third stage.Sometimes, jīva while rising up to “Upaṡama ṡreni” also may fall down to this stage. But in any case, he has to go to first stage from here. He is unable to forget the taste of higher stages i.e. the right perception, so he is bound to regain that stage and then, again resort to the higher stages on the ladder of elevation. 3. Third stage: Samyakmithyadṛṣṭi guṇasthāna It is a mixed stage called as Misra stage. It denotes the mixture of right and wrong perceptions. Here, mixed Mohaniya karma is emerged out. This stage comes only after the fourth stage. An entity oscillates between truth and doubt, pure and impure beliefs. One at this stage is indulged inneither wrong perception (mithyātva) nor is he imbibed in right perception (samyakatva), but is unable to discrimainate between the two. He is in doubtful and stressful state. He might have overcome dislike for the true faith but does not remain steady there. He may practice the right rituals but unable to understand the true purpose. Normally, it is believed that this state does not remain for more than 48 minutes442. This state is an indicator of elevation as well as downfall443. 4. Fourth stage: Avirat samyak dṛṣṭi or Samyakdṛṣṭi guṇasthāna It is a stage of right perception but lack of self-restraint, a stage of real elevation. Only a few souls reach up to this stage. Two stages are to be cleared before arriving at this one. They are Yathapravruttikaran, a stage of right and wrong perception with potential of going ahead, and Anivruttikaran, which means no turning back. This is confirmation of reaching this forth stage. The aspirant attains the right perception, and gets free from perception deluding (darśana mohniya) karma. He knows the true nature of soul and has right understanding of karma and its bondage. He has brought under control Anantanubandhi kaṣay (inordinately lasting defiling instinct), but has not gained control over other types. He may get involved in worldly activities, but

442 Jain Philosophy, p.210 443 Jain Ethics, p.214 234

does not develop any undue attachment towards them. Though, the aspirant is unable to get detached from objects of sensual pleasure, unable to protect trast and sthāvar jīva-s, but has full faith on Jain tattvas. Here spiritual life begins, providing will for self-control (virati and Samyakdriṣti) is cultivated. 5. Fifth stage: Deṡvirati Samyak or Samyatasamyat guṇasthāna: This is the stage of right perception accompanied by partial restraints. With the beginning of Nirjara, the aspirant advances on the path of liberation, he starts loosing bondage of the character-related deluding karma (caritra mohniya), and developing vigor to overcome Apratyākhyānavaraniya kaṣay (coming in the way of adopting restraints), and he adopts laymen‟s restraints. He now strives for a fully restrained life. The importance of proper moral conduct is realized and desire arises for renounciation. One starts partially practicing anuvrutta. 6. Sixth stage: Pramatta samyata or Sarva Virati guṇasthāna: This is a state of full restraints. The ascetic starts following Mahāvruttas in place of anuvruttas and has almost completely curbed the four vices, which are anger, pride, delusion and greed (krodha, mān, moha, lobha). He overcomes now, Pratyakhyānāvaraniya kaṣay that comes in the way of fully restrained life. He can exercise control over all types of kaṡays except the subtle type, sanjvalan and nokaṣays. He is capable of leaving the worldly life and may get ready to renounce. As such, he is not capable of maintaining total vigilance, he may become subject to the minor pitfalls due to his indolence (pramad). He may fall down or rise up. Therefore, this stage is also called as Pramatta virati Gunasthan (Stage of restraints subject to indolence). The aspirant is competent to preach at this stage as he is following Samyak Cāritra (Right conduct).

7. Seventh stage: Apramattasamyata guṇasthāna: It is a stage of controlled attention and no indolence. The subtle anger of Sanjvalan category now comes under control. Subtle kaṣays like pramāda may continue to operate inbetween. The aspirant may swings between 6th and 7th stages for long time till he achieves the permanent stability in this stage. Then, he acquires the power for intense concentration and meditative absorption. The self follows Kṡayopaṡam attitude till this stage. One can not get rid of or destroy completely the four anantānubandhi 235

kaṣayas mentioned earlier and three darśanamohaniya prakrti. But, from next stage, he gets a unique level of extreme purification from where he has to ascend upwards. 8. Eighth stage: Apoorva-karansamparaya or nivruttibādar guṇasthāna: It is also called as „Nivruttikarana‟. It leads togross struggle and one succeeds in cessation. The self enjoys supreme peace here indicating the perfect progress. Therefore the name is „Apurvakaran‟. This means no return to unprecedented stage. The path of liberation consists of tri-ratna i.e. right perception, right knowledge and right conduct. The right perception arises at 4th stage, right knowledge also gained with it. Inorder to move forright conduct, the aspirant strives to gain control over defilements from 5th stage onwards till this stage. During 8th stage, he starts gaining control over subtle and semi-defilements. Only a few aspirants can reach upto this stage. He cultivates a joy previously not known through a special meditative technique. The ascent from this stage is quicker as he has reached the state of Ṥukladhyan, a superior level of meditation. Krodh (anger) and Mān (pride) start getting destroyed here. The route for advancement from this stage to 10th stage is bifurcated. One is kṡapak ṡreni where the subtle defilements are destroyed and the self can reach upto the final stage of liberation by destroying each element of Mohniya. And the other is Upaṡam ṡraman, where by making progress by pacifying these defilements, but one can not proceed beyond 11th level. Ṥreni is the result of pecification or destruction of Cāritramohaniya karma. 9. Ninth stage: Anivrutti-karan or Anivrutti bādar samparaya guṇasthāna: It is the symbol of Nirvikalpa Samādhi. „Samparay‟ means afflictions (kaṣaya) and „Bādar‟ means gross. Here, purification is manytimes more than that of 8th stage. It is a stage of no returning back. Here, the aspirant gains control over very subtle forms of Krodh (anger), Mān (ego) as well as Māyā (deception) and emotional forces but Lobh (greed) still continue to operate at this stage. He also can stay above subtle sexual instinct. 10. Tenth stage: Sukṡma samparay guṇasthāna: Itmeans very subtle and finer sense of kaṣaya.The aspirant, overcoming all the defiling instincts, reaches to a very subtle state. All the remaining semi-defilement, last traces of worldly interest and the subtle (sukṡma) sense of lobh (greed) which is 236

attachment of soul with the body comes under control in this stage. At the end, the aspirants progressing by Upaṡaman ṡreni go to the 11th stage. While those, progressing by kṡapak ṡreni skip this stage and go directly to the 12th stage. 11. Eleventh stage: Upaṡant Mohkaṣaya guṇasthāna: It is the pacification of delusionwhere it is not destroyed. If one becomes subject to defilement, falls back due to loss of vigilance. If he is unable to regain vigilance, may fall upto the lowest level. So, this stage is also called as a stage of downfall. He again has to try to control and destroy all defilements. For jīva with kṡapak ṡreni, it is not possible to reach upto this 11th level. He directly moves to 12th level as from this stage it‟s not possible to proceed further. 12. Twelfth stage: Kṡinakaṣaya Moha guṇasthāna: Here, delusion (mohniya karma) is totally destroyed, so no chance to revert back to lower stage. Now, what is left is just to get rid of remining Ghātikarma (defiling) pertaining to Darśanāvaraniya (perception obscuring), Jnānāvaraniya (knowledge and enlightenment obscuring) and antaray (obstructing) categories. This is usually done in short time. Immediately after „antamuhurta‟ he moves to 13th stage444. He is connected or bonded to karma upto this stage (chhadmastha jīva). So, this state is called “Kṡinakaṣaya vitarag chhadmastha”. 13. Thirteenth stage: Sayogī Kevali: This is the stage of active transcendence and embodied omniscience, with no defilement. One attains full enlightenment (kevaljnana) and becomes a Kevali (Omnis- cient). Such omniscients are called as Sayogī Kevalis. They are endowed with infinite perception (ananta darśana), infinite enlightenment (ananta jnāna), infinite bliss (ananta sukha) and infinite vigor (ananta virya). These four aspects are called as Anant Chatuṡtay. Those who reach upto this stage are called as Arihants. All types of strength get developed fully like a fully grown moon during the night of Purnima. He still continues all yoga i.e. activities through his body, mind and speech. They continue to remain embodied till all Aghāti (non-defiling) karma stay i.e. Ayuṡya, Nām, Gotra and Vedniya. As they are fully devoid of any attachments,

444 Ibid p.217 237

they do not incur any new bondage. If Aghāti karma terminates along with Ghāti karmas, the Arihant instantly leaves the embodiment and attains the stage of Siddha. Such Lords are called as Antahkrut Kevalis. Till they get liberated, they dedicate their life in propounding the religious tenets. Here, the yoga-activities by body, mind and speech continue in the form of vihar, upadeṡa (sermons). 14. Fourteenth Stage: Ayogī kevali guṇasthāna: This is the climax or final destination of spiritual journey according to Jainism. This is the ultimate stage of inactive transcendence or unembodied omniscience. All previous stages are the rungs of a ladder and this is the destination, a state of liberation. When a Sayogī Kevali realizes that he is at the end of life, he relinquishes his physical, vocal and mental faculties which are Yogīc activities for the purpose of liberation. The jīva becomes siddha leaving the body with highest kind of Ṥukladhyāna called “Samucchinnakriyāpratipati”.Now, the soul rises and reaches the top of cosmos; the Siddhaṡila (abode of the liberated ones). At this 14th stage, the soul in the form of liberated Lord stays in eternal bliss forever. According to different philosophies, this is the state of Nirguna Brahma, Purnānanda, Sacchidānanda, Parmātmanpad, Svaroopsiddhi, Mokṡa, Kaivalya or Nirvāna. Above mentioned stages represent steps of inner development (ātmanvikas), a journey from imperfect and undeveloped state of soul towards complete and perfect state, also a journey from “Mithyattva” to “Samyakttva”. During the journey, stages 8th, 9th and 10th hold special significance as spiritual practitioner gains control over the passions in all aspects here but the main obstructive karma is Mohaniya. All these fourteen stages of jīva can be summarized into three states of our soul. They are Bahirātman (outer soul), Antarātman (inner soul) and Parmātman (Godly or liberated state)445. First three stages of elevation indicating Avidyā (Mithyattva or false knowledge) can be clubbed together into first state of soul, Bahirātman. From the fourth stage, the aspirant after removal of Mithyattva gets uplifted spiritually through Samyakdarśana. With his great efforts, he starts progressing towards higher level of Kaivalya. Antarātman includes all stages of efforts (puruṡartha) i.e. stages

445Adhyātmansaar 7/20, Yogashastra 12/7, Dwatrinshaddwatrinshika 20/17 238

from 4th to 12th. The last two stages indicate the highest level, the state of perfection, completeness or Siddhavastha which are described as “Parmātman”. It is comparable with Patañjali‟s state of kaivalya. To summarise all above stages, stages 1 to 4 gives us taste of Samyak darśana, where sapiritual life begins from a deluded view of this world. Stages 5 to 7 make us realized of self restraints. Stages 8 to 11 indicate suppression and elimination of karma particles. Stage 12 is for destruction of deluding karma (Obstructive, intuition-covering and knowledge covering). At stage 13, souls attain full enlightenment and possess infinite perception, knowledge, bliss and vigor. It is the stage of „Omniscience with Physical Activity‟, but Aghātiya karma are still present. Souls at this stage are referred as “Arihant”. The main instruments governing the progression through these stages of spiritual attainment are the very instricate ethical rules prescribed in above mentioned various canonical literature of Jainism. As per “Mokśprabhrut” (5, 8) by Acārya Kundkund, Hey: Bahirātman Upadeya: Antarātman to attain state of Parmātman Dhyeya: Parmātman

IV. Jain scriptures and Spiritual teachers Lord Mahāvīra‟s preaching was orally compiled into many texts in the form of Āgamasūtras or Āgama (gaṇipiṭikā, dvādaṣangi). These scriptures were not documented in any form but were memorized by ascetics and passed on by oral traditions to future generations of ascetics. Later on the literature was composed in Ardhamāgadhi or prākṛta language by his disciples. This language was understood in the area where Mahāvīra went about during his life. During course of time, as it became extremely difficult to keep memorizing the entire Jain literature, many learned Ācāryas or senior scholar monks compiled many commentaries on the Āgama literature and independent works on various subjects of Jain Philosophy and religion. Then, during course of time, many learned Ācāryas (seniormost monks), mainly 5thGanadhara, disciple of Mahāvīra named Sudharma Swāmī and later 239

Bhadrabahu Swāmī (450 B.C.) compiled many commentaries on the Āgam literature.

Ācārya Sthulibhadra (350 B.C.) and his convention prepared uniform version of all Agams. In Jain traditions, this is called as the first Vacanā of Agams. One major conference was held during tenth century by all Jain monks under leadership of Devardhigani Kṡamasramaṇ. They compiled first time all the sūtras in the form of written literature called as “Vallabhivacanā”. They could gether 45 Agamas and other scriptures and hundreds of copies made of each one. They were rewritten by Lonkashah in 16th Vikram-century446. Later on, printing technology was developed in the beginning of 19th century and actual printing of Agamas was carried out. Agamas contain values, ethics, constraints, Do‟s and don‟ts, culture, history and arts of human being. The famous holy book in Jainism called “Kalpasūtra” belongs to Chedasutta, which is the description by Bhadrabahuswāmī, on the life of Mahāvīra and other Tirthankars. It is the 8th chapter of “Daṡa-kappa-vyavahāra” (sūtra-skandha) text, which also includes rules about personal behaviour and organizational discipline to be observed by monks447. Other Scriptures: Sri Kundakundāchārya, a Digambar scholar, wrote Samayasāra which is ultimate consciousness Reality. It is synonymous to right faith and right cognition: the essence of perfect consciousness. It transcends all dialectics of aspects i.e. conflicts and controversies. He also wrote “Pravacansār”, “Niyamsār” and “Ashtapāhud (Mokṡaprabhrut)”. During second century, Acārya Umaswati, prime disciple of Sri Kundkundāchārya and the greatest philosopher translated first Agam into Sanskrit. He wrote “Mokṡaṡāstra – Tattvarthasūtra”, the first literature in Sanskrit. This is the only composition accepted by all Jains of all the sects even on today. It is considered as the source book for Jainism. He had written about 500 scriptures. According to Digambars, he lived during 135 – 219.

446 Madhukar Muni, Gnatadharmakathanga Sutta, Sri Agam PrakĀsana Samiti, Oct.1989 447 K.C.Lalwani (tr.), Kalpa Sūtra, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi ,1979 240

Tattvārthasūtra and Sarvārthasiddhi, commentary written by Pujyapādswāmi is treated as Āgam in Digambar tradition. Samantbhadra (1st – 2nd century) was first Jain writer on Nyāya. He also composed many other scriptures. Siddhasen Divakara (6th century) wrote important doctrine and other standpoints. Jinbhadra (6th – 7th century) authored Āvaṡyakasūtra. Yoga in Jain scriptures: During 5th and 6th centuries, P. Devnandi wrote “Samādhi tantra448” and “Ishtopa- desh449” describing his spiritual experiences. These scriptures provide us with details of Yoga practices for calming down emotions and peace of the mind. Methods and remedies of Self analysis are profoundly described in “Samādhi Shatak” and its commentaries are by Prabhachandra, Parvatdharma, Dashchandra and Meghchandra. During the year 609, Jinbhadragani structured a very important and useful scripture called Dhyānaśataka which gives us details of Asan, Prānāyam and Dhyāna and Anuprekṡa. Haribhadrasuri had written commentary on it. During 6th and 7th centuries, Yogendudev wrote Parmātmaprakāśa, Yogasāra and has discussed all techniques to internalize the awareness and three forms of our soul. Haribhadrasuri of 8thcentury was a philosopher, logician and artist, who reputedly wrote more than 1444 works. These include several books on Yoga. Few of them are listed below: 1. Yoga-bindu450: It contains 527 verses in Sanskrit discussing about eligible and non-eligible aspirants for Yoga, and five Yoga Anusthānas. 2. Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya451: It contains 227 slokas in Sanskrit discussing development of spirituality for aspirants who have intense desire to get liberated. It also mentions characterisitics of four types of Yogī-s. It is called compendium of views on Yoga. Few stranzas452 are really comparable with other paths of Yoga. Stranza 9 as translated by Christopher Key Chapple says,

448 Samādhi tantra, Vir Seva Mandir trust, Sarsava, 1939 449 Ishtopadesha, Paramshrut Prabhavak Mandal, Bambai, 1954 450 “Yogabindu”, Jain Dharma Prasarak Sabha, Bhavnagar, 1921 451 “Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya”, VijayKamal Kesar Granthmal, Khambhata (Virsamvat 1992) 452 G.Feuerstein, The Yoga Tradition, Motilal banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 2002, p.204 241

“There are two types of Yoga practices: renunciation of dharmas (objects), which is complete annihilation of the desire to be active and another one is renunciation of Yoga is the karma of the body and so forth”. The true essence of the human individual is the self (Ātman). The Jains use the term ātmā and jīva interchangeably, but whereas the former refers to the transcendental nature, the latter is the Self held in captivity by its own karma-producing actions453. 3. The scripture “Haribhadrīya Aṣṭaka” (chapter 5/1) describes bhikṡā (alms, begging) of Jain monks and is of three types: i. Dinavṛtti bhikṡā: Anātha (Handicapped), who are unable to cook, begs due to disability or unability. ii. Paurushāghni bhikṡā: Able, healthy persons beg due to lazyness, lethargy iii. Sarvasampatkāri bhikshā: Detached saints beg whatever is spontaneously available (sahaj prapta), just to follow non-violence and to observe Saṁyama (control over senses). 4. “Yogavinśikā454”: It describes developed states of Yoga through the medium of twenty gathas (stranzas) in prākṛta. 5. “Sodshak455”: Here, 16 chapters contain 256 slokas. It mentions various defects at mental level in Yogasādhanā.

Some more scriptures are “Sad-darsan samuccaya”, “Yogasatak456”. Ācārya Gunbhadra of 9th century wrote “Ātmānushashan457” which takes us to our pure form. During 10th century, Amitgati wrote two scriptures: “Subhasitratna sandoh458” and “Yogasār prabhrut459” which included Vrutta, Dhyan and conduct

453 Ibid. p.193 454 “Yogavinśikā”, Rushabhdevji Kesrimalji Swetambar Samstha, Ratlam, 1927 455 “Sodshak”, Rushabhdevji Kesrimalji Swetambar Samstha, Ratlam, Virsamvat 2462 456 “Yogasatak”, Gujarat Vidyasabha, Ahmedabad, 1956 457 “Ātmānushāshan”, Jain Sanskriti Samrakshak Sangh, Solapur, Virsamvat 2018 458 “Subhāsitratna sandoh”, Nirnaysagar Press, Bambai, 1903 459 “Yogasār prabhrut”, ed. Jugalkishor Mukhtar, Bharatiya Jnanpeeth, Varanasi, 1969 242

for monks and laymen. Muni Padmanandi wrote “Jnānasār460” in 1029 on Yoga‟s spiritual practices. Ramsenācārya wrote “Dhyānshāstra” or “Tattvānushāsan” which is based on principles of Concentration, Mantra, Japa and Āsana for Dhyāna. “Jnānārnav461” written by Shubhchandrācārya in 11th century includes Aṣṭānga-Yoga, Prāṇāyāma, Nadis, Pavanjay, Japa, Mantra, Hathayoga and TantraYoga.

Ācārya Hemchandra of 11-12th century, who was born in 1088 A.D. in the town of Dhandhuka in Gujarat, was a great spiritual teacher of King Kumarpal. From the narration of his mother‟s dreams before his birth, Ācārya Devasuri predicted that she would give birth to a son who would make great progress in the area of spiritual knowledge, intuition and conduct. Due to his influence, king Kumarpal accepted Jainism and implemented vegetarianism and prohibited violence and animal killing strictly in the state of Gujarat. He had broad minded He composed many literary masterpiece works and wrote on many original Jain texts and Agams.

Along with his spiritual progress, Hemchandrācārya always thought of universal welfare. People awarded him the title,‟Kali-kal Sarvajña‟, meaning „all-knower in the dark period‟. He died in 1173 A.D. at the age of 84 giving a great culture of Jainism. He wrote more than 35 millions of slokas462. He wrote on grammer like “Siddhahemlaghuvṛtti”, “Siddhahem Bruhadvṛtti” (Tatt- va prakāshika), “Siddhahemshabdānusāsan” and Dhatuparāyan”. He also wrote on Kosha as “Abhidhānchintāmani”, “Anekārthakosha” and “Deshinamamala”. On literature, his contribution is “Kavyanuśāsana”, “Chandonuśāsana” on Darśana , “Pramān mimānsa”, “Vedankusha-Dwijavadanchapeta” on History, “Prakrutdwayāsraya mahakāvya”and few others like “Vitarāgstotra”, and “Mahādevstotra” in the field of stuti. Apart from all thesevarieties of books, his

460 “Jñānasāra”, Digambar Jain Pustakalay Kapadia Bhavan, Surat, Virsamvat 2470 461 “Jnānārnav”, Paramshrut Prabhavak Mandal, Shrimad Rajchandra Ashram, Agas, Virsamvat 2037 462 Chimanlal Kaladhar, Jaindarshan, Article appeared in daily “Mid-day” dt.24/02/2013, Mumbai. 243

work “Yoga-shāstra463”, a treatise on yoga, is very famous and also known as Adhyātma-Upaniṣad. Many commentaries have been written on it by great scholars. It contains 12 chapters (prakāśa) of 1012 slokas. He adopted modern approach in describing the sequence of Patañjali‟s Aṣṭānga-Yoga in coordination with Triratna of Jainism. It is considered as World encyclopeadia of spiritual knowledge and a guide on duties of laymen and ascetics and a path to self realization for a true Yoga aspirant. There are several similarities in Acārya Hemchandra‟s Yoga-shāstra and Ācārya Shubhchandra‟s Jnānārnav. Hirvijay Suri was well known scholar of 12th Century. He could impress Emperor Akbar, who issued a proclamation prohibiting animal slaughter on certain auspicious days. Pandit Ashadhar‟s “Adhyātma Rahasya464” of 13th century opened up many misteries of spiritual world. In the same era, “Ārādhanāsār Samucchay” by Ravindra Muni, “Yogasārsangrah” by Sri Gurudas, “Yogasār465” and “Yogapradip466” by unknown authors include reach knowledge of ātma-parmātmā (individual and universal consciousness). All these scriptures467 were written in Sanskrit. Amongst the common people, who contributed greatly in bringing back the spiritual practices and to Jain literature, Lonkashah of Ahmedabad was first hired by a monk to make use of his neat handwriting. Afterwards, through his work, he acquired great knowledge of scripture and then in 1451 AD, started protest against temple rituals, mainly of Chatyavasis468.

463 “Yoga-shastra”, a) Rishabhchandra Johri, Kishanlal Jain, Delhi, 1963, b) edited by G.G.Patel, Jain Sahitya Prakashan Samiti, Ahmedabad, 1938, c) Ek Parishilan, Amarmuni, Sanmati Jnanpeeth, Agra, 1963 464 “Adhyātma Rahasya”, Virseva Mandir Trust, Delhi, 1957 465 “Yogasār”, Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bambai, 1968 466 “Yogapradip”, Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bambai, 1960 467 “Jain sāhitya kā bruhad Itihās” Gulabchandra Chaudhari, Kavya Sahitya series, part-4, Parshvanath Vidyashram Shodh Samsthan; Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, 1973, p.255 468 “Jain Philosophy and Practice” JAINA Education Committee, North America, 2002, p.130 244

Other important scriptures469 are “Viseshavāshyak bhāshya” by Jinbhadragani Kshamasraman, “Syādvād manjari” by Mallisen, “Sammati Tark” by Siddhasen Diwakar and “Dwādsār Naychakra” by Mallivadi suri. During 15th century, Muni Sundersuri wrote “Ādhyātmakalpadruma470” which provides guidance on controlling the mind and developing detachment. For concentration of our mind, Bhaskarnandi wrote “Dhyānāstav471” in Sanskrit in 16th century. Sakalchandra wrote “Dhyāndipika472” in 1569 describing various types and characteristics of Dhyāna. Kavi Rajmalla‟s “Adhyātmakamal mārtand473” of 16th century includes 200 slokas on Moksha, path of liberation, Dravyas and seventattvas of Jainism. “Dhyānsvarūpa474” of Bhavvijay (1696) has details of Dhyāna. Digambars experienced a significant change during late 16th century through a famous scholar and poet named Banarasidas. He also called for prevention of offerings as daily rituals in the temples, which resulted into high degree of violence. The great Jain scholar of 17th century Upadhyay Yoshovijayji wrote about 500 books in Sanskrit, Prakrut, Gujarati, Hindi and Rajasthani. Out of all these, atleast 108 scriptures are currently available. His contribution was in majority of the fields including Yoga. It includes “Ādhyātmasāra475”(949 slokas), “Shodasakavṛtti”, “Dwātrishaddwatrishinka476”, “Ādhyātmopanisad477”, “Patanjal Yogasūtravṛtti”, “Yogavinsikatika478”, “Jñānasār479”, “Āvashyak Niryukti” and “Viseshavāshyak

469 Chimanlal Kaladhar, Jain Darshan, appeared in Mid-day, daily newspaper dated 24.02.13 470 “ Ādhyātmakalpadrum”, Nirnaysagar mudranalay, Bambai, 1966 471 “Dhyānastav”, Vir Seva Mandir, Delhi, 1976 472 “Dhyāndipika”, Somchandra Shah, Ahmedabad, 1916 473 “Ādhyātmakamal mārtand”, Manikchandra Digambar Jain Granthmala, V.S. 1993 474 “Dhyānswaroop”, Jinratnakosha part-1, p.166 475 “Ādhyātmasār”, Jaindharma Prasarak sabha, Bhavnagar, V.S. 1965 476 “Dwatrishaddwatrishinkā” (Yogavtar Battisi), P.Sukhlal Jain Ātmannand Sabha, Bhavnagar, 1966 477 “Ādhyātmopanisad”, Kesarbai Jnanabhandar sthapak, Jamnagar, V.S. 1944 478 “Patanjal Yogadarsan evam Haribhadriya Yogavinsikatikā”, P.Sukhlal Jain Ātmannand Sabha, Bhavnagar, 1922 479 “Jnānasār (Ashtak)”, a) Ātmannand Sabha, Bhavnagar, 1971 b) Omprakash Jain, Pratap Market, Delhi, 1968 245

Bhāṣya” give lots of details of characteristics and types of Dhyāna and various related practices. During 18th century, Devendranandi wrote “Dhyāndipika480” in Gujarati which included details of twelve bhavnās, Ratnatray, Mahāvrut, Dhyāna, Mantra and Syād. Pandit Todarmal of Jaipur, who was influenced by Banarasidas emphasized nishcay and naya (absolute aspect) of Kundkundāchārya writings. Shrimad Rajchandraji, a great revolutionary scholar born in 1868, was highly gifted person. He guided Mahātman Gandhi, the greatest leader of Indian freedom fighters and a true practitioner of non-violence and truth. Rajchandra had written many letters, devotional songs and explained the true nature of soul. He gave the most influential literature in the form of „Mokśa-mālā‟ and „Ātmansiddhi shāstra‟. He had plans to freshly propound true Jainism, but unfortunately, he died early at the age of 33. “Uttarādhyayana-sūtra” written by Sri Harikesa gives us details of strict codes of ethics for all four segments of Jain sangh, i.e. Sādhu, Sādhvi, Shrāvaka and Shrāvikā. During 1949, Ācārya Tulsi initiated Anuvrutta movements. Swāmī Karttikeya of Digambara gave “Anupreksa” which describes twelve techniques of meditation for monks and laity. Western philosopher R.Williams wrote “JainYoga481” in 20th century and mentioned Śrāvaka ācār i.e. rules for a layman. Towards the end of 20th century, Acārya Tulsi wrote “Manonushāsanam482” in a thread of sūtras like Patañjali. At the same time, Muni Nathmal wrote “JainYog483” presenting the knowledge in a newly modified way. Ātmanramji Maharaj wrote “Jainagamo me Aṣṭānga-Yoga484” in 1933 and based on it, “Jain Yoga Siddhānta aur Sādhanā485” was structured during 1983 by him.

480 “Dhyāndipika”, Adhyātman Jnan Prasarak Mandal, 1929 481 “JainYoga”, R.Williams, Oxford University Press, London, 1963 482 “Manonushāsanam”, Jain Swetambar Terapanthi Mahasabha, Gorakhpur, Virsamvat 2021 483 “JainYog”, Adarsh Sahitya Sangh, Churu, 1978 484 “Jainagamo me Aṣṭānga-Yoga”, Ātmanram Jain Prakashanalay, Ludhiyana, (1933) 485 “Jain Yoga Siddhant aur Sadhana”, compiled by Sri Amarmuni, Ātmanjnan Peeth, Punjab,1983 246

Many other scriptures are found in Jain literature related to spiritual Yogīc practices without any name of the authers or copies are not available now. Some of them are Ādhyātmabindu, Ādhyātmabhed, Yogānga, Yogaratnamālā and Yogavivarana. Thus, from all historical literature it could be concluded that the most important prime scriptures in Jain Yogasādhanā were given by two main Acāryas namely Haribhadrasuri from Swetambar sect and Shubhchandrācārya from Digambars. The other two major contributors are Hemchandrasuri and Upadhyay Yashovijayji. The true Jain religion, Darśana and culture are based on direct spiritual teachings by Lord Mahāvīra. In all these scriptures, meaning was given by Tirthankaras and words were given by Ganadharas. But, main emphasis is put on meaning and not the words. There are two catagories of sacred scriptures, those belong to original Āgama series called as Angpravishta and others written by great Ācāryas called as Angbrahya. In 455CE, when scripture was written first time, there were 84 texts of Agama and 36 of Nigamas, out of which many got lost and destroyed. Now, according to Swetambers, only 45 Āgams are available after development of printing technology486. To remove the controversy, „Samanasuttam‟ of 756 verses was compiled by all the sects of Jainism represented by their scholars in presence of Ācārya Vinoba Bhave in 1975 on the 2500th death anniversary of Lord Mahāvīra. Currently, according to different sects of Jainism, following Agams are accepted to be in the original form487:

486 Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, July, 2007, p.24 487 http://www.jainworld.com/literature/jainagamliterature/chapter3.asp (Retrieved on 24/09/2015) 247

Jain Sects Total Anga-sūtras Number of Anga- Number of Anga- / Agams (Main) agams Lost agams Survived Digambar 12 12 0 Swetambar Murtipujak 12 1 11 Swetambar Sthanakvasi 12 1 11 Swetambar Terapanthi 12 1 11 Present status of main Angas and Present Status of Ang-bahya-agams:

Jain Sects Total Ang-bayha Number of Ang- Number of Ang-bayha Agams bayha agams Lost agams Survived Digambar 14 14 0 Swetambar Murtipujak 34 0 34 Swetambar Sthanakvasi 21 0 21 Swetambar Terapanthi 21 0 21

Dwādasānga is a group of twelve scriptures, which are main Angas listed by their

Category of Ang-bahya- Swetambar Murtipujak Sthanakvasi and agams Terapanthi Upang-agams 12 12 Chhed-sūtra-agams 6 4 Mool-sūtra-agams 4 3 Chulka-sūtra-agams 2 2 Prakirna-sūtra-agams 10 None Total Ang-bahya-agams 34 21

Sanskrit titles are mentioned below, followed by brief description for each one. These Angas describes how to minimize and then, finally get rid of Kāma and Artha out of four puruṣārtha as of Indian traditions. Then, after attainment of higher state, how to get rid of outer Dharma also to attain mokṣa is nicely explained which is worth understanding, following and to get uplifted, liberated. The twelve Upāngas deal with cosmographical, cosmological, astronomical and hagiological themes. Out 248

of these Upangas, “Rāja Prashniya sūtra” details dialogue between Sage Keshin and ruler Prasenajit where, Keshin tries to prove that the soul is independent of the physical body. The four Mula-Sūtras (Fundamental) are primers of ascetics. The ten “Prakirnas” (mixed scriptures) contain instructions about a variety of subjects such as prayer, conscious dying, astrology and medicine. The seven “Cheda-sūtras” (cutting sūtras) deal with monastic rules. Thus, the Jain canon consists of forty five works in all (12+12+4+10+7)488. The main twelve Angas are listed below. The list of names is followed by brief description of each one489: 1. Ācāranga sūtra 2. Sūtrakrutāngasūtra 3. Sthānānga sūtra 4. Samvayanga sūtra 5. Vyākhyāprajnāpti sūtra (Bhagvatisūtra) 6. Jnātā Dharmakathāsūtra 7. UpasakadasangaSūtra 8. Antakrid Dasānga sūtra 9. Anuttaroprajnāpti sūtra 10. Prasna vyākarana sūtra 11. Veepāka sūtra 12. Dristivād sūtra (lost, not available now) 1. Ācāranga sūtra: It is the oldest and first scripture written by Sudharma Swāmī, 5th Ganadhara of Lord Mahāvīra contains 25 chapters and has total 2644 slokas. It contains the maximum spiritual practices among all other Angas. First pada (Srutakhand) contains nine chapters mainly on principle and practices of non- violence (अदहंसा). It also talks of knowing self (all types of jīva), Āshrav, Saṃvar and types of violence (र्स्त्रऩररऻा), forms of world (ऱोकववजय), carnal indulgences, desires, body and food (मर्तोन्टणय), forms of liberated souls, three types of aspirants

488 G.Feuerstein, The Yoga Tradition, Motilal banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, 2002, p.190 489 Tej Sahebji, Jain Dharmsaar, Tej Sahebji, 2015, pp. 12-22 249

(संयतत्तव), bodage, liberation and core fundamentals of the worlds of beings (ऱोकसार), abandoning pride, isolation and cleansing (धुत), renouncing households, ultimate knowledge, process of critical self-review, ascetics with one or two clothes

(महाऩररऻा), emancipation (अनेकानतवाद), service to others (वैयावत्तृ य), description of meditational death (संऱेखना), disciplined routine, mental support to help right

490 conduct, fasting and meditation (उऩधानश्रुत) . The second pada (Srutakhand) has sixteen chapters on non-attachment and non- accumulation of material and thoughts (वैराग्य, अऩररग्रह) . It also has five chulikās. This scripture describes Sangha system of Jainas managed by Ācāra (disciplines of life), important rules and conduct for Jain monks and nuns and life of a layman. It presents a sacred account of Mahāvīra‟s life as a wandering mendicant and his 25 bhavanas. The virtues of a pure soul described here include non-violence, detachment from all and equanimity (samatābhāva). Different categories of jīva and methods of controlling violence to them are explained here. It prescribes place for sitting and procedure for ascetics to take and consume food, water and clothes. This scripture is very useful for protection of monk life and providing security to it and to strengthen our faith and cultivate one for livings like six kāyās (Prithvikāya and others)491 2. Sūtra-Krita (Sūryagadānga sūtra). An aphoristic Composition: It describes fundamental teachings of Jainism relative to the monastic life and combating non- Jaina doctrines like non-violence. This sūtra contains the matters concerning 363 gingers who attended the sermon session of Lord Mahāvīra. It includes three Chulikās. The scripture starts with dos and don‟ts of āhāra, vihāra (body movements and dietary instructions), applications of Shaiyesana, Irya (location for stay and sādhanā, speech), clothings and utensils. This scripture helps us in avoiding and

490 Amarmuni, Āchārangasūtra, Motilal banarsidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd., Delhi, chapter-1, sūtra- 92, pp. 5-6 491 Article “Literature of Jain philosophy and Agamas”, http://www.jain24.org/BookPDF/ENGLISH/Jain%20Agamas.pdf (retrieved on 12/08/2015) 250

minimizing bondages and for stoppage of influx of karma. It also explains the rare availability of human life, uncertainty and impermanency of human life and life span, our duties, significance of non-violence and preachings to 98 sons of Rishabhdev Tirthankar. It has two Shrutskandhas, first has 16 chapters and the second one has seven chapters. 3. Sthānāga (Receptacle): The theoretical name of this sūtra is “Thāñānga”. It was written by Shrutsthaveer. The Sthānāngasūtra is known in Prakṛt as the Tha- nam, which denotes quantum. Hence, the style of the Sthānānga Sūtra is unique. It is divided into ten chapters, and each chapter enumerates certain topics realted to worldly materials and facts according to their numbers. This agama defines and cata- logues the main substances of the Jain metaphysics. Diverse topics such as the Dharmakathānuyoga, Caranānuyoga, Karanānuyoga and Dravyanuyoga are covered. While the focus is on Karanānuyoga, this unique Āgama serves as a huge an- thology to all branches of Jaina knowledge. The topics are covered in as: - the theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, quartic equations, and permutations and combinations. It also gives classifications of five types of infinities. It also consists of detailed enu- meration of the key principles of Jainism, mainly Pudgals, tattvas like jīva and ajīva. Those great personalities who were contemporaries of Lord Mahāvīra and who with their great deeds and virtues, made a reservation in the list of future Tirthankaras. The nine great personalities like Sulsa, Revati, and Shrenik are described in the 9th sub-division of this sūtra. Lord Mahāvīra himself had given the vow of renunciation to eight kings. In the 8th sub division we can read a list of these 8 kings. Great details about Jain views of geography are found in this Sūtra. There are at present 3770 slokas and 12000 pādas492. 4. Samavāyāngasūtra (combination): This is in continuation of the exposition of the Sthānga. The Sūtra explains briefly the form and structure of 12 Angas. Using numerics from 1 to 100, matters upto kodā-kodis (high multiples) are described. It tells us that all 23 Tirthankaras (except Lord Rishabh) got the ultimate knowledge at

492 www.jainworld.jwnet (Retrieved on 18/09/2015) 251

the time of sunrise and that all these 23 Tirthankaras had knowledge of 11 Angas. Details of all Kevaljnanis desciples of Lord Mahāvīra, other great cakravartis (super kings), mount Meru, Jambudwip and Devavimāna-s (aeroplanes) are included in this scripture. This Sūtra is Brahmi script. All nine Tattvas, numbers and positions are explained in this sūtra. It has 46 alphabets. The Sūtra has 144000 pādas and 1667 slokas in it. 5. Bhagavati-Vyākhyā-Prajnāpti (Exposition of explanations): It describes recorded dialogues of Lord Mahāvīra with his disciples like Gautam who asked him 36000 questions and got very explanatory and thorough replies to each of his question. Many questions were asked by oyher Ganadharas, disciples and non-Jainas also. It includesin its 288000 pādas,vivid picture of Mahāvīra‟s life, his eleven Gandharas and his times including information about Gosala, an ascetic who lived with him for six years.Besides, it also includes Navkar mantra, Brahmi script, and various questionairs on varities of subjects like consequences of karma, dravya (particles) and kāl (time) that answered by his disciples and scholars, the question asked by the householders of Tumgiya city and the replies received on them by the disciples of Lord Parshvanath traditions. The Sūtra also contains the story of renunciation of Rushabhdatta and Devananda and their ultimate liberation. It also includes structuring and other details of lives of all living beings (jīva) having one to five senses, their types, origin, movements (gati) and relations. Even today when this Sūtra is read in lectures by Jain Acaryas (Vyakhyān), a special ceremony is performed in its greetings. It is divided into 41 sections known as shatakas. It follows question and answer pattern. The questions are raised by Gautama, Makandiputra, Roha, Agnibhuti and Vayubhuti, Skandaka, Jayanti and others. Briefly, the answers may be categorised under the following categories: a) Related to ascetic conduct b) Related to the six substances c) Related to ontology d) Related to reincarnation e) Related to geography 252

f) Related to cosmology g) Related to mathematics h) Related to obstretics i) Brief biographies of famous contemporaries of Mahāvīraa j) Miscellaneous subjects 6. Jñātā-dharma-katha (Stories of knowledge and morality): The original name of this sūtra is “Nāyādhammkahāo”. It consists of legendary accounts that illustrate Jaina doctrines in details. Total two divisions of this sūtra have 29 subdivisions, 5500 slokas and 576000 pads. Its part “Tumbak adhyayan” contains several stories containing distinguished sermons. Through stories, Lord tries to explain how to practice Ratnatrayi (Jain‟s tri-gems), how and why to maximize faith and practice of five vrattas, to control senses, increase in inner virtues of self, how not to expect fruits of deeds, carried forward of karmas of previous births and other virtues for a pious life. The Thirteenth sub division (Adhyayan) describes how a soul falls down without compnionship of and the great sermons by the ideal Guru (the true guide). 7. Upāsaka-Dasānga (10 chapters on lay followers): The original name is „Upāsak-dasha‟. „Upāsaka‟ is true follower of Jainism and „dasha‟ means ten. It describes life stories of ten such followers of Lord Mahāvīra. It also contains discussion on duties and life of a layman (srāvakdharma), life scatches of ideal laymen disciples following twelve vruttas and legends of saintly men and women from among the laity.The Upāsaka-Dasānga has 7152000 padas, At Present we have a text of 812 verses. This is the only scripture based on discussion on shrāvak-dharma (life of an ideal layman). The concepts of detachment, truth, forgiveness etc. are well explained through life scatches of ten followers of Lord Mahāvīra, who adopted the dharma directly from him. They were as under: 1. Anand 2. Kamdev 3. Chulinipita 4. Suradev 5. Chullasatak 253

6. Kundakaulik 7. Sakdalputra 8. Mahasatak 9. Nandinipita 10. Shalinipita They all adopted restricted lifestyle, culture and vruttas making minimum usage of articles and consumables. They slowly developed detachment towards that too. They followed the principle which says “Truth is big, not the person”. In one of the incidences, when Anand, the junior disciple got proved right by Mahāvīra, the senior disciple Gautam apologise Anand. They all followed „shrāvakadharma‟ for twenty years followed by samlekhanā (fasting till death) for one month and then left body493. They used to circulate only one third of their wealth into business keeping one third as reserve fund to minimise stress and develop detachment. 8. Antakṛt Dasānga sūtra (10 chapters on Kevlis, End-makers): It consists of ten ascetics who won enlightenment and brought an end to the cycle of rebirths (during anta-muhurta).Its original name in Prakrut Language is “Antgad Dasa” scripture. It is divided into 8 divisions and 92 sub divisions, has 900 slokas with 2328000 padas. The word „Antkṛt‟ has a special meaning attached to it, when the soul attains Kevaljnān. The ultimate knowledge and immediately thereafter deducting and destructing all his karmas of eight kinds, and does not live a moment there after, and immediately goes in to the state of „Siddha‟, such souls in technical terms are known as antkrut. Life of such ninty monks and twenty three queens of King Shrenik are described in this scripture. In this sūtra, we have the life stories of all such souls from all classes who became „Siddha‟ immediately after attaining Kevaljnān the ultimate knowledge. Each one of those souls had 17years of ascetic life, one month of Sanlekhana and got liberated to Siddhaloka. 9. Anuttara-Upāpātika-Dasa (Anuttaroprajnāpti, 10 chapters on the highest risers): The original name is „Anuttaro vavaidasha‟. It contains legends of thirty

493 Madhukar Muni, Upāsakadasāngasutta, Sri Agam Prakashan Samiti, Beawar (Rajasthan), 1989 254

three saints who ascended to the highest heavenly worlds.It includes 192 ṡloka and has 4608000 padas describing the life stories of great virtuous souls as well as their virtuous character that had led the most pure characterous lives and then emerged in Anuttar Vimān - a well known land of god – “Dev Loka”. It also includes very hard austerities of Dhanna-Kakandi as was praised by Lord Mahāvīra himself. 10. Prashna-Vyākarana (Questions and explanations): The Prakrut name of this 10th Jin Agam Sūtra in the scripture is „Panha Vagaranani‟. In present time only a few portion of this Sūtra is available. It comprises of discussions of the good elements like Non-violence and others, all fivevruttas. It consists of both good and bad elements i.e. Asrava and Saṃvara from the Jaina code of ethics. As per Nandi Sūtra version about this Sūtra, it contained 108 problems, 108 non-problems, 108 problems–cum–non-problems several super-intelligence and hymns (Mantras) as well as the dialogue and discussion of Monks held with Nagkumar and other Bhavanpati Gods. It also explains bondage of karma, transitoriness, kaṣayas and unwholesome (aṡubh) Yoga. It has 2300 slokas, 9216000 padas. 11. Vipāka-śruta (Revelation on Repening): The original name is “Vivag Suyam”. It contains legends that illustrate the karmic consequences of good and evil acts. It has 2 main divisions (i) Unhappiness DukhaVipāk Sūtra Skandh and (ii) Happiness Sukha Vipak Sūtra Skandh. Each of them has 10 Sub divisions and total 1216 slokas and 18432000 padas. One of the best illustrations of Mruga-putra and great monk Subahu are eye openers to the modern rulers. 12. Drishti-Vada (Instruction about Views): Consists of fourteen purvas, which have been lost. So, manytimes this is not counted and only 11 Angas have been made available. Apart from 12 Angas as mentioned above, there are 12 Upāngas as under: 1. Aupāpaātita: The original name is „Uvvāi‟and isbased on and upānga of Āchāranga sūtra. It has 2100 slokas. It describes twelve types of external and internal Tapas, four types of Dhyānas, geographical details of Earth and Siddhas. It also has interesting details of Mokṡa, the place for liberated souls and story of Akhanda tapas with his 700 disciples. 255

2. Rayprashniya: The original name is „Rau paseniya‟. The scripture is upānga of Krutatha sūtra and is full of material, related to dramatics, description of the township, dev-vimans, idols etc. It includes description of 108 Jin-idols, 32 plays as Suryabhdev, answers by Lord Mahāvīra to six questions on Nastikvad. 3. Jīvājīvābhigama: This scripture is upanga of Sthananga sūtra and has 4750 slokas which include informations about jīva and ajīva, Jin-puja, Jambu Dwip, Lavan Dwip, islands, oceans, Sun, Moon, stars – all three lokas in the form of questions-answers. 4. Prajñāpana: This scripture is the biggest upanga, a treasure of gems. It is upanga of Samvayanga sūtra. The original name of this Upanga is „Pannavana Sūtra‟. It has 7787 slokas and is based on Samvayangasūtra composed by Shyamācārya, a disciple of Umaswati. It includes discussion on Karma, nine tattvas, asrav, saṃvar, nirjara, moksha, forms of lesya and all principles of Jainism. 5. Surya Prajñapti also called “Sur pannati” is upanga of Bhagvati sūtra. It has 2200 slokas. It deals with Astronomy (information on Sun, Moon, planets, galaxies and their movements) and details of cycles of day-night and seasons. It is also called as Astrology of Jainism. 6. Jambudvip Prajnapti (based on Shree Gnta Dharm Kathang Sūtra). It is related to Geography. The seven divisions of this sūtra with 4146 slokas deal as under: 1st. Bharat Kshetra (Indian Sub continents) 2nd. Kalachakra (The Time Wheel) 3rd. The great emperor Bharat Chakravarti 4th. Chullahimavant: The Varsh Dhar Mountains and area between Ramyak Kshetra to Airavat Kshetra 5th. Jinjanmabhisheka describes the birth celebration of Lord Tirthankaras. (Janmakalyanaka) 6th. Jambudvip Gatpadartha sangraha describes 29 subjects including the areas, i.e. Mountains, Pilgrim, Places, series in Jambudvip. 7th. Jyitishka describes the Astronomy 256

Besides this great Sūtra discusses on a topic of mathematics one of the four great Anuyog – worthy topics. 7. Chandra Prajnapti: Prakrut name of this upanga is Chandapannatti sūtra based on Upasaka dasanga sūtra. It is similar to Surya Prajnapati having same 2200 slokas except the Moon inplace of Sun. The movements, growth and contraction of moon, its relation with the Galaxy are the subjects detailed in it. 8. Nirayayaliya: It is upanga of Antakrut dashanga sūtra. It describes the war between king Konik and king Cheda, where 800million people were killed. They all went to infernal loka (narak gati). Nirya valika sūtra is a collection of five Upanga sūtra and stories of king Shrenik‟s ten princes. 9. Kalpavratsika or kalpavatansika or Kappavandasiya sūtra is based on Anittaraupāpātik sūtra. Stories of sons and grandson‟s of king Shrenik and ten princes are detailed here. 10. Pushpikasūtra is based on Nirchavilaka and is upanga of shri prashna vyakarana sūtra. It gives information of planets from Jyotish Shastra and stories of deities coming to Lord Mahāvīra. 11. Puṇyachulika or Pushpa chulika sūtra (life scatches of ten Goddesses) 12. Vrushni Dasha (based on Nirayavilaka, stories of ten sons of Baldev, elder brother of Krishna Vasudev) Above referred Anga and Upanga include religion, darśana, ācāra (do‟s and don‟ts) culture, discipline, history, art, literature and basic principles. Ten Payanna are as under: 1. Chatuh Sharan (Chan sharan Payanna or Kushalannubandhi Adhyan by Virbhadra Gani.) 2. Santhār: It describes critical details of Santhārā, the willful death, its process and intention. 3. Atur Pratyākhyan: It gives all details ofprocesses and practices to be followed during the last moments before death, child death and scholar‟s death. 4. Bhakti Parijna: It talks of stoppage of taking food for permanent fasting and Pandit maraṇa. 257

5. Tandul Vaiyaliya: This is full of values of detachment mentioning sufferings of birth, death, pregnancy and delivery. As the name suggests it says we eat 4608 millions rice grains during 100 years of life span. 6. Chandravedayak: It describes Radha-vedh with one pointed mind. 7. Devendra Stav: It describes details of 32 Indras, their devotions towards God. 8. Ganividya: It gives primary information of Astrology, Palmistry and Muhurtas for auspicious events. 9. Maha Pratyakhyan: It describes auspicious and inauspicious death in details and methods of improving it for ascetics. 10. Vir stav (Samādhi maraṇ): It gives details of Samādhi-death, state of mind during that and some processes and remedies for the same with illustrations. Six Chedsūtras are given below („Ched‟ is external practice/process that does not interfere with religion/duties but improves purification. If one commits some mistakes, processes given to correct and improve, do‟s and don‟ts for monks and householders): 1. Nishithsūtra: This Achar-prakalpa gives details of dos and don‟ts of ascetics. 2. Mahanishith (written by Sudharma Swāmī, improvised by Sri Haribhadra suri) 3. VyavaharDasha Kalpa (written by Bhadrabahu Swāmī): It describes all punishments, taxes, remorse process and other eligibilities for all. 4. Dasashrut skandh (Trḯni Chhedsūtrani or Dashashrutskandha, Brihatkalpa written by Bhadrabahu Swāmī. It contains 10 chapters including 8th chapter of Paryuṣana‟s Kalpasūtra) 5. Bruhat kalpa (written by Bhadrabahu Swāmī): It describes the basic characteristics and virtues of monks and nuns and other details. 6. Jit kalpasūtra (written by Bhadrabahu Swāmī): This is very serious scripture describing all deficiencies of a monk and 19 types of repentances. Two sūtras (Āgamchulikā sūtra) are: 1. Nandisūtra (Dev vachak Gani): It gives details of five types of jnanas (knowledge), Gandhars, Tirthankars and the Sangh. 258

2. Anuyog dvār or Anuyogasūtra: (Unique scripture, four Chhedsūtras compiled and written by Sthaveer Aryarakshit). It facilitates word to join its meaning, process of expressing the meaning. It is master-key to understand agamas. Four mulasūtra are: 1. Āvashyak Oghniryukti 2. Dashvaikayik (Shayyambhav suri) 3. Pindniryukti (BhadrabahuSwāmī): It talks of bringing and taking food for ascetics. 4. Uttarādhyayan: It describes the last sermon of 16 prahars of Lord Mahāvīra in 36 chapters. Now, only ten Bhasya or niryuktiya is available. They are Avashyaka, Dasvaikalika, Uttaradhyayana, Acaranga, Sūtrakrutanga, Dasashrutaskandha, Bruhatkalpa, Vyavahara, Suryapragnapti and Rishibhasita. The first Srutakandha, “Nav brahmācāryadhyayana” or “Shramanachara” describes details of principles of Ahiṃsā (non-violence), Samata (equanimity), Anasakti (detached attitude) and Kaṣayaa-vijaya (victory over efflictions). The second Srutakandha, “Achar Chula” or “Shramana charya” includes Ahara suddhi (pure diet), Sthana (place), Gati (movements) and Bhasa (language). The first Chula contains following seven chapters: 1. Pindesana: Purity of food 2. Shaiyesana: Purity of place for sādhanā/practice) 3. Eryesana: Control of travel movements 4. Bhasajataisana: Control of purity of language 5. Vastraisana: Limitations of clothings and usages of the same 6. Patraisana: Limitations of Vessels and utensils 7. Avagrahaisana: Process of permission for location and place. Surya Prajnapti – Chandra Prajnapti‟, a scripture on 6th and 7thUpanga has 20 chapters and 108 sūtras and is based on Astrology. It is also called as „Jyotish-Raj- Prajnapti‟. „Āvashyak Sūtra‟ prescribes list of those duties, one should try to perform. Our duties should be based on one single principle that “Each animal desires for happiness and nobody wants miseries.” 259

The complete Āgama literature is divided into four Anuyogas as under: 1. Charanakarana or Charanuyoga: It mentions Ācara, ethical practices; one has to follow for spiritual purpose. 2. Dharmakathanuyoga: In includes virtues like Ahiṃsā to be followed as one‟s own duty. 3. Ganitānuyoga: (Karanayuyoga as per Digambers) Expressed through the medium of Maths. 4. Dravyanuyoga: It describes the knowledge of all nine Tattvas. It is „shrutjnana‟, the most important Anuyoga. Anuyoga is the process of expressing and explaining the meaning. It unites with and takes us to the higher meanings of knowledge. Savve pana…… Suhasaya dukkhavadikula (Ācharanga sūtra 1/2/3) Inorder to proceed on path of liberation, Vyavahar-Nay is the cause that supports and motivates where as Niscay-Nay is the actucal process. One of the Jain Āgamas, „Dashvaikalik Sūtra‟ mentions guidelines to be followed by Shramanas or monks as per “Anga bahya srut”, collection of ten sermons and two chulikas494. These are as under: i) Druma Puṣpikā: Two types of true religions are prescribed, laukika (Gramdharma, Deshdharma and Rajdharma) and Lokottar dharma. ii) Shramanya purvak iii) Laghu achar-katha iv) Satjīvnikay: Self and spiritual control v) Bhikṣā visuddhi or Pindaisna (Gochari) vi) Mahāchār katha describes eighteen rules for dharmārtha, study of religions vii) Vakya suddhi viii) Ahār pranidhi ix) Vinay Samādhi

494 Madhukar Muni, Dashvaikaliksūtra, tr. Siddhantacharya Sadhvi Pushpavati, Shri Agam Samiti, Beawar (Rajasthan), 1993

260

x) Sa-bikṣu – winner of senses Tattvārthasūtra: the summary of Agamas Acārya UmaSwāmī wrote “Mokshashastra” also called as “Tattvārthasūtra”, in 2nd century in the form of first translation of Agams in Sanskrit which consists of 10 chapters inclusive of 344 sūtras (as per Digambars, it includes 357 sūtras). The Bhāṣya includes 2200 slokas. This scripture describes in details and systematic manners, the path to liberation through integration of Samyak Darśana, Samyak Jnān and Samyak Cāritra. 33 sūtras of first chapter of Tattvārthasūtra deal with knowledge and describe Samyak Darśana and Samyak Jnān. Second chapter (53 sūtras) deals with jīva and describes relation with and types of bodies, life span, senses, birth and related characteristics. The third (39 sūtras) and fourth (42 sūtras) chapters deal with four cycles and trilokas of common lives i.e. infernal abodes, middle world and heaven. Fifth chapter deals with ajīva matter and describes shad-dravyas, soul and non-soul. These five chapters are considered as Jnan-mimansa, treasure of knowledge. Chapters 6 to 10 of Tattvārthasūtra are based on good conduct and so called as Charitra-mimansa. The sixth chapter (27 sūtras) of Tattvarth sūtra describes Āsrav, causes of influx of Karmas. Seventh chapter (39 sūtras) describes restraints and duties of laymen including 12 vrattas. Eighth chapter (26 sūtras) deals with bondages (Bandh) and causes, types and states thereof. Ninth chapter (47 sūtras) deals with stoppage and eradication of karmas (Saṃvar and Nirjara) and also conduct of monks. The ultimate objective of human life is well described in 10th chapter (9 sūtras), Mokṡa-tattva. Samaṇ Suttam is the religious text created in 1974 by a committee consisting of representatives of each of the major sects of Jaina to reconcile the teachings of the sects under the guidance of a great saint Shri Vinoba Bhave. After a gap of about nearly two thousand years following composition of Tattvārthasūtra by Ācārya Umasvati, this was the first text to be recognized by all Jain sects. It consists of four chapters, mainly focused on summary of Agama. It includes following meanings of few sūtras: Jama Ichhami Appano… 261

 Whatever you wish for yourself, do the same with others. Don‟t do that you don‟t wish to be done with you.  That who knows self, can know others.  Ahiṃsā and hiṃsa totally is a mental intension. Generation of rāga and dveṣa itself is violence.  We can‟t stop dravya-hiṃsa, it will continue till we live, but can control or stop bhav-hiṃsa, which is primary cause of bondage of karma. Deliberate or intentional hiṃsa should be prevented  Jain Yoga includes rigorous observance of moral percepts especially Ahiṃsā (non-violence) with an extensive teaching about the causal force (doctrine of karma) associated with human behaviour495. V. Spiritual Practices prescribed for Jain ascetics - monks and nuns:

Śramaṇācāra (श्रमणाचार)

496 According to Ācārangasūtra , an ascetic (अनगार) is one who, considering the consequences of mundane indulgence and passions desists from any desire for the same and gets free from greed. The one who destroys all karma is called accomplished (कु र्ऱ). Third chapter of Ācārangasūtra describes causes and remedies of passions. Favourable and unfavourable conditions give rise to attachment and aversion. Remedy is to tolerate them with equanimity. Only wakeful state of consciousness

(जागतृ ) is important for spirituality. The precipitation of faith delusive karma is the

497 deepest slumber (सुषुन्प्त). The wakeful and alert ascetic only can shed this karma. Lord Mahāvīra says that Mohaniya karma (delusion) is the root of all karma and other seven are like tips498. One should ponder over three types of knowledge: earlier birth, birth-death and comparative study of one‟s own happiness and sorrow and also

495 G.Feuerstein, The Yoga Tradition, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi, 2002 496 Amarmuni, Acharangasūtra, sūtra-72, p.92 497 Ibid, sūtra-107, p.154, Dashashrut skandh (5/11-14; 3/2/102) 498 Ibid, sūtra-116, p.175 262

those of other beings. Uttarādhyayan (32/5) mentions that attachment and aversion is root of a tree where tip includes all eight karmas. The various manifestations of these karmas are like leaves of the tree. Those who irrigate them continuously are reborn again and again.

499 ऩाऱीन्र्चहन्नदयन तनतकंमदन्नस By completely destroying resultant karma, with Tapa and Saṁyama, soul attains a state having perception unveiled by karma (तनटकामदर्ॉ), which is interpreted in four ways:

i. Being free of all karma, soul perceiving (आत्तमदर्ॉ)

ii. Being free of Rāga-dvesha, all perceiving (सवशदर्ॉ) iii. In absence of consequential activities or effects of karma, inactivity

perceiving (अकक्रयादर्ॉ)

iv. In total absence of karma, liberation perceiving (मोऺदर्ॉ) A person who has properly understood sound, form, smell, taste and touch is spiritualist (आत्तमवान), sagacious (ऻानवान) scholar of canons (वेदवान), religious

(धमशवान), and chaste (ब्रह्मवान) is a spiritual unique personality (ववभूतत) in true sense500. Nirgranth (knotless, without bondages) is one who counters with equanimity, lack of interest, liking for discipline and austerities501. An ascetic should come out of sequence of all kaṣāyas: anger, conceit, illusion, 502 greed, love, hatred, fondness, womb, birth, death, hell, animals and misery . Most of the Jain scriptures have mentioned following practices for Ṥramaṇa or Sadhu:

499 Ibid, sūtra-116, p.175 500 Ibid, sūtra-108, p.157 501 Ibid, sūtra-111, p.161 502 Ibid, sūtra – 129-131, pp.193-195 263

1. Mahāvrata: It is very strict and absolute observance of all five vows as Mahāvrata mentioned earlier. They observe with full awareness through their actions, speech and thoughts following attitudes while doing routine processes503: I. Ahiṃsā mahāvrata for Śramaṇa: They have to observe following attitudes: a) मनोगुन्प्त भावना : Try to maintain balanced state of mind with positivity. b) एषणासममतत भावना : Limited and proper usage of utensils, place, clothes and other similar items. c) आदानसममतत भावना : To take care of all germs, insects and others while moving, changing clothes and other routine activities. d) इयाशसममतत भावना : Take care of all kinds of non-violence while walking or moving. e) द्रटु िाननऩान ग्रहण भावना : Take care of all kinds of non-violence while taking food. The Lord Mahāvīra says that each of jīva 504 like Prithvikaya, Vayukaya, Tevukaya, Agnikaya and Āpkaya jīva suffers the same way as we do by tortures, cuts with weapons but it cannot express like us. As we have gone through each of these births, we should accept the existence of these minute water bodied beings and other forms of bodied beings, else we deny our own existence.505 Though, water and fire was worshipped, almost none bothered about violence against them. Only Lord Mahāvīra has mentioned all details of such violences. Ācārya Shreelank506 says, “Fire has attributes like light and heat, cannot survive without air and grows consuming food (oil and wood), gets fritters away when deprived of such food shows the evidence of it being alive.” Jugupsa is to abandon violence of air bodied beings.

503 Tattvarthadhigamabhāṣya (7/3, 33), Yogashastra (1/26-30) 504 Amarmuni, Acarangasūtra, sūtra-15, p. 26 505 Ibid, sūtra-23, p.34 506 Ibid, p. 44 264

Bhagvatisūtra (16/1/15) says, “One who knows saṃyam, knows non-violence of fire bodies and vice-versa.” This has same meaning of following sūtra of Ācārangasutta.

507 जे असत्तथस्स खेयण्णे से ददहऱोगसत्तथस्स खेयण्णे II Almost all enjoyables through our senses are of plant origin. So, too much attachment to various flavours, colours, shapes and sounds (instruments) is violence and causes harms to our soul. Ācārangasūtra gives two main causes of violence as stupor (प्रमाद) and desire for mundane pleasure (ववषयामभऱाषा). There are four types of stupor: intoxication, passions, sleep and opprobrium. 10 types of physical and 14 types of mental passions of karma that cause bondage of soul are described in Ācārangasūtra. A true ascetic should have knowledge

(ऩररऻातकमश) about such violences. According to Shreelank Vṛtti of Ācārangasūtra,508 sixteen categories of physical awareness (अनुभव संऻा) are as under: 1. Eating 2. Fear 3. Sex 4. Possession 5. Pleasure

6. Sorrow 7. Fondness 8. Doubt 9. Anger 10. Ego 11. Illusion 12. Greed 13. Grief

507 Ibid, sūtra-33, p. 42 508 Ibid, p.8 265

14. Mundane activities 15. Duty 16. Aggregate

According to Ācāranga Niyukti, five categories of mental awareness (ऻान संऻा) are already mentioned under the topic of Pramāṇa in this chapter509, subject of “Samyak Jnāna”. The first pada of Ācārangasūtra mentions in details all the characteristics of an

510 ascetic. He should be devoted to spiritual practices (तनयाग-प्रततऩनन), straight forward and upright in conduct (ऋजुकृ त), free of deceit (अमाय) and following conduct related to vigour, knowledge, faith and austerity (ववयाशचार, ऻानाचार, दर्शनाचार, तऩाचार). II. Satya mahavratabhavna for Shramana: Ācārangasūtra511explains importance of being firm on truth, which is interpreted in three different ways from different angles: a) Discipline which is beneficial for being is Truth b) The tenets of Arihant in the form of Āgama reveals the true form of the ultimate truth of anything c) Resolution: to follow vows faultlessly, accept the truth Following attitudes one has to maintain, a) हास्य-प्रत्तयाख्यान: Not to be untruthfull while making fun also. b) ऱोभ-प्रत्तयाख्यान: Not to to tell lie out of greed. c) क्रोध-प्रत्तयाख्यान: Out of anger, not to speak lie, bitter or harsh. d) भय-प्रत्तयाख्यान: For fear of death and to protect somebody, avoid. e) आऱोर्चय-भाषण: Not to speak bitter unknowingly or without thinking. III. Asteya mahavrata: Bhāvanā i.e. attitude for monks for this vow should comply with following:

509 मततश्रुतावधधमन् ऩयशय केवऱातन ऻानम ्। T.S. 1.9 510 Amarmuni, Acharangasūtra, sūtra, sūtra-19, p. 32 511 Ibid, sūtra-118, p. 177 266

a) आऱोर्चय-अव्ग्रहयाचन : With full awareness, request the owner to have place b) अमभऺण- अव्ग्रहयाचन : Don‟t grab, just remind and request the owner c) ऩररममत- अव्ग्रहयाचन : Demand only as per need and not more d) साधममशक- अव्ग्रहयाचन : Request the colleague monk also for stay with him e) अनुऻावऩत ऩान-अनन-अर्नग्रहण : Each time having food only with the permission of Guru/ elderly monk IV. Brahmacarya mahavrata: Almost all scriptures and Āgama (Ācārangasūtra 1/5/2/107 and Daṡvaikaliksūtra chapter 4) have strictly laid down disciplinary rules to follow this vow for monks or Ṥramaṇas. To protect this vow, following attitudes are prescribed to have maximum control over senses: a) स्त्री-षण्ढ-ऩर्ुम饍वेश्मासनकु 蕍यानतरत्तयाग : The aspirant should keep himself away from places where person of opposite sex stays or where vulgar talks are heard. b) सरागस्त्रीकथात्तयाग : To avoid talks which excite or provocate the attachments with opposite sex. c) ऩूवरश ततववऱासस्मरणत्तयाग : To get rid of past memories of sexual acts. d) स्त्रीरम्यनगेऺण-स्वानग-संस्कारऩररवजशन : Avoid looking at attractive limbs of opposite sex and to exhibit self accordingly. e) प्रतनतात्तयर्नत्तयाग : To stop taking too tasty, spicy and excess food. Indulgences are not capable of quenching the thirst for gratification. Carnality is dangerous. Jain monks have equanimity of alms collection.512 V. Aparigraha mahavrata: Jain ascetics beg for clothes, food and other necessary items without any attachment. A man obsessed with possessions fails to stay on true path even if he gets them. Be- cause of his stupidity, he finds wrong path and sticks to it, unable to cross the ocean of life to get liberated. Non-greed remedy as prescribed by Ācārangasūtra513 is

512 Ibid, sūtra-87, p.111 513 Ibid, sūtra-73, p.93 267

“Abandoning food intake acts as medicine for the fever and abandoning greed acts as medicine for craving.” To protect this vow, following attitudes are prescribed to have maximum control over senses: a) स्ऩर्शनेन्नद्रयववषयराग-饍वेर्वजशन: To get detached from attraction of touching beauties and aversion of unwanted touch a) रसनेन्नद्रयववषयराग-饍वेर्वजशन: To follow the same detachment towards attraction and aversion related to tastes b) घ्राणेन्नद्रयववषयराग-饍वेर्वजशन: To follow the same detachment towards attraction and aversion related to smells c) चऺुररन्नद्रयववषयराग-饍वेर्वजशन: To follow the same detachment towards attraction and aversion related to sights d) श्रोत्रेन्नद्रयववषयराग-饍वेर्वजशन: To follow the same detachment towards attraction and aversion related to sense of hearing In order to have proper implementation of all these vrattas Jain monks and nuns follow special rules of conduct (Samyakcāritra) such as five Samitis and three Guptis mentioned earlier but more strictly. It also includes lifetime practices of not consuming food or water after sunset or before sunrise, and wait for 48 minutes after sunrise before even drinking boiled water, which only is allowed to them. They make use of minimum water for the same purpose by never taking bath and avoiding usage of detergents or any washing equipment or accessories. Jain monks and nuns never touch a member of the opposite sex regardless of their age; they don‟t meet them after sunset. They also do not touch money, jewelry or any electrical or electronic gadgets. They do not own or have control over any wealth, houses or movable or immovable property or organization.They observe following six necessary rules (Ṣadavaṡyaka), the details are discussed later elsewhere: a) Sāmāyika b) Caturvimśatistava c) Vandanā d) Pratikamaṇa 268

e) Kāyotsarga f) Pratyākhyāna Apart from these observances, Daśavidhā-dharma (ten supreme duties) and Pariṡahjay (to bear with all the hurdles on the path of spiritual practices) are mentioned in Tattvārthasūtra. Some prominent practices for monks and nuns are described further here. Gochari (Alms): Jain monks i.e. Sādhus-Sādhvis do not cook their food on their own or by somebody and they do not accept any food, which has been prepared for them. They go to different house holders and receive a small amount of vegetarian food from each house irrespective of their taste or likings. This practice is called as Gochari. Here, householder need not cook again and the monks do not develop taste of one family only, no attachments. Cooking process involves much violence in the form of fire, vegetable chopping, water consumption and other related activities. Digambar monks eat the food given in their palms only. Vihāra (Travel): The Jain monks and Nuns travel bare footed from one place to another continuously for eight months in a year to avoid developing an attachment to the material and people around them at the same place. Remaining four months of monsoon, they stay at one place to avoid crushing bugs and insects on wet surface. They never go out in dark or rain. They utilize full time available to them in study (svādhyāy) scriptures, learning from their Gurus and preaching religion and provide proper guidance to people. Loch (Plucking of hair): In their renounced life, monks and nuns do not shave or cut hair with instruments, but pluck their hair twice in a year, a kind of austerity where one bears pain of plucking hair calmly. This is also called as “Kesh-lochan”. Clothing: Digambar Jain monks, as the name suggests, do not wear any clothes. Swetambar monks wear un-stitched white cotton clothes, not more than two or three if required, during travelling. They carry a rectangular small mat called “katāsaṇa” to sit on, a piece of cloth of the size of handkerchief to cover their mouth while speaking and a stick while walking. They also have “Ogho” or rajoharan (a broom of woolen threads) to clear insects from the places, where they sit or walk. They 269

have to keep this Ogho all the time with them, which reminds them of observance of Maha-Vrata. Pratikramaṇa (Introspection): Jain monks and Nuns are in Sāmāyik round o‟clock (wakeful meditation) and in addition, twice a day, morning and evening, they perform Pratikamaṇa, a thorough introspection to wash out all sinful activities and repenting for all those from bottom of hearts. Further to this, they add deeper introspection periodically like fortnightly, Quarterly in a year and yearly as mentioned earlier. The above referred ritualistic and unique practices may differ among various sects of Jains but the essential principles remains the same to limit needs. Their entire life is dedicated to the spiritual uplift of their souls and others. They show the path of righteous and disciplined life to every one through discussions, discourses, seminars and camps to attain spiritual prosperity. As per following sūtra, Tattvārthasūtra describes five categories of Jain monks and refer them as Nirgranths. Nirgranth means having no possession. Contemporary Buddhist texts used to refer to Lord Mahāvīra as Nirgranth. Following five categories of monks are mentioned in ascending order in the scripture514. a) Pulak is the category of those monks who try to stay on the path of detached Lords, but fail to observe restrains. b) Bakush: denotes those monks who care for their body, look for physical comforts and are prone to indulge in faults or transgressions. c) Kusheel: This includes two types; Pratisevana Kusheel denotes those who indulge in transgressions under the influence of sense organs and the other type Kaṣaya Kusheel type indulge in light defilement. d) Nirgranth denoting those who are close to omniscience. e) Snātak denotes those who have attained omniscience. Tattvārthasūtra also describes following eight criteria for evaluating the level of monks515:

514 ऩुऱाकबकु र्कु र्ीऱतनग्रनश थस्नातका् तनगशनथा्। T.S. 9.46 270

a) Samyam: It includes various types of conduct or Cāritra. Depending upon degree of observance to prevent karma, type of Cāritra could be Sāmāyik, Chhedopasthapan, Pariharvishuddhi, Sūkṡmasamparay and Yathakhyat. The detail of it is given earlier under “ways of Saṃvar” in this chapter. b) Śruta: This relates to the scriptural knowledge of different levels of Nirgranths. It ranges from knowledge of minimum spiritual codes to infinite. c) Pratisevana: This relates to possibilities for transgression of restrains. Pulaks are prone to transgression of all types of restrains, where as Kaṡāy, Kusheel, Nirgranth and Snātak are not prone to transgression to any restrains. d) Tīrtha: This relates to the order, where they are found. All five categories can exist in the order of all Tirthankars. e) Liṅga: This relates to symbol, which can be physical or modal (intentional). f) Leṣya: This pertains to color or aura they have. g) Upāpat: This relates to next rebirth and longevity. Where thay would be reborn and how much they would live depends on the level. h) Sthāna: This relates to the level of observing restraints, and varies from person to person. The highest level, which a Snātak can attain, leads to Nirvana.

VI. Spiritual Practices prescribed for Jain Householders: Śrāvaka and Śrāvika – Śrāvakācārs: For those householders, who remain in family life, a broad spectrum of spiritual practices is prescribed in “Āvaṡyaksutra”. Āvashyak means necessary, must be done practices. These practices are basically for all i.e. laymen and women, monks and nuns. It is Chhedasūtra, 32nd agama in the list of Jain scriptures. For householders, complete avoidance of the five principle vows or implementation of mahavratas is very difficult. For them, Jain ethics specifies the following twelve vows to be carried out by them to live a righteous life and to conquer desires. Apart from five Aṇuvratas (vows), they include three Ṥilvratas and four Ṥikṡavratas (together, these two groups are “Saptaṡil” or seven conducts).

515 संयम श्रुतप्रततसेवना तीथशमऱंगऱेश्योऩऩादस्थान ववक쥍ऩत् साध्या्। T.S. 9.47 271

The first five vows are same main vows as referred earlier, but are of limited nature called as aṇuvratas. These, as compared to great vows or maha-vratas which are for ascetics, are somewhat easier. They should be followed in thought, action and speech, by doing it himself or by getting it done through others. They are namely, 1. Ahiṃsā anuvrata (Limited vow of non-violence also called as sthula prānātipata virmāna vrata): Lord Mahāvīra says, “One should not injure,abuse, oppress, insult, subjugate, enslave, torture or kill any living being including animals, insects, plants and vegetation516.” All living beings are equal irrespective of size, shape or different spiritual developments. Jainism has classified all living beings according to the number of senses they posses. It is more sinful if the life of higher forms (more than one sense) is killed. Hence, they allow laymen to use only vegetable as food for survival. All non-vegetarian food is made by killing a living being with two or more senses. Hence non-vegetarian food is prohibited strictly. It is the intention to harm, absence of compassion, unawareness and ignorance that makes the action violent. In reality, it is impossible to survive without killing or injuring someone of the smaller species. Some lives are killed even when we breathe, drink water or eat food. Hence, Jainism says, minimum killing of the lowest forms of life should be our ideal for survival. Many scriptures like Tattvārthasūtra and Yogashastra have classified the impurities (atichāras) in following this vow. They are binding; beating, mutilating limbs, overloading and withholding food and drink are the five transgressions of non- voilence517as under: a. Bandha: To tie any animal and not allowing it to move. b. Vadha: Out of anger, hurting or beating any living being c. Cheda or Chavichheda: To cut skin or break head of any animal out of anger.

516 Jain Philosophy and Practice-1, The Federation of Jain Associations in North America, 2002, p.24

517 बनधवधर्चछेदाततभारोऩणाननऩानतनरोधा् । T.S. 7.25, Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, (July, 2007)

272

d. Atibhararopan: To put abnormal load, over weight or workload on any body. e. Annapāna nirodha: To deprive anybody of food, or provide less food than needed. 2. Satya anuvrata (Limited vow of truthfulness also called as sthula mrusavād virmāna vrata): It says, “Be honest and try to abstain from falsehood”. According to Tattvārthasūtra, delivery of any speech or words with prejudice or afflictions in mind is untruthfulness. Following this vow of Satya, a person develops his inner strength and capacities. Actually, Truth and non-violence are interdependent on each other, as there can‟t be non-violence without truth and truth without non-violence. Perverted teaching, divulging what is done under secrecy, proclaiming others‟ thoughts, misappropriation, and forgery are the five transgressions of truth518 according to Jain scriptures. Accordingly, while following „Satya aṇuvrata‟, one should avoid all following atichāras: a. Sahasa-abhyākhyāna: To put allegation without verifying b. Rahsya-abhyākhyāna: To disclose someone‟s confidential matter, to praise somebody out of proportion, to misguide somebody are few examples of „Atichāra‟ or breaking of this anuvrata c. Svadar-manrabheda: To disclose to others the talk conveyed confidentially by spouse. d. Mruṡopadesh: To go against scriptures and religion and indulge into such activities. e. Kutlekh karana: To write false articles, to make false documents, to witness falsely, to certify or declare wrongly, to make false signatures and other illegal activities. Tattvārthabhāshya of Swetamber sect and Digamber version of Tattvārthsūtra state that there are five aspects of each restraint called as bhāvanās (attitude), primarily relating to monastic codes. Observance of vigilance during any movements, restraining mental activity, properly examining food and water before consumption, and while accepting or shifting any object are five bhāvanās of first restraint or violence. Exercising discrimination while speaking, avoidance of anger, greed, fright and laughter are five bhāvanā of second restraint of truth.

518 ममथ्योऩदेर् रहोर्भयाख्यानकू िऱेखकक्रया नयासाऩहार साकारमनत्र भेदा्। T.S. 7.26 273

3. Achaurya anuvrata (Limited vow of non-stealing also called as sthula adattadān virmāna vrata or Asteyanuvrata). A person must not steal, rob or misappropriate others goods and property, must not cheat and use illegal means in acquiring worldly things. Receiving stolen goods, prompting others to steal, underbuying in a disordered state, using false weights and measures, and deceiving others with artificial or imitation goods are the five transgressions of non-stealing519. Accordingly, these aticāra of stealing are classified as under: a. Stenarhut: To take or purchase at cheaper rate stolen items out of greed. b. Taskar prayog: To motivate or give idea or to support somebody to steal c. Viruddharajyatikrama: To deal against rules of the state or Nation d. Kutatula-Kutmān: To manipulate the weighing balances or to weigh less and similar activities e. Pratirupak-vyavahara: To adulterate or mix cheaper material with the costly material. 4. Brahmacārya aṇuvrata (Limited vow of chastity also called as Pardartyaga or sthula maithuna virmāna vrata). Any excessive indulgence of all kinds of sensual pleasure need to be avoided. Here, the intention is to conquer passion and to impart the sense of serenity to the soul. Right attitude makes the difference in controlling the senses. To stay at the higher level of spirituality is also Brahmacārya. Bringing about marriage of persons other than own family members, intercourse with an unchaste married woman, cohabitation with a harlot, perverted sexual practices and excessive sexual passion are the five transgressions of chastity520. Thus, avoidable acts or atichāras for this Vrata are: a. Itvaraparigritagamana: To hire or go and pay to a prostitute b. Aparigritagamana: To grab other‟s spouse or partner and misuse c. Ananga-kridā: Un-natural acts of sex d. Parvivahakarana: To get married other‟s children neglecting own

519 स्तेन प्रयोगतदाह्वतादान वव셁द्धरा煍याततक्रमहीनाधधक मनोनमान प्रतत셁ऩक व्यवहारा्। T.S. 7.27

520 ऩरवववाहक रणेत्तवररका ऩररगहृ ीता गमनाना敍गक्र डा कामतीर्व्ामभतनवेर्ा्। T.S. 7.28

274

e. Kāmātivrabhinivesha: Over indulgence in sexual desires 5. Aparigraha anuvrata (Limited vow of non-attachment also called as Iccha- Parmana or sthula parigraha virmāna vrata).

वीरया ऩररग्गहाओ, अऩररममआओ अणनततनहाओI (Samanasuttam 315) Unlimited possession is the cause of innumerable desires. Desires are unlimited in our mind. And they keep on multiplying as you continue to fulfil them. But, one must impose a limit on one‟s needs, assets, money and other possessions. The surplus should be used for the common good. The Jain principle of limited possession for householders helps the equitable distribution of wealth, comforts, food, clothes and other necessities in the society. This leads to socialism, economic stability and welfare of the world. This benefits the individual in his spiritual growth. But, exceeding the limits set by one with regard to cultivable lands and houses, riches such as gold and silver, cattle and corn, men and women servants and clothes are the five transgressions of non-attachment521. Avoidable acts or aticāras for this Vrata are: a. Kshetra-Vāstu-Pramānitakrama: To increase and encroach upon area, plot, land, house, shop and those items which are not required and don‟t belong to us. b. Hiranya-Suvarna-Pramānitakrama: To increase the pre-fixed limits of accumulating Gold, silver, coins and precious items c. Dhan-Dhānya- Pramānitakrama: To accumulate or store measurable and weighable materials beyond the limits d. Dwipada-Chishpada-Pramānitakrama: To keep more than the limits of man- power, servents, sons and animals. e. Kupya-Pramānitakrama: To store or keep more than the limits of metal, furniture, vehicles, farming and other equipment. Next three limiting vows may be adopted by a person according to his individual capacity and circumstances with the intent to adopt them. These are called as

521 Ibid, ऺेत्रवास्तुदहरण्य सुवणधश न धानय दासीदास कु प्य प्रमाणततक्रमा्। T.S. 7.29 275

„Ṥilvrata‟ or minor vows and are Dik-vrata, Bhoga upabhoga vrata and Anarthapdanda virmāna vrata as explained below: 1. Dik-vrata (Limited area of activity vow limiting the directions and distances). It limits one‟s worldly activities to certain areas in all ten directions, and gives up committing sins in any place outside this limited area. Exceeding the limits set in the directions, namely upwards, downwards and horizontally, enlarging the boundaries in the accepted directions, and forgetting the boundaries set are the five

522 transgressions of the minor vow of direction . Asking someone staying outside the country of one‟s resolve to bring something from there, commanding someone there to do something, indicating one‟s intentions by sounds, by showing oneself, and by throwing clod are the five transgressions of the minor vow to abstain from activities

523 beyond a country . 2. Bhoga upabhoga vrata (Limited use of consumable and non-consumable items - luxuries and unnecessary items). Bhoga includes enjoyment of perishable items which can‟t be used again. Upabhoga means enjoyment of an object, which can be used several times such as furniture, clothes, ornaments and buildings. One should use all these limited to his need and capacity only. Taking food containing (one-sensed) organisms, placed near organisms and mixed with organisms, stimulants and ill-cooked, are the five transgressions of vow to limit consumbales

524 and non-consumbales . 3. Anarthapdanda virmāna vrata (Avoidance of purposeless sins vow). It limits activities which include thinking, talking, carrying out activities without any purpose and not in favour of anybody, preaching evil or ill of others, doing useless acts like walking on grass unnecessarily, manufacturing or supplying arms for attack, reading or listening to obscene literature or carelessness in ordinary behaviour. Vulgar jokes,

522 ऊध्वाशधन्स्तयश ग्व्यततक्रम्ऺेत्र ववृ द्धस्मत्तृ यनतराधानातन। T.S. 7.30

523 आनयन प्रेटय प्रयोग र्व्द셁ऩानुऩात ऩु饍गऱऺेऩा्। T.S. 7.27

524 सधचत्तत सम्बनधसंममश्रामभषवद्ु ऩतवाहारा्। T.S. 7.27 276

vulgar jokes accompanied by gesticulation, garrulity, unthinkingly indulging in too much action, keeping more than required consumable and non-consumable objects,

525 are the five transgressions of the vow of desisting from unnecessary sin . This restriction is of four types as under (The words in brackets are in original Prakṛt language): a. Apadhyānacarit (अव浍झाणायररये): Doing artadhyāna and raudradhyāna without any reason. It includes day-dreaming, telling bad stories and gossiping. b. Pramādacarit (ऩमायायररये): Stuporous behaviour with lots of addictions, desires and carelessness. c. Hinstrapradan (दहंसप्ऩयाणे): To give weapons or literature related to violence to others is also anarth-danda. d. Pāpakarmopadesh (ऩावकम्मोवएसे): To advise and motivate others for unwholesome activities. There are four more disciplinary vows to inspire the sense of detachment called Ṥikṡā-vratas. These are Sāmāyika vrata, Deṡavakasika vrata, Pauṡadha Vrata and Atithi Samvibhāg vrata as explained below:

1. Sāmāyika vrata (Meditation or Equanimity vow of limited period, training towards final goal): It means attainment of equanimity, equilibrium or balanced attitude (सामतयक = सम+आय+इक). In this vrata, one has to sit down on a Āsana for 48 minutes concentrating one‟s mind on religious activities like praying, reading scriptures or meditating. This is a stepping stone to a life of full renunciation. This Sāmāyika may be repeated several times a day. During this meditation, one tries to concentrate on the soul and its relationship with karma to give up or minimize affection and aversion, to observe equanimity towards all objects and being at peace with the world526. Misdirected activity of mind, speech and body, lack of

525 कनदऩकश ौत्तकु र्चय मौखयाशसमीक्ष्याधधकरणोऩभोग ऩररभोगानथशतयातन। T.S. 7.32 526 Jain Philosophy and Practice-1, The Federation of Jain Associations in North America, 2002, p.26 277

earnestness, undertaking Samayik without enthusiasm and loosing sight thereof are the five transgressions of this vrata of concentration527. 2. Deṡavakasika vrata (Limited duration of activity vow): Here, the general lifelong limitation of doing business in certain area (Dik vrata) and the use of articles (Bhog-Upbhoga vrata) are further restricted for particular days and times of the week. One shall not do any activity or travel beyond a certain city, street or house, during a certain period of time. Overcoming the limitations in the upper, lower or horizontal direction, increasing or decreasing the limitations or forgetting the same are the five transgressions of this vrata. 3. Paushadha Vrata (Limited Ascetic‟s life vow): This vow requires a person, to live the life of a monk for a day or more, renouncing all worldly activities including food and cosmetics, retire to a secluded place and tries to follow five great vows doing spiritual contemplation. Thus, one gets promoted and nourished one‟s religious life and also gets trained for ascetic life. It is a form of prolonged Sāmāyika. Excreting, moving the articles of use like handling sandal-wood paste, flowers and spreading mats and sitting or sleeping thereon without inspecting and cleaning the place and the materials, undertaking paushadh without enthusiasm and loosing sight thereof are the five transgressions of this vrata528. 4. Atithi Samvibhag vrata (Charity vow): One should give away, with reverence, food, clothes, medicine and other articles of his own possession to monks, nuns, pious and needy people. Fourteen types of selfless charity service done without any expectation to ascetics (Panch mahāvruttdhari nirgranth shramanas) are prescribed in Āvaṡyaksūtra529. The scripture prescribes full details of all disciplined processes for giving food, water and other items to ascetics. This practice provides an inner satisfaction and raises consciousness to higher level. One will rather preserve goods for these guests. Placing the food on things with organisms such as

527 योगदटु प्रणणधानानाद रस्मत्तृ यनुऩस्थानातन । T.S. 7.33, Acharya Umaswati, Tattvārthasūtra, JAINA and

Shrut Ratnakar, Ahmedabad, July, 2007

528 अप्रत्तयवेक्षऺता प्रमान्जशतोत्तसगाशदानसंस्तरोऩक्रमणा नादर स्मत्तृ यनुऩस्थानातन। T.S. 7.34 529 Avashyaksūtra, Shri Akhil Bharatiya Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, p. 244 278

green leaves, covering it with such things, offer food without respect, and offer food in an untimely manner, mixing the insentient, covering with the sentient and calling it as belonging to others are the five transgressions of vow to partake food after

530 feeding an ascetic .

Thus, above mentioned five aṇuvratas, three limiting vows and four disciplinary vows make twelve vows for a household person in the society. If one follows truly these twelve vows, on one hand, one gets debarred from doing any harm to himself, to his family, his country, or to humanity by reckless conduct; on the other hand, by giving up attachments he gradually prepares himself for the life of ascetics. Apart from these twelve vows, „Sthānāngavṛtti ‟ recommends eleven resolves (pratijna or sankalpa) for spiritual development. Another scripture, “Uttarādhyayana sūtra” suggests six regular activities as under: a) Devpuja = Devotional act towards deity, God b) Gurusevā = Service to Guru c) Svādhyāya = Self study d) Saṁyama = Equanimity of mind, a state of equilibrium e) Tapa = Austerity f) Dāna = charity

Each individual by implementing all these values in turn make ideal society. With all these practices, the true aspirant gets completely detached from the worldly objects including his own body and gets all passions suppresses during final days of life leading towards peaceful death called Sanlekhana. Expecting to survive, desire to die, attachment for the friendly people, hope for the future happiness and bartering for a particular situation are the five transgressions of Salenkhana531 according to Tattvārthsūtra (Sūtra7.32).

530 सधचत्तततनऺेऩा वऩधानऩरव्य ऩदेर्मात्तसयशकाऱाततक्रमा्। T.S. 7.36

531 जीववतमरणासंसममत्रानुराग सुखानुबनध तनदानातन। T.S. 7.37 279

Ten Cardinal Virtues: Digambara sect follows “Daśa Lakṣaṇa Mahāparva” (festival of ten cardinal virtues) for spiritual welfare. They are as under532: 1. Kṡamā (forgiveness, forbearance): Here, five ways of forgiveness are suggested for cultivating forbearance. By various ways either of considering whether or not the cause of anger lies in oneself, or the harm that follow from an angry mood, or the childish nature of the offender concerned, or the whole affair to be a consequences of one‟s own past karma, or the merits of forbearance. 2. Mārdava (Humility, modesty, humbleness): Lack of pride, ego or selfishness. To accept what one is. 3. Ārjava (Straightforwardness): Simplicity, lack of fraudulent attitude or synchrony between thoughts, speech and actions. It is to keep consistency in thought, speech and action towards wholesome purpose. 4. Śauca (Pure heart, contentment): Lack of greed. This virtue is the purest of all and for removal of root cause of all sins. It is the sense of removal of attachment that pollutes the soul. 5. Satya (Truthfulness): Try to know the things as it without differentiating. It is truthfulness with genuine, clear, helpful and aggreable approach. 6. Saṃyam (Self control, restraint): Control over violence and all worldly pleasures, which leads finally to liberation. 7. Tapa (Austerity): Penance is the repentance of all sins. Tapa is fire which burns all forces of karmic dust to ashes. It is observed to gain strength and self- control to overcome defiling tendencies. Many Jains observe one year long austerity called “Varṣitapa” consisting of strict fasting on alternate days and one or two meals on in between days. 8. Tyāg (Renunciation): This is done giving up all external and internal possessions. It is total renunciation, sacrifice and giving-up.

532 Jain Philosophy and Practice-1, The Federation of Jain Associations in North America, 2002, p.134 280

9. Aparigraha (Detachment): This is just lack of possession from beginning. It is also called as „Akincanya‟, absence of possessions or non-attachment to go towards soul. 10. Brahmacarya (Celibacy): It is absolute restraint for all sensual pleasures by body and mind. With observance of all these, with its purity, the soul has infinite perception, infinite knowledge, infinite vigor and infinite bliss. Six Āvaṡyakas: Tirthankars have expounded on many ways to free us from all four Kaṣāyas (afflictions) to attain this pure form which is Mokṡa. One of these ways is a daily practice of six Āvaṡyaka (essentials) with true faith. The scripture Āvaṡyaksūtra prescribes six necessary practices called as Āvaṡyakas for the progress on the spiritual path of liberation. Usually these are followed by Swetamber sect of Jainism. All six Āvaṡyakas (essentials) work scientifically. They are described below: 1. Sāmāyika: Sāmāyika is the first spiritual practice for our mind and soul to attain a state of equilibrium. It is a foundation of all other spiritual practices towards liberation. This meditative practice is already described previously under twelve vows of a householder. It is a process of subtle and honest analysis of past and present life in order to get retired from sinful acts, to move away from influence of attachment and aversion and to attain a state of equilibrium (sam-avastha). Sāmāyik is a state where the self remains in the purest form.

When Gautama Swāmī, one of the closest disciples asked Guru Mahāvīra, “What one gets of Sāmāyika?”

सामातयएणम ् भनते ! जीवे ककं जणयइ ? Samayinna bhante! Jive Kim Janayayi?

Lord Mahāvīra replied explaining that one moves away from sinful acts towards kind acts and then, towards pure form.

281

सामातयएणम ् साव煍जजोगववरइम ् जणयइ I Samayinna savajja jog virayi janayayi533 Jain meditation is also referred as Sāmāyika. The word Sāmāyika means being in the moment of continuous real-time. This act of being conscious of the continual renewal of the universe in general and one's own renewal of the individual living being (jīva) in particular is the critical first step in the journey towards identification with one's true nature, called the Ātman. It is also a method by which one can develop an attitude of harmony and respect towards other humans and Nature. By being fully aware, alert and conscious of the constantly moving present, one will experience his own pure and true nature, which is the true self, Ātman534. All twenty four Jain Tirthankars are always seen in meditative posture and have practiced it deeply and attained enlightenment. The true conduct is Sāmāyika which includes practice of shubha-Dhyāna (positive meditation), a state of equanimity and remaining detached from daily activities for 48 minutes. It allows soul to move towards sacred path. Bowing down or surrendering to the pancha-parmeṣthi535 can be the object of meditation in this state of Sāmāyika. This great prayer, which is beyond any mantra, includes main three facets of Jainism namely Dev, Guru and Dharma. We try to avoid feeling of liking, disliking, attachment and aversion in order to go close to own souls during this period. The entire process of Dhyāna is anhilitation of Karma. 2. Chaturvimṡati-stava (Logassa sūtra): This practice of praying and appreciating the qualities of all twenty four Tirthankars is for stabilization and purification. Logassa sūtra given in Jain scriptures and included in process of Sāmāyika as a part of kāyotsarga is for this practice. One can purify thoughts and

533 Ref.“UttaraDhyānan” Adhyay-29, Sūtra-9 cited in Avashyak sūtra, Shri Akhil Bharatiya Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, p.10 534 A journey towards your inner self - article published by Jain Yog Dhyan Sadhana Kendra, 2011, http://www.jyds.co.in/6-yoga&dhyan.html# (retreieved on 10/10/2015) 535 Panch-parmeshthi is that established in Samyama and Moksha i.e. Arihant, Siddha, Acharya, Upadhyaya and all Sadhu-Sadhvis 282

attain the right perception. Chatuvimshati stava or Adhyayana is explained in reply to his query by Lord Mahāvīra to his disciple as:

Q. Oh, Lord! What benefits jīva gets by Chaturvimshati-stava?

चउव्वीसत्तथएणम,् भनते ! जीवे ककं जणयइ? Chauvisatthaenam bhante! Jive Kim Janayayi? A. Oh Gautam, Chaturvimshati-stava results into purification of perception.

चउव्वीसत्तथएणम ् दण्सणववसोदह ं जणयइ I Chauvisatthaenam Dansanavisohim Janayayi536 Prayer to Lord, the most detached soul, brings about nirjarā and prevents wrong thinking and takes one towards samyaktva, equilibrium and vitarāgtā, the detached attitude like him. 3. Vandanā: It is the physical, mental and verbal expression of humility (vinaya), surrendering attitude. It is an attitude of respect, salutation, devotion and service to Guru, the monk or Ācārya. In absence of Tirthankar, they are true practitioners of the true path of libration. Developing modesty towards all and minimizing ego are characteristics of Vinay. According to Uttarādhyayan (Adhyāy- 29), Lord Mahāvīra explains the benefits of Vandana as destruction of lower karma and binding of upper karma. Soul gets surrendering attitude. It creates a devotional attitude towards all of them and we get inspired to follow them. He gets expertise in generocity and popularity. 4. Pratikramaṇa: “Prati” means „back‟ and “kramaṇa” means „to go‟. Pratikamaṇ is to go back, review and confess. It also means going back to the path of our pure form of nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy and non- accumulation. It is to bring back our soul from negligence, stupor, afflictions and unwholesome activities to right faith-knowledge-conduct. It is a must (āvaśyak) in

Jainism, because it is a penance (आऱोचना) for all the past deed to wash out all faults with the resolve not to repeat them in future.

536 “Uttarādhyanana” Adhyay-29, Sūtra-10 and Āvashyak sūtra, 2007, p.39 283

Here, we forgive the faults of others also and seek forgiveness for our faults without any reservation. Few examples of our faults are: doing such acts which are prohibited in the scriptures, not doing such acts which we are supposed to do, loosing faith on the words of Vitaragi or Tirthankars, to advice against principles of Jainism. This attitude helps us in stopping the influx of karmas (Saṃvar). Review daily activities and express remorse or repentance (pascātāp) for sinful activities also reflect upon all wrong deeds. Pratikamaṇ is like a mirror where we see ourselves internally, the way it is. The entire process and meaning of it is well explained in Āvaśyakasūtra. It includes various lessons of repentance, forgiveness, truth, commitments to self, purification and spirituality. It is repentence for the karma done in the past, self-protection from the current actions and to stop those to come in the future. It purifies further the practice of Pancācār (five practices of faith, knowledge, conduct, austerity and strength). The practice acts like a medicine against any disease and increases stamina, luster, beauty and youthfulness.537 The body and mind reach in a state of purity to conduct spiritual practices towards liberation. There is no use of doing only dravya-pratikamaṇ without bhāv-pratikamaṇ. It is one of the most essential rites, as it covers the other five while performing it as explained below. It fills up the loopholes in following the vruttas. During this process of bhāv- pratikamaṇ, the aspirant accepts the shelter of four auspicious entities i.e. Arihant, Siddha, Sadhu and Kevali. The aspirant seeks forgiveness and forgives whole heartedly all living creatures, bows down to all Tirthankars while getting detached from all afflicting karma during pratikamaṇ. One has to do Sāmāyik before starting Pratikamaṇ ritual in the form of various sūtras from the scriptures. During the practice, Logassa and Namutthunam sūtras are recited to salute all Tirthankars and their qualities, which is Chaturvimshati-stava. By reciting Panchindiya and Khamāsamaṇo sūtras, one salutes the ascetics and their qualities, Vandana essentials. Kayotsarga is already done when one practice pratikamaṇ in standing or sitting meditative position. The practice itself includes observance of Pacchakhāṇ according to one‟s capacity covering Pratyākhyān essential.

537 Avashyaksūtra, Shri Akhil Bharatiya Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, p.58 284

125 types of Aticārs (lessons of repentances of different types of faults incurred knowingly or unknowingly) are described in Āvaṡyak sūtra. They include 14 types of knowledge related, five types faith related, 25 attitudes of five Mahavratas, two of eating in the night after sunset, 65 Aticārs of five Samitis, nine of three Guptis and five Aticārs of Sanlekhana. Aticārs are part of the process of pratikamaṇ. A true Jain is supposed to practice Pratikamaṇ minimum for 48 minutes twice a day. One is „Devasi Pratikamaṇ‟, which is practiced in the evening after sunset for the purification of sins committed during the day and the other one is „Rāi Pratikamaṇ‟ being practiced in the morning before sunrise for the purification of sins committed during the night knowingly or unknowingly. There are also bi-weekly (Pakhhi or Pākśik), quarterly (Chaturmāsiya or Chāturmasik) and the prime one and the annual (Samvatsarik) Pratikamaṇ which is must for any Jain. So, one can practice any of the later ones if one cannot do it daily. It is a unique art of contemplation, reverence and repentance. It is called as lifeline of Jain sādhanā, which sets equilibrium and makes one introvert. It fills up the gaps or holes on the path of our spiritual practices removing despair and lazyness. Being the prime practice, the practice of Āvaṡyakas is also termed as Pratikamaṇ sādhanā. One should continuously improve in attitude and intentions after each pratikamaṇ. 5. Kāyotsarga- „Kāyā‟ is body and „utsarga‟ is getting detached from. It is renouncing attachments to the body, its activities and tuning with oneself to attain Dharmadhyāna and Shukladhyāna.538 The practice of standing or sitting motionless and meditating is for the non-attachments to the body and liberation from past and present sins. In Kayostarga, we forget our body by getting detached with increased awareness towards each and every part of our body, mind and emotions as much as possible so that we can concentrate on the soul and experience that the soul and the body are two separate entities. By taking us inward, we get healed and lighter. It washes our past karma, mainly the faults. One of the meanings of Kayotsarga according to reply given by Lord Mahāvīra in Uttarādhyāyana is repentance of all sinful activities done in past or present, knowingly or unknowingly. According to

538 Avashyaksūtra, Shri Akhil Bharatiya Sudharma Jain Sanskriti Rakshak Sangh, Jodhpur, 2007, p.3 285

Anuyogdvār sūtra, kayotsarga is „vruna cikitsā‟ meaning treating a wound of our body in the form of atichār (faults in following vruttas). It destroys previous karma, whereas the next Āvaśyak prevents accumulation of new karma.

6. Pratyākhyāna - प्रतत+आ+आख्यान = Resolves or vows taken in advance against all adverse attachments. It is also called as Pachchhakhaṇ (ऩर्चछतखाण) in Prakrut, which is the practice of total purification of the soul, for the benefit of future. It stops karma which is āsrava. The name of process is Aticār. Here, after purification by repentance for all sins; one takes religious vows according to one‟s capabilities renouncing certain activities and certain foods for a set period of time to discipline his own self. The Śrāvaks (disciples) take partial vows and ascetics take the great vows. Ten types of Pratyākhyāna are mentioned in the scripture539 depending on the level and intensity of austerities, and time of taking and period vow. One of the examples of Pratyākhyāna is „Ekāsaṇa‟ which means deciding to take meal only once in the whole day including both the nights (previous and next) or eating once only in one āsana/sitting. This practice in this sequence is for self purification. Lord Mahāvīra explains it as, “Pratyākhyāna closes the doors of āśrava, influx of new karma. It prevents future faults, sins and controls desires. Finally, we start developing detached attitude with regular practice of Pratyākhyāna and stays in great peace.”540 Essential observances541 of Digambar tradition which are given below differ mainly in names from above which are in Swetāmbar tradition. 1. Devpujā: To pray and appreciate the qualities of all Tirthankars. 2. Gurupasti: Devotion and service to Guru, monk. 3. Svādhyāya: Studying scriptures 4. Samyama: Total self discipline.

539 Ibid, pp.127-28 540 Ibid, p.127 541 Madhukar Muni, Aavashyak Sūtra, tr. Siddhantacharya Sadhvi, Suprabha, Shri Agam Samiti, Beawar (Rajasthan),1994, p. 12

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5. Tapa: Austerities in the form of Pratikaman, Pratyakhan and Kayotsarga. 6. Dāna: Charity Jain ethics is meant for all men and women in every walk of life. Contemplation of the soul is the main part of Jainism, which include thinking, analyzing and meditating as a part of right conduct. The rituals are interwoven in the daily life of a pious Jain. Going to the temple and Upāṡray, listening to Guru, practicing vows, giving alms to sādhu and sādhvis, performing Sāmāyik and Pratikamana for equanimity and introspection, practicing non-violence, carrying out charitable acts, living honest life and many similar acts constitute the daily rituals of a Jain. Ten rituals of the temple which Swetamber Jain follow in their daily routine promoting towards spirituality, called as “Das-trika” are as under542: 1. Nissihi: It means renunciation or giving up. It is pronounced three times while visiting to a Jain temple for darśana of a Tirthankar. Once, while entering into the temple indicates leaving worldly thoughts outside the temple, second time while entering into the room of Jin idol sanctum (Gabhāro) and then, after finishing worship with various substances called “Dravya-Pujā” and at the beginning of internal devotional worship “Bhāv-Pujā” as mentioned below in fourth ritual. 2. Pradakshinā (Circumambulation): Three rounds are taken around the main idol in the temple on the right side reflecting on Triratnas of Jainism, which are right faith, conduct and knowledge. This is done just to remember three remedies to overcome attachment and hatred, finally to attain liberation. 3. Pranām: Salutation is done three times while visiting a temple, first when you see the top of the temple (shikhar) or the idol, then, when you enter the sanctum looking at the idol and third time, while touching the ground with five parts of the body, the posture called as khamāsaman.

542 Jain Philosophy and Practice-1, The Federation of Jain Associations in North America, 2002, pp. 32-42

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4. Pūjā (Worship): Swetamber jains do puja in three ways, the first two called as Anga pujā and Agra pujā together is called Astaprakāri Pujā (eight-fold worship or Dravya-pujā) and the third one is Bhāv puja. as mentioned below: i. Anga pūjā: Anoiting different parts of the idol a) with water called “Jal-pujā” to wash out our karmas, b) with saffron or sandalwood paste called “kesar-pujā” to achieve same tranquility in our soul as it is on idol‟s face and then, c) with flower (ful-pujā) to have full love and compassion. ii. Agra pūjā: Placing incense (dhoop), lamp (dipak), rice (akṡat), fruit (fal) and sweets (naivedhya) infront of the idol. iii. Bhāv pūjā includes Chaityavandan, a combination of Prayer and Meditation. When one praizes the Tīrthaṅkara from bottom of heart, one gets the right knowledge and vision, thoughts and soul get purified, gets inspired to become like him and one acquires a supreme meditative state543. 5. Avasthā Chintan: This is contemplation on different forms of Arihanta, mainly three forms: a) Pindastha, which is ordinary embodied soul of Arihanta. It includes Janmāvastha, Rajyavastha and Shramanāvastha (state of birth, kingdom and laymanship of his life) b) Pādastha: This is Omniscient embodied soul. Here we have 34 Atiṡayas of Arihanta to be contemplated upon. They are super specialties expounding the immortal doctrines like Anekantvād, Syādvād and Nay. c) Rupatita is the state of liberated soul. 6. Dishātyag: During practice of Chaityavandan as mentioned above in 4.iii), we are not supposed to look anywhere, in any direction other than Jin‟s idol. 7. Pramārjana: Before using the floor of the temple or the place of meditation, the ground should be cleaned properly without hurting any insect or worm. 8. Ālambana: It is a support to our sādhanā or practice. Visualize image of the Lord while chanting sūtras or stutis with their meaning.

543 “Look n Learn”, Jain fortnightly magazine, dt.25/09/2013, Parasdham, Mumbai, p.7

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9. Mudrā or Posture: Adopt Yoga mudrā, Mukta-Shukti mudrā, Jin-Mudrā or Kāyotsarga. 10. Praṇidhāna: Remain focused or with meditative mind in Bhāv-Pujā (Chaityavandan). All these practices are performed simply to strengthen internal devotional thought process. In Digambar Jain traditions, similar practices are being followed as of Swetambars, while going to the temple including Pujā, Abhisheka, and Ārti.

VII. Celebrations/ Festivals, Prayers and Prime symbol in Jain traditions: Most of the Jain festivals, Prayers and symbols are religious and based on the fundamental principles of Agamas. Some auspicious days are remembered and celebrated to get inspired from the life-scatches of Tirthankars and their virtues. Some of them are briefly mentioned here. 1. Mahāvīra Jayanti: It is celebration of birthday of Lord Mahāvīra (Janma- Kalyānaka). It falls on 13th day of bright half of the month Chaitra, on which he was born. This sacred event and virtues are meditated upon on this day with Ratha-yātrā with the idol of Lord Mahāvīra. 2. Diwali Festival: It is celebrated as anniversary of the attainment of Mokṡa (Nirvāna) Mahāvīra on the last day of month Ashwin. He commenced his last sermon, the final discourse known as „Uttarādhayan‟, which lasted for 72 hours, until the night of Diwali. 18 kings of Northern India, present there, decided that light of their master‟s knowledge should kept alive symbolically by lighting lamps and celebrated as Deepāvali (Deep is lamp and avali is series). This was just an external approach. The true Jain should light up internal lamp; awaken the inner vision by practicing the path preached by Lord Mahāvīra. Like clay bowl, oil and cotton wick in the Diwali lamp, inner lamp needs right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. Some aspirants observe two days fast as Lord Mahāvīra had observed. Some recite Mantras. Thus, Diwali is for enhancing the spiritual wealth. The pure knowledge is worshipped on fifth day of New Year as “Jnāna panchami”. The scriptures which impart knowledge are worshipped with religious devotion. Svādhyāya, meditation and Sāmāyika are practiced on this day. Even a student prays 289

that let this knowledge, which he or she is acquiring take him to pure and divine knowledge, Samyak Jnāna. 3. Navpad Oli: Semi fasting called as „Āyambil‟ is observed on consecutive nine days, twice a year during Chaitra (March/April) and Ashwin (September/October). Food without any spices, oil, sugar, salt, vegetables and milk is consumed once in 24 hours and meditated upon Panch-parmeshti, Jnān, Darśana, Cāritra and Tapa, collectively known as Navpad. 4. Maun Agiyāras: Normally, it falls on 11th day of bright half of Māgsirsa (November/December). Jains observe fast with total silence. Here, inner awareness gets expanded towards spirituality. Meditation is done towards Tirthankaras, whose various auspicious life events (Kalyānakas) fall on this particular day. 5. Paryushana: The most important annual festival in Jainism to wash our all karmas accumulated throughout the year is Paryuṣana. It is celebrated during August/September in Cāturmās (monsoon) for eight days. Paryuṣana means burning of all types of karmas: Pari (all kinds) + Uṣan (to burn). For this purpose, twelve types of austerities like Svādhyāya and Meditation are mentioned in the scriptures to stay closer to our own soul and to suppress our passions like anger, ego and greed. Regular ceremonies in the temple or Upāsraya include seventeen sessions of Pratikamaṇa (meditation), discourses on the Holy Scripture “Kalpasūtra” containing detailed account of lord Mahāvīra‟s life in addition to other Tirthankars. The reading explaining the meanings is done by monk. The scripture prescribe five essential activities during this festival for all common people. These are: a) Amāri parivartana to spread the message of non-violence b) Attham Tapa is fasting for consecutive three days c) Caitya Paripāti is visiting different temples and offer prayers in a group d) Swāmi Vatsalya is honoring and respecting fellow Jains e) Kṡamapana is the biggest jewel of Jainism. All followers extend and seek forgiveness from all including non-Jains during annual meditation. They chant in each meditation: “Khāmemi Savva jīva, savve jīva khamantu me Mitti me savva bhuesu, veram majjham na kenai”. 290

It means “I forgive all the living beings of the universe. May all the living beings forgive me for my faults! I don‟t have any animosity towards anybody and have friendship for all.” This process of forgiveness (Michchhāmi Dukkadam) from bottom of the heart eliminates hatred and brings humility. Jain Prayers Jain followers sincerely believe in true Jinas and Tirthankaras, the perfect beings and omniscients. They are considered and worshiped as Gods by all followers, who always make attempts to adopt all possible characteristics. The prime prayer is

Navkār mantra, which is भाव-द्रव्य नमस्कार (two types, two fold physical and mental let go or obeisance) consists of nine padas, hence Navkar. For these nine padas of Navkar and meanings, please refer to Appendix-II page no. 349-350. In short, this five fold obeisance is destroyer of all the vices and so among all the types and is the foremost among all the auspiciousness. Apart from Navkār mantra, all other prayers (stūtis) are to adore the virtues of Tirthankars and request for grace to show the path to liberation. One of them, Bhaktamar Stotra544 is a famous Sanskrit prayer. It was composed by Ācārya Manatunga (7th century CE). The name Bhaktamara comes from a combination of two Sanskrit names, "Bhakta" (Devotee) and "Amar" (Immortal). It is an appraisal of virtues of the first Tīrthaṅkara Adinath. There are forty-eight verses in total. Significance of the prime Symbol of Jainism: The Jain symbol is an arrangement of various spiritual symbols, each having a significant meaning. This symbol was adopted by all sects of Jainism during 1975 while commemorating the 2500th anniversary of the nirvāna of Lord Mahāvīra. The outline of the symbol represents the shape of the universe – Loka. The lower part of the symbol indicates the seven hells (Nāraki), middle part of the universe contains the Earth and the planets (Manushya-Loka). The upper part contains the heavenly abodes (Deva-Loka) of all the celestial beings and abode of the Siddhas (Siddhashilā). The palm or hand facing upward direction indicates us to stop for a

544 http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhaktamar Stotra (Retrieved on 17.07.2016) 291

minute and think twice before doing anything to check if we are not hurting anybody directly or indirectly by encouraging others by our thoughts, actions or words. This non-violence is the prime principle of Jainism. The wheel inside the hands indicates that if we carry on violent activities, then just like the wheel we will go round and round through the cycles of birth and death.

The four arms of cross (Svastika) suggest us that during the cycles of birth and death, we may be born into any one of the four realms: heavenly beings, human beings, animal beings (Tiryanch-gati) inclusive of birds, insects, plants and the fourth hellish or infernal beings. Our ultimate aim should be liberation and not the rebirth. One of these four pillars of the four folds Jain Sangha also represented by the same Svastik provides an opportunity for liberation, first by becoming true śrāvaka or śrāvikā and then, after overcoming all social attachments, one should renounce worldly life and follow the path of Sādhu (monk) or Sādhvi (nun) to be liberated. The four arms are 292

also representative of Dāna (charity), Sheel (virtue), Tapa (austerities) and Bhāva (noble thoughts/attitude). The three dots above the Swastika represent the three jewels of Jainism through which one has to follow the path of liberation as mentioned earlier. They are Samyak Darśana (Right Faith), Samyak Jnān (Right Knowledge) and Samyak Chāritra (Right Conduct). The top part known as „Siddha-Shilā‟ is a small crescent representing the abode of Siddhas, the final resting place of liberated souls. The text underneath the symbol, “Parasparopagraho jīvanam” translates as “Living beings (souls) render services to one another545.

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545 Jain Philosophy and Practice, JAINA Education Committee, North America. (2002), p.44