The Analysis of Skeletal Fractures from Windover (8BR246) and Their Inference Regarding Lifestyle Rachel Kathleen Smith

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2003 The Analysis of Skeletal Fractures from Windover (8BR246) and Their Inference Regarding Lifestyle Rachel Kathleen Smith

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COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

THE ANALYSIS OF SKELETAL FRACTURES

FROM WINDOVER (8BR246) AND THEIR INFERENCE REGARDING

LIFESTYLE.

RACHEL KATHLEEN SMITH

A Thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science

Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2003

The members of the Committee approve the thesis of Rachel Kathleen Smith defended on July 7, 2003.

Glen H. Doran Professor Directing Thesis

Rochelle A. Marrinan Committee Member

Michael W. Warren Committee Member

Approved:

Dean Falk, Chair, Department of Anthropology

Donald J. Foss, Dean, College of Arts and Sciences

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to express my appreciation for those who have helped me through this incredible learning process. I am deeply indebted to Dr. Glen Doran for his constant support, his enthusiasm for research, and for his generosity of knowledge and information. He has not only provided me with an incredible collection on which to work, but I have also come to depend on his advice and humor, both of which have seen me through the last two years. I would also like to thank my other committee members, Dr. Rochelle Marrinan and Dr. Michael Warren. Dr. Marrinan guided me through the rigors of archaeological field school and it was her advice and attention to detail that made the experience one I will always remember. Dr. Warren was generous enough to provide me with a semester of forensic study, in which he gave of his time and knowledge so that I might increase my proficiency in human skeletal analysis. To both of you, I am deeply indebted. I wish to thank Taylor Sullivan and Mini Sharma for their support and encouragement and for being friends on whom I can depend. I would also like to thank Michael Richardson for his invaluable assistance in all things technical. I wish to thank Triel Lindstrom, who is not only a true friend, but also a source of comfort and laughter through each day. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their continued encouragement. Alan, Leah, Rebecca, Andy, Stefanie, Sonny, and Linda, I appreciate your love and support. To my parents, who are no longer alive, I wish you could be here for this.

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ...... vi

LIST OF TABLES ...... viii

ABSTRACT...... ix

CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 Introduction...... 1 Bioarchaeology...... 3 Temporal Trends...... 4 Social Structure...... 4 Interpersonal Violence and Warfare ...... 5 Pathology of Fractures ...... 7

CHAPTER TWO MATERIALS AND METHODS...... 11 The Windover Site...... 11 Fracture Assessment ...... 12 Data Collection...... 14

CHAPTER THREE ANALYSIS OF FRACTURE FREQUENCIES ...... 17 Fracture Population...... 23

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS ...... 38 The Windover Population ...... 38 Fractures by Element...... 39 Fractures per Location ...... 43 Fractures per Sex and Age...... 45 Incidence of Multiple Fractures Among Individuals ...... 48 Fracture Assessment Through Time ...... 52 The Archaic...... 53 Temporal Comparisons...... 56 Evidence of Care in the Archaeological Record...... 61 Conclusion ...... 62

iv REFERENCES CITED...... 65

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 700

v LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Types of Fractures ...... 8

Figure 1.2 The Five Directions of Force ...... 9

Figure 3.1 Sex Distribution of Total Population ...... 17

Figure 3.2 Age Distribution of Total Population...... 17

Figure 3.3 Combined Age and Sex Distribution of Windover...... 18

Figure 3.4 Total Number of Fractures per Element...... 21

Figure 3.5 Fracture Percentages by Element ...... 22

Figure 3.6 Age Distribution of Fracture Population...... 24

Figure 3.7 Sex Distribution of Fracture Population ...... 27

Figure 3.8 Fracture Data for Males...... 28

Figure 3.9 Fracture Data for Females...... 29

Figure 3.10 Fracture Data for Indeterminate Sex ...... 30

Figure 3.11 Age Distribution of Fracture Population...... 31

Figure 3.12 Sex and Age Distribution of Fracture Population ...... 32

Figure 3.13 Incidence of Multiple Fractures per Age Group ...... 33

Figure 3.14 Average Number of Fractures per Age Group...... 33

Figure 3.15 Degree of Healing by Sex ...... 34

Figure 3.16 Fracture Alignment ...... 36

Figure 4.1 Rib Factures per Side...... 39

Figure 4.2 Age Distributions of Vertebral Fractures ...... 40

vi Figure 4.3 Compression Fractures of Vertebrae ...... 41

Figure 4.4 Cranial Fracture Data...... 43

Figure 4.5 Fractures per Side and Extremity...... 44

Figure 4.6 Fracture per Age Category...... 45

Figure 4.7 Fractures per Age Group...... 47

Figure 4.8 Most Common Fractures per Sex ...... 48

Figure 4.9 Ages for Individuals with Multiple Fractures...... 49

Figure 4.10 Multiple Fractures and Counts ...... 49

vii LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Fracture Totals and Percentages ...... 19

Table 3.2 Fracture Distributions by Locations ...... 22

Table 3.2 Fracture Distributions by Locations ...... 23

Table 3.3 Mean Age Distribution of Fracture Population ...... 23

Table 3.4 Age Groupings of Fracture Population...... 25

Table 3.5 Sex Distribution of Fracture Population...... 26

Table 3.6 Degree of Healing per Sex ...... 35

Table 4.1 Archaic Sites ...... 54

Table 4.2 Fracture Frequency Comparisons of Archaic Populations ...... 55

Table 4.3 Woodland and Mississippian Samples ...... 57

Table 4.4 Comparisons of Fracture Frequencies by Culture ...... 58

Table 4.5 Comparisons of Windover Frequencies to Other Cultural Periods ...... 59

viii ABSTRACT

The examination of skeletal material in the archaeological record provides information as to the lifestyles of past populations. The analysis of skeletal fractures allows inferences to be made concerning the level of conflict, the types and rates of traumatic injury sustained, and the knowledge and application of care and treatment within a population. The skeletal remains from Windover (8BR246) provide a rare glimpse into the lifestyle of the people of Florida’s Archaic period. Dated to over 7,000 BP, the exceptional preservation and broad population profile allow a detailed analysis of some of the earliest remains from North America. This research documents the presence, location, and frequency of skeletal fractures, which provide a mechanism for examining the lifestyle of people living in eastern central Florida, several millennia prior to European contact. What this research shows is a population lacking evidence for frequent conflict, a population exhibiting average accident potentials of adults and low accident potentials of sub-adults, a homogeneous pattern of traumatic injury, and a low occurrence of sub-adult trauma. The high frequency of well aligned, well healed fractures indicate the people of Windover had some knowledge of treatment of injuries and provided care and attention to those sustaining skeletal fractures.

ix CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Investigation of injury morbidity and mortality facilitates the assessment of environmental, cultural, and social influences on behavior (Larsen 1997). By examining the types and patterns of injury within the archaeological record, we may reconstruct aspects of the physical and social environments of past populations. This research examines the type, rate, and distribution of fractures among the Windover population, an Archaic Native American group that utilized the small pond of Windover on the east coast of Florida for the interment of their dead. With a mean radiocarbon date of 7,410 years b.p., the remains excavated consist of 168 individuals, with approximately half the population being composed of sub-adults (Doran 2002). Exceptional preservation and a broad population profile should lend itself to the analysis of fractures among these people and through this analysis it may be possible to infer the social and environmental context of traumatic injuries. The evidence for trauma in a population may reflect many factors about the life style of individuals, e.g., their material culture, economy (hunter/gatherer versus agriculturalist), living environment (urban versus rural), occupation and interpersonal violence, and the state of healing of the injuries may indicate dietary status, availability of treatment and occurrence of complications (Roberts and Manchester 1995:65). The primary goals of this research are to make inferences about the social and physical environment of the people from Windover Pond through an examination of fractures they sustained during life. A higher incidence of fractures among young males could indicate warfare or interpersonal conflict. Elevated rates of fractures among females from this population could indicate their status within the group; fractures that appear to be the result of aggression, such as cranial and facial injuries, may indicate differential social status among males and females as well as inter-group relations. Patterned stress fractures within the population could indicate the use of certain types of tools or weapons or indicate the degree of physical hardship experienced by an Archaic population. Consistent cases of well-aligned fractures may indicate care of the injured and imply a

1 basic understanding of treatment practices. Misaligned antemortem fractures that produced physical handicaps could also indicate that the people from Windover nurtured those with such handicaps, implying a greater degree of social cohesion. The presence of certain types of ante- and perimortem fractures among subadults could be indicative of abuse. All of these factors can be explored by examining the type, rate, and distribution of fractures from Windover. Comparisons of the fracture frequency of Windover to other Archaic populations, as well as through time, may enable us to infer the level of physical stress encountered by Archaic people and how this level changed over time. The examination of fractures within the archaeological record can be problematic. Determining the type and cause of fractures, especially in the case of antemortem, well- healed fractures, can be difficult, if not impossible. Because both perimortem fracture and postmortem breakage show no evidence of remodeling, the two are difficult to discriminate (Larsen 1997). However, perimortem trauma is recognizable by what is called green bone response, which is the type of response that is seen when bone is injured while it is still covered with soft tissue and still contains fluids present in life (Byers 2002). The techniques used to distinguish between peri- and postmortem damage, as well as the terminology used to describe degree of healing in antemortem fractures, will be covered in the Materials and Methods chapter. The inherent difficulties in fracture recognition in sub-adults will also be addressed in this section. Human paleopathology can be defined as the study of disease in ancient populations by the examination of human remains (Aufderheide and Rodriguez-Martin 1998). Trauma analysis is but one aspect of paleopathology but constitutes a large percentage of the research within the field. Next to the almost ubiquitous degenerative changes seen in archaeological specimens, the most common pathological condition affecting the skeleton is trauma (Ortner and Putschar 1981). As the discipline of paleopathology has developed, the objectives of traumatic injury analysis have shifted from a focus on the identification and description of the earliest and the most unusual pathological specimens to the interpretation of the social, cultural, or environmental causes of traumatic injury; their relationship to biological variables, such as sex and age, that may have social or cultural relevance; and their temporal and spatial variation

2 (Lovell 1997:139). This paper will examine the lifestyle of Archaic people as seen through the trauma they sustained throughout life.

Bioarchaeology

Bioarchaeology utilizes human osteology in an attempt to understand biological parameters of past human populations (White 2000). Bioarchaeology can also be utilized to infer social parameters since the lifestyle of an individual leaves clues on the skeleton. Bridges (1994) examined the rates of osteophytosis and osteoarthritis in a prehistoric sample from northwestern Alabama and attributed their high frequency and distribution on the skeleton to the use of tumplines to carry heavy burdens. There has been a clear association between lifestyle and health of given populations over time (Powell et al.1991; Larsen 1997; Steinbock 1976; Webb 1995; Lambert 1993; Bridges 1994; Bridges 1991; Whittington and Reed 1997), with considerable debate as to which social organizations are more conducive to healthy individuals. Bridges (1991) compared the rates of degenerative joint disease among hunter-gatherers with those of agriculturalists and found a higher prevalence of arthritis in Archaic populations. Molleson (1994) examined the skeletal changes that accompanied a shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture among the people of Abu Hureya in the Near East. These changes, which consisted of degenerative changes to the vertebrae, knees, and feet, were brought about by the physical demands placed on the body from the carrying of heavy loads, the pounding of grain, and prolonged squatting. Among the people of the Channel Islands, Lambert (1993) examined skeletal changes that occurred as a result of a shift from a generalized hunting and gathering strategy to one that focused primarily on fishing. Despite the increase in protein that accompanied this shift, there was a general deterioration in health among these people, which resulted in changes in stature and an increase in inflammatory bone lesions. All Archaic cultures are characterized by what could be called “broad-spectrum” foraging adaptations, which vary with the biotic richness of various habitats (Bogucki 1999). The people of Windover followed the hunting, fishing, and gathering lifestyle typical of Archaic peoples. Their social organization probably consisted of small

3 foraging bands that practiced seasonal migration, as evidenced in the archaeobotanical analysis of plant remains found within the burials. This movement could invariably lead to encounters with other groups in the area. Travel, subsistence practices, and overall health certainly left its evidence on their skeletal remains. By examining the types of traumatic skeletal changes they sustained through life, we may be able to reconstruct aspects of lifestyle among the people of Windover.

Temporal Trends

Considerable debate has centered on fracture frequency changes over time. Frantz (1989) examined temporal trends in fracture frequencies and found that individuals from the Woodland period had higher frequencies than those of the Archaic and Mississippian periods. Other studies (Steinbock 1976) have found the hunter/gatherer lifestyle to be more prone to traumatic injury in some regions of North America compared to more sedentary groups. Studies of skeletal material from the Channel Islands have found high frequencies of depressed cranial fractures over a 7,000-year temporal span of prehistory (Lambert 1994). Walker (1989) found that the incidence of cranial injuries increased significantly between the early and late prehistoric periods of the Channel Islands and attributed this increase to social and ecological conscription in the area due to increased competition for resources. By examining the prevalence of fractures within the Windover population, we can compare this rate to other indigenous groups over time

Social Structure

Another fundamental aspect of fracture analysis concerns rates of occurrence within populations, which can be indicative of the social structure of a population. Webb (1995) has examined the frequency of cranial fractures in female Australian Aborigines and determined that female crania from all parts of the continent display more head trauma than males. The patterns of trauma exhibited on female crania in this region suggest deliberate attack as opposed to accidental injury, which Webb interprets as injuries resulting from interpersonal violence or possibly self-inflicted wounds sustained

4 during mourning rituals. Either possibility can assist in the reconstruction of social patterns among Australian Aborigines. Powell (1991) found a decreased incidence of skeletal trauma among elite females (as indicated by accompanying grave goods) versus those of non-elite females, which could indicate an absence of physical demands due to their preferred social status. At the Mississippian site of Chucalissa, Tennessee, there was an increase in skeletal fractures among elite males, which has been attributed to their higher social status attained via prowess in warfare. Saul and Saul (1997) attributed a higher incidence of fractures in males from the Preclassic Mayan site of Cuello to combat or sports. Lovejoy and Heiple (1981) examined fracture prevalence in the late prehistoric Libben series from Ohio and found that fracture rates within this population peaked in two age groups: adolescence/young adulthood (15-25 years) and old adulthood (45+ years). They attributed these fracture frequencies to accidents due to the fact that they were equal between the sexes and did not exhibit injury patterns associated with assault.

Interpersonal Violence and Warfare

Walker’s (1989) studies from the Channel Islands found that depressed fractures were rare in individuals under the age of ten, while they were especially common between adolescence and 40 years of age. Fractures were found primarily in males, with two-thirds of the injuries occurring on the left side of the frontal bone, indicating face-to- face encounters with a right-handed perpetrator (Lambert 1994). Larsen (1997) cites numerous accounts of interpersonal conflict among Native American populations, as seen in their skeletal remains. Indications of aggressive behavior are reflected in patterns and types of fractures, such as parry fractures of the forearm and scalping wounds on the crania. Dickel et al. (1989) reported over 10% of all adult ulnae within the Windover population as exhibiting fractures. In addition to fractures of the ulna, the remains from Windover exhibit other evidence of possible interpersonal violence, such as depressed cranial fractures in five individuals and the remains of one individual that contained an imbedded bone point.

5 In Webb’s (1995) examination of cranial trauma in Australian Aborigines, he found that almost all the depressed fractures were between one and three centimeters in diameter, round or oval and typical of that made by a blow from a blunt instrument with a small but symmetrical striking surface. Scuilli and Gramly (1989) found evidence of violent death among the Colonial period remains excavated from Ft. Laurens, Ohio in the form of cut and hack marks, particularly of the cranium. Blakely and Mathews (1990) attributed evidence of violence among Native Americans of Georgia to conflict with de Soto’s army, possibly in the form of rebellion to enslavement or attempts to free others from enslavement. The skeletal evidence revealed deep gashes and cuts to extremities, most likely inflicted by steel weapons, although these findings have been disputed in later works (Milner 2000). The similar size and shape of many of the Santa Barbara Channel cranial injuries suggest that they were produced by some well defined, culturally regulated pattern of violence, perhaps involving a specialized weapon (Walker 1989:319). These injuries were confined almost entirely to the frontal and parietal bones and were more common on the left side than the right. This may indicate face-to-face confrontations. Zimmerman et al. (1981) mention the common “70 caliber” depressed fractures of sling ball wounds that produced frequent cranial injuries among ancient Peruvians. Among the Oneota, a pre-contact aboriginal population from west-central Illinois dating to ca. AD 1300, 43 of the 264 burials excavated belong to individuals who died violently (Milner et al. 1991). Massive cranial injuries with fracture patterns consistent with the blunt force produced by ground-stone celts were common among individuals displaying trauma. The authors attribute these violent injuries to small-scale society warfare due to the high level of traumatic death exhibited in male skeletal remains. In contrast, Lovejoy and Heiple (1981) attributed traumatic injuries from the Libben Site in Ohio, a Late Woodland sample, primarily to accidental injury. By examining the general etiology of fractures from this population, they found that fractures generally occurred during adolescence and young adulthood; fracture frequencies were equal among males and females with the exception of the oldest age groups; most fractures were typical of accidental mode, such as Colle’s fractures; there was no

6 indications of battered individuals; and the fracture risk for the population was generally low. The examination of fracture patterns from Windover will provide insight into an Archaic population’s rate and type of traumatic injuries and will be compared to other Native American samples from similar temporal periods following similar subsistence strategies. It may also provide additional information concerning interpersonal behavior and conflict among Archaic populations.

Pathology of Fractures

The bones of the skeleton provide a supporting framework, store minerals, make blood cells, allow movement and protect the delicate areas of the body (Roberts and Manchester 1995). Disruption of these functions comes in many forms, from infectious disease, to genetic disorders, to traumatic injury. Trauma can be defined as a physical injury or wound caused by external force or violence (Bledsoe et al. 1997). The various types of trauma that affect the skeleton include: 1) fracture, 2) dislocation, 3) post-traumatic deformity, and 4) miscellaneous traumatic conditions, including those which do not affect the skeleton directly but can be inferred by the position or association of skeletal specimens (Ortner and Putschar 1981). A fracture is a discontinuity of or crack in skeletal tissue, with or without injury to overlying soft tissues (Aufderheide and Rodriguez-Martin 1998). There are generally six types of fractures distinguished in the literature. These include transverse, spiral, comminuted, oblique, greenstick, and impacted and are distinguished by the forces that produce them and the resultant injuries. Fractures may be simple or compound, depending on whether there is an associated break in the skin surface.

Figure 1.1 Types of Fractures (from Bledsoe et al. 1997:508).

Fractures are produced as a result of direct trauma, indirect trauma, stress, or secondary to pathology (Lovell 1997). To identify the types of trauma, three characteristics of forces that cause bone injury need to be understood: direction, speed, and focus (Byers 2002:262). Direction refers to the direction from which the force contacts the bone, producing injury. The speed of the impact is either dynamic, such as blunt trauma from a heavy instrument, or static, produced by a buildup of force, such as a torsion injury resulting in a spiral fracture. The focus of the impact, either wide or narrow, will determine factors such as extent of injury, degree of fracture radiation, and degree of underlying tissue destruction. The direction of force is further broken down into five types. These are taken from Byers (2002) and include:

Tension – a pulling force usually along the long axis of the bone, producing a break in bone. Tension forces are common in dislocations producing fractures of tubercules from excessive force placed on tendons.

8 Compression – force directed down onto bone, causing inward displacement of the cortical surface. These are typical in head injuries from blunt force trauma or fractures to the spinal column, which can result in kyphosis. Torsion – a twisting force where one end of the bone is held in place while the other end is rotated. Torsion injuries are characteristic of skiing accidents producing fractures to the lower leg. Bending – the most common force producing fractures, bending forces impact the side of the bone at approximately right angles to its long axis, resulting in a break through its cross section. Shearing – a force similar to bending, shearing involves the immobilization of one segment of the bone while force is placed on the other end. Colles’ fractures of the distal radii are the most common type of fracture produced from shearing forces.

a, tension, b, compression, c, twisting, d, bending, e, shearing. Figure 1.2 The Five Directions of Force (from Ortner and Putschar 1981:56).

Fractures generally involve the breakage of bone cortex and trabeculae with associated lifting and tearing of the periosteum. Severing of the periosteal, endosteal, and Haversian blood vessels results in extravasation and pooling of blood and blood clots

9 between the bone fragments, beneath the elevated periosteum, and in adjacent muscle and soft tissue. This disruption in bone and surrounding tissues can sometimes result in necrosis, or death of the tissues. The process of fracture healing in some respects recapitulates events associated with growth and its rate depends on several variables including: 1) the bone involved, 2) the severity of the fracture, 3) the apposition of the ends, 4) the stability of the fractured ends, 5) the nutritional state of the individual, and 6) the age of the individual (Ortner and Putschar 1981). There are generally three stages of repair. Hematoma organization and the formation of granulation tissue usually take place within 2-3 days following injury. Within 5-6 days of injury, formation of woven bone produces the primary callus. By the sixth week, mature bone replaces the primary callus, establishing a bony union or secondary callus. This bony union typically results in a greater degree of strength of the bone than existed prior to injury. There are several forms of complications associated with the healing of fractures that may produce deformity, disability, and even death. These include delayed union, non-union, the formation of a false joint (pseudoarthrosis), necrosis of associated tissues, infection (osteomyelitis), and underlying bone disease which can lead to pathologic fracture. Many of these factors can be controlled through treatment of the fracture following injury. It is not know whether treatment practices were in place in Archaic populations in North America. Splints made of bark, held in place with linen bandages have been found on unhealed limbs of mummies from Egypt dating to 5000 BC (Roberts and Manchester 1995). Dickel and Doran (1988) speculated on the presence of long-term care when they examined the remains of a Windover sub-adult consisting of multiple pathologies related to spina bifida aperta. Evidence of fracture reduction within Windover would also indicate care of the injured and may provide the earliest evidence of such treatments in North America.

10 CHAPTER TWO MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Windover Site

The state of Florida has produced some of the oldest skeletal samples in North America. Windover constitutes almost half of all individuals in North America from contexts predating 7,000 years B.P., and Florida produces 60% (N=194) of this pre-7,000 year sample (Windover, Cutler, and Warm Mineral Spring) for all of North America (Doran 2002). With a minimum number of individuals at 168, a broad population profile, a diverse artifact inventory, and exceptional preservation, Windover affords a rare glimpse into the life of Archaic people in Florida. The site, located in the east-central Florida coastal area near present-day Titusville, was first discovered in 1982 during construction within the Windover Farms housing development. Along with its antiquity, the site of Windover is an exceptional archaeological find due to the nature of the interments. Charnel, or mortuary ponds consist of shallow ponds underlain by intact peat sediments into which burials were placed during the Early and Middle Archaic times (Doran 2002.). Similar sites have been discovered throughout Florida, including Bay West, located in the southwest; Republic Groves, located in the south-central region of the state; and Little Salt Springs, located near the west coast of Florida (Doran 2002). Based on radiocarbon dates obtained from the central portion of the pond, the oldest peat began accumulating approximately 10,750 years b.p. (Doran and Dickel 1988). The mean of nine radiocarbon dates on human bone, wooden stakes, and remains of a bottle gourd is 7,442 radiocarbon years b.p., making Windover the largest sample of its antiquity in North America (Doran and Dickel ibid.) The excavation of Windover spanned three field seasons (1984-1986). Approximately half of the pond was excavated, a significant challenge due to extensive dewatering strategies that enabled the exposure, preservation, and excavation of not only skeletal material but fragile textiles and associated grave goods. An unusually neutral pH, high sulphur levels, highly mineralized water, and an anaerobic peat environment,

11 produced a physical environment that afforded exceptional preservation of organic remains (Stojanowski et al. 2002). One of the most fascinating aspects of preservation from Windover Pond was the recovery of human brain tissue from nine crania. Fragments from one of the crania were dated at 6,990 +/- 70 yr BP using an accelerator-mass spectrometry method on isolated collagen (Doran et al. 1986). Gross examination of the brain-like masses after removal from the skull disclosed the external gyral pattern of an atrophic human brain which had shrunk to about one-quarter of its original size and, although shrunken and altered in consistency, still exhibited gross anatomical features of contemporary brains (Doran 1986). The remains of over 168 individuals were excavated and included a functional sample size for most analyses of 168, an approximately equal ratio of males to females, a diverse population profile with age ranges from infant to 65+ years, and the exceptionally preserved remains of a large number of sub-adults, which make up approximately half (52%) the sample (Stojanowski et al. 2002). The state of preservation at Windover, while variable, has permitted cellular and molecular analysis, including the first sequence of a nuclear gene from ancient human remains (Tuross et al. 1994).

Fracture Assessment

Proper description of an injury is the first step in trauma analysis and is the basis for determining the mechanism, or proximate cause, of the injury (Lovell 1997). But as stated earlier, analyses of fractures within the archaeological record can be problematic. Since its inception, paleopathology has been plagued by inconsistencies in data collection, description, and interpretation. One of the most vexing problems a paleopathologist faces is the question of whether a given tissue change is an antemortem pathological lesion or a postmortem artifact (Aufderheide and Rodriguez-Martin 1998). With the development of standards of data collection and descriptions of skeletal trauma and pathology (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Lovell 1997; Lovejoy and Heiple 1981), consistency has improved. It is only through the use of standardized descriptive protocols that the analysis and interpretation of skeletal trauma and pathology can improve.

12 Protocols should include identification of the skeletal element(s) involved, side, the location of the injury, its appearance, and any evidence for complications of the injury. These data thus serve as the basis for baseline information about the mechanisms of injury, from which social, cultural, or environmental associations may then be inferred (Lovell 1997). One of the first steps in fracture analysis in the archaeological record involves differentiating antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem trauma from one another. Although sometimes difficult, there are methods for differentiating these types of injuries to bone. Fractures that occur prior to death and have had time to begin healing show distinctive characteristics. These characteristics include focal porosity indicative of bone activity and resorption; rounding of the edges of the break from bone remodeling; and the development of a bony callus. Perimortem trauma displays its own characteristics. Byers (2002) provides five characteristics indicative of perimortem trauma: 1) sharp edges along the fracture lines and broken bone surfaces; 2) hinging of the fracture as bone is bent away from the direction of a blow, which can only occur if the bone is moist when injured; 3) formation of fracture lines radiating from the point of impact; 4) the presence of jagged surfaces to the broken bone ends; 5) staining from the hematoma, which may be difficult to identify in archaeological remains. Postmortem fractures will typically display relatively flat planes of breakage along the bone ends and may appear lighter in color compared to the rest of the bone, which typically becomes discolored over time. The best way to differentiate between antemortem and postmortem fractures is through evidence of healing. Walker (1989) confined his analysis of cranial fractures from the Channel Islands to lesions showing some evidence of healing. Utilizing forensic analysis, fractures within the Windover collection will be included in the study if they exhibit evidence of healing or if they can be differentiated from postmortem breakage with some degree of confidence.

13 Data Collection

Lovejoy and Heiple (1981) restricted their studies from the Libben Site in Ohio to complete bones, whether fractured or normal, to assure that fractured specimens did not receive undue attention and create a sampling bias. Lovell (1997) included only elements that were 75% intact. This research will include all elements that are over 50% intact. Certain elements present challenges in determining percentage present. This research used the following protocol for such elements:

Crania – if the facial bones are absent, the crania was included if the calotte was intact. Vertebrae - vertebrae were included if the body was whole and intact, even in the absence of transverse and spinous processes. Scapulae – if the body of the scapula was missing, they were included if the glenoid fossa and accromion process were joined and complete. Sternum – the sternum was included only if the body was present and complete. Os Coxae – the os coxae were included if the ilium was complete or if the bulk of the lateral aspect was intact (entire glenoid fossa joined with lateral aspect of ilium).

The total number of elements observed was utilized to create a fracture frequency, which consists of the type and total number of elements exhibiting fractures divided by the type and total number of elements represented (over 50% intact). A second fracture frequency was obtained using the number of individuals exhibiting evidence of fractures divided by total number of individuals observed. The sample number of individuals represented within the Windover collection is 168, although additional individuals are represented by few elements in some cases. In order to provide consistency in data collection and interpretation, the descriptive protocols for fractures developed by Lovell (1997) were followed throughout

14 the course of this research, in addition to several other components of analysis. Lovell divides cranial and long bone fractures into two separate guidelines (assessing short bones using the long bone criteria). The most common fractures of the cranium affect the vault and are caused by direct trauma, which can be described according to their basic type: linear, crush, or penetrating. Interpreting the mechanism of injury relies on a variety of characteristics of the fracture, such as the bones involved, patterning of fracture lines, and presence of deformation. Indirect cranial trauma, although relatively rare, can result in “ring” fractures of the foramen magnum, basilar fractures of the petrous bones, or fractures of the mandibular condyles from impact to the chin. Degree and direction from which the fracture lines extend depends upon both the magnitude of the applied force and the local bony architecture. Lovell (ibid) uses the acronym LARA when describing long bone fractures. This stands for length, apposition (shift), rotation, and angulation (alignment). The length of the bone is measured using an osteometric board and the maximum length is recorded as normal, distracted, or shortened. This can only be determined by comparing it to its counterpart. Apposition is the percentage of bony contact between fragmented ends in fresh injuries and is measured on radiographs. Lovell admits that interpretations of radiographs may be made difficult by postmortem alterations common in archaeological contexts, such as soil inclusions that affect density or the differential identification of osteoporosis versus diagenetic bone loss. Apposition will not apply to the Windover material, since the analysis will include only those fractures showing clear evidence of healing, such as callus development or bone remodeling. Rotation occurs when the distal fragment has turned relative to the proximal fragment and is recorded as being internally or externally rotated. Angulation at the fracture site is measured in degrees with a goniometer and can be obtained from the bone itself or from radiographs. The number of degrees the distal fragment has displaced in relation to the midline of the proximal fragment is the angulation. Along with these criteria is the location of the fracture on the element, which was recorded as proximal, medial, or distal. The side of the body from which the fracture comes was also recorded, since this may infer additional information, such as direction of force.

15 Another factor involved in fracture analysis is the differentiation of healed versus unhealed fractures. As previously stated, the presence of healing is a primary means of differentiating ante-, peri- and postmortem trauma. This research utilized the stages of healing proposed by Lovell (1997). She distinguishes four stages. The remains analyzed were scored 1-4 as follows: 1- Hematoma formation and cellular proliferation – blood from torn vessels forms a hematoma and osteoid is deposited around each fragment by osteoblasts. 2- Callus formation – callus of woven bone forms from mineralization of osteoid and acts as a splint for periosteal and endosteal surfaces. 3- Consolidation – mature lamellar bone forms from callus precursor and results in a solidly united fracture area. 4- Remodeling – gradual remodeling of bone to its original form. This also shows up as increased density on radiographs. Because of the preservation issues inherent in archaeological skeletal remains, scores of 2-4 were anticipated from the Windover material. The data were collected on Excel Spreadsheets. One spreadsheet consists of fracture data and all associated information. The second spreadsheet contains the element inventory for the entire collection. Once the number of fractures, as well as the inventory of elements was completed, the analysis of frequency, type, and distribution began.

16 CHAPTER THREE ANALYSIS OF FRACTURE FREQUENCIES

As stated above, the Windover collection consists of a working number of individuals of 168 and a total of 10,572 elements that met the criteria for this study. The age and sex distributions are presented below. (1=Male, 2-Female, 3=Indeterminate)

Count 30

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 SEXNUM

Figure 3.1 Sex Distribution of Total Population (99=Unknown Age)

Count

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 AGE

Figure 3.2 Age Distribution of Total Population

17 The age and sex distributions of the Windover population are evenly distributed. There are approximately equal numbers of males and females and, as stated previously, sub-adults make up approximately 50% of the population. Although there appears to be a disproportionate number of sub-adult remains, these numbers reflect typical survivorship curves from populations lacking modern medicine in which sub-adults are at an increased risk of mortality (Hoppa and Vaupel 2002). Most age groups are represented, providing information on age-related changes through time. Figure 3.3 provides combined age and sex distribution for the population.

100 90 80 70 60 50

AGE 40 30 20 10 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 SEX

Figure 3.3 Combined Age and Sex Distribution of Windover (1=Male, 2=Female, 3=Indeterminate)

18 The majority of the un-sexed individuals are sub-adults. The sexed individuals are equally distributed among most age categories. Following the inventory of all skeletal elements within the Windover collection that were over 50% intact, an assessment of all fractured elements was conducted and totals from the fracture database were compared to totals from the Windover inventory. The results are provided in the following table.

Table 3.1 Fracture Totals and Percentages Category Headings: Element; Right; Left; Unsided; Total Fractures; Total Right; Total Left; Total Unsided; Total Elements; Ratios of Fractures; Fracture Percentages (frequencies).

ELEMENT R L UNSID TOT. FXs TOT. R TOT. L TOT.UNS TOT. EL. RATIOS %

Cranium 3 2 5 102 5/102 4.9 Vertebra 18 1536 18/1536 1.17 Clavicle 2 2 109 108 217 2/217 0.92 Scapula 1 1 39 34 73 3/073 4.1 Humerus 1 1 115 111 226 1/226 0.44 Radius 1 2 3 104 103 207 3/207 1.44 Ulna 8 7 15 121 106 227 15/227 6.6 Carpals 0 420 410 830 0 0 Metacarp. 3 3 318 314 632 3/632 0.47 Phalan.-h 6 6 1824 1824 6/1824 0.32 Ribs 15 8 6 29 321 291 612 29/612 4.73 Os Coxae 1 1 76 66 142 1/142 0.7 Sacrum 0 32 0 0 Femur 2 2 117 121 238 2/238 0.84 Patella 0 78 76 154 0 0 Tibia 1 1 112 110 222 1/222 0.45 Fibula 2 2 105 104 209 2/209 0.95 Tarsals 0 481 478 959 0 0 Metatars. 0 396 382 29 807 0 0 Phalan.-f 1 1 1156 1156 1/1156 0.08 Mandible 0 109 0 0 Sternum 0 17 0 0

19 Out of all elements examined, the elements with the highest number of fractures were ribs. Fifteen fractures occurred on the right side of the rib cage; eight on the left; and six were unsided. Vertebrae had the second highest number of fractures, with most of these being compression fractures. Fifteen out of a total of 18 fractures of vertebrae were compression fractures, primarily located among the cervical vertebrae. There were eight cervical, four thoracic, and six lumbar vertebrae exhibiting fractures. Ulna exhibited the third highest number of fractures within the collection; eight right-sided fractures and seven left. There were no fractures observed of the sternum, mandible, tarsals, metatarsals, patella, sacrum, and carpals. Several elements exhibited only single fractures, such as the scapula, humerus, os coxae, tibia, and the phalanges of the feet. The actual percentages of fractured elements, calculated by dividing the total number of fractures per element by the total number of each type of element produced very different results. The ulna had the highest fracture frequency (6.6%) and cranial fractures had the second highest frequency (4.9%). However, this value may reflect the lower number of total crania within the collection (102) as compared to other elements. Ribs had the third highest fracture frequency (4.73%). Among the cranial fractures, three out of five of the fractures occurred on the right side of the cranium. There were three parietal fractures, two of which occurred on the right side; one frontal fracture on the left side; and one right-sided orbital fracture. All fractures to the cranial vault were well-healed depressed fractures. All cranial fractures occurred in adult males with the exception of one parietal fracture that occurred in an un- sexed sub-adult (12 years of age). Out of the total elements examined that were over 50% intact (10,572), the Windover population had a total number of fractures of 90 and an overall fracture frequency of 0.85%. A distribution of fractures by element is provided in Figure 3.4.

20 30

TOTFXS 10

0 Ribs Tibia Ulna FemurFibula CarpalsClavicle Patella Radius SacrumScapula Tarsals Cranium HumerusMandible Os Coxae Sternum Vertebra Metatarsals Metacarpals PhalangesPhalanges (f (h ELEMENT

Figure 3.4 Total Number of Fractures per Element

Using the working number of individuals within the Windover collection of 168, the fracture frequency per individuals was as follows: Number of Ind. With Fractures Total Number of Individuals Percentage 43 168 22.2%

However, many individuals within the Windover collection are represented by only a few elements and are not included in the working number of 168. There was also the problem of differentiating individuals within single burials, since many of the burials had shifted along the bottom of the pond and co-mingled remains were commonly recovere. A breakdown of the fracture percentages by elements is provided in the histogram below. The distributions are quite different from the fracture counts per element, since the

21 percentages were obtained by dividing the total number of fractures, per element, by the total number of element observed.

FXPERCENTS 2

Fibula Ribs TibiaUlna CarpalsClavicle Femur Patella Radius SacrumScapula Tarsals Cranium HumerusMandibleMetacarp.Metatars.Os Coxae Phalan.-fPhalan.-h Sternum Vertebra ELEMENT

Figure 3.5 Fracture Percentages by Element

22 Table 3.2 Fracture Distributions by Locations Right Left Un-sided Upper Ext. Lower Ext. (long bones) (long bones) Fractures 30 24 13 19 5 Total Elem. 2,911 2,714 3,105 660 669 Percent 1.03% 0.88% 0.41% 2.87% 0.74% Fractured

There is only a slightly greater frequency of right-sided fractures over left but this could be due to the slightly higher representation of right-sided elements over left. Upper extremity fractures are approximately 5 times greater in frequency than lower extremities, even though upper and lower extremities are represented by nearly equal values. The highest number of fractured upper extremity elements was the ulna.

Fracture Population

The fracture population was compiled following the analysis and inventory of each element within the Windover Collection. It includes all individuals exhibiting skeletal fractures. The following information was obtained: (Unless otherwise stated, all data concerning the Fracture Population were calculated excluding “unknown age” = 99)

Table 3.3 Mean Age Distribution of Fracture Population AGE N of cases 35 Minimum 2.0 Maximum 69.0 Mean 41.2 Standard Dev 18.133

23 The mean age of individuals with fractures is 41 years of age. The age distribution for the fracture population is included in the Figure 3.6.

0.3 Proportion per Bar per Proportion 10 0.2

Count

5 0.1

0 0.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 AGE

Figure 3.6 Age Distribution of Fracture Population

As stated earlier, the Windover population is exceptional in that there are a large number of sub-adults represented (approximately half the population). This allows the age distribution of the fracture population to be calculated without the concern of skewed numbers that typically accompany a population in which sub-adults are under- represented.

24 Table 3.4 Age Groupings of Fracture Population

Total Fracture Population = 43 Individuals; Total Windover Population=168. (12 Individuals of Unknown Age)

Age Groups No. of Ind. With % of Total Total No. of Ind. FXs Fractures in Age Group 0-10 4 9.30% 50 11-20 1 2.32% 24 21-30 4 9.30% 19 31-40 5 11.62% 15 41-50 11 25.58% 25 51-60 4 9.30% 10 61+ 6 13.95% 13

Sub-adults exhibited no patterns of fractured elements, with fractures occurring in the tibia, ulna, clavicle, parietal, and ischio-pubic bone. Sub-adults exhibiting fractures make up approximately 11% of the total fracture population. However, they make up almost 50% of the total Windover population. Therefore, sub-adults do not exhibit a high fracture frequency.

25 Table 3.5 Sex Distribution of Fracture Population

Data for the following results were selected according to: (SEX= 1-Male) OR (SEX= 2-Female) AND (AGE< 99)

Two-sample t test on AGE grouped by SEX

Group N Mean SD

1 13 46.692 10.283

2 16 47.250 15.395

Separate Variance t = -0.116 df = 26.1 Prob = 0.908 Difference in Means = -0.558 95.00% CI = -10.401 to 9.286

Pooled Variance t = -0.112 df = 27 Prob = 0.912 Difference in Means = -0.558 95.00% CI = -10.798 to 9.683

AGE 40

30 SEX 1 20 2 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Count Count

26 The sex distribution for the fracture population shows no significance in distribution. The distribution by sex of the fracture population is illustrated in Figure 3.7

Sex Distribution of Fracture Population

100

No. of Fractures 20

0 males females unknown tot. frac. Sex

Figure 3.7 Sex Distribution of Fracture Population

There is a slightly higher incidence of fractures among the females from Windover. However, this number is not significant according to statistical analysis. The following figures provide fracture data per sex.

27 30 2.5 5 15

2.0 4

20 10 1.5 3

Count Count 1.0 Count 2 Count 10 5

0.5 1

0 0.0 0 0 -1 0 1 2 3 20 30 40 50 60 70 20 30 40 50 60 70 N SEX AGE FAGE MULT

8 9 12 2.5

7 8 10 2.0 6 7 6 8 5 1.5 5 4 6

Count Count 4 Count Count 3 1.0 3 4 2 2 0.5 2 1 1 0 0 0 0.0 RIB 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 ULNAVERT FEMURFIBULA METAC RADIUS CRANIAL HUMERUS RIGHT LEFT INDET PHAL.-FOOTPHAL.-HAND ELEMENT

8 10 25 25

7 9 8 20 20 6 7 5 6 15 15 4 5

Count Count Count Count 3 4 10 10 3 2 2 5 5 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 A B N Y 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 A,B ELCODE CRANIAL MULTFX NOFXS ECODELET

25 20 1.2

1.0 20 15 0.8 15 10 0.6 Count 10 Count Count 0.4 5 5 0.2

0 0 0.0 NO YES 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 MULTIPLE DEGHEAL TOTELEM

Figure 3.8 Fracture Data for Males

Most males fell within the 40-50 year age group. Fractures of the ulna were most numerous. Fractures occur almost equally between right and left elements. There are very few individuals with multiple fractures and the degree of healing is predominately 4.

28 30 2.5 5 16

2.0 4 12 20 1.5 3 8 Count Count 1.0 Count 2 Count 10 4 0.5 1

0 0.0 0 0 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 20 30 40 50 60 70 20 30 40 50 60 70 N Y-dup.patell SEX AGE FAGE MULT

7 8 10 6

7 9 6 5 8 6 5 7 4 5 6 4 4 5 3

Count 3 Count Count Count 3 4 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 RIB 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 -1 0 1 2 3 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 ULNAVERT FEMURMETAC RADIUS RIGHT LEFT INDET CLAVICLECRANIAL PHAL.-HAND ELEMENT

7 7 25 25

6 6 20 20 5 5 15 15 4 4

Count 3 Count 3 Count 10 Count 10 2 2 5 5 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 5 10 15 A B UNK N Y 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 ELCODE ECODELET MULTFX NOFXS

20 25 1.2

1.0 20 15 0.8 15 10 0.6 Count Count 10 Count 0.4 5 5 0.2

0 0 0.0 NO 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 0 50 100 150 YES DEGHEAL TOTELEM POSSIBLY MULTIPLE

Figure 3.9 Fracture Data for Females

Females also fell primarily between the 40-50 year age group. They also displayed ulna fractures most frequently, although their fracture distributions are more varied than in males. There is little difference in the incidence of right vs. left sided fractures and their degree of healing is also predominately 4.

29 20 10 12 12 9 10 10 8 15 7 8 8 6 10 5 6 6 Count Count 4 Count Count 4 4 3 5 2 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 N Y SEX AGE FAGE MULT

6 9 6 2.5 8 5 5 7 2.0 4 6 4 1.5 5 3 3

Count Count 4 Count Count 1.0 2 3 2

2 0.5 1 1 1 0 0 0 0.0 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 -1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3 RIB TIBIAULNAVERT FIBULAOS COX RIGHT LEFT INDET CLAVICLECRANIAL SCAPULA ELEMENT

6 6 15 15

5 5

4 4 10 10

3 3

Count Count Count Count

2 2 5 5

1 1

0 0 0 0 0 5 10 15 20 A B N Y 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 A, B A,B ELCODE A, UNK MULTFX NOFXS ECODELET

9 10 1.2 8 9 1.0 7 8 7 6 0.8 6 5 5 0.6

Count 4 Count Count 4 3 0.4 3 2 2 0.2 1 1 0 0 0.0 NO UNK 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 0 100 200 300 400 MULTIPLE DEGHEAL TOTELEM

Figure 3.10 Fracture Data for Indeterminate Sex

The unknown sex category fell primarily in the “unknown age” category (=99). They displayed a high number of rib fractures, with a higher incidence of fractures to the right side. The degree of healing within this category was almost equally distributed between 3 and 4.

30 The fracture population for the Windover collection was calculated for each age group. The data are provided in Figure 3.11.

NOFXS 3

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 AGE

Figure 3.11 Age Distribution of Fracture Population

The age distribution of the fracture population is fairly equally representative of the overall population. Most individuals experienced single fractures, with only a few adults exhibiting multiple fractures. The combined age and sex distribution of the fracture population is presented below.

31 3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

SEX

1.5

1.0

0.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 AGE

Figure 3.12 Sex and Age Distribution of Fracture Population

The sex distribution within the fracture population is equally represented, with females showing only a slightly higher incidence of fractures. However, there are nine individuals that are of indeterminate sex. Out of a total of 43 individuals displaying fractures, only five were sub-adults (0.11%). This indicates a relatively low fracture frequency among the sub-adults from Windover. This could also be secondary to the nature of fracture analysis; fractures in sub-adults are more difficult to discern, since fractures will become obliterated more readily in the young due to higher rates of bone remodeling. The number of individuals displaying multiple fractures was calculated and the data are provided in Figure 3.13.

32 1=Adult, 2=Sub-adult

MULTFX N

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 AGROUP

Figure 3.13 Incidence of Multiple Fractures per Age Group

Of individuals exhibiting fractures, there appears to be no difference in the occurrence of multiple fractures among adults and sub-adults, with most individuals displaying single fractures.

NOFXS 3

0 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 AGROUP

Figure 3.14 Average Number of Fractures per Age Group

33 The degree of healing of each fracture was calculated and the results for each sex are included in Figure 3.15. 1-Hematoma Formation/Cellular Proliferation 2-Callus Formation 3-Consolidation 4-Remodelling 1-Male 2-Female 3-Indeterminate

4.2

4.0

3.8

3.6

3.4

DEGHEAL 3.2

3.0

2.8 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 SEX

Hematoma Formation

Figure 3.15 Degree of Healing by Sex

There was a slightly higher degree of healing among the females but most fractures fell between 3 and 4. This finding is likely due to the nature of the data collection, since only those fractures displaying signs of healing were included in the study. The counts and degrees of healing are provided in Table 3.6.

34 Table 3.6 Degree of Healing per Sex Data for the following results were selected according to: (SEX= 1; MALE) Frequencies DEGREEOFHEALING (rows) by SEX (columns) 1 Total 3 6 6 4 20 20 Total 26 26

Data for the following results were selected according to: (SEX= 2; FEMALE) Frequencies DEGREEOFHEALING (rows) by SEX (columns) 2 Total 3 5 5 4 20 20 Total 25 25

Data for the following results were selected according to: (SEX= 3; INDETERMINATE) Frequencies DEGREEOFHEALING (rows) by SEX (columns) 3 Total 3 7 7 4 9 9 Total 16 16

35 Fracture Aligment

0 TOTAL LONG-BONE ALIGNED FRACTURES MIS-ALIGNED FRACTURES FRACTURES

Figure 3.16 Fracture Alignment

Most of the long-bone fractures from Windover were well aligned (76%) and well healed. When a fracture occurs, the stability of the extremity is reduced and any further movement can increase pain, soft-tissue damage, and the possibility of vascular or nerve involvement (Bledsoe 1997). Even if a fracture occurs without misalignment of the bone ends, further movement can cause the ends of the bone to become displaced, complicating the healing process and increasing the chance of deformity of the element. To ensure aligned healing, the bone must be kept immobile until primary callus formation, which occurs at approximately 6 weeks (Ortner and Putschar 1981). The rate of fracture alignment observed indicates the people from Windover had some knowledge of fracture treatment and immobilized the affected bone long enough for proper alignment to take place. Of the long bones that were misaligned, most were upper extremity elements (2 ulna, 1 radius, 1 humerus) and the remaining two were femurs. All were well healed, most showing no degree of angulation. The only severely angulated fractures were observed among femurs (2) and a single ulna. By their nature, femur fractures can easily result in severe angulation upon fracturing. Due to the large muscle mass surrounding the femur, when a fracture occurs, the muscles respond by contracting. Unless traction is placed on the extremity to re-align the bone, it will heal misaligned. It would also be difficult for a member of a hunting and gathering community to remain

36 immobile for the amount of time needed to allow for proper alignment of the femur. This appears to be the case among the Windover population. Since most of the long bones show proper alignment, it can be assumed that the people of Windover had some knowledge of alignment and splinting of fractured bones. This topic will be explored in the next chapter.

37 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS

The Windover Population

The skeletal population from Windover is an exceptional collection of Archaic remains, with full age ranges represented. Because of the fragile nature of sub-adult remains and their paucity in the archaeological record, the opportunity to analyze the skeletal remains of children from past populations is severely limited. With approximately half the population composed of sub-adults, Windover affords a glimpse into all stages of life among middle Archaic period populations. Windover also provides a balanced population with regards to sex. There are practically equal numbers of males and females, with most of the individuals of indeterminate sexes being those of sub-adults. This provides the necessary range of variability for completing population statistics with good representation from various ages and sex. The antiquity of the Windover population is also remarkable. Of the North American individuals older than 5,000 years B.P., 20% (N=479) are from Florida, and Windover contains nearly one-third of all the Florida individuals older than 7,000 years (Doran 2002). The Windover population thus constitutes almost half of all individuals in North America from contexts predating 7,000 years B.P., making it a site of great importance in North American archaeology. The number of individuals from Windover Pond is also unique. Other sites of this antiquity in North America usually include fewer individuals (e.g., Marmes Rockshelter, WA, N=28; Modoc Rockshelter, IL, N=28; San Diego Series, CA, N=46) (Doran 2002). With a working population of 168, Windover is one of the few sites in North America of this antiquity with a population large enough for demographic analysis (Doran 2002). This chapter will begin with an overview of the fracture data and conclude with comparisons of fracture frequencies from Windover to frequencies from contemporary and later populations.

38 Fractures by Element

Of the elements exhibiting fractures, the highest occurrence of fractures occurred in ribs (29 total fractures). However, considering that each individual possesses 24 ribs, and that ribs are relatively fragile and an easy bone to break from direct or indirect trauma, the high rate of occurrence at Windover may not be significant. One area of interest is that most of the fractures were on the right side (15 Right, 8 Left, 6 Un-sided). Most of the fractures occurred mid-shaft, although in many cases the exact location was difficult to determine, since many of the remains were fragmented. Calculating the total number of ribs examined (612; 321 Right, 291 Left), a fracture frequency of 4.73% results, which is the third highest frequency in the collection. In general, rib fractures are not displaced and, although painful, usually heal uneventfully (Aufderheide and Rodriguez-Martin 1998). This appears to be the case at Windover.

Rib Fractures per Side

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Total Rib Fxs Right Fxs Left Fxs Unsided Fxs

Figure 4.1 Rib Factures per Side

39 Fractures of the vertebrae ranked second highest in total number of fractures (N=18). Of these fractures, 15 were compression fractures. The remaining fractures occurred in the transverse processes. Of the individuals affected, three were males, four females, and three were of indeterminate sex. Eight of the compression fractures occurred in the cervical vertebrae, four in the thoracic, and three in the lumbar. Eleven individuals had fractures of the vertebrae, producing a percentage value of 6%. The age compositions of these eleven individuals are provided in Figure 4.2.

(Age 99= Unknown)

VERTEBRAL FRACTURES

120 100 80

60 AGE 40 20 0 1234567891011 INDIVIDUAL

Figure 4.2 Age Distributions of Vertebral Fractures

The fracture frequency of vertebral fractures is relatively low considering the total number of vertebrae examined. There were eighteen fractures out of a total of 1536 vertebrae, with a resultant fracture frequency of 1.17%. Most vertebral fractures occurred in individuals over 40 years of age. The sex distributions are provided below. Vertebral fractures among females could have been due to bone loss common in aging females.

40 Compression Fxs of Vertebrae

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

MALES LUMBAR FEMALES CERVICAL THORACIC

INDETERMINATE

Figure 4.3 Compression Fractures of Vertebrae

Compression fractures are the result of sudden excessive impaction, which occurs when the loss of vertical height is predominately anterior (Ortner and Putschar 1981; Rothschild and Martin 1993). The compression fractures could have been the result of falls in which the individual landed in an upright position or as the result of indirect trauma. Only one individual, an adult male (Individual 154), had compression fractures associated with cranial trauma. He had two compression fractures of the cervical vertebrae with an associated right orbital fracture and a fracture to the left ulna. All fractures were well healed and may have occurred at the same time. The ulna fracture may have resulted from warding off blows, as all of these injuries are common in cases of interpersonal violence. Compression fractures of the cervical vertebrae could also have been the result of the use of tumplines for carrying goods suspended from the head. The elements with the highest fracture frequency were ulnae. With a total of 15 fractures (or N=227 unlae included in the inventory), a fracture frequency of 6.6% was produced. There was little variation in side affected (8 Right, 7 Left). Of the 15 fractures, eight occurred in males, five in females, and two in indeterminate sexed individuals. All ulna fractures, with the exception of two (1 sub-adult, 1 indeterminate age) occurred in adult remains. Because of the homogeneous nature of their distribution, there appears to be little correlation with sex or age, which probably indicates accidental

41 rather than patterned origins. If the ulna fractures were associated with interpersonal violence, as in the case of parry fractures, an associated high frequency of cranial and facial fractures would also be expected. If the forearm is used to protect the head from injury, then forearm diaphyseal fractures and cranial injuries should coincide (Larsen 1997). There are, however, no cranial or facial fractures found among the female remains from Windover. The male fracture patterns are discussed in following sections. The elements with the second highest fracture frequency were cranial fractures. Of the 102 crania examined, 5 exhibited fractures, all in the form of depressed, well- healed fractures, producing a fracture frequency of 4.9%. However, consideration must be given to the fact that not all individuals were recovered with crania. When the fracture rates of crania are compared to other elements, it exhibits the fifth highest rate (following ribs, vertebrae, ulna, and hand phalanges, respectively). The fact that all cranial fractures occurred in males (excluding one un-sexed sub-adult) is interesting. What is more interesting is that no cranial fractures occurred in female remains from Windover. Webb (1995) found that, among Australian aborigines, females exhibited a consistently higher prevalence of cranial injuries than males, with the injuries occurring primarily in the right parietal and occipital regions. These patterns were distinct from the patterns exhibited in males, most of which occurred in the frontal and facial areas. This lead him to speculate that the injuries in females were the result of physical violence from an assailant attacking from behind, whereas the males were being injured in face-to-face combat. His data show that women were regularly involved in some form of interpersonal conflict. The cranial fractures from Windover are primarily in the parietal area, with two on the right (Individuals 152 and 501) and one on the left (Individual 91). The remaining cranial fractures consist of one right orbital fracture (Individual 154) and one left frontal fracture (Individual 97). Fractures to the face and crania are usually attributed to interpersonal violence (Gill and Owsley 1993; Webb 1995; Bennike 1985; Stodder 1994). Three of the cranial fractures are associated with individuals who have other fractures. Individual 91 exhibits a left parietal fracture, two left ribs, and an indeterminate-sided fracture to the phalange of the hand. Individual 97 exhibits a left frontal fracture and a right humeral fracture. Individual 154 exhibits a right orbital fracture, a left ulnar

42 fracture, and 2 compression fractures of the cervical vertebrae. These are the only cases of cranial fractures with associated trauma indicative of interpersonal violence.

Cranial Fracture Data

0 Total Cranial Fxs Parietal Fxs Other Cranial Fxs Cranial Fxs/Assoc. Fxs

Figure 4.4 Cranial Fracture Data

Another individual, an adult male (Individual 58), had 3 fractures to the transverse processes in the lumbar and thoracic area. He also had fractures to seven ribs (5 right, 2 indeterminate), the right radius, and the right ulna. All fractures exhibit a similar degree of healing so may have occurred as the result of a single event. The vertebral fractures would have required considerable force to produce this type of fracture. This force would have to be applied longitudinally alongside the spine in order to produce fractures of the transverse processes. This type of force could be the result of being struck with a long object, such as piece of wood, or from a fall onto the back, landing on an object such as the side of a canoe. This incident may have been the result of a fall onto the right side, since there are no associated fractures on the left side of the body. However, since the area surrounding Windover Pond (as well as the East coast of Florida in general) is quite flat, it is curious to note what this individual may have fallen from or onto, unless the injuries were part of a tree climbing accident.

Fractures per Location

Of the extremity fractures (including the shoulder girdle and pelvis), which totaled 38, 31 appeared in the upper extremities and only seven in the lower. Fractures to the ulna and hand phalanges account for the majority of upper extremity fractures (15 and

43 six, respectively). The lower extremity fractures are divided equally between femur and fibula (2 per element), with the remainder in the os coxae, tibia, and foot phalange. The ratio of upper to lower extremity fractures shows a propensity for upper body trauma (approximately 4:1). These fractures could have been the results of falls over uneven terrain or travel through dense underbrush. The stable isotope data from Windover indicated that it was a seasonal occupation (Tuross et. al 1994), thus the people from Windover were traveling distances depending on the season. This movement could have resulted in falls while traversing through the vegetation of eastern Florida, leading to fractures of the upper extremities. Of the 90 fractures, 33 were on the right side of the body, 26 on the left, and 31 were either un-sided or not associated with siding (e.g., vertebrae). There was no obvious patterning to the fractures with regard to side since the fractures were almost equally distributed. The only elements showing a tendency toward siding are the ribs, with 15 of the 29 fractures found on the right side. However, six of the 29 are un-sided, so, if they were actually left sided ribs, it would bring the total for left and right to approximately the same number (14 and 15, respectively).

Fractures per Side and Extremity

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 RIGHT FXS LEFT FXS UNSIDED UPPER LOWER FXS EXTREM. EXTREM. FXS FXS

Figure 4.5 Fractures per Side and Extremity

44 Fractures per Sex and Age

There appears to be no difference in fracture frequencies between males and females. Females showed only a slightly higher incidence of fractures but the individuals affected consisted of 16 females and 13 males. The remainder are of indeterminate sex. Fracture data have been used to make cross-cultural comparisons of patterns of interpersonal violence and temporal changes in those patterns (Alvrus 1999). The fracture patterns from Windover do not indicate that either sex was the focus of aggravated abuse, since fracture distributions are about equal. Aside from the small number of cranial fractures in males, there appear to be no distinct fracture patterns by sex. Thus, the accident potential for males and females appears to be equal, as does the potential for trauma as a result of interpersonal violence.

Sub-adult/Adult Fractures

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 SUB-ADULT FXS ADULT FXS TOTAL SUB- TOTAL ADULTS ADULTS

Figure 4.6 Fracture per Age Category

The age distribution of the fracture population spans all age groups, but most fractures occurred in adults (38 of the 43 total individuals). Of the sub-adults exhibiting fractures, there were no discernable fracture patterns, with fractures occurring in the os coxae, tibia, ulna, clavicle, and parietal. Glencross and Stuart-Macadam (2000) report

45 that among children not yet able to walk, skull fractures and clavicular fractures are the most common type of fractures sustained; once a child becomes ambulatory, limb fractures predominate, with frequencies peaking during the latter teens. The sub-adults from Windover do appear to adhere to this pattern in most instances, yet overall , they exhibit a very low incidence of occurrence. The clavicular fracture was found in a two- year-old; the fracture of the ischio/pubis, tibia, and ulna were found in individuals ten, ten, and nine years old, respectively; and the parietal fracture was found in a 12-year-old. Sub-adult fractures account for only 0.05% of the total fractures from Windover. Lovejoy and Heiple (1981) determined that traumatic child abuse was not practiced in the Libben population from Ohio, due to the low number of sub-adult injuries. Since sub- adults make up only 11% of the total fracture population from Windover, yet account for approximately half of the total population, it is safe to assume that physical abuse was not characteristic of this population either. Larsen (1997) suggests that child abuse resulting in severe skeletal trauma is primarily a modern phenomenon and that its rise is due to the loss of social controls of violent behavior in recent urban settings. It is also apparent that the children of Windover, as well as adults, were not experiencing regular or catastrophic accidents, due to the low number of individuals exhibiting multiple fractures. This could have been a positive aspect of small group size characteristic of the Archaic. Within smaller groups, children would have had greater supervision, since there would be tighter group cohesion and personal accountability. The age group with the highest fracture rate was the 41-50 year age group, which accounted for over 25% of the total fractures. This could be a result of the overall population age profile, but is more likely a consequence of the fracture data, since four of the individuals in this age group exhibit multiple fractures.

46 Fractures per Age Group

Number of Fractures 2

0 0 to 10 11 to 20 21 to 30 31 to 40 41 to 50 51 to 60 60+

Figure 4.7 Fractures per Age Group

Lovejoy and Heiple’s (1981) work on the Late Woodland population from Libben, Ohio reported overall fracture rates highest in the 10-25 and 45+ age categories. Windover also displays high fracture rates in the 45+- age category but the rates of the younger age group are much lower. Because of the high rates of bone remodeling during growth, however, the assessment of fractures in sub-adults remains problematic. When examining the fracture data for males, we see that the element exhibiting the most fractures is the ribs, with the ulna second. Most fractures occurred on the right side of the body and exhibited a high degree of healing. The fracture data for females also shows the ribs having the highest rate of fracture, with ulna and vertebrae equal for second. The females exhibited a slightly higher degree of healing overall but the difference was negligible. Fracture data for indeterminate sex shows the ribs as having the highest rate of fractures, with vertebrae and ulna in second and third place, respectively. The following graph shows the results for the most common fractures found in each sex group.

47 Most Common Fxs per Sex

8 MALES 6 FEMALES INDETERMINATE 4

0 ULNA CRANIA RIBS VERTS

Figure 4.8 Most Common Fractures per Sex

Incidence of Multiple Fractures Among Individuals

The incidence of multiple fractures per individual shows only a slight difference between the sexes. There were eight males exhibiting multiple fractures, six females, and one of indeterminate sex/age (N=15). Considering the individual of indeterminate sex and the possibility of this being a female, the incidence of multiple fractures is about equal. Thus, neither sex had a greater propensity for serious or repetitive trauma that would produce multiple fractures. The average age for males exhibiting multiple fractures was 50 years; the average age for females was 56 years. The age ranges are provided in Figure 4.9.

48 Ages for Individuals with Multiple Fractures

80 70 60 50 40 AGE 30 20 10 0

MALE MALE MALE MALE MALE MALE MALE MALE FEMALEFEMALE FEMALE FEMALEFEMALEFEMALE

Figure 4.9 Ages for Individuals with Multiple Fractures

The individuals exhibiting multiple fractures are all adults. No sub-adults from Windover exhibited multiple fractures, thus reinforcing the idea that child abuse was not practiced within this population and that the children of Windover did not experience high rates of accidents producing skeletal injury. The incidence of multiple fractures could be directly related to the age of the individual, in that the older the individual, the more time he or she has to accumulate fractures. The number of fractures per individuals exhibiting multiple injuries is provided in Figure 4.10.

Multiple Fracture Categories

10 9 8 7 6 5 Number of Individuals 4 3 2 1 0 2344+ Number of Fractures

Figure 4.10 Multiple Fractures and Counts

49 Those individuals exhibiting three or more fractures are discussed below.

Individual 58 The remains from Burial 58 are those of a 56-year-old male, exhibiting seven fractured ribs (5 right, 2 indeterminate), a right radial fracture, a right ulnar fracture, and fractures of the transverse processes of three lumbar vertebrae. The rib, radial and ulnar fractures all exhibit the same degree of healing. Since all fractures occur on the right side of the body, these fractures could have been the result of a single incident and were probably due to an accidental injury, since assault wounds would probably show variation in side and location. The radial and ulnar fractures are on the distal aspect of the elements, which often results from the use of the forearm to ‘break’ a fall (Alvrus 1999). These injuries could have been the result of a fall following a climbing accident.

Individual 91 Burial 91 held the remains of a 46-year-old male exhibiting a depressed cranial fracture to the right parietal, a fracture to a single hand phalange, and two left rib fractures. The cranial fracture shows a lesser degree of healing than the rib and phalange fractures, probably occurring in a separate, later incident. These fractures could have been cumulative through life. The absence of any associated fractures to the face suggest that the cranial fracture was probably due to an accidental injury.

Individual 103 A 37-year-old female, the remains from Burial 103 exhibit a left ulnar fracture, the fracture of a right metacarpal, and a fractured phalange of the hand. All fractures are well healed. However, it is difficult to say whether these fractures were the result of a single incident, since there is no clear pattern of injuries. The ulnar fracture was probably accidental in nature due to the absence of associated head or facial fractures. The fractures to the metacarpal and phalange could have occurred together as a crush injury to the hand.

50 Individual 104 The remains from Burial 104 exhibit the most numerous fractures. A 56-year-old female, she exhibits bilateral ulnar fractures occurring on the medial aspect of both shafts, fractures to a right and left rib, and a fracture to a hand phalange. The ulnar fractures exhibit the same degree of healing and may have occurred during a single event. The rib fractures also show the same degree of healing, yet exhibit a greater degree of healing than the ulnar fractures. This could be due to the ability of ribs to heal more quickly than long bones. The fractures to the ulnae could have occurred as the result of a fall onto the forearms, especially if she was carrying a load in her arms at the time of injury.

Individual 154 The remains from Burial 154, a 47-year-old male, exhibit a left ulnar fracture, a fracture to the right orbital area of the cranium, and two compression fractures of the cervical vertebrae. The ulna is well healed but the orbital fracture still shows callus development, indicating it probably occurred at a later time than the ulnar fracture. The compression and orbital fractures could have been the result of an assault. However, if the individual had been assaulted, thus producing compression fractures of the vertebrae, he probably would have sustained cranial fractures in the process. These compression fractures could have occurred over time, as the result of carrying loads on the head.

Individual 158 Burial 158 held the remains of a 45-year-old male, also exhibiting bilateral ulnar fractures and a fracture to the left radius. All elements exhibit the same degree of healing and may have occurred at the same time. These could have been defensive injuries, perhaps warding off blows from an assailant or could merely have been the result of a forward fall. If the arms were full at the time of the fall, the forearms would have been in a position to fracture following contact with uneven ground of perhaps the side of a canoe.

Those individuals exhibiting three or more fractures fell within the ages of 37 and 56 years of age. As stated above, some of these fractures may have been the result of single events in which the individual sustained multiple injuries, perhaps from a fall or

51 from interpersonal conflict. However, the injury patterns of only one individual, that of Individual 154, exhibit the combination of injuries strongly indicative of interpersonal violence – the combination of cranial and post-cranial fractures. Since the injuries show varying degrees of healing, they were probably the result of separate incidents. This individual for some reason could have been more prone to accidents or could have simply provoked aggressive behavior in others around him, leading to assault. The people of Windover sustained a variety of fractures. However, no obvious patterns emerged that would indicate there were regular occurrences of interpersonal violence, child abuse, or abusive treatment to either sex. The next section will compare the fracture rates of Windover to other populations, both contemporary and later.

Fracture Assessment Through Time

Bone breaks or fractures provide a window to events in the life of an individual (Rothschild and Martin 1993). Since the inception of paleopathology, researchers have studied the occurrence of traumatic injury in the archaeological record. Trauma (especially fractures) is one of the most common pathological conditions seen in human skeletal remains, along with the dental and joint diseases, and it appears regularly in the paleopathological literature (Roberts and Manchester 1995). The incidence of injury in the form of skeletal fractures reaches far back into the history of man. Wells (1964) feels that skeletal injuries from violent blows are recognizable as early as the Paleolithic, and Dastugue and Gervais (1992) interpret the pathology among the australopithecines, Pithecanthropus, as well as Cro-Magnon remains as reflecting battles of extermination (Aufderheide and Rodriguez-Martin 1998). Traumatic injuries are common in late archaic Homo sapiens as virtually every relatively complete adult Neanderthal skeleton older than 25 to 30 years displays some type of injury (Larsen 2000). Trinkaus and Zimmerman (1982), in their study of Neanderthal skeletal remains from Shanidar 1 and 5, describe fractures of the upper extremities, crushing fractures of the orbits, and other forms of cranial trauma, all of which showed evidence of healing at the time of death. The Shanidar cranial injuries are

52 part of an overall pattern of head and neck injuries in European and western Asian late archaic Homo sapiens (Berger and Trinkaus 1995). Anderson (2002) reported on the first evidence of a fracture to the tibial condyle in British archaeology when he examined the remains from the Mill Farm Quarry in Buckinghamshire in 1998-1999. Alvrus (1999), in her study on Nubians of Semna South, Sudanese Nubia, reported that 21% of the adults exhibited at least one healed fracture, many of which appeared to indicate interpersonal violence in the form of facial and cranial injuries. The description and interpretation of fractures within the archaeological record spans most time periods and almost all geographic areas.

The Archaic

The Archaic Period, which generally began around 8-9,000 years ago in the New World and ended about 7,000 years later, is used to describe cultures that derived their subsistence exclusively from hunting and collecting, yet existed under relatively modern forested conditions (Bogucki 1999). Generally termed “broad-spectrum” foraging adaptations, the people of the Archaic subsisted on locally available food sources, migrating seasonally and exploiting various ecological niches. Milanich (1994:75) describes the Archaic as follows: The early Archaic peoples at Windover and elsewhere in Florida had a material culture that allowed them to sustain their way of life, but by our standards it could not have been an easy one. Water was in shorter supply than at present, and groups had to move between water sources to find game. The early Archaic people had to hunt to collect everything they ate and gather all of the raw materials they needed to make clothing, tools, and fabrics. They had to carry many of their personal possessions with them as they moved to take advantage of game, water, and other resources. Survival was not assured. The paleodietary analysis of Windover, based on carbon and nitrogen bone-collagen values and archaeobotanical information, is consistent with a subsistence strategy that utilized river-dwelling fauna and a range of terrestrial flora, such as grapes and prickly

53 pear (Tuross et al. 1994). The plants associated with the burials at Windover, such as bottle gourd and hickory nut, typically bear fruit during the latter half of the year, indicating seasonal use of the area for the interment of the dead, as does Newsom’s analysis of gut residue (Doran 2002). Pollen studies of the early to middle Holocene in Florida (ca. 10,000-5,000 B.P.) project dry, oak woodland over much of the peninsula (Tuross et al. 1994). The timing of fruit ripening and growth-ring production from archaeobotanical samples associated with the Windover burials appear to indicate that site use and mortuary activities took place during the latter half of the year (Newsom 2002). The people from Windover were traveling unknown distances (since living sites associated with the mortuary pond have yet to be discovered), and this traveling could have placed them at risk for falls while traveling through heavy vegetation, dense undergrowth, and moving along the shores of lakes and streams. Other minor accidents associated with the transporting of food and personal possessions of Archaic people would have also occurred. Some of the fractures seen in this population were likely the result of population movement and subsistence activity. Franz (1989) examined the fracture frequencies in nine Archaic skeletal populations from the Southeast, in order to examine fracture frequency changes through time. These sites and their associated sample sizes are provided in Table 4.1. Table 4.1 Archaic Sites (from Franz 1989:22, Table 2) Site Sample Size Bellfonte, AL 4 Daw’s Island, SC 6 Flint River, AL 97 Indian Knoll, KY 409 Little Bear Creek, AL 45 Modoc Rock Shelter, IL 26 Perry, AL 354 Robinson, TN 39 Windover, FL 97*

54 *Although Franz only utilized 97 individuals from the Windover population, the total number of individuals from Windover is less than 10% of total Archaic populations surveyed. Its impact on the total fracture distribution is insignificant.

Table 4.2 shows the comparisons of fracture frequencies from these populations to those obtained during the current research from Windover.

Table 4.2 Fracture Frequency Comparisons of Archaic Populations (from Franz 1989)

ELEMENT ARCHAIC FX WINDOVER FX WINDOVER FREQUENCY FREQUENCY VS. ARCHAIC (%) (%) Humerus 1.00 0.44 < Radius 1.70 1.44 < Ulna 2.10 6.60 > Clavicle 0.60 0.92 > Femur 0.50 0.84 > Tibia 0.60 0.45 < Fibula 0.80 0.95 > Crania 3.20 4.90 > TOTAL 1.20 1.69 > FREQUENCIES

The fracture frequencies of the Windover population are comparable to other Archaic populations, however some variation exists. Fracture frequencies were slightly lower among humeri, radii, and tibia. Frequencies were slightly higher among clavicles, femur, and fibula, with frequencies considerably higher among ulna and crania. The overall fracture frequency was comparable, with Windover exhibiting a slightly higher overall frequency compared to the total Archaic populations sampled. Although it does not appear that the people of Windover were experiencing high levels of aggressive

55 behavior leading to injury, they could have merely had greater potential for accidents than other Archaic populations. The two Archaic sites producing large numbers of individuals for study (Indian Knoll, KY and Perry, AL) are both located further inland than Windover. Florida, with its numerous water sources, could have made travel more difficult for people of the Archaic. Walking over uneven embankments, stepping in and out of canoes, and the transportation of personal goods over rivers and lakes could have raised the potential for accident among the people of Windover, making life in Florida’s Archaic slightly more hazardous than the Archaic period in other parts of the southeast. Franz’s (1989) survey of Archaic cranial fractures in males produced a 5.1% fracture frequency. Since all the cranial fractures from Windover occurred in males, these fracture frequencies are extremely comparable. Franz found only a 1.0% cranial fracture frequency among Archaic females, compared to Windover’s zero occurrence. Ulnar fracture frequencies among the Archaic populations sampled in Franz’ data showed little discrepancy between the sexes, with a 2.2% and 1.9% frequency in males and females, respectively. Windover had a 3.5% and 2.2% fracture frequency for males and females, respectively (with 0.88% for indeterminate sex). Thus, when calculated by sex, the cranial and ulnar fracture frequencies from Windover are comparable to those of known Archaic populations.

Temporal Comparisons

Temporal comparisons reveal important trends in accidental injury patterns in recent humans (Larsen 1997). The cultural developments of the late Archaic, such as polished stone artifacts, earthen mounds, and trade networks, increased as populations became larger and more sedentary (Bense 1994). These cultural changes were accompanied by changes in harvesting of local wild plant species eventually leading to cultivation, long-term settlements, and an increase in social complexity seen in the later cultural traditions of the Woodland and Mississippian periods. Franz compared the fracture frequencies of the Archaic to those of the Woodland and Mississippian cultures to observe changes in fracture frequencies over time and with increasing social complexity. The sites and sample sizes are provided in Table 4.3.

56 Table 4.3 Woodland and Mississippian Samples (from Franz 1989:24-26 Tables 3,4)

Woodland Sample Size Mississippian Sample Size Caldwell Village, UT 8 Bluff Creek, AL 104 Clarksville, VA 35 Casa Grande, Mexico 350 LaSalle, OH 33 Crow Creek Island, AL 25 Libben, OH 590 Hall, AL 8 Oldroy, TN 48 Harris, AL 39 Tollifero, VA 21 Little Bear Creek, AL 30 Kane Mounds, IL 88 Kroger’s Island, AL 70 Perry, AL 237 Riley, AL 13 Sauty, AL 25 Sublet Ferry, AL 11 Toqua, TN 181

Table 4.4 compares the fracture frequencies of Windover with those of the Woodland and Mississippian sites examined in his research.

57 Table 4.4 Comparisons of Fracture Frequencies by Culture (from Franz 1989)

ELEMENT WINDOVER WOODLAND MISSISSIPPIAN FREQUENCIES FREQUENCIES FREQUENCIES Humerus 0.44 0.20 1.00 Radius 1.44 7.10 0.70 Ulna 6.60 3.90 1.50 Clavicle 0.92 7.00 0.70 Femur 0.84 2.50 0.60 Tibia 0.45 1.60 0.90 Fibula 0.95 4.70 0.70 Crania 4.90 2.40 3.10 TOTALS 1.69 3.40 1.10

Comparing the fracture frequencies of Windover to those of Woodland and Mississippian skeletal samples, the humeral, radial, clavicular, femoral, and fibular frequencies from Windover lie in between those of other temporal periods. Tibial frequencies were below those from other periods, while ulnar and cranial frequencies were higher in the Windover sample. Table 4.5 provides a breakdown in comparisons of elements from Windover and latter cultural groups.

58 Table 4.5 Comparisons of Windover Frequencies to Other Cultural Periods (from Franz 1989)

ELEMENT WINDOVER/WOODLAND WINDOVER/MISSISSIPPIAN Humerus > < Radius < > Ulna > > Clavicle < > Femur < > Tibia < < Fibula < > Crania > > TOTALS < >

Most frequencies were significantly higher in the Woodland samples than in either the Mississippian or Windover samples. Franz (1989) attributes these higher frequencies to the transitional disposition of the Woodland period, with populations shifting from the hunting and gathering lifestyle of the Archaic to that of the settled, agricultural lifestyle of the Mississippian. Windover exhibits generally lower frequencies than Woodland populations and generally higher frequencies than Mississippian populations. The lower frequencies could have been due to smaller group size, a more stable subsistence base with groups following traditional practices of seasonal migration, hunting and gathering, and the utilization of fresh-water foods. Smaller group size would mean less incidence of inter-group conflict, especially since there are typically stronger familial bonds among smaller groups. The transitional nature of the Woodland period could have provoked increases in levels of conflict. With the Woodland phase, long distance trade increased, which would have brought more groups into contact on a regular basis leading to increased opportunities for conflict. The sociopolitical organization of the Woodland was also more competitive, with unranked kin groups rising to power through the ambitions of self-made leaders (Bense 1994). This would have increased competition within groups, leading to higher levels of interpersonal violence. Larger

59 populations and shifting subsistence strategies from hunting/gathering to horticulture would have meant more competition for land and food, which could have led to greater conflict among people of this period, thus producing higher frequencies of traumatic injury. The higher fracture frequencies of Windover, in comparison to the Mississippian period, could be indicative of the level of population movement over area. The people of the Archaic traveled over much greater areas than the settled agricultural populations of the Mississippian period. Greater travel distances would mean greater opportunity for accidental injury, thus leading to higher fracture frequencies. The lower frequencies of the Mississippian period could also be due to more stable communities, as compared to the earlier Woodland groups. The centralized power of chiefdoms, characteristic of the Mississippian, would have provided more sociopolitical stability within communities. This rank structure could have provided greater control over levels of interpersonal conflict. Thus, the higher levels of traumatic injury associated with the transitional period of the Woodland could have been reduced through greater social controls found in the Mississippian. Subsistence strategies are the product of dynamic interactions between people and their environments (Reitz and Wing 1999). Much attention has been given to the relationship between the health of a population and their mode of subsistence. Through the examination of rates of skeletal pathologies such as porotic hyperostosis, osteoarthritis, dental caries, and nutritional stress markers, the overall health of a population can be correlated with their means of subsistence (Bridges 1991; Eisenberg 1991; Owsely 1992; Lambert 1993). General trends in population health can then be gauged over time as means of subsistence change. Overall, bioarchaeological studies indicate that violence and conflict are not random events, but are strongly influenced by extrinsic factors, such as resource depletion, increased population density, and competition for available resources (Larsen 1997; Walker 1989; Blakely and Mathews 1990; Milner et al. 1991). Thus, incidence of trauma in the archaeological record can be directly related to population size and intra- and inter-group violence. Because the people of the Archaic subsisted in small groups practicing hunting, gathering, and foraging, and because population density was minimal

60 in post-glacial North America, conflict was restricted to smaller scaled events compared to larger, more sedentary groups of latter periods. The examination of fracture types, patterns and frequencies of Windover indicate that most injuries occurred as the result of accidents instead of interpersonal conflict.

Evidence of Care in the Archaeological Record

Injuries to, and fractures of, individual parts of the body have obviously existed as long as human life itself (Zivanovic 1982). Prior to the advent of modern medicine, the treatment of skeletal fractures and associated pathologies would have proven a challenge for past populations but various forms of treatment are visible in the archaeological record. Lacking direct archaeological evidence of treatment methods, we can infer the care of injured individuals in the past. The gross skeletal pathologies of the Neanderthal from La Chapelle-aux-Saints indicate that this individual possessed disabilities in life and would have had to rely on those around him for food and care. Degenerative joint disease of the vertebrae and left hip would have made hunting difficult and the degree of involvement of these elements indicates this individual survived for some time with these disabilities. Direct archaeological evidence also exists. The Egyptians used splints of bark held in place with linen bandages, which were found on the unhealed limbs of mummies dated to 5000 BC (Roberts and Manchester 1995). Evidence for care dating to 1700 BC was provided by Alvrus (1999), who examined healed fractures among the Nubians of Sudan. The fractured bones of this population displayed little severe angulation or distortion, no associated osteomyelitis, no apparent pseudoarthroses, and no severe disability, suggesting that these individuals had some knowledge of the treatment of fractures. Anderson (2002) reported on the adult remains from a Bronze Age barrow, which displayed a healed fracture of the tibial condyle that would have required attentive care. Although this injury would have produced gait difficulties making activities such as hunting, farming, and dwelling construction difficult, his high status in the community was evident by burial location and associated grave goods.

61 Fracture treatment in the past has utilized such natural products as bark, reeds, and bamboo for use as splints and the well healed and well-aligned fractures of Windover provide evidence that people of the Archaic had some knowledge of reduction and immobilization of fractures. In fact, the people of Windover appear to have practiced a consistent level of care of the disabled, as evidenced in the long-term care provided to a sub-adult exhibiting a severe neural tube defect in the form of spina bifida. This individual displayed several associated skeletal defects in the form of periosteal infection, enlarged nutrient foramina possibly indicating long-term infectious episodes, and disuse atrophy of the long bones and clavicles (Dickel and Doran 1988). Disabilities associated with fractures also existed among the people of Windover. The grossly misaligned femur fracture of a 48-year-old female (Individual 72) would have resulted in a severe limp, making travel and the gathering of food difficult. She would have had to rely on others in the community for assistance, and the advanced degree of healing indicates she survived for many years following injury.

Conclusion

The first goal of this research was to identify and evaluate the skeletal fractures from the Windover population. Through the examination of each element, an inventory was created and the location of each fracture recorded. The inventory enabled the calculation of fracture frequencies, so that distribution, location, and frequency could be assessed. By calculating the number of individuals exhibiting fractures and comparing this to the working number of individuals within the collection (168), a generalized frequency was produced which would facilitate additional comparisons among populations. The calculation of fracture rates and frequencies revealed the nature of traumatic injury among Archaic people of Florida’s east coast. The second goal of this research was to infer aspects of life in the Archaic through fracture patterns. The general lifestyle conditions in past societies are revealed by the assessment of skeletal injuries in archaeological human remains (Larsen1997). The Windover population is a homogeneous collection of individuals representative of all age groups and both sexes that provide the basis for a population-wide evaluation of fracture

62 frequencies throughout life and across gender lines. One of the most significant aspects of fracture frequencies from Windover is the low incidence of injuries associated with conflict. Most of the fractures from Windover appear to be more readily interpretable as the result of accidental injury, since injury patterns associated with interpersonal violence are found in only two individuals (Individual 154 and 158). Although there are five depressed cranial fractures among males from Windover, only three are associated with other injuries, representing a low occurrence of possible intentional injury. Cranial fractures were absent in females. Multiple injuries exhibiting various degrees of healing, which are typically representative of child abuse, were also absent. The overall analysis of fracture patterns from Windover represents a population that did not engage in intra- or inter-population conflict on a regular basis and had relatively average accident potentials in adults and low accident potentials in children. Fracture frequencies display a slightly higher incidence in females over males (16/13). However, the difference is not statistically significant and, combined with the lack of skeletal evidence indicative of assault, suggests an absence of domestic abuse and an accident potential that is homogeneous across the sexes. An extremely low fracture frequency in children (0.05% of total fractures) indicates the children of Windover did not suffer from physical abuse and their accident potential was relatively low. The few sub-adult fractures are well aligned and well healed. Ribs are the most common element fractured and this is consistent across the sexes. In males, ulnar fractures are next in frequency followed by cranial fractures. In females, ulnar and vertebral fractures are tied for second. Vertebral and ulnar fractures were second and third in frequency among those of indeterminate sex. Eight males exhibit multiple fractures compared to only six females and the average number of fractures is equal among adults and children. The degree of healing is approximately equal among males and females, with those of indeterminate sex exhibiting a slightly lower degree. Most of the fractures from Windover are well aligned, with only six of the total 90 fractures exhibiting misalignment. Overall fracture frequencies from Windover are slightly higher than those of other Archaic populations sampled. However, this difference is statistically insignificant and

63 Windover’s frequencies are comparable to populations from the same temporal period. Compared to other populations from later temporal periods, Windover’s frequencies fall between those of Woodland and Mississippian populations sampled. Nakai et al. (1999), observing the incidences of long bone fractures among the Yoshigo of Japan from 3400 BP, concluded that the low prevalence of fractures within this population could be attributed to two possibilities: 1) the fractures that did occur were eventually obliterated due to complete states of healing made possible by an advanced knowledge and ability to care for traumatic lesions; 2) that this low frequency reflected a non-stressful lifestyle. The people from Windover obviously had some knowledge of fracture treatment, since the majority of fractures are well healed and well aligned. Although no direct evidence of fracture treatment was found in association with burials, the low incidence of misalignment and deformity indicates those who sustained fractures were treated and care for. Population studies of trauma frequency and patterning are essential for addressing questions about human adaptation to physical and social environments (Alvrus 1999). The remains from Windover provide a glimpse into the lives of Florida’s Archaic people and can perhaps be regarded as an archetypal population from which further comparisons can be made. Exceptional preservation and a broad population profile provide a rare glimpse into a 7,000-year-old population. The analysis of skeletal fractures from Windover indicates that the people from Florida’s eastern coast suffered from a variety of fractures resulting primarily from accidental injury. Fractures were treated with techniques that afforded alignment, immobilization, and healing. And individuals suffering from skeletal injuries were cared for until they were able to resume the challenging life of the Archaic.

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69 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Rachel Smith graduated with a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Anthropology from the University of Central Florida, and then completed a Masters in Public Administration from Troy State University. After retiring from Orlando Fire Department following a 14 -year career as a Firefighter/Paramedic, she came to Florida State University to pursue a career in Physical Anthropology, specializing in human skeletal analysis with an emphasis in paleopathology. This thesis will be incorporated into a doctoral dissertation that will consist of a full paleopathological survey of the Windover Collection.