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RISK ASSESSMENT FOR – European (Oryctolagus cuniculus) (Linnaeus, 1758) Class - Mammalia, – , - (Fischer, 1817), - Oryctolagus (Lilljeborg, 1873); (Wilson and Reeder 1993, ITIS Integrated Taxonomic Information System 2007, Catalogue of Life 2008) Score Sheet

SPECIES: (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Description – In wild populations, head and body length 350-450 mm, tail length 40-70 mm, weight 1.35-2.25 kg. The sexes are similar in size and appearance. Colour varies from sandy yellow to Other common names include: Old World Rabbit, Domestic grey, but is generally a mixture of black and light brown hairs. The long ears are the same colour as the Rabbit. upper parts, the nape buff-coloured and collar dark. The white tail below and brownish-black above; the underparts and inner surface of the legs are also white. The hind legs are relatively long, the feet are : well furred beneath and have large straight claws (Corbet and Harris 1991, Williams et al 1995, Nowak O. c. algirus 1999, King 2005). O. c. brachyotus Many of the domesticated forms bear little resemblance to the original wild stock. Some are small, but those bred for meat production may weigh as much as 7.25 kg. Several different kinds of have been O. c. cnossius developed, some being long and unlike that of wild populations. Colour ranges from white to black, and O. c. cuniculus in some breeds fur contains a mixture of colours (Nowak 1999). O. c. habetensis General information – It is thought that domestic breeds of the European Rabbit originated more than 1,000 ago. Many breeds have since been developed, such as the Belgian “”, the Angora, the O. c. huxleyi English, and the Japanese Harlequin. The American Rabbit Breeders Association recognises at least (ITIS Integrated Taxonomic Information System 2007). 66 breeds and varieties. Many of these are used for laboratory experiments involving medicine, genetics, and nutrition (Nowak 1999). The appeared in Britain during 1953 and in 1954, having been isolated from Rabbit (Sylvilagus brasiliensis) of South America in which it causes a mild, non-lethal disease. Myxomotosis is a is highly specific disease and only a single, unconfirmed infection of a (Lepus europaeus) reported. The virus spread throughout the country during the next two years, causing greater than 99% mortality. Virulence of disease has since declined as a result of increased transmissibility of weaker strains, and genetic resistance in rabbit populations is confirmed and increasing (Corbet and Harris 1991). Longevity – Maximum longevity uncertain. It has been estimated that both wild and captive European rarely live more than 9 years. A rabbit in Australia called “Flopsy” reportedly lived 18.8 years in captivity after being caught in the wild, but this record cannot be confirmed. Record longevity in zoos and parks is only 7.9 years (HAGR Human Ageing Genomic Resources 2006). Status – 1. Red List Category – Lower Risk Least Concern (LR/lc) Rationale: A very widespread species that has been introduced to nearly all continents worldwide (Lagomorph Specialist Group 1996). Due to population decline, has been suggested that Rabbit populations in be listed as ‘Vulnerable’ (Virgós et al 2007). 2. CITES listed Protection Status – Not listed (CITES 2007). DATE OF ASSESSMENT: 27/08/2008 The Risk Assessment Model Bird and Model used (Bomford 2008) using PC Models for assessing the risk that exotic vertebrates could establish in Australia have been developed CLIMATE (Brown et al 2006, Bureau of Rural Sciences 2006) for , birds (Bomford 2003, 2006, 2008), reptiles and amphibians (Bomford et al 2005, Bomford 2006, 2008). Developed by Dr Mary Bomford of the Bureau of Rural Sciences (BRS), the

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 1 model uses criteria that have been demonstrated to have significant correlation between a risk factor and the establishment of populations of exotic species and the pest potential of those species that do establish. For example, a risk factor for establishment is similarity in climate (temperature and rainfall) within the species’ distribution overseas and Australia. For pest potential, the species’ overseas pest status is a risk factor. The model was originally published in ‘Risk Assessment for the Import and Keeping of Exotic Vertebrates in Australia’ (Bomford 2003) available online http://www.daff.gov.au/brs/land/feral-animals/management/risk . This model used the Apple Mac application CLIMATE (Pheloung 1996) for climate matching. The risk assessment model was revised and recalibrated ‘Risk Assessment for the Establishment of Exotic Vertebrates in Australia: Recalibrated and Refinement of Models’(Bomford 2006) and the climate application changed to PC CLIMATE software (Bureau of Rural Sciences 2006), available online at http://affashop.gov.au/product.asp?prodid=13506. The most recent publication (Bomford 2008) includes updated instructions for using the exotic vertebrate risk assessment models and an additional model for freshwater fish. A bird and mammal model for New has also been included. Which models are being used for the assessments: Birds and mammals have been assessed using the Australian Bird and Mammal Model (Bomford 2008), pp 16-28, including both versions of stage B, models 1 (4 factors) and 2 (7 factors). All reptiles and amphibians were assessed using three models; the Australian Bird and Mammal Model (Bomford 2008), including Model A, using 3 factors from stage B (pp 54-55), and Model B, using 7 factors from stage B (pp 20), and the Australian Reptile and Amphibian Model (Bomford 2008), p 51-53. The rational for using additional models for reptiles and amphibians is to compare establishment risk ranks of the three models for a precautionary approach. If the models produce different outcomes for the establishment potential of any reptile or amphibian, the highest ranked outcome should be used (Bomford 2008). Climate Matching Using PC CLIMATE Sixteen climate parameters (variables) of temperature and rainfall are used to estimate the extent of similarity between data from meteorological stations located in the species’ world distribution and in Australia. Worldwide, data (source; worlddata_all.txt CLIMATE database) from approximately 8000 locations are available for analysis. The number of locations used in an analysis will vary according to the size of the species’ distribution. Data from approximately 762 Australian locations is used for analysis. To represent the climate match visually, the map of Australia has been divided into 2875 grid squares, each measured in 0.5 degrees in both longitude and latitude. CLIMATE calculates a match for each Australian grid by comparing it with all of the meteorological stations within the species’ distribution (excluding any populations in Australia) and allocating a score ranging from ten for the highest level match to zero for the poorest match. These levels of climate match are used in the risk assessment for questions B1 (scores are summed to give a cumulative score), C6, and C8. For a grid square on the Australian map to score highly, it must match closely all 16 climatic variables of at least one meteorological station in the species’ distribution for each level of climate match. [The score for each grid is based on the minimum Euclidian distance in the 16- dimensional variable space between it and all stations in the species’ distribution. Each variable is normalized by dividing it by its worldwide standard deviation.] LITERATURE SEARCH AND DATE: NCBI, CAB Direct, MEDLINE, Science Direct, Web of Knowledge (Zoological Records, Biological Abstracts), SCIRUS, Google Search and Google Scholar 07/11/2007

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 2 FACTOR SCORE

STAGE A: RISKS POSED BY CAPTIVE OR RELEASED INDIVIDUALS A1. Risk to people from individual escapees (0–2) 0 posing a low risk of harm to people, (will not make an unprovoked attack causing injury requiring medical attention, and which, even if cornered or handled, are unlikely to cause injury requiring Assess the risk that individuals of the species could harm people. (NB, this question only relates to aggressive behaviour shown by escaped or released individual animals. hospitalisation). Question C11 addresses the risk of harm from aggressive behaviour if the species establishes a wild population). Small herbivorous mammal (Nowak 1999). Aggressive behaviour, size, plus the possession of organs capable of inflicting harm, such as sharp teeth, claws, spines, a sharp bill, or toxin-delivering apparatus may May be capable of causing serious bites. One report of a toddler loosing part of his finger when the enable individual animals to harm people. Any known history of the species attacking, boy’s right index finger was bitten off past the fingernail by the family’s rabbit (Lopez 2004), injuring or killing people should also be taken into account. Assume the individual is not unknown if intentional bite, toddler may have been feeding the pet therefore, scored as low risk animal. protecting nest or young. Choose one: A2. Risk to public safety from individual captive animals (0–2) 0 Nil or low risk (highly unlikely or not possible).

Assess the risk that irresponsible use of products obtained from captive individuals of the species (such as toxins) pose a public safety risk (excluding the safety of anyone entering the animals’ cage/enclosure or otherwise coming within reach of the captive animals)

STAGE A. PUBLIC SAFETY RISK SCORE 0

SUM A1 TO A2 (0–4)

STAGE B: PROBABILITY ESCAPED OR RELEASED INDIVIDUALS WILL ESTABLISH FREE-LIVING POPULATION

Model 1: Four-factor model for birds and mammals (BOMFORD 2008) B1. Degree of climate match between species overseas range and 3 Climate Match Score = 767 Moderate climate match with Australia [See above information on climate Australia (1–6) matching.] Climate data from 1258 locations (see species worldwide distribution map) were used to calculate the CMS; natural distribution Iberia; introduced populations occur worldwide (Long 2003) (see B2 and B3 for details). B2. Exotic population established overseas (0–4) 4 Exotic population established on an island larger than 50 000 km2 or anywhere on a continent [Also see B3 for information regarding the species distribution.] During early world explorations, rabbits were released on uninhabited islands as a source of food for sailing ship crews. This process led to the establishment of rabbits on many oceanic islands in remote parts of the world (Nowak 1999, Long 2003). Eight hundred islands or island groups on which rabbits have been liberated are listed in (Flux and Fullagar 1992), listed information includes the island name, location, area, and date of introduction. : – in recent times, rabbits have been introduced to the Chafarinas islands and Habibas Island off the Algerian coast, Conigliera, Jeziret Jalita, Kerkenna off Tunisia, and Alboran between and Spain. Feral rabbits are found in Lower Egypt. Rabbits are believed to have been introduced into Uganda in 1881, and an established colony was found there in 1925 (Long 2003). South Africa – rabbits were not released on mainland South Africa, but have been introduced to 13 offshore islands, (as early as 1656, on Robben Island), they have since become extinct on at least six of these islands (de Vos et al 1956, Lever 1985, Long 2003).

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 3 Islands: Ascension Island – introduced before 1834, rabbits were still present in small numbers in the 1980’s (Long 2003). – appears to be no reference to any introductions, and it has been suggested that rabbits may be indigenous to the Azores. All the islands in the group have rabbits except Covo, and have been present on Sao Miguel and Terceira since at least 1912 (Long 2003). Canary Islands – rabbits were introduced to these islands during the 15th century, but possibly before as early as the 13th or 14th century. They are or were present on all of the seven main islands of the archipelago (Long 2003, Nogales et al 2006). Cape Verde Islands – rabbits were apparently introduced after 1450 and became abundant on some islands, but have since disappeared, no rabbits were present in the 1990s (Long 2003). archipelago – rabbits appear to have been an early introduction to the Madeira group, first introduced to Porto Santo in 1418 where they became feral. They were present on Madeira and Chao between 1522 and 1591. Today, rabbits occur on Bugio, Chao, Deserta Grande, Madeira and Porto Santo (Armstrong 1982, Long 2003). South Georgia (UK-dependent ) – rabbits were introduced to South Georgia in 1872, but failed to become established at this time or at later dates. Some may also have been introduced around 1906, but these did not survive. However, a small population survived on Jason Island, off Cumberland Bay, in 1930, but there have been no rabbits on this island since 1953 (Long 2003). St Helena – rabbits were introduced, probably by early Portuguese settlers, and were still present there in the 1980’s (Long 2003). Tristan da Cunha– rabbits were presumably introduced to the island by early seafarers as a source of food. Rabbits occurred on the island in 1829, but appeared to have become nearly extinct by 1873 (Long 2003). Eurasia: The European rabbit has a much wider distribution in central and western now than in Roman times (de Vos et al 1956). Austria – rabbits were present in Burgenland in the (Long 2003). (Kriti; ) – rabbits have been present since at least 1912. They were introduced to two small islands off Crete – Dhia and Theodore, and were probably a domestic variety released at an early date. these animals differed so markedly from those established on the European mainland that a separate subspecies (knossius) was described. On Mikronisi rabbits from domestic stock were released in the late 1940s and have maintained their domestic characteristics. East of Crete, rabbits have been introduced to the island of Elasa (Long 2003). Croatia – rabbits have been introduced to the Croatian Adriatic Sea islands of Boban, Brioni (Islands), Cre, Iz, Kornat, Lavdara, Levinaka, Losing, Mokan, Pag, and Rab (Long 2003). – rabbits were released in several places in the early 1900s, but did not significantly increase in numbers. In 1920, rabbits from an isolated population that have been released in in about 1900 crossed the Danish border. On islands off the coast, rabbits are still present on , Fano, , Lollard, Aro, , and the South Fyn Islands of Bordelholme, Eskildso, Halmo and Vogterholm. They are now extinct on Halmo and . The introductions were recent (1975- 80), illegal releases. (de Vos et al 1956, Long 2003). – a number of islands in the off the coast of France have or have had European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 4 rabbits introduced, including Embiez, Frioul, Grande Rouveau, Jarre, Levant, Maire, Plane, Pourquerolles, Port-Cros, Sainte, Marguerite, Lerins, Sanguinaires, Verte and Bagaud. They failed to become established only on Frioul. (Long 2003). Germany – the first evidence of the arrival of the rabbit appears to be in 1149, and were probably captive animals. Towards the end of the 16th century the rabbit was established in the wild in Rhineland, Schlesien (Silesia), and at the beginning of the 17th century they were only absent from north-east Saxony. On islands off the coast, early introductions of rabbits occurred at in 1231, Helgoland in 1597 and in 1700. Rabbits are still present on Hildensee, Rugen, Usedom, Fohr, , , Nordeney and Nordstrand, but have become extinct on Baltrum, , and the islands of , Romo and Spierkeroog. On , between Juist and (East Friesians), rabbits were released in 1930 and some of their progeny remained until the 1960s, but have since become extinct there. They have presumably been present on Borkum since 1898. (Long 2003). Greece – rabbits were released on Makria and Pachia islands around 1914. The majority of the Aegean islands (Chios or Khios, Delos, Makria, Pachia) have been colonised with rabbits. Apart from an early doubtful record of rabbits on Chios in 1881, they appear to have been more recent introductions. (Long 2003). Hungary – the first mention of rabbits being frequently founding Hungary appears to be in 1779 at Zorndorf and Nicolsdorf (Long 2003). – rabbits began appearing on islands off Italy in the Mediterranean Sea before 1792, including Capraia, Capri, Cerboli, Elba, Favignana, Filicudi, Giglio, Gorgona, Ischia, Lampedusa, Levanzo, Linosa, Lipari, Marettimo, Montecristo, Nisida, Palmaiola, Panarea, Pantellaria, Pianosa, Salina, Sardinia, Sicily, Stromboli, Tremiti, Ustica, Vivara and Vulcano (Long 2003). Malta – rabbits have been introduced, date unknown, but on Filfla was most likely ancient, and have been present since at least the 1950s. They were still present on the islands of Gozo and Comino in the 1980s. (Long 2003). – many rabbits were introduced to Holland in the Middle Ages. Early introductions of rabbits, probably before 1400, occurred on some islands, e.g. , and , and in the 1800s on , and . They still appear to be present on Ameland, Schiermonnikoog, Terschelling, Texel, Vlieland, and possibly on Rottnumerplaat, but are now extinct on and Rottumeroog, and probably were never on . (Long 2003). Norway – there appear to be no records of rabbits introduced to the mainland, but they have been released on a number of islands off the coast. Rabbits have been introduced to the islands of Fedje, Feringstad, Kjorholmene, Molen, Nesoy, Soster, Middle Bolaerne and Ramsholmen. They appear to have now died out on Kjorholmene, Molen, possibly on Nesoy and Ramsholmen, but are still present on Fedje, Ferkingstad and Middle Bolaerne. The earliest releases appear to have been in 1875 on Fedje and there have been more recent ones such as on Sostern in 1972-77. (Long 2003). Poland – the rabbit reached Poland in the second half of the 19th century, mainly as a result of numerous introductions, but there very few are now left (Long 2003). Romania – between 1905-07, rabbits from France were released at Jassy where they flourished in areas of woodland-steppe (Long 2003). Russian Federation (and adjacent independent republics) – rabbits were an early introduction into Russia. Domestic rabbits were introduced to the Caucasus and Caspian Sea areas at the end of the 19th century. In 1931-32 rabbits were released on Bulla and on Zhiloi islands, and in 1958 to Zimbil’nyi Island where they become established. In 1956, 35 rabbits were set free on Glinyanyi Island in the Caspian Sea and by 1958 the population numbered 3,000. Rabbits have also been introduced to the

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 5 (Nikolayev and Krimsk Oblasts), in Uzbekistan (Samarkandsk and Tashkentsk Obslasts), and in Kazakhstan (Alma-Ata and Balkhashsk regions). Efforts with the release of rabbits in the Russian and adjacent independent republics have been somewhat successful and introductions are being continued. (Long 2003). Spain – some islands off Spain, including Meda Grossa in the Islas Medas, do not appear to have been part of the original range of the rabbit, and it is thought rabbits were introduced (Long 2003). Sweden – rabbits were introduced in Scania in southern Sweden around 1904 and here reached close to their northernmost distribution. They were introduced to Gotland in 1907, and by 1940 were considered to be in pest numbers, and have remained established on the island. (Long 2003). – the rabbit was introduced to some areas locally in the 19th century, including St Peters Peninsula, and to the canton of Valais. Rabbits have immigrated from the surrounding countries into the cantons of Basel-Stadt and Basel-Land (Long 2003). United and Ireland – The rabbit was probably introduced to between 1154-1200. The rabbit reached soon after, around 1200, and later Wales, probably towards the end of the 13th century. They reached Ireland about the same time that they arrived in England, or early in the 13th century. Later they were introduced to virtually every island off the coast from Shetland to the Isle of Wight. In the second half of the 19th century, the rabbits increased phenomenally, and by 1950 it was estimated that there were 60-100 million. In 1953 the disease spread from France to England and decimated the rabbit population, which has remained at a low level since this time. On islands off the coast of Britain, rabbits were present on Scilly in 1176, and on between 1183 and 1219, and were still there in 1321. (Lever 1985, Mitchell-Jones et al 1999, Surridge et al 1999, Long 2003). Rabbits appear to have been introduced to the prior to 1765, although others may have been released later in 1880. Rabbits are, or were, present on the islands of Bense, East Falkland, Flat Tyssen, Keppel, New, rabbit, Saunders and West Falkland. Those on Keppel Island at one time are reported to have been exterminated by , that subsequently died out themselves due to disease, (Lever 1985, Long 2003). Indian Ocean Islands: Amirantes group – rabbits are present on the islands of Desnouefs and Poivre (Long 2003). Amsterdam (France) – rabbits appear to be established on this island (Long 2003). Crozet Archipelago (Iles Crozet, France) – the exact date of introduction of rabbits to the Ile aux Cochins (Hog Island) is not known. Some early writers suggest about 1820, but more recent studies of a number of early manuscripts indicate that none were found there in 1837-39, and that the introduction was more likely to have been around 1840-50. Rabbit distribution in the 1970s and 1980s on Cochin is discontinuous on the island, but they are particularly abundant on the east coast. (Long 2003). Desroches – rabbits were present in 1905, but there are no further references to them (Long 2003). Kerguelen (France) – rabbits became abundant on the island of Grande Terre by 1873. They have continued to be remarkably successful and their range extends over all of Grand Terre, except south of Peninsule Rallier du Baty, and they also occur on many other islands and islets including Chat, Cimitiere, Foch, Mayes, Morbihan Bay Islets and Oust (Lever 1985, Long 2003). Maldive Islands – rabbits were introduced and became established in the Maldives, probably in the 16th or 17th century (Long 2003). Madagascar – rabbits were introduced to Europa Island about 1860, but may no longer occur on the island; their present status is uncertain (Long 2003).

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 6 Mauritius – rabbits were introduced to Round Island (north-east of Mauritius) in about 1810 and were abundant by 1845; rabbits were apparently poisoned, and eradication was complete by mid-1987 (Lever 1985, Bullock et al 2002, Long 2003). Seychelles – rabbits are present on the islands of Cargados Carojos, Chauvre-Souris, Mahe, Marnelle, Praslin and Recife, undoubtedly introduced or escaped from captivity at some stage. On Mahe and Praslin, domestic rabbits frequently escape from captivity, but do not appear to become permanently established. (Long 2003). St Paul – Saint Paul Island was discovered in 1559, and rabbits were subsequently introduced as a source of food, probably around 1880. At one stage rabbits had colonised the whole island, however recent baiting efforts aimed at eradicating introduced black rats (Rattus rattus) may have also eradicated the rabbits (this is still to be confirmed) (Lever 1985, Micol and Jouventin 2002, Long 2003). Tromelin – rabbits were found to be present on the island in 1968, and were probably introduced after the meteorological station was built in 1954, none were reported there in 1953 or 1962 (Long 2003). : Alaska – four rabbits were released on Middleton Island, Alaska, in 1954. They became established in the wild, and in 1955 the population was estimated to be about 50 rabbits. They continued to increase in numbers, and by 1962 some 5,000 rabbits were present on the island. Rabbits were also introduced to the Aleutian Islands as a source of food for . Opinions differ as to whether they existed there in the 1980s or before. They were liberated on Adak and were present there in the 1960s. They are present on Hay but their origin is unknown. Rabbits were introduced on Popof shortly after 1955, and were reported to be there in the 1980s. Rabbits were introduced to Annaniuliak (off Unimak) before 1952, and were still there in 1981. (Long 2003). Canada – European rabbits have been released a number of times over the years to various islands in British Columbia, Canada. Liberations of rabbits were made on Bare Island, Chatham Island, Strongtide Island, Piers Island, Vancouver Island, South Pender Island, Graham Island, Triangle island, and the Queen Charlotte Islands, all of which had populations prior to 1910. However, most of these populations had died out by this date. In 1972 only Sidney, Triangle, and Vancouver Islands had rabbit. (Long 2003). United States – there have been many attempts to establish rabbits on the mainland and on many small offshore islands from about 1895 onwards. These attempts were unsuccessful on the mainland, but some on islands were successful. In 1929, rabbits were present on the islands of San Juan, Wasp, Jones, Spieden, Flattop, Johns, Skipjack and Mateo, in the San Juan group, were they have continued to survive. It was estimated that the population on these islands was half a million rabbits at any one time. Feral rabbits became established on the Santa Barbara Islands, off California, during WWII. They have also become feral on South Farallon Island of central California where they were introduced around 1890’s. (de Vos et al 1956, Long 2003). Pacific Ocean Islands: See (Atkinson and Atkinson 2000b) for a full listing of South Pacific islands on which European rabbits have established. Baja California Islands – rabbits have been introduced to a number of the northwestern Baja California islands, including the Todos Santos Islands, San Martin Island, and the San Benito Islands (McChesney and Tershy 1998). Fiji – Captain Cook left two rabbits on Tonga Taboo (Tongatabu), Fiji. Whether these escaped and became established or whether there were later introductions is not known. The introduced rabbits appear to have died out by the 1870s or before. (Long 2003).

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 7 Galapagos Islands – in 1965 a small colony existed on an island in the Galapagos, but are no longer present (Lever 1985, Long 2003). Hawaiian Islands – rabbits have been introduced to a number of small islands in the Hawaiian chain. The earliest introduction appears to have been on Ford Island (previously called Rabbit Island), in Pearl Harbour, before 1825; other islands where introduced rabbits occur or occurred include Hawaii, Kauai, Laysan, Lehua, Lisianski, Manana, Maui, Mokuola, Molokini, Oahu, and Southeast (Lever 1985, Long 2003). Japan – domestic rabbits were introduced to Japan in the 16th century. Some may have been released in some districts near Nagasaki, Kyushu, in the 1840’s or earlier; rabbits have been introduced to the islands of Izu, Jinaito, Kyushu, Mae-jima, Matushima, Motokojima, Nanatsujima-Oshima, Ohkunojima, Okinosima, Oshima-Oshima, Osima-kojima, and Ushibuku-Oshima (Long 2003). Juan Fernandez Islands – rabbits were present on the island of Morro Vinillo in the 1930’s. They were introduced to Mas a Tierra (Robinson Crusoe) in 1935 and were still present there in the 1990’s. They were present on the island of Santa Clara in the 1970’s and in the early 1990’s. Rabbits were also apparently on Mas Afuera (Alejandro Selkirk) in the 1970’s. (Long 2003). Kurio’skiye Ostrova (Kurile Islands, Russian Federation) – rabbits were released on these islands in 1946, but their origin and success do not appear to be documented (Long 2003). – rabbits were first released in New Zealand on Motuara Island, in Queen Charlotte Sound, in 1777. Exactly when or where domestic rabbits first became established in the wild is uncertain, although (Veblen and Stewart 1982) and (Norbury 1996) suggest it was around 1838; (Howard 1958), suggests it was during the 1860s. The European Rabbit is now abundant and widely distributed across New Zealand, however extremely high densities are restricted to limited areas of central Otago, the McKenzie Basin, North Canterbury, and Marlborough. Rabbits have been eradicated on 18 islands of New Zealand since the end of the 19th century, have died out on 10 islands, but are still present on about 25 islands (Veblen and Stewart 1982, Lever 1985, Long 2003, King 2005). The European rabbit may have a restricted distribution in New Zealand and alpine grasslands, and in these areas causes only minor damage (Howard 1964). Rabbits were eradicated from Enderby and Rose islands, in the New Zealand Auckland Island group, in 1993, and this was achieved by a widespread poison campaign, combined with , spotlighting and trapping (Torr 2002). Phoenix Islands (Kiribati) – domestic rabbits were liberated in the 1860’s on Phoenix Island, where they were plentiful in 1889, numerous in 1924 and 1937, but were in poor condition in the early 1950’s; rabbits are also present on the island of Birnie, but little information has been documented about them (Long 2003). South America: and – rabbits were introduced to Chile around 1884, to an unnamed island in Region VI. From here they reached the mainland, when a drought established connection of that island to the mainland, and have since invaded northwestern and southwestern parts of Argentinean Patagonia. Their northernmost limit is the Limari River (Region IV), and their southernmost limit is in Paillaco (Region X). They appeared on the west-central border of Argentina in the north-western portion of Neuquen Province between 1945-50. They later spread to Mendoza Province and are spreading northwards towards the Rio Grande and eastwards down the Rio Colarado at about 8 km per . The European Rabbit was detected in the southwest of the Santa Cruz Province in 1985, and it is now widespread (Lever 1985, Jaksic 1998, Bonino 1999, Long 2003). [For a more detailed description see (Jaksic et al 2002)].

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 8 In Argentina, the present distribution of the European rabbit includes , Malvinas Islands, south-west of Santa Cruz, Neuquen, and southwest of Mendoza (Novillo and Ojeda 2008). Channel Islands – rabbits were first introduced around 1880. They have been reported on the islands of Tierra del Fuego, Hermite, Isla Grande, Lennox, Navarino and Rabbit. On the Chilean side of Tierra del Fuego, rabbits built up in numbers from 4 to about 30,000,000 in 17 years (1936-53) (Long 2003, Anderson et al 2006). Rabbits were once common on Navarino Island, but they were virtually eliminated with the viral control program conducted in the 1950’s. However, in 2004 several observations were made of rabbits on the north-western tip of the island, which may be new introductions (Anderson et al 2006). West Indies-Caribbean: Barbados – rabbits were introduced to Barbados at some time, but did not survive (de Vos et al 1956, Long 2003). Cuba – rabbits were introduced to Cuba around 1880 from the Canary Islands (Long 2003). Dominican Republic – rabbits were introduced to Catalinita between 1931-1961, probably in the 1950’s (Long 2003). Grenadines – rabbits have been introduced to the island of Balliceaux in the Grenadines, probably around 1880, they are still present on the island (de Vos et al 1956, Long 2003). Guadeloupe – Although rabbits were an early introduction to Guadeloupe before 1654, they have apparently not survived, and there are no further details (de Vos et al 1956, Long 2003). Jamaica – rabbits were possibly introduced to Jamaica before 1851, but had become extinct before 1905 (Long 2003). Virgin Islands – rabbits are kept on free-range farms on St Croix, but are never seen beyond the farms (Long 2003). Australia: The European rabbit was introduced to Australia with the First Fleet in 1788, with many subsequent releases. The first feral populations were in south-eastern Tasmania, where by 1827 they numbered in the thousands in some areas. They were first introduced to the mainland in 1858 or 1859, on a property near Geelong. Some were released or escaped soon after. In early years, rabbits were established near Sydney and other towns, but did not spread from these locations. By 1900 rabbits were present in all states of Australia as a result of natural spread and the efforts of acclimatisation societies. The rabbit has since colonised much of the Australian continent south of the Tropic of Capricorn, although they extend further to the north in coastal Queensland, and continue to slowly advance northwards. Rabbits have also been released on many small offshore islands off the coast of Australia. (Strahan 1995, Williams et al 1995, Long 2003, feral.org.au 2008). Rabbits were released on Macquarie island around 1880, where they multiplied rapidly and were abundant at the northern end of the island by 1982. Large numbers of rabbits continued to be recorded on the island until 1906, but thereafter were rare in 1909-10, scarce in 1918 and 1923, and remained scarce until 1930. However, they eventually invaded all except the northern portion of the island,and were well established, widespread and abundant in the late 1970s. (Long 2003). Rabbits were also liberated on Philip Island, of the Islands, around 1790. A number were shot in 1838, and the island was said to abound with rabbits. They were still present in 1961. In 1981, myxomatosis was introduced, and in 1983 poisoning, followed by trapping, shooting and gassing of warrens,. The last rabbit is thought to have been shot in 1988. (Long 2003).

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 9 B3. Overseas range size (0–2) 1 Overseas range size between 1-70 million km2, estimated at 6.81 million km2. Includes current and past 1000 years, natural and introduced range. < 1 = 0; 1 – 70 = 1; >70 = 2 The European rabbit is endemic to the , originating in and Spain. It is thought the rabbit commenced to spread into south-west France at the end of the last glaciation (around 10,000 years ago) (de Vos et al 1956, Lever 1985, Gibb 1990, Corbet and Harris 1991, Williams et al 1995, Mitchell-Jones et al 1999, Nowak 1999, Surridge et al 1999, Atkinson and Atkinson 2000a, Long 2003, Moreno et al 2007, Virgós et al 2007). Rabbits were probably introduced to North Africa during the Neolithic Period (around 4000-2000 BC). Palaeolithic material has been found from Algeria and Morocco, and the abundance of the species in the Neolithic deposits suggests an early introduction from Iberia (Dobson 1998, Nowak 1999, Surridge et al 1999, Long 2003). Rabbits have been on the , causing problems there since at least 50 BC. Rabbits are present or have been present on Cabrera, Conejera, Dragonera, Espalmador, Formentera, , , Menorca, Pitiusas group and Redonda. They appear to be still present on all, except perhaps Redonda and the Pitiusas group (Long 2003). In the second century BC rabbits occurred on Corsica, but it is not clear how they got there, they were still present in the island in the 1900’s (Long 2003). Rabbits were introduced into central and northern Europe during the Middle ages, although the species does not seem to have reached far into eastern Europe until the second half of the 19th century, when numerous introductions were made (Long 2003) (see B2 for details). Rabbits have been introduced worldwide (Long 2003), including 800 islands or island groups (Flux and Fullagar 1992) (see B2 for details). Rabbits occur at altitudes up to of 600 m (Nowak 1999), although in New Zealand it occurs at altitudes up to 1800 m (King 2005). B4. Taxonomic Class (0–1) 1 Mammal (Catalogue of Life 2008).

B. ESTABLISHMENT RISK SCORE 9

SUM OF B1-4 (1–13) Model 2: Seven-factor model for birds and mammals (BOMFORD 2008) B5. Diet (0–1) 1 Generalist with a broad diet of many food types The European Rabbit feeds on a wide range of herbage, especially grasses, young succulent leaves and shoots are preferred food, and the bark and twigs of woody are eaten when grasses and herbs are not available (Corbet and Harris 1991, Nowak 1999). Rabbits will also graze seaweed from rocks (Armstrong 1982). B6. Lives in disturbed habitat (0–1) 1 Can survive and breed in human-disturbed habitats Rabbits prefer well drained, loosely compacted that are easily dug, and hilly terrain with low vegetation, shrubs and woody plants (Gibb 1990, Nowak 1999). Most suitable habitats are areas of short grasses, either naturally occurring as on dry heaths or closely grazed agricultural pastures, with secure refuge (, boulders, hedgerows, scrub, woodland) in close proximity to feeding areas (Gibb 1990, Corbet and Harris 1991). In its native range of Iberia, rabbit distribution is closely associated with vegetation cover and type, where oak savannah and grassland mattoral are the preferred habitat types (Lees and Bell 2008).

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 10 The French subspecies (O. c. cuniculus) seems to require intense agricultural and pastoral development for it to thrive and maintain itself in the wild (Williams et al 1995). In Australia, felled timber provides abundant cover for rabbits, and the grazing of perennial grasses by domestic stock make the grass more nutritious and available to rabbits (Williams et al 1995). In Chile, rabbits occur mostly around agricultural and grazing lands (Long 2003). B7. Non-migratory behaviour (0–1) 1 Non-migratory in its native range Sedentary. Home range generally small, 0.003-0.03 km2, and is rarely larger than 0.2 km2. In one study, a year after 63 individuals were marked, 15 were recovered, none more than 100 m from where it was first captured. The ranges of males are larger than those of females (Corbet and Harris 1991, Nowak 1999, Long 2003). Adults are quite stationary and it is difficult to get them to leave their home locality regardless of the level of disturbance (Howard 1958).

B. ESTABLISHMENT RISK SCORE 12

SUM OF B1-7 (1–16)

STAGE C: PROBABILITY AN ESTABLISHED SPECIES WILL BECOME A PEST C1. Taxonomic group (0–4) 4 Mammal in one of the orders that have been demonstrated to have detrimental effects on prey abundance and/or habitat degradation, AND mammal in one of the families that are particularly prone to cause agricultural damage Order Lagomorpha, Family Leporidae (Wilson and Reeder 1993, ITIS Integrated Taxonomic Information System 2007). C2. Overseas range size including current and past 1000 years, 0 Overseas range less than 10 million km2. Estimated at 6.81 million km2. natural and introduced range (0–2) Natural overseas distribution Iberia; introduced populations occur worldwide (Long 2003) (see B2 and B3 for details). C3. Diet and feeding (0–3) 3 Mammal that is primarily a grazer Rabbits are grazers, feeding mainly on grasses, but they will also browse a variety of herbage, preferring succulent leaves and young shoots (Nowak 1999) (see B5 for details). C4. Competition with native fauna for tree hollows (0–2) 0 Does not use tree hollows The rabbit will dig complex burrows, or “warrens”, that may be 3 m deep and 45 m long. The tunnels are about 15 cm in diameter, and the main living chambers may be 30-60 cm high. Main surface entrances are indicated by mounds of earth, but numerous smaller openings lack mounds. One colony of 407 rabbits maintained a den with 2,080 entrances. Entrances vary from 10-50 cm in diameter, usually at a shallow angle to the horizontal from the , although ‘bolt’ holes may be situated vertically above the burrow. A nocturnal species, rabbits will sometimes bask in the early morning sun at a burrow entrance (Corbet and Harris 1991, Nowak 1999). Burrows can be constructed on sand, shale, clay or chalk. Size and distribution of burrow systems are dependent upon soil type – burrow systems are larger with more interconnected entrances on chalk than on sand (Corbet and Harris 1991). The young are born in a newly constructed den lined with vegetation and fur, well removed from the main burrow of the colony, otherwise in a separate breeding “stop” about 1 m long. While they are in the nest, the female visits her young only once a night, for about five minutes. The entrance of the stop European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 11 is covered with soil and is difficult to detect (Gibb 1990, Williams et al 1995, Nowak 1999). Wild rabbits sometimes live permanently above ground, sheltering by day in dense vegetation. For example, in New Zealand, where there is sufficient scrub cover, rabbits often live permanently above ground and have no warrens, so all breeding is in stops. Elsewhere, extremes of temperature and lack of ground cover may force rabbits to live and breed underground in warrens (Gibb 1990). In newly colonised areas without warrens, a rabbit will generally live in a “squat”, which is a shallow depression in long vegetation or under fallen timber (Williams et al 1995). C5. Overseas environmental pest status (0–3) 3 Major environmental pest in any country or region Has the species been reported to cause declines in abundance of any native Negative effects on native animal species: species of or animal or cause degradation to any natural communities in any country or region of the world? On Saint-Paul Island, rabbits have contributed to the destruction of native seabird populations, by competing for burrows (Micol and Jouventin 2002). On the northwestern Baja California Islands, competition with rabbits for nests may have affected seabirds such as Storm Petrels (Oceanodroma spp.), Auklets (Cerorhinca sp. and Ptychoramphus sp.), and Murrelets (Synthliboramphus spp.). Rabbits may also have important indirect impacts on seabirds – they sustain introduced (Felis catus) populations at high levels during the late summer through early winter, when there are no breeding seabirds on the islands (McChesney and Tershy 1998). There is no evidence to suggest that the European rabbit competes for food with native mammals in Chile (Jaksic 1998). There is one report of European rabbits destroying seabird eggs in Hawaii. During a study of terns on Manana (Rabbit Island), a rabbit was observed to run at a nesting Brown Noddy (Anous stolidus), and knock the bird off the egg using its head The rabbit then rolled the egg down a slope by repeatedly pushing it with the upper surface with its nose. Four similar observations were also made that night. The rabbit was observed standing over the yolk from the broken egg. It was not determined if just one or several rabbits were involved in this activity, or whether the rabbits ate any part of the eggs it broke. It was suggested that because the summer months on Manana are very dry, the rabbits may have obtained fluid from the eggs. The author suggests that rabbit egg destruction probably has little impact on the population of Brown Noddies on Manana, however rabbits and seabirds occur together on many islands, and this type of egg mortality is potentially widespread (Brown 1974). Rabbits sustain populations of exotic predators on New Zealand. For example, numbers of and feral cats declined following reductions in rabbit numbers (King 2005). Rabbits are known to indirectly affect vertebrate populations through habitat modification (Norbury 1996). On Enderby Island, rabbits reduced the survival of New Zealand Sea Lion pups (Phocarctos hookeri). The numerous rabbit burrows around Sandy Bay, an important breeding site for the Sea Lions, proved a hazard to the pups, which became trapped in them and died. Mortality from this cause was estimated to be up to 10% of pups on Enderby Island in some years (Penniket et al 1987) as cited in (Torr 2002). Breeding success of nesting sea birds such as Petrels is also adversely affected by rabbit burrowing, which disturbs the birds’ nesting chambers (M. Imber, pers. comm.) (Norbury 1996). Rabbits have now been eradicated from New Zealand’s offshore islands where Petrel breeding sites occur (Norbury 1996). Round Island, 20km north east of Mauritius, supports several endemic reptile species that once also occurred on the mainland. A giant herbivorous tortoise (Cylindraspsis sp.) was present on the island, however European rabbits and goats (Capra hircus), which were introduced in the early 19th century replaced the native tortoise. The introduced prevented tree recruitment, destroyed a

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 12 hardwood forest, encouraged open vegetation habitat, and accelerated overall degradation of the island’s habitat. An eradication program was initiated to remove goats and rabbits and by 1978 all goats had been shot, and by 1986 rabbits had been eradicated from the island. By 1989, short term changes were observed, including increases in ground vegetation (vegetation other than mature trees), the number and abundance of non-native plant species, and regeneration and recruitment of palms and other trees, Decreases were also observed or anticipated in the abundance of plants favoured by the presence of rabbits or goats, or open ground. (Bullock et al 2002). Negative effects on native vegetation: On Robben Island (near Capetown, South Africa), rabbits have become pests and nearly eliminated all plants except inedible species. Consequently, the vegetation of the island is now characterised by its great uniformity. (de Vos et al 1956). On Kerguelen Island, rabbits are said to have altered the vegetation substantially by destroying much of the lowland vegetation. The plant composition has changed, and Kerguelen Cabbage (Pringlea antscorbutica) has disappeared from areas inhabited by rabbits. (Long 2003). In central Chile, experimental evidence suggests that the introduction of exotic herbivores, including the European rabbit, has probably been the dominant factor assisting the invasion of numerous exotic plant species (Holmgren 2002). Also in central Chile, the browsing impact of rabbits and Degus (Octodon degus), a small native ), was evaluated. While Degus were found to cause important seedling mortality within a 5 m radius of their retreat (burrow), rabbits caused much heavier seedling mortality, foraged more widely, and therefore had a greater impact on native vegetation than the Degus (Fuentes et al 1983). The European rabbit is a seed disperser of the invasive Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum) on Robinson Crusoe Island, Chile. The Opium Poppy was originally introduced in 1980 as an ornamental But since then has widely expanded its range over the western part of the island, displacing native plant species. Poppy seeds were the dominant seeds found in rabbit droppings, and droppings with the poppy seeds were found up to 100 m away from poppy patches, seeds reach favourable places for germination via rabbit consumption and dispersal (Fernandez and Saiz 2007). On Grand Terre Island, New Caledonia, the European rabbit is responsible (along with the Rusa Deer Cervus timorensis) for reducing the area of dry forest on the islet of Lepredour, and also the presumed extinction of the endemic Pittosporum sp. (Global Database 2006). (Norbury 1996) provides a list of native New Zealand vegetation that have been negatively affected by rabbits in short tussock areas, and native vegetation in the shrublands. It is thought that rabbits have contributed to the extinction of several native plant species in New Zealand, including Logania depressa, Myosotis laingii and Stellaria elatinoides. The relative contribution of rabbit grazing to these species is unknown (P. de Lange, pers. comm.) cited in: (Norbury 1996). A study by (Allen et al 1995) in Central Otago, New Zealand, determined that grazing by rabbits was a major factor maintaining depletion of native vegetation. Observations from sites on the New Zealand mainland indicated that rabbits browse native shrub seedlings and ringbark adult plants. In the Mohi Bush Reserve near Napier, rabbits reportedly brosed seedlings and ringbarked adult plants of Mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus), Pigeonwood (Hedycarya arborea), Lacebark (Hoheria sp.), and Cabbage Trees (Cordyline australis) (G. Walls, pers. comm.) cited in: (Norbury 1996). Gunnera bamiltonii is one of the rarest native plants in New Zealand and although it is unlikely rabbits browse this species to any great extent, due to its prostate habit, it is thought that the plant is damaged as rabbit scratchings uproot the plants. A plant of similar habit, Euphorbia glauca, occurs at isolated

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 13 coastal sites between Northland and Stewart Island. Rabbits have been observed browsing the plant, and while it is unlikely that browsing has a major effect on adult plant survival, because the plant is quite robust, browsing damage may cause significant damage to seedlings. As with G. bamitonii, the greatest risk to adult plants is uprooting by rabbit scratchings. (B. Rance, pers. comm.) cited in: (Norbury 1996). Beneficial effects: In the Mediterranean, the European rabbit is an important prey item for over 40 vertebrate predators (Lees and Bell 2008), some of which are threatened with extinction, such as the Imperial (Aquila alalberti), Bonelli’s Eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatu), and the Iberian (Lynx pardinus) (Calvete et al 2004, Williams et al 2007, Devillard et al In press). In southwestern Spain, the rabbit is the main prey of the Black Kite (Milvus migrans) (Vinuela and Veiga 1992). In an attempt to save these predators from extinction, the rabbit has become the subject of intensive conservation efforts in Spain and Portugal (Lees and Bell 2008). In the UK, the rabbit is a significant prey item for native predators including the Polecat (Mustela putorius, European Wild Cat (Felis silvestris), and Red Kites (Milvus milvus) (Lees and Bell 2008). The importance of the European rabbit in the diet of these species was emphasised in the second half of the 20th century, when the myxomatosis virus was introduced. This disease caused a sharp decline in rabbit populations, and consequentially an associated dramatic decrease in the abundance of several rabbit predators (Moreno et al 2007). Grassland invertebrate assemblages are sometimes dependent on sward-height. Many short-sward specialist invertebrates can only persist with the presence of rabbits. An example of this is from the UK – the Large Blue Butterfly (Maculinea arion) declined in numbers at the same time rabbit numbers decreased following the arrival of the myxomatosis virus. The caterpillar of the Large Blue is reared by the Red Ant (Myrmica sabuleti), which is also dependent on short-sward heights (Thomas 1980). The re-expansion of populations of the Silver-spotted Skipper Butterfly (Hesperia comma) has also been attributed to a recovery of local rabbit populations (Davies et al 2005). [Both references as cited in (Lees and Bell 2008)]. Rabbits are prey species for a number of native predators in Chile, including the (Pseudalopex culpaeus) and the Black-chested Eagle (Geranoaetus melanoleucus) (Jaksic 1998, Jaksic et al 2002). In Argentine Patagonia, the Great Horned (Bubo virginianus) is reported to feed largely on lagomorphs; mostly on the introduced European Hare (Lepus europaeus), but also on the European rabbit (Donazar et al 1997). Negative effects in Australia – Rabbits have turned land into semi- by denuding the plant cover and by girdling trees. This has contributed to the rapid disappearance of many specialised marsupials which could not survive the competition. Some marsupials have become extinct; others can only live in areas too dry for rabbits, while some species are arboreal (de Vos et al 1956). Mulga (Acacia aneura), a tree which lives to 250 years, is the most important drought tree in Australia. It is very palatable to rabbits, and in South Australia, where rabbit densities are high, Mulga regeneration is rare, and was non-existent prior to the introduction of myxomatosis. (Williams et al 1995). White Cypress Pine (Callitris columellaris) was thought to be in long-term decline, but following introduction of myxomatosis in the 1950s, mass germinations of the species occurred, indicating that rabbits may have been preventing regeneration (Williams et al 1995). Trees such as Kurrajong (Brachychiton populneum) face where rabbits occur, the tree is

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 14 very palatable at all stages, and rabbits have been reported to fell and almost entirely consume Kurrajong trees with trunks 18 cm in diameter (Williams et al 1995). On the Nullarbor Plain, large areas of Bluebush (Mariana sedifolia) have been destroyed by rabbits, also the dominant woody shrubs and trees, such as Acacia papylocarpa and Myoporum platycarpum are slowly dying without regenerating (Williams et al 1995). A study of rabbit warrens in central-western New South Wales (NSW), to assess their impact on vegetation and soils, found that rabbit mounds had significantly more bare ground, more exotic plant species, and significantly less cryptogram (lichen and moss) cover. Whereas adjacent control site (no rabbit mounds) areas were characterised by more ground cover, consisting of low growing native perennials (Eldridge and Simpson 2002). Also in central-western NSW, it was found that rabbits had an effect on soil seedbanks. Significantly more species were recorded at edges of warrens, and even more at control (non-mound sites) than at mound sites. Compared with control sites, which were dominated by perennial native plants, mounds tended to be dominated by mostly exotic annual species. (Eldridge et al 2006). In western NSW, disturbed soils caused by rabbit mounds have been shown to have significantly higher pH and electrical conductivity than non-mound sites; soluble and exchangeable K+, and total Al and Ca increased with increasing disturbance, while total S and P, soluble Na+ and exchangeable Mg2+ declined. Depleted mount nutrient levels (reduced mound C and N concentrations) were also observed. (Eldridge and Koen 2008). During warren construction, rabbits deposit large volumes of nutrient-poor soils at the surface, smothering existing vegetation and creating an unsuitable environment for seed germination. Because warrens are used over a number of years by successive generations, this physically and biologically poor environment at mound sites is maintained. (Eldridge et al 2006). Rabbits evict burrowing native mammals from their burrows, and exclude other mammals from the best feeding areas. It is likely that competition for burrows with rabbits contributed to the extinction of the Nalpa Bilby ( lagotis grandis) and the Lesser Stick-nest Rat (Leporillus apicalis). The Burrowing Bettong (Bettongia lesueur) is now extinct on the Australian mainland, and the Bilby (Macrotis lagotis) is now restricted to a range north or the rabbits’ distribution, or where rabbits (and Foxes) are rare. It is thought that rabbits have also been linked to the decline of Red Kangaroos (Macropus rufa), Rufous Hare-wallabys (Lagorchestes hirsutus), Sticknest Rats (Leporillus spp.) (which are now also extinct on the mainland), and Western Barred Bandicoots (Perameles bougainville) (Williams et al 1995, Lees and Bell 2008). No known native mammal has become extinct north of the range of the rabbit since European settlement (Williams et al 1995). Rabbits also have an indirect affect on native animals, as they are a food source for predatory species, such as birds of prey, goannas, cats, foxes, and dingoes, allowing populations of these species to build up (Williams et al 1995). C6. Climate match to areas with susceptible native species or 5 One or more susceptible native species or ecological communities that are listed as vulnerable or communities (0–5) endangered under the Australian Government Environment Protection and Conservation Act 1999 has a restricted geographical range that lies within the mapped area of the highest six climate Identify any native Australian animal or plant species or communities that could be susceptible to harm by the exotic species if it were to establish a wild population here. match classes for the exotic species being assessed. Reference for all vulnerable or endangered species and communities (status noted in bold) (Dept of the Environment Water Heritage and the Arts 2007, 2008). Susceptible Australian native species or natural communities that could be threatened include (but are not limited to): Burrowing or herbivorous mammals: Endangered – Southern Brown Bandicoot (Isoodon obesulus

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 15 obesulus), Dibbler (Parantechinus apicalis), Eastern Barred Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), Proserpine Rock-wallaby (Petrogale persephone); Vulnerable – Wopilkara, Greater Stick-nest Rat (Leporillus conditor), Numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus), Quokka (Setonix brachyurus) (Strahan 1995). Ground-nesting or burrowing Birds: Endangered – Gould's Petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera); Vulnerable – White-bellied Storm-Petrel (Fregetta grallaria grallaria), Kermadec Petrel (Pterodroma neglecta neglecta), Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross (Thalassarche carteri), Salvin's Albatross (T. cauta salvini), White-capped Albatross (T. cauta steadi), Black-breasted Button-quail (Turnix melanogaster) (Pizzey and Knight 1997, Barrett et al 2003). Plants (grazing/bark-stripping/uprooting): Critically endangered – Spiny Everlasting (Acanthocladium dockeri), Canberra Spider-orchid (Arachnorchis actensis), Black-tipped Spider-orchid (A. anthracina), Windswept Spider-orchid (A. dienema), Lindley's Spider-orchid (A. lindleyana), Rosy Spider-orchid (A. pallida), Sagg Spider-orchid (A. saggicola), Spicer's Everlasting (Argentipallium spiceri), Native Wintercress (Barbarea australis), Ironstone Brachyscias (Brachyscias verecundus), Brindabella Midge-orchid (Corunastylis ectopa), Firth's Midge-orchid (C. firthii), Maroon-flowered Daviesia (Daviesia glossosema), Nightcap Oak (Eidothea hardeniana), Border Heath (Epacris limbata), Shy Eyebright (Euphrasia fragosa), North Rothbury (Persoonia pauciflora), Thick-stem Caladenia (Petalochilus campbellii), Forest Fingers (P. sylvicola), Robust Fingers (P. tonellii), Plains Rice-flower (Pimelea spinescens spinescens), Western Leek-orchid (Prasophyllum favonium), Milford Leek-orchid (P. milfordense), Fleurieu Leek Orchid (P. murfetii), Pungent Leek-orchid (P. olidum), Knocklofty Leek-orchid (P. perangustum), Pretty Leek-orchid (P. pulchellum), Robust Leek-orchid (P. robustum), Ben Lomond Leek-orchid (P. stellatum), Sky-blue Sun-orchid (Thelymitra jonesii). Endangered – Wattles (Acacia spp.), Fitzgerald Woollybush (Adenanthos dobagii), Toolinna Adenanthos (A. eyrei), Sprawling Spiky Adenanthos (A.pungens effusus), Velvet Woollybush (A. velutinus), Dwarf Heath Casuarina (Allocasuarina defungens), Emu Mountain Sheoak (A. emuina), Mount Compass Oak-bush (A. robusta), Little Kangaroo Paw (Anigozanthos bicolor minor), Roadside Wallaby Grass (Austrodanthonia popinensis), Scott River Boronia (Boronia exilis), Granite Boronia (B. granitica), Repand Boronia (B. repanda), Ironcap Boronia (B. revoluta), Grampians Pincushion-lily (Borya mirabilis), Orchids (Arachnorchis, Caladenia and Prasophyllum spp.), Moore's Burr-daisy (Calotis moorei), Swamp Starflower (Calytrix breviseta breviseta), Drummond's Grass (Deyeuxia drummondii), Matted Flax-lily (Dianella amoena), Orchid (Diuris lanceolata), Small Snake Orchid (D. pedunculata), Purdie's Donkey-orchid (D. purdiei), Apsley Heath (Epacris apsleyensis), South Esk Heath (E. exserta), Funnel Heath (E. glabella), Grand Heath (E. grandis), Pretty Heath (E. virgata), Baby Blue Orchid (Epiblema grandiflorum var. cyaneum), Adamson's Blown-grass (Lachnagrostis adamsonii), Spalding Blown Grass (L. limitanea), Basalt Pepper-cress (Lepidium hyssopifolium), Winged Pepper-cress (L. monoplocoides), Torrington Beard-heath (Leucopogon confertus), Stirling Range Beard Heath (L. gnaphalioides), Thick-margined Leucopogon (L. marginatus), Hidden Beard- heath (L. obtectus), Dorrigo Daisy-bush (Olearia flocktoniae), Small-flowered Daisy-bush (O. microdisca), South Stirling Morning Iris (Orthrosanthus muelleri). Vulnerable – Wattles (Acacia spp.), River Swamp Wallaby-grass (Amphibromus fluitans), Dwarf Green Kangaroo Paw (Anigozanthos viridis terraspectans), Shining Cudweed (Argyrotegium nitidulus), Trailing Woodruff (Asperula asthenes), Maidenhair Spleenwort (Asplenium hookerianum), Bindoon Starbush (Asterolasia nivea), Downy Star-bush (A. phebalioides), Thick-leaf Star-hair (Astrotricha crassifolia), Boronia (Boronia spp.), Lobed Blue-grass (Bothriochloa biloba), Satin-top Grass (B. bunyensis), Mueller Daisy (Brachyscome muelleroides), Mossgiel Daisy (B. papillosa), Budawangs Cliff-heath (Budawangia gnidioides), Miniature Moss-orchid (Bulbophyllum globuliforme), Western Water-starwort (Callitriche cyclocarpa), Mauve Burr-daisy (Calotis glandulosa), Twining Finger Flower (Cheiranthera volubilis), Narrow-leaf Bent-grass (Deyeuxia pungens), Tall Donkey Orchid (Diuris drummondii), Dergholm Guinea-flower (Hibbertia humifusa debilis), Euroa Guinea-flower (H. humifusa erigens), Rylstone Bell (Leionema sympetalum), Spiny Pepper-cress (Lepidium aschersonii), Erect Pepper-cress (L. pseudopapillosum),Granite Mudwort (Limosella granitica), Silver Daisy-bush (Olearia pannosa European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 16 pannosa), Knotweed (Persicaria elatior), Budawangs Wallaby-grass (Plinthanthesis rodwayi), Salt-lake Tussock-grass (Poa sallacustris), Monaro Golden Daisy (Rutidosis leiolepis), Feldmark Grass (Rytidosperma pumilum), Woolly Ragwort (Senecio garlandii). Communities: Critically endangered – Iron-grass Natural Temperate Grassland of South Australia; Natural Temperate Grassland of the Victorian Volcanic Plain; Endangered – Bluegrass (Dichanthium spp.) dominant grasslands of the Brigalow Belt Bioregions (North and South); Natural Temperate Grassland of the Southern Tablelands of NSW and the Australian Capital Territory. C7. Overseas primary production pest status (0–3) 3 Major pest of primary production in any country or region Has the species been reported to damage crops or other primary production in any In their native and introduced range, European rabbits cause damage to a wide variety of agricultural country or region of the world? crops, including , roots, pasture, horticulture and forestry (Corbet and Harris 1991). Europe The European rabbit has long been highly popular as a animal and for use as food. During the two World Wars, the keeping of rabbits as a food source received great momentum. Many people undertook to raise rabbits in a limited space and thereby quickly increased local meat supplies (Nowak 1999). At one time in Britain, rabbit trapping for food and fur was an important industry (£1.5 million contribution to agricultural economy in 1952), however rabbits are now mainly considered as a pest (Corbet and Harris 1991). In Spain, the rabbit is considered one of the most popular game species, and its hunting is important economically and socially (Virgos et al 2003). In Britain pre-myxomatosis, rabbits were the major vertebrate pests of agriculture with annual cost of damage estimated to be £50 million at 1952 prices. Increasing numbers as a result of the decline in mortality due to myxomatosis means that they represent an increasing problem (Corbet and Harris 1991). By the early 1980’s it was clear that rabbits had returned to their pre-myxomatosis numbers in some areas and that, over the country as a whole, rabbits were the principal pests of winter , accounting for losses of more than £100 million per year (Crawley 1989). In Britain, experiments were carried out over a three year period on the effects of the timing and duration of grazing on winter wheat, using natural and confined populations of rabbits. Grazing caused reductions in ear density, ear weight, seed number and individual seed weight. Indirect effects of rabbit grazing included increased weediness and increased damage from aphids (Crawley 1989). In addition to winter wheat, rabbits are also known to cause damage to winter barley (Bell et al 1998) and ryegrass, particularly during the establishment phase (Bell et al 1999). In its native range of Spain, the European rabbit causes significant agricultural damage, and farmers often call for rabbit populations to be controlled or eradicated (Virgós et al 2007). Wild rabbits may pose a significant risk of transmitting Paratuberculosis (or Johne’s Disease) (Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis) to cattle. This is a chronic disease of ruminants, which leads to weight loss, diarrhoea, emaciation and eventual death. Paratuberculosis has been isolated from wild rabbits in the east of Scotland, suggesting that rabbits act as a reservoir for the disease (Daniels et al 2001). South America In Argentina and Chile, rabbits compete with for food and damage crops, orchards and forestry in Patagonia, however there is no quantitative data about their effects as pest species. In the provinces where rabbits exist, they are normally classified as pests and may be controlled if causing damage (Bonino 1999). New Zealand European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 17 Rabbits cause significant costs to agricultural production; however at present it is not possible to assess the marginal costs and benefits of rabbit control. Estimates for the average annual production loss due to rabbits ranges from $22 million to $100 million. The difference arises because estimates of the national scale of the rabbit problem are hampered by lack of accurate, detailed data (King 2005). An interactive grazing model estimated economic loss caused by rabbits in productive grazing systems from $1.1 to $2.1 per rabbit (Barlow 1987) as cited in (King 2005). Australia Rabbits have converted millions of kilometres of good agricultural land into semi-desert by denuding the plant cover and by girdling trees, and this has resulted in decreased carrying capacity of the range for domestic stock (de Vos et al 1956). Rabbits can cause extensive losses to both introduced pine and native eucalypt plantations. Rabbits prevent regeneration of native Callitris spp. and other species, damage tree plantings, and significantly increase the cost of public tree planting programs due to the need to erect tree guards. Rabbit control costs in private forests can be as high as $80 per hectare during the trees are vulnerable to rabbit damage, and damage from browsing rabbits can cause one year’s loss of growth equivalent to $800 per hectare (Williams et al 1995). On grazing land, rabbits compete with livestock, resulting in lower livestock holding capacity, lower weight gain of stock, fewer livestock births, and earlier stock deaths during droughts. Indirect affects include dirty sheep fleece due to increased areas of bare soil, as well as more lamb losses due to the higher fox numbers maintained by rabbits. A grazing property in South Australia was reportedly able to increase stock numbers by 40% after rabbits were controlled. In Australia, the lost production is estimated around $115 million (Williams et al 1995). C8. Climate match to susceptible primary production (0–5) 5 Score = 440 Assess Potential Commodity Impact Scores for each primary production commodity See Commodity Scores Table – Species has attributes making it capable of damaging sheep, cattle, listed in Table 9, based on species’ attributes (diet, behaviour, ecology), excluding risk of spreading disease which is addressed in Question C9. timber, cereal grain, other fruit, vegetables, other livestock, and other horticultural commodities. C9. Spread disease (1–2) 2 All birds and mammals (likely or unknown effect on native species and on livestock and other domestic animals). C10. Harm to property (0–3) 1 $1.00-10 million Rabbits could cause damage to home gardens by grazing ornamentals, and uprooting plants by digging/burrowing in the soil. Burrowing also causes soil erosion and undermines buildings (de Vos et al 1956). C11. Harm to people (0–5) 1 Very low risk Assess the risk that, if a wild population established, the species could cause harm to or No reports of harm to humans. annoy people. Aggressive behaviour, plus the possession of organs capable of inflicting harm, such as sharp teeth, tusks, claws, spines, a sharp bill, horns, antlers or toxin- Zoonoses: delivering organs may enable animals to harm people. Any known history of the species attacking, injuring or killing people should also be taken into account (see Stage A, Rabbits may act as a reservoir for Paratuberculosis (Johne’s Disease) (Mycobacterium avium Score A1). paratuberculosis) (Daniels et al 2001). Wild rabbits can act as vectors of Eschericha coli (Scaife et al 2006). In 2001, E. coli infection was identified in 10 children and two adults from unrelated families and different parts of Britain. The common factor was that they had all visited a wildlife park in Norfolk. It was determined that the infectious organism had been introduced to the park by wild rabbits (Bailey et al 2002) as cited in (Scaife et al 2006). C. PEST RISK SCORE 27

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 18 SUM C 1 TO 11 (1–37)

STAGE A. PUBLIC SAFETY RISK RANK – RISK TO PUBLIC SAFETY POSED BY 0 NOT DANGEROUS CAPTIVE OR RELEASED INDIVIDUALS

0 = Not dangerous; 1 = Moderately dangerous; ≥ 2 = Highly dangerous STAGE B. ESTABLISHMENT RISK RANK – RISK OF ESTABLISHING A WILD 9 SERIOUS ESTABLISHMENT RISK POPULATION

MODEL 1: FOUR-FACTOR MODEL FOR BIRDS AND MAMMALS (BOMFORD 2008)

≤ 5 = low establishment risk; 6-8 = moderate establishment risk; 9-10 = serious establishment risk; ≥11-13 = extreme establishment risk

STAGE B. ESTABLISHMENT RISK RANK – RISK OF ESTABLISHING A WILD 12 SERIOUS ESTABLISHMENT RISK POPULATION

MODEL 2: SEVEN-FACTOR MODEL FOR BIRDS AND MAMMALS (BOMFORD 2008)

≤ 6 = low establishment risk; 7-11 = moderate establishment risk; 12- 13 = serious establishment risk; ≥14 = extreme establishment risk

STAGE C. PEST RISK RANK - RISK OF BECOMING A PEST FOLLOWING 27 EXTREME PEST RISK ESTABLISHMENT

< 9 = low pest risk; 9-14 = moderate pest risk; 15-19 = serious pest risk; > 19 = extreme pest risk

VERTEBRATE PESTS COMMITTEE THREAT CATEGORY EXTREME – ENDORSED BY VPC

Median number of references per mammal, for all mammals assessed by (Massam et al 37 2010) (n=17)

56 – more than the median number of mammal references were used for this assessment, indicating a decreased Total number of references for this species level of uncertainty (median number for references for Public Safety Risk, Establishment Risk and Overseas Environmental and Agricultural Adverse Impacts)

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 19 WORLDWIDE DISTRIBUTION – European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), includes current and past 1000 years; including natural populations (black) and introduced populations (red). Each black or red dot is a location where meteorological data was sourced for the climate analysis (see B1), faint grey dots are locations available for CLIMATE analysis but because they are not within the species’ distribution, therefore not used. [Note: Australian distribution was not included in the climate analysis for this assessment. However, to assist predictions of further spread within Australia, an analysis that includes the Australian distribution has been included on page 10.]

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 20 Map 1. Climate match between the world distribution of European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Australia for five match classes.

Colour on Level of Match from No. Grid Map Highest (10) to Lowest (6) Squares on Map

Red 10 HIGH MATCH 0

Pink 9 HIGH MATCH 46

Dark Green 8 MOD MATCH 262

Mid Green 7 MOD MATCH 299

Lime Green 6 LOW MATCH 160 CMS = 767

Map 2. Climate match between the world distribution (including Australian distribution) of European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Australia for five match classes.

Colour on Level of Match from No. Grid Map Highest (10) to Lowest (6) Squares on Map

Red 10 HIGH MATCH 596

Pink 9 HIGH MATCH 1659

Dark Green 8 MOD MATCH 311

Mid Green 7 MOD MATCH 137

Lime Green 6 LOW MATCH 59 CMS = 2762

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 21 European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Susceptible Australian Primary Production – Calculating Total Commodity Damage Score The commodity value index scores in this table are derived from Australian Bureau of Statistics 2005 – 2006 data. The values will require updating if significant change has occurred in

Industry Commodity Value Index Potential Commodity Climate Match to Commodity 1 (CVI based on 2005- 06 Impact Score (PCIS 0-3) Commodity Score Damage Score data) (CMCS 0–5) (CDS columns 2 X 3 X 4) Cattle (includes dairy and beef) consumption of stock fodder consumption 11 2 3 66 of stock fodder only therefore commodity value adjusted down by 1/3 Timber (includes native and plantation forests) 10 3 4 120 Cereal grain (includes wheat, barley sorghum etc) no reports of damage to 8 3 5 120 this commodity Sheep (includes wool and sheep meat) consumption of stock fodder only 5 3 4 60 therefore commodity value adjusted down by 1/3 Fruit (includes wine grapes) 4 2 5 40 Vegetables 3 2 4 24 Poultry and eggs 2 0 0 0 Aquaculture(includes coastal mariculture) 2 0 0 0 Oilseeds (includes canola, sunflower etc) no reports of damage to this commodity 1 0 0 0 Grain legumes (includes ) no reports of damage to this commodity 1 0 0 0 Sugarcane 1 0 0 0 Cotton 1 0 0 0 Other crops and horticulture (includes nuts tobacco and flowers etc) 1 2 4 8 Pigs 1 0 0 0 Other livestock (includes goats, deer, camels, rabbits) 0.5 1 4 2 Bees (included honey, beeswax and pollination) 0.5 0 0 0 Total Commodity Damage Score (TCDS) 440 [Table 9 Rational Potential Commodity Impact Score (0-3) Assess Potential Commodity Impact Scores for each primary production commodity listed in Table 9, based on species’ attributes (diet, behaviour, ecology), excluding risk of spreading disease which is addressed in Question C9, and pest status worldwide as: 0. Nil (species does not have attributes to make it capable of damaging this commodity) 1. Low (species has attributes making it capable of damaging this or similar commodities and has had the opportunity but no reports or other evidence that it has caused damage in any country or region 2. Moderate–serious (reports of damage to this or similar commodities exist but damage levels have never been high in any country or region and no major control programs against the species have ever been conducted OR the species has attributes making it capable of damaging this or similar commodities but has not had the opportunity) 3. Extreme (damage occurs at high levels to this or similar commodities and/or major control programs have been conducted against the species in any country or region and the listed commodity would be vulnerable to the type of harm this species can cause). Climate Match to Commodity Score (0–5) • None of the commodity is produced in areas where the species has a climate match within the highest eight climate match classes (ie classes 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4 and 3) = 0 • Less than 10% of the commodity is produced in areas where the species has a climate match within the highest eight climate match classes = 1 • Less than 10% of the commodity is produced in areas where the species has a climate match within the highest six climate match classes (ie classes 10, 9, 8, 7, 6 and 5) = 2 • Less than 50% of the commodity is produced in areas where the species has a climate match within the highest six climate match classes AND less than 10% of the commodity is produced in areas where the species has a climate match within the highest three climate match classes (ie classes 10, 9 and 8) = 3 • Less than 50% of the commodity is produced in areas where the species has a climate match within the highest six climate match classes BUT more than 10% of the commodity is produced in areas where the species has a climate match within the highest three climate match classes = 4 • OR More than 50% of the commodity is produced in areas where the species has a climate match within the highest six climate match classes BUT less than 20% of the commodity is produced in areas where the species has a climate match within the highest three climate match classes = 4 • More than 20% of the commodity is produced in areas where the species has a climate match within the highest three climate match classes OR overseas range unknown and climate match to Australia unknown = 5.]

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 22 Map 3. Climate match between the world distribution of European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Australia for eight match classes.

Colour on Map Level of Match from No. Grid Highest (10) to Lowest (3) Squares on Map

Red 10 HIGH MATCH 0

Pink 9 HIGH MATCH 46

Dark Green 8 HIGH MATCH 262

Mid Green 7 MOD MATCH 299

Lime Green 6 MOD MATCH 160

Yellow 5 MOD MATCH 301

Blue 4 LOW MATCH 735

Light blue 3 LOW MATCH 940

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European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 26 Vertebrate Pests Committee Threat Categories (Natural Resource Management Standing Committee 2004)

VPC Threat Category - A species’ VPC Threat Category is determined from the various combinations of its three risk ranks; (A) Public safety risk rank, (B) Establishment risk rank, (C) Pest risk rank. B. Establishment Risk C. Pest Risk Rank1 A. Public Safety Risk Rank Threat Category Rank1 Extreme Extreme Highly Dangerous, Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Extreme Extreme High Highly Dangerous, Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Extreme Extreme Moderate Highly Dangerous, Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Extreme Extreme Low Highly Dangerous, Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Extreme High Extreme Highly Dangerous, Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Extreme High High Highly Dangerous, Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Extreme High Moderate Highly Dangerous, Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Serious High Low Highly Dangerous, Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Serious Moderate Extreme Highly Dangerous, Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Extreme Moderate High Highly Dangerous, Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Serious Moderate Moderate Highly Dangerous Serious Moderate Moderate Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Moderate Moderate Low Highly Dangerous Serious Moderate Low Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Moderate Low Extreme Highly Dangerous, Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Serious Low High Highly Dangerous, Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Serious Low Moderate Highly Dangerous Serious Low Moderate Moderately Dangerous or Not Dangerous Moderate Low Low Highly Dangerous Serious Low Low Moderately Dangerous Moderate Low Low Not Dangerous Low

1 ‘Establishment Risk’ is referred to as the ‘Establishment Likelihood’ and ‘Pest Risk’ is referred to as the ‘Establishment Consequences’ by the Natural Resource Management Standing Committee (2004).

European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page and Marion Massam, August 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. 27