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The Basics of Social Research, 4Th Edition THE BASICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH A Note from the Author Writing is my joy, sociology my pas- I ventured into the outer world sion. I delight in putting words to- by way of Harvard, the USMC, U.C. gether in a way that makes people Berkeley, and 12 years teaching at learn or laugh or both. Sociology is the University of Hawaii. Along the one way I can do just that. It repre- way, I married Sheila two months sents our last, best hope for planet- after our first date, and we created training our race and finding ways Aaron three years after that: two of for us to live together. I feel a special my wisest acts. I resigned from teach- excitement at being present when ing in 1980 and wrote full-time for sociology, at last, comes into focus seven years, until the call of the class- as an idea whose time has come. room became too loud to ignore. I grew up in small-town Vermont For me, teaching is like playing jazz. and New Hamp shire. When I announced I wanted Even if you perform the same number over and to be an auto-body mechanic, like my dad, my over, it never comes out the same twice, and you teacher told me I should go to college instead. don’t know exactly what it’ll sound like until you When Malcolm X announced he wanted to be a hear it. Teaching is like writing with your voice. lawyer, his teacher told him a colored boy should At last, I have matured enough to rediscover be something more like a carpenter. The difference and appreciate my roots in Vermont each summer. in our experiences says something powerful about Rather than a return to the past, it feels more like the idea of a level playing field. The inequalities the next turn in a widening spiral. I can’t wait to among ethnic groups run deep. see what’s around the next bend. THE BASICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH Fourth Edition Earl Babbie Chapman University Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • Spain United Kingdom • United States The Basics of Social Research, Fourth Edition Earl Babbie Acquisitions Editor: Chris Caldeira Art Director: John Walker Development Editor: Sherry Symington Print Buyer: Nora Massuda Assistant Editor: Christina Ho Permissions Editor: Roberta Broyer Editorial Assistant: Tali Beesley Production Service: Greg Hubit Bookworks Technology Project Manager: Dave Lionetti Copy Editor: Molly D. Roth Marketing Manager: Michelle Williams Illustrator: Lotus Art Marketing Assistant: Jaren Boland Cover Designer: Yvo Riezebos Marketing Communications Manager: Linda Yip Cover Image: © Chad Ehlers/Alamo Project Manager, Editorial Production: Matt Ballantyne Compositor: Newgen Creative Director: Rob Hugel Text and Cover Printer: Courier—Westford © 2008, 2005 Thomson Wadsworth, a part of The Thomson Thomson Higher Education Corporation. Thomson, the Star logo, and Wadsworth are 10 Davis Drive trademarks used herein under license. Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, web distribu- tion, information storage and retrieval systems, or in any other manner—without the written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11 10 09 08 07 For more information about our products, contact us at: Thomson Learning Academic Resource Center 1-800-423-0563 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit a request online at http://www.thomsonrights.com. Any additional questions about permissions can be submitted by e-mail to [email protected]. Library of Congress Control Number: 2006938498 Student Edition: ISBN-13: 978-0-495-09468-5 ISBN-10: 0-495-09468-4 International Student Edition: ISBN: 0-495-10233-4 (Not for sale in the United States) Dedication Evelyn Fay Babbie Henry Robert Babbie This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS IN BRIEF Part One Part Four AN INTRODUCTION TO INQUIRY 1 ANALYSIS OF DATA: 1 Human Inquiry and Science 3 QUANTITATIVE 2 Paradigms, Theory, and Research 32 AND QUALITATIVE 412 3 The Ethics and Politics of Social 13 Qualitative Data Analysis 414 Research 64 14 Quantitative Data Analysis 442 15 Reading and Writing Social Research 470 Part Two THE STRUCTURING OF INQUIRY: Appendixes QUANTITATIVE A Using the Library 498 AND QUALITATIVE 92 B Random Numbers 506 4 Research Design 94 C Distribution of Chi Square 508 5 Conceptualization, Operationalization, D Normal Curve Areas 510 and Measurement 130 E Estimated Sampling Error 511 6 Indexes, Scales, and Typologies 168 7 The Logic of Sampling 198 Part Three MODES OF OBSERVATION: QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE 242 8 Experiments 244 9 Survey Research 268 10 Qualitative Field Research 312 11 Unobtrusive Research 348 12 Evaluation Research 382 vii This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS Preface xvii Review Questions 30 Online Study Resources 30 Additional Readings 30 Part One Chapter 2 AN INTRODUCTION TO INQUIRY 1 Paradigms, Theory, Chapter 1 and Research 32 What Do You Think? 33 Human Inquiry and Science 3 Introduction 33 What Do You Think? 4 Some Social Science Paradigms 34 Introduction 4 Macrotheory and Microtheory 36 Looking for Reality 6 Early Positivism 36 Ordinary Human Inquiry 6 Confl ict Paradigm 37 Tradition 7 Symbolic Interactionism 37 Authority 8 Ethnomethodology 38 Errors in Inquiry and Some Solutions 8 Structural Functionalism 39 What’s Really Real? 10 Feminist Paradigms 40 The Foundations of Social Science 12 Critical Race Theory 42 Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief 13 Rational Objectivity Reconsidered 42 Social Regularities 13 Two Logical Systems Revisited 45 Aggregates, Not Individuals 15 The Traditional Model of Science 45 A Variable Language 16 Deduction and Induction Compared 48 The Purposes of Social Research 21 Deductive Theory Construction 54 The Ethics of Human Inquiry 22 Getting Started 54 Some Dialectics of Social Research 22 Constructing Your Theory 54 Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation 22 An Example of Deductive Theory: Inductive and Deductive Theory 23 Distributive Justice 54 Quantitative and Qualitative Data 25 Inductive Theory Construction 56 Pure and Applied Research 27 An Example of Inductive Theory: What Do You Think? Revisited 28 Why Do People Smoke Marijuana? 57 Main Points 29 The Links between Theory and Research 58 Key Terms 30 The Importance of Theory in the “Real World” 59 ix x CONTENTS Research Ethics and Theory 60 Three Purposes of Research 97 What Do You Think? Revisited 60 Exploration 97 Main Points 61 Description 99 Key Terms 62 Explanation 99 Review Questions 62 The Logic of Nomothetic Explanation 99 Online Study Resources 62 Criteria for Nomothetic Causality 100 Additional Readings 62 Nomothetic Causal Analysis and Hypothesis Testing 101 Chapter 3 False Criteria for Nomothetic Causality 102 The Ethics and Politics Necessary and Suffi cient Causes 102 of Social Research 64 Units of Analysis 104 What Do You Think? 65 Individuals 105 Introduction 65 Groups 106 Ethical Issues in Social Research 66 Organizations 106 Voluntary Participation 67 Social Interactions 108 No Harm to the Participants 68 Social Artifacts 108 Anonymity and Confi dentiality 69 Units of Analysis in Review 109 Deception 72 Faulty Reasoning about Units of Analysis: Analysis and Reporting 73 The Ecological Fallacy and Institutional Review Boards 74 Reductionism 109 Professional Codes of Ethics 77 The Time Dimension 111 Two Ethical Controversies 79 Cross-Sectional Studies 111 Trouble in the Tearoom 79 Longitudinal Studies 112 Observing Human Obedience 80 Approximating Longitudinal The Politics of Social Research 81 Studies 115 Objectivity and Ideology 82 Examples of Research Strategies 117 Politics with a Little “p” 86 How to Design a Research Project 117 Politics in Perspective 87 Getting Started 119 What Do You Think? Revisited 88 Conceptualization 120 Main Points 88 Choice of Research Method 120 Key Terms 89 Operationalization 120 Review Questions 89 Population and Sampling 121 Online Study Resources 90 Observations 121 Additional Readings 91 Data Processing 121 Analysis 122 Part Two Application 122 Research Design in Review 122 THE STRUCTURING OF INQUIRY: The Research Proposal 123 QUANTITATIVE Elements of a Research Proposal 124 AND QUALITATIVE 92 The Ethics of Research Design 125 What Do You Think? Revisited 125 Chapter 4 Main Points 126 Key Terms 127 Research Design 94 Review Questions 127 What Do You Think? 95 Online Study Resources 128 Introduction 96 Additional Readings 128 CONTENTS xi Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Conceptualization, Indexes, Scales, and Operationalization, Typologies 168 and Measurement 130 What Do You Think? 169 What Do You Think? 131 Introduction 169 Introduction 131 Indexes versus Scales 170 Measuring Anything That Exists 132 Index Construction 173 Conceptions, Concepts, Item Selection 173 and Reality 133 Examination of Empirical Conceptions as Constructs 134 Relationships 174 Conceptualization 136 Index Scoring 179 Indicators and Dimensions 136 Handling Missing Data 180 The Interchangeability Index Validation 182 of Indicators 139 The Status of Women: An Illustration Real, Nominal, and Operational of Index Construction 185 Defi nitions 139 Scale Construction 186 Creating Conceptual Order 140 Bogardus Social Distance Scale 186 An Example of Conceptualization: Thurstone Scales 187 The Concept of Anomie 142 Likert Scaling 188 Defi nitions in Descriptive Semantic Differential 189 and Explanatory Studies 145 Guttman Scaling 190 Operationalization Choices 147 Typologies 193 Range of Variation 147 What Do You Think? Revisited 194 Variations between the Extremes 148 Main Points 195 A Note on Dimensions 148 Key Terms 196 Defi ning Variables and Attributes 149 Review Questions 196 Levels of Measurement 149 Online Study Resources 196 Single or Multiple Indicators 154 Additional Readings 196 Some Illustrations of Operationalization Choices 154 Chapter 7 Operationalization Goes On and On 155 The Logic of Sampling 198 Criteria of Measurement Quality 156 What Do You Think? 199 Precision and Accuracy 156 Introduction 199 Reliability 157 A Brief History of Sampling 200 Validity 160 President Alf Landon 201 Who Decides What’s Valid? 162 President Thomas E.
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