Priests, Beauticians, and Performance of Islamic Piety in a Non-Gendered Economy in South Sulawesi, Indonesia
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Beautiful Lives: Priests, Beauticians, and Performance of Islamic Piety in a Non-Gendered Economy in South Sulawesi, Indonesia By: Umar Umar A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in South and Southeast Asian Studies and the Designated Emphasis in Critical Theory in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Professor Sylvia Tiwon, Chair Professor Jeffrey Hadler Professor Charles Hirschkind Summer 2016 Abstract Beautiful Lives: Priests, Beauticians, and Performance of Islamic Piety in a Non-Gendered Economy in South Sulawesi, Indonesia by Umar Umar Doctor of Philosophy in South and Southeast Asian Studies and Designated Emphasis in Critical Theory University of California, Berkeley Professor Sylvia Tiwon, Chair The dissertation unravels how the indigenous transgender identity of the bissu experiences reconfigurations within the Indonesian modern culture dominated by Islamic heterosexual norm. Based on the data collected from the field research in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, archival research in the Netherlands, and media research, the dissertation traces the inflections of bissu identity at the intersection between local traditions and the emergent modern spectator community, artistic experimentation, global culture industry, and homosexual movement in the aftermath of Suharto’s fall in 1998. Within this multicultural network, the indigenous identity of the bissu constitutes a paradox in which the convergence between the bissu traditional practices and modern artistic practices transcends the bissu’s distinct transgender position from its local reality and engenders a discursive and social space that allows the bissu to overcome the constraint of Islamic heterosexual norm and to provide a cultural and historical register for the urban transgender groups to claim their local cultural root. The location of the bissu indigeneity and transgender identity lies within the dynamic interactions among the bissu, the state, and culture industry, in which moral sentiments and aesthetic sensibility emerge in their distinct forms. The research poses a critique against the failure of the mainstream narratives to address the emerging moral space the bissu inhabit. The space, which I call a spiritual aesthetic space, contains disparate religious and cultural elements as the bissu unite three strands of identity: transgender, Islamic, and indigenous. For my father, Thamrin Mardhan Table of contents Abstract 1 Acknowledgement vi Chapter One: Introduction A. Bissu: Body and Gender as Tradition 1 B. Polemics on Adat 6 C. The Textual and Living Bissu 12 Chapter Two: Tradition of the Living and the Dead A. Spirit of Tradition 16 B. Seductive Tradition 17 C. From Heart onto Paper 19 D. Speak Dutch to Us: Race and Class in the East Indies 23 Chapter Three Hermaphrodite Priests of the Bugis A. Hermaphrodite in the World 29 B. Hermaphrodite: Dispossessed Body in South and Southeast Asia 32 C. Bissu’s Life on Screen and Stage 37 D. The Last Bissu: Sacred Transvestites of I La Galigo 38 E. Taboo: The Third Sex 39 F. Queer Culture 40 G. I La Galigo 42 H. Dispossessed Body as Culture 45 I. Domination of Sign 47 Chapter Four: Behind the Scene: the Bissu’s Struggle to Survive A. Bissu and Adat 52 B. Bissu: a Community? 54 C. Priest of Crisis 55 D. Priest of as You Wish 56 Chapter 5: Different Fields, Different Stories A. Bissu and Transgender Identity 59 B. Bissu Nika 1. Festival of Maritime Culture in Makassar 63 2. Temmu Taung in Labakkang 64 3. Year End Ritual in Punranga 70 4. Nika and Bissu Rusda 75 5. Nika and Daeng Patta 79 6. Nika and Haji Yusuf 82 7. Mangolo Salo (River Ritual) in Pangkajene 84 8. Indo Botting in Segeri 86 9. Healing Ritual in Soppeng 88 10. Nika and Bissu Ina 92 11. Wedding Ceremony in Padang Lampe 97 C. Bissu Ciang 102 D. Bissu Mina 1. Songka Bala 108 2. Ritual of Three Nights in Bungoro 112 E. Bissu Japa 119 F. Mappalili: the Joy of Water 122 Chapter Six: Conclusion. Paradox Life 131 Bibliography 134 List of Figures Fig. 1. Nika is working in their salon 65 Fig. 2. Nika and their to boto 66 Fig. 3. Mak Rusda at the year-end ritual (temmu taung) 68 Fig. 4. Mak Rusda’s house 75 Fig. 5. The high school girls are rehearsing before their performance of lalosu-arumpigi dance in the festival of Cap Gomeh 77 Fig. 6. Mak Rusda, the third from left, wearing a black shirt and purple flower sarong is performing a ritual in a Chinese temple during the Chinese New Year Festival (Cap Gomeh) 78 Fig. 7. Nika is performing a healing ritual in the attic of the regalia house in Soppeng 91 Fig. 8. Mak Ina and their altar. Photo by the author 96 Fig. 9. Nika has just completed the bride’s makeup 99 Fig. 10. Pirda is making up the bridegroom 100 Fig. 11. The Bride is carried by her uncle 101 Fig. 12. Ciang in Rhoda Grauer’s The Last bissu: Sacred Transvestites of I La Galigo 102 Fig. 13. Ciang in their salon 103 Fig. 14. Ciang’s salon 104 Fig. 15. Mina’s house and salon 109 Fig. 16. Bissu Mina on the right, wearing white shirt, praying with the imam during the tola’bala ritual in their house 111 Fig. 17. Wa Nadir, on the left, wearing a black shirt and sarong 114 Fig. 18 Wa Mina under the royal canopy is watching the tellumpenni ritual preparation 116 Fig. 19. Mina (on the right), Mawar (in the middle) and Wati (on the left) are receiving alms before performing ma’giri 117 Fig. 20. Bissu Japa is explaining the spirit in the altar 121 Fig. 21. The sacred tree of labu lalle in the Segeri Market parking lot 124 Fig. 22. The feast for mappalili is ready 126 Fig. 23. Mappalili convoy 128 Fig. 24. The sacred plough is touching the ground, placed next to the Puang Longki grave 129 Acknowledgment The dissertation will not take its full shape without the careful guidance from my dissertation committee: Professor Sylvia Tiwon (chair), Professor Jeffrey Hadler, and Professor Charles Hirschkind. Professor Sylvia Tiwon’s attention and motivation is beyond what I expect. She shows me what it means to treat a person with compassion and dignity. She always reminds me to give voices to the people I write. This makes my writing critical as many voices try to occupy the white blank pages. I learn from Professor Jeffrey Hadler how to engage closely with the data, how to represent them accurately, and how they shape the theoretical trajectory I attempt to pursue, which is often unpredictable. Professor Charles Hirschkind inspires me to take into account senses and affect, and how they orient and limit social interactions. This leads me to approach the bissu differently, and I become more sensitive to the way they experience my presence. I am truly honored to receive the assistance of Professor Judith Butler and Professor Martin Jay. I feel lucky to get admitted at the Designated Emphasis in Critical Theory founded by Professor Judith Butler and Professor Martin Jay. With the training in the DE in Critical Theory, I learn how scholars employ critiques and take the side of the oppressed. Objectivity does not mean without action. Outside of the academic circle, there are some people involve who make the completion of my PhD become possible. Lee Amazona, Elodie Steffen, Cephas John, Genia Freeman, Rebecca Sablo, Vanina Granell , Rita Lindahl-Lynch, and Susan Miller. I am greatly indebted to Sekar Cortes for her generosity, and the best friends of mine whom I cannot mention one by one on this piece of paper, but keep in my heart for the joy and enthusiasm they bring in my life. I will never forget the bissu in Pangkep who welcomed me as if I was their lost son who had just returned home. I would like to express my special thanks for Eka Kahar, Rustam, Daeng Tappa, Mannang, Tapa’ja, Mak Temmi, Mak Oja, Dr. Halilintar Lathief, Andi Ummu Tunru, and Basri Baharuddin Sila for their hospitality, invaluable information and help during my field research in South Sulawesi. The last but not least, I dedicate this dissertation to my father, Thamrin Mardhan, who passed away in Ramadhan 2014. He once said, "let this house rotten and fall to the ground. I don't care, as long as you, all my kids, are well educated!" The old house still stands strong, but my father does not live longer to see the completion of my PhD. I miss the chance to thank him and to show him that I keep my promise. No words I could say to express how grateful I am to have the beautiful women and sons in my life. My mother, Siti Asnam, whose love makes me ageless. My wife who has shown me her great patience and perseverance. The joy and celebration for the PhD completion is hers. My sons: Fahri (who remains alive in my heart), Nevan, and Ayman who fill my life with hope. Chapter One Introduction A. Bissu: Body and Gender as Tradition Followed the so-called Asian monetary crisis at the end of 1997 is the downfall of Suharto's New Order in 1998. The euphoria of freedom and the hope for a clean government among Indonesian citizens overshadowed the global panic over the economic crisis. In this critical moment, we witness the rise of Islamic political parties and the new visibility of Islamic piety, capturing the spirit of the new era: Reformation Era. On the other side, those who are marginalized during the New Order, find a political space to articulate their existence.