MISSOURI HISTORICAL REVIEW

THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF MISSOURI The State Historical Society of Missouri, heretofore organized under the laws of the State, shall be the trustee of this State-Laws of Missouri, 1899, R.S. of Mo., 1969, chapter 183, as revised 1978. OFFICERS, 1995-1998 H. RILEY BOCK, New Madrid, President JAMES C OLSON, Kansas City, First Vice President SHERIDAN A. LOGAN, St. Joseph, Second Vice President VIRGINIA G. YOUNG, Columbia, Third Vice President NOBLE E. CUNNINGHAM, Columbia, Fourth Vice President R. KENNETH ELLIOTT, Liberty, Fifth Vice President ROBERT G. J. HOESTER, Kirkwood, Sixth Vice President ALBERT M. PRICE, Columbia, Treasurer JAMES W. GOODRICH, Columbia, Executive Director, Secretary, and Librarian

PERMANENT TRUSTEES FORMER PRESIDENTS OF THE SOCIETY WILLIAM AULL III, Lexington ROBERT C. SMITH, Columbia FRANCIS M. BARNES III, Kirkwood AVIS G. TUCKER, Warrensburg LEO J. ROZIER, Perryville

TRUSTEES, 1994-1997 JOHN K. HULSTON, Springfield ARVARH E. STRICKLAND, Columbia JAMES B. NUTTER, Kansas City BLANCHE M. TOUHILL, St. Louis BOB PRIDDY, Jefferson City HENRY J. WATERS III, Columbia DALE REESMAN, Boonville

TRUSTEES, 1995-1998 WALTER ALLEN, Brookfield R. CROSBY KEMPER III, St. Louis JAMES A. BARNES, Raytown VIRGINIA LAAS, Joplin VERA F. BURK, Kirksville EMORY MELTON, Cassville RICHARD DECOSTER, Canton DOYLE PATTERSON, Kansas City

TRUSTEES, 1996-1999 HENRIETTA AMBROSE, Webster Groves JAMES R. MAYO, Bloomfield BRUCE H. BECKETT, Columbia W. GRANT MCMURRAY, Independence CHARLES B. BROWN, Kennett THOMAS L. MILLER SR., Washington LAWRENCE O. CHRISTENSEN, Rolla

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Eight trustees elected by the board of trustees, together with the president of the Society, consti­ tute the executive committee. The executive director of the Society serves as an ex officio member. WILLIAM AULL III, Lexington, Chairman JAMES C. OLSON, Kansas City FRANCIS M. BARNES III, Kirkwood ROBERT C. SMITH, Columbia H. RILEY BOCK, New Madrid Avis G. TUCKER, Warrensburg VERA F. BURK, Kirksville VIRGINIA G. YOUNG, Columbia LAWRENCE O. CHRISTENSEN, Rolla MISSOURI HISTORICAL REVIEW

VOLUME XCII, NUMBER 1 OCTOBER 1997

JAMES W. GOODRICH LYNN WOLF GENTZLER Editor Associate Editor

ANN L. ROGERS LISA FRICK Research Assistant Research Assistant

The MISSOURI HISTORICAL REVIEW (ISSN 0026-6582) is published quarterly by the State Historical Society of Missouri, 1020 Lowry Street, Columbia, MO 65201-7298. Receipt of the MISSOURI HISTORICAL REVIEW is a benefit of membership in the State Historical Society of Missouri. Phone (573) 882-7083; fax (573) 884-4950; e-mail [email protected]. Periodicals postage is paid at Columbia, Missouri. POSTMASTERS: Send address changes to MISSOURI HISTORICAL REVIEW, 1020 Lowry Street, Columbia, MO 65201-7298. Copyright © 1997 by The State Historical Society of Missouri

COVER DESCRIPTION: Aviators Albert Berry (left), Tony Jannus, and Tom Benoist pose in front of a Benoist plane. Thomas Reilly provides a glimpse into the early Missouri aviation indus­ try in "Tom Benoist: Pioneer Early Bird of St. Louis," which begins on page 45. [Cover pho­ tograph courtesy of Thomas Reilly] EDITORIAL POLICY The editors of the Missouri Historical Review welcome submission of articles and documents relating to the history of Missouri. Any aspect of Missouri history will be con­ sidered for publication in the Review. Genealogical studies, however, are not accepted because of limited appeal to general readers. Manuscripts pertaining to all fields of American history will be considered if the subject matter has significant relevance to the history of Missouri or the West.

Authors should submit two double-spaced copies of their manuscripts. The foot­ notes, prepared according to The Chicago Manual of Style, also should be double-spaced and placed at the end of the text. Authors may submit manuscripts on disk. The disk must be IBM compatible, preferably in WordPerfect. Two hard copies still are required, and the print must be letter or near-letter quality. Dot matrix submissions will not be accept­ ed. Originality of subject, general interest of the article, sources used, interpretation, and style are criteria for acceptance and publication. Manuscripts should not exceed 7,500 words. Articles that are accepted for publication become the property of the State Historical Society of Missouri and may not be published elsewhere without permission. The Society does not accept responsibility for statements of fact or opinion made by the authors.

Articles published in the Missouri Historical Review are abstracted and indexed in Historical Abstracts, America: History and Life, Recently Published Articles, Writings on American History, The Western Historical Quarterly, and The Journal of American History.

Manuscripts submitted for the Review should be addressed to Dr. James W. Goodrich, Editor, Missouri Historical Review, State Historical Society of Missouri, 1020 Lowry Street, Columbia, Missouri 65201-7298.

BOARD OF EDITORS

LAWRENCE O. CHRISTENSEN SUSAN M. HARTMANN University of Missouri-Rolla Ohio State University Columbus

WILLIAM E. FOLEY ALAN R. HAVIG Central Missouri State University Stephens College Warrensburg Columbia

JEAN TYREE HAMILTON DAVID D. MARCH Marshall Kirksville

ARVARH E. STRICKLAND University of Missouri-Columbia CONTENTS

"AMIDST TRIALS AND TROUBLES": CAPTAIN SAMUEL CHURCHILL CLARK, C.S.A. By William C. Winter 1

CAISSONS AND CALAMITY: THE TRAGEDY AND TRIUMPH OF EADS BRIDGE. By Kelli Richardson 18

"OUR SCHOOLS ARE NOT CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS": CLASS, GENDER, ETHNICITY, AND THE TEACHING PROFESSION IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY ST. LOUIS. By Stephen L. Mclntyre 27

TOM BENOIST: PIONEER EARLY BIRD OF ST. LOUIS. By Thomas Reilly 45

HISTORICAL NOTES AND COMMENTS

Society to Celebrate Centennial in 1998 61

Society Libraries: Reference Library 62

News in Brief 64

Local Historical Societies 67

Gifts Relating to Missouri 77

Missouri History in Newspapers 79

Missouri History in Magazines 87

In Memoriam 93

BOOK REVIEWS 95

Horsman, Reginald. Frontier Doctor: William Beaumont, America's First Great Medical Scientist. Reviewed by Cynthia DeHaven Pitcock. Greene, Lorenzo J., and ed. with an introduction by Arvarh E. Strickland. Selling Black History for Carter G Woodson: A Diary, 1930-1933. Reviewed by Lawrence O. Christensen. Kaufman, Kenneth C. Dred Scott's Advocate: A Biography of Roswell M. Field. Reviewed by Gary R. Kremer. Pickle, Linda Schelbitzki. Contented among Strangers: Rural German-Speaking Women and Their Families in the Nineteenth-Century Midwest. Reviewed by Janice Brandon-Falcone.

BOOK NOTES 101

Vergara, George L. Hugh Robinson: Pioneer Aviator. History and Families of Mississippi County, Missouri, 1845-1995. Ponder, Jerry. The Civil War Battle of Fredericktown, Missouri. Henson, Anna Marie Dieckmann. St. Clement Parish, Bowling Green, Missouri: Family of Faith, 1871-1996. Dains, Mary K. Guided by the Hand of God: The History of the First Christian Church, Columbia, Missouri, 1832-1996. McGlaughlin, Lenard Douglas. A Century of Faith, Pioneers in Missions: A History of Cuivre Baptist Association, 1891-1991. McMillan, Margot Ford. A to Z Missouri: The Dictionary of Missouri Place Names. Douglas County, Missouri: History & Families, 1857-1995. Eakin, Joanne Chiles. Tears and Turmoil: Order No. 11. Farley, James W. Forgotten Valor: The First Missouri Cavalry Regiment, C.S.A. Ring, Lucile Wiley. Breaking the Barriers: The St. Louis Legacy of Women in Law, 1869-1969. Clevenger, Martha R., ed. i(Indescribably Grand": Diaries and Letters from the 1904 World's Fair.

CONTRIBUTORS TO MISSOURI CULTURE: HOWARD NEMEROV Inside back cover Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis "Amidst Trials and Troubles": Captain Samuel Churchill Clark, C.S.A.

BY WILLIAM C. WINTER*

"I felt a little queer when I saw the stars and stripes fall by my own hand," he would write to his Aunt Amelia, "but still went on." Samuel Churchill Clark had been a cadet at the United States Military Academy until July 1861. Upon completion of his second year as a cadet, he left West Point and returned home to Missouri, joining General Sterling Price and the pro- Southern Missouri State Guard in time to command a three-gun battery at the siege of Lexington on September 18, 1861.*

*William C. Winter works for Southwestern Bell in St. Louis. He received a B.S. degree from the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, and an M.B.A. degree from Michigan State University, East Lansing. Copyright of this article is retained by William C. Winter, 1997. 1 Samuel Churchill Clark to "My Beloved Aunt" [Mrs. Amelia (Samuel B.) Churchill], 25 January 1862, George Rogers and William Clark Family Papers, box 6, fol. 24, Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis. Hereinafter cited as Clark Family Papers.

1 2 Missouri Historical Review

Missouri State Guard General James Rains promised "a gold meddle," as Clark described it, to the artilleryman who could knock down the large U.S. flag flying at the southeast corner of the fortifications around the Masonic College in which the Union forces had barricaded themselves. Clark responded with youthful enthusiasm. He boyishly described the action to his aunt: ". . . the way I made the Feds scatter in their trenches was amusing. I did more execution than anyone else. My battery had a good position and tore the college nearly to pieces." He won the gold medal for his efforts.2 Secure in his Christian faith, confident of the rightness of the Southern cause, and filled with the energy and optimism of youth, Clark had joined family and friends in armed resistance against federal authority in Missouri. "Conquer or die" was his motto, he told his aunt, "and die I will before they shall take me unless it is in very extreme circumstances."3 His words proved prophetic. After only nine months as a Confederate soldier, he would be killed in action at Pea Ridge, Arkansas. Samuel Churchill Clark was born in St. Louis on September 12, 1842, the second son of Abigail Prather Hancock and Meriwether Lewis Clark. The couple's only daughter died in 1847 at the age of two while her father was serving with Missouri's volunteers in the Mexican War. After the war, Clark was appointed surveyor-general for Illinois and Missouri, but on January 14, 1852, Abigail died four days after giving birth to their seventh child and sixth son in little more than twelve years.4 Left with six sons to raise, Meriwether Clark worried that his children would not experience a normal family life or be educated with those of their own age, so he distributed the younger ones among his relatives, who it seems were readily willing to share the burden. Uncle John Churchill in Louisville cared for one of Churchill's younger brothers, Meriwether Lewis Clark, Jr., who would later obtain a parcel of land from the Churchill family on which he would found Churchill Downs and the Kentucky Derby. In 1859, Samuel Churchill Clark, called Churchill or Churchy by the family, was sent to West Point. The next year, his older brother, William, left home to join the U.S. Navy and the USS Dacotah, where he remained under the protective eye of Captain William Radford, the ship's commander and a rel­ ative of his father by marriage. After the outbreak of the war in 1861, Federal authorities imprisoned William for his secessionist sympathies.5

2 U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1880- 1902), ser. 1, vol. 3: 189. Hereinafter cited as Official Records. Clark to "My Beloved Aunt." 3 Clark to "My Beloved Aunt." 4 Elliot Coues, ed., The History of the Expedition Under the Command of Lewis and Clark (New York: Francis P. Harper, 1893), 1: xvi. 5 Frances Hurd Stadler, "Letters from Minoma," Bulletin of the Missouri Historical Society 16 (April 1960): 249, 259, 288. Meriwether Lewis Clark was the son of William Clark and his first wife, Julia Hancock. William Radford was the son of John Radford and his first wife, "Amidst Trials and Troubles" 3

Churchill Clark had little difficulty in securing an "at large" appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point. Missouri Senator Trusten Polk, one of several family acquaintances who wrote on his behalf to President James Buchanan, elaborated on young Clark's illustrious genealo­ gy. Not only the son of former Major Meriwether Lewis Clark, a graduate of West Point in 1830 who had "rendered distinguished service" in the war with Mexico, Churchill Clark was also the grandson of General William Clark of the Lewis and Clark expedition and the grandnephew of General George Rogers Clark, a hero of the American Revolution.6 As Clark awaited the prospect of his first lengthy separation from his family, events added to his uncertainty about the future. In October 1858, the curriculum at West Point had been reduced to four years, ending a brief experiment with a five-year program. Clark accepted his appointment as a cadet in the four-year course of study on March 30, 1859, but two weeks later Secretary of War John Floyd changed his mind about shortening the program and reinstated the five-year curriculum.7 On April 25, 1859, Clark was confirmed at St. Paul's Church, an Episcopal church in St. Louis. He left St. Louis for West Point on June 15, 1859, bearing a gilt-edged Bible bound in blue leather given to him by his father. At sixteen, he was one of the youngest members of the Class of 1864.8 Superintendent Richard Delafield and Commandant of Cadets William J. Hardee, a future corps commander in the Confederate army, supervised the operations of the military academy. In their first summer at West Point, the new fifth classmen, the plebes, were taught the rudiments of infantry drill and received two weeks of marksmanship instruction with the rifled musket. When classes began in the fall, they studied mathematics in the morning; English, geography, and history in the afternoon; and fencing after that. Clark's first half-year was successful, and on January 21, 1860, he received his warrant as a cadet of the U.S. Military Academy, retroactively effective from July 1, 1859.9

Harriet Kennerly. After Julia Hancock's death and John Radford's death, William Clark mar­ ried Harriet Kennerly Radford, bringing Meriwether Clark and William Radford into the same family tree. Coues, History of the Expedition, 1: xiv-xvii. 6 Trusten Polk to James Buchanan, 9 December 1858, Admission Papers, United States Military Academy, West Point, New York. On January 10, 1862, Polk resigned from his seat in the U.S. Senate and joined the Confederate army. William C. Winter, The Civil War in St. Louis: A Guided Tour (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1994), 127. 7 James L. Morrison, Jr., "The Best School in the World": West Point, the Pre-Civil War Years, 1833-1866 (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1986), 123. 8 Charles F. Rehkopf, Episcopal Church, Diocese of Missouri, to author, 10 February 1989; memorandum by M. L. Clark, box 6, fol. 24, Clark Family Papers; Official Register of the Officers and Cadets of the U.S. Military Academy (West Point, New York, 1860), 15-16. 9 Morrison, "Best School in the World," 118; Mary Elizabeth Sergent, They Lie Forgotten: The United States Military Academy 1856-1861 (New York: Prior King Press, 1986), 38; cadet appointment, S. C. Clark, box 6, fol. 20, Clark Family Papers. Missouri Historical Review

Filson Club Historical Society A widower at age forty-three, Meriwether Lewis Clark solicit­ ed help from his relatives to raise his six sons.

At the end of his first year, Clark stood at the mid-point of the fifth class of forty-eight cadets: twenty-second in English studies, twenty-third in math­ ematics, and twenty-fourth overall. Considering that nearly all of the mem­ bers of the Class of 1864 were older than he, his academic achievements were very good. His father described the news with paternal pride to his son William: "Churchy has by his conduct given me very great happiness altho he does not stand so high in his studies as I had anticipated and hoped, how­ ever he may yet get up higher in his class which would gratify my pride very much as you may well believe."10 Near the end of his yearlong status as a plebe, Clark wrote a long, thoughtful letter to William, who had just completed his maiden voyage aboard the USS Dacotah and was involved in preparations that would soon take him to Capetown on the way to Hong Kong. "I am indeed glad that you have at last yourself in the presence of God and man renounced the Devil and all his works," he told his older brother. "You do not know how much hap­ pier a man feels when he feels that he has God on his right hand and his own moral worth on the other." To this personal confession, he added a prescrip-

Official Register, 15; Stadler, "Letters from Minoma," 249. "Amidst Trials and Troubles " 5 tion for his brother's spiritual development: "Think of Him in your watches and in your bed at night, and moreover think of what you have done during the day, whether right or wrong, and if wrong pray God's forgiveness and thus by progressing morally you will become better and better in your own heart day by day, and in the greatest trouble God will aid you."11 "I am here amidst trials and troubles," he said of his experience at West Point, "and there are plenty of them too." He confided, "I have already taken my stand here and am endeavoring to draw my room mate into the fold of Christ Jesus." Three months later, he elaborated: "Try my dear Brother; see if you could be instrumental in saving a soul from Hell's fire. How consol­ ing that will be in the day of Judgment. That has been my aim and by God's grace I have succeeded in helping to convert some two or three cadets."12 Despite his evangelistic fervor, Clark was not immune to the joys of haz­ ing new cadets at West Point. Now a fourth classman, he gleefully joined his classmates in "devilling" the plebes while they walked guard duty, teaching them the lessons that he no doubt had been taught. A favorite prank was to tie a plebe sentinel to a tree, gag him, and leave him until the guard relief made its rounds and found him.13 Clark had hoped to be promoted to "a tolerable high corporal" when the cadet leaders were announced for the coming academic year. Unfortunately, Lieutenant Alexander McCook caught Clark hazing new cadets ("he hived me running it on plebes," he wrote to William) and struck Cadet Clark's name from the promotion list. The young man rationalized this setback as being all for the best: corporals had to walk the company grounds every night dur­ ing the summer encampment to ensure that no one was pestering the plebes, an additional duty that Clark would not be required to perform.14 John F. Reynolds, a future Union corps commander, succeeded Hardee as the commandant of cadets in September 1860, but other events quickly overcame the inevitable gossip about the change in leadership. On October 15 the Prince of Wales arrived at West Point. His visit, the social and media event of the year, was part of a short side trip to the United States during an official visit to Canada. The cadets stood uncomfortably for three hours on damp ground without overcoats before marching in review, presenting the

11 Clark to "My dear Brother" [William Hancock Clark], 30 May 1860, box 6, fol. 20, Clark Family Papers. 12 Ibid.; Clark to "My dear dear Brother," 22 August 1860, box 6, fol. 21, ibid. 13 Clark to "My dear dear Brother," 22 August 1860. 14 Clark to "My dear Brother," 30 May, 27 June 1860, box 6, fols. 20, 21, Clark Family Papers. First Lieutenant Alexander McDowell McCook, Third Infantry, was an assistant instructor of infantry tactics on the United States Military Academy staff. During the Civil War, McCook rose to the rank of major general, making him the highest ranking of the "Fighting McCooks" of Ohio, the seven sons of Daniel McCook and their seven cousins who served in the Union army and navy. Patricia L. Faust, ed., Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War (New York: Harper and Row, 1986), 258-259. 6 Missouri Historical Review

Prince of Wales with what one cadet proudly called "the prettiest military spectacle he ever will have the chance to see."15 The excitement from the royal visit had hardly died down before the cadets' world was thrown into turmoil. On November 6, 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president; four days later South Carolina's legislature called for a state convention to consider secession. Missouri voters gave Lincoln barely 10 percent of the popular vote, the least of any of the four presidential candidates. Northern Democrat Stephen A. Douglas and his conservative doctrine of popular sovereignty carried the state, edging out the moderate Constitutional Union candidate, John Bell. Cadet Clark, though too young to vote, had hoped for the election of anyone but the abolitionist Lincoln.16 Speculating on South Carolina's most likely action and its impact on national events, Churchill Clark wrote to his father and asked for permission to resign from the academy. The Clarks, slaveholders, supported the Democratic Party in Missouri and had family ties to the southern states. Meriwether Lewis Clark refused his son's request, arguing that if Churchill left West Point, he "had not the wherewith to educate him elsewhere." Cadet Clark thought about his father's concerns and wrote back to explain that he had reconsidered. Since he had been appointed "at large" by President James Buchanan himself, he considered it his duty "to stick to the flag of his coun­ try." South Carolina could "look out for itself in these treasonable times." While Churchill and his father corresponded, the Corps of Cadets experi­ enced its first casualty over the secession crisis: Cadet Henry S. Farley, Class of 1862, of South Carolina, resigned on November 19, I860.17 Disappointed in the behavior of nearly everyone during the secession winter of 1860-1861, Churchill's father believed he knew how to settle the spreading crisis: "My own feeling is that both the South & North are wrong & have gone too far in their abuse of each other & should retract & if not the Great West. . . should consider the South & North as two very naughty boys quarrelling," first warning them and then, if their behavior did not improve, settling things by "chucking their heads together."18 After the surrender at Fort Sumter in April 1861, West Point officials received permission from the War Department to graduate the Class of 1861 early. On May 6 the class marched to the West Point library to repeat the oath of allegiance to the United States, receive their diplomas, and hear an order sending them directly to Washington, D.C, without the customary leave.

15 Edward Albert, the Prince of Wales, was the oldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and the future King Edward VII. Sergent, They Lie Forgotten, 87. 16 Clark to "My dear dear Brother," 22 August 1860. 17 Stadler, "Letters from Minoma," 249; Sergent, They Lie Forgotten, 90. On April 12, 1861, Farley fired the signal shot into the early morning sky over Charleston harbor, initiating the bombardment of Fort Sumter. Ibid., 95. 18 Stadler, "Letters from Minoma," 258. "Amidst Trials and Troubles " 1

The cadets repeated the procedure the next month when the Class of 1862 was graduated a year early to meet the anticipated needs of the army in the spreading conflict.19 Several graduates of the Classes of 1861 and 1862 left federal service for the Confederacy immediately after receiving their commissions. In July, incensed by this behavior, an angry U.S. House of Representatives modified the oath of allegiance to include the promise "that I will maintain and defend the sovereignty of the United States, paramount to any and all allegiance, sovereignty, or fealty I may owe to any State, county, or country whatsoever."20 Before he was forced to face the dilemma of whether to repeat the new oath of allegiance, Clark received authorization for a sixty-day leave of absence. On July 1, 1861, he left for home. He would not return to West Point.21 In the preceding two months, events in St. Louis had moved from crisis to crisis. On May 10, Captain Nathaniel Lyon and Francis Preston Blair, Jr., the Republican congressman representing St. Louis and now a colonel of U.S. volunteers, led eight thousand citizen-soldiers and a few hundred U.S. regulars to surround the Missouri Volunteer Militia encamped at Camp Jackson on the city's western edge. In the opinion of Unionist adherents, the militia, assembled at the lawful call of Claiborne Jackson, Missouri's pro- secession governor, represented a threat to the security of the U.S. Arsenal. The Missouri militia surrendered without incident, but an unruly crowd of onlookers and many of the unsteady Union volunteers clashed. Nearly three dozen St. Louisans died at the hands of Lyon's troops.22 The next day, General William S. Harney returned from Washington, D.C, to resume command and restore public confidence. Harney and Sterling Price, a former governor and now the commanding general of Governor Jackson's Missouri State Guard, announced an agreement on May 22 to maintain peace within the state. Despite their intentions, "fresh acts of disloyalty and outrage" continued around the state, and the Price-Harney agreement prevented Federal authorities from dealing with them.23 Blair and other unconditional Unionists were convinced that the only remedy was

19 Sergent, They Lie Forgotten, 99, 101-102. 20 Morrison, "Best School in the World," 135; Morris Schaff, The Spirit of Old West Point, 1858-1862 (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1947), 277. 21 Post Orders No. 6, 29 June 1861, Archives, United States Military Academy. A manu­ script roster for the "Cadets Admitted for 1859" notes that Clark was dropped from the rolls on August 28, 1861, in accordance with paragraph 81, academy regulations. Paragraph 81 required that "any Cadet who shall fail to join the Academy at the expiration of his leave of absence, and shall remain absent for a longer period than two months, shall be dropped from the rolls." Regulations for the U.S. Military Academy at West Point (New York: John F. Trow, 1857), 39. 22 Winter, The Civil War in St. Louis, 34-37, 51-53. 23 John McElroy, The Struggle for Missouri (Washington, D.C: National Tribune Company, 1909), 99. Missouri Historical Review

State Historical Society of Missouri

Fifth and Walnut Streets, St. Louis, May 11, 1861

Harney's removal, and on May 30, a letter from President Lincoln accom­ plished that. Lyon, promoted from captain to brigadier general of volunteers on May 18, was put in command. Harney's removal and Lyon's ascendancy sent many of the city's conservative Unionists into a state of alarm— members of Clark's family among them. Lyon wasted no time in asserting authority. Fearing renewed hostilities, moderate Missourians convinced Governor Jackson and General Price to meet with General Lyon and Congressman Blair in St. Louis on June 11. Jackson, already piqued that a new brigadier demanded that the state's chief executive meet with him in St. Louis rather than in Jefferson City, conceded little from his demands for armed neutrality for the state. Lyon argued every point with Jackson, finally concluding that "neutrality" could only be main­ tained by force of federal arms. After four hours, Lyon abruptly concluded the discussion, and Missouri was at war with the federal government. When Cadet Clark arrived in St. Louis in early July, Southern sympa­ thizers throughout the city were contemplating their courses of action. After conferring with his family, Churchill headed east to Richmond to file his application for a Confederate commission. From Richmond, he carried dis­ patches to Memphis, and from Memphis he carried dispatches from Confederate Major General Leonidas Polk to Major General Sterling Price at Lexington. Churchill Clark arrived at Lexington on September 13, 1861, one day after his nineteenth birthday.24

Clark to "My Beloved Aunt.' "Amidst Trials and Troubles" 9

While Clark had been impatiently traveling to Richmond, on August 10, 1861, the Missouri State Guard under Price and Confederate forces under Brigadier General Ben McCulloch had decisively repulsed an attack led by General Lyon on their camp at Wilson's Creek, southwest of Springfield. Lyon was killed in the battle, and the Union forces retreated eastward to regroup. Missouri, despite the sympathies and recent actions of its governor, was not yet officially a Confederate state, and McCulloch was reluctant to cooperate with the Missouri State Guard in a pursuit farther into the state's interior. Price decided to take matters into his own hands and began a move north toward the Missouri River, gathering recruits for the State Guard in the process. The strength of the Guard, "an army without any pretense of uni­ form of any kind," grew daily and would soon reach its zenith. Missourians of Southern sympathy were doing their best to rally behind Missouri's flag. One of them was former cadet Churchill Clark.25 Earlier that summer, "the wide and beautiful campus" of the old Masonic College that sat on a bluff north of Lexington's town center had been used to drill those townsmen who had "an eager impulse towards matters military, without however, any pronounced feeling of taking the side of either the North or South." Federal troops put an end to this period of peaceful coex­ istence when they arrived in late August and made the college their head­ quarters. Colonel James A. Mulligan and the Twenty-third Illinois Infantry arrived in early September to reinforce the garrison. Mulligan, the senior Union officer present, took command.26 On September 12, 1861, cavalry of the Missouri State Guard skirmished with Union pickets near the town. The cavalry was the advance guard of Price's force of some eighteen thousand men. As the State Guard infantry and artillery arrived, the Union forces retreated into their fortifications. Colonel Mulligan and thirty-five hundred Union soldiers manned the entrenchments encircling the grounds of the college, awaiting the outcome.27 Clark arrived at Lexington the next day and enlisted as a private in the State Guard. While at West Point, Clark had written to his brother to explain that, although the artillery drill was the most demanding, he liked it "better than any other." "I know all about the drill now," he wrote, "and know all of the duties of the cannoneers perfectly and could even teach them to anybody if I was required to." His friends in Price's army knew of his recent military training, and his youthful enthusiasm was obvious, so he soon found himself

25 Susan Austin Arnold McCausland, "The Battle of Lexington as Seen by a Woman," Missouri Historical Review 6 (April 1912): 131. 26 Ibid., 127. 27 Thomas L. Snead, "The First Year of the War in Missouri," in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, ed. Clarence Clough Buel and Robert Underwood Johnson (1887; reprint, New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1956), 1: 273; Albert Castel, General Sterling Price and the Civil War in the West (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), 50. 10 Missouri Historical Review in charge of an iron six-pound gun and a willing crew. By September 18, when the siege of Lexington began in earnest, Clark was an "acting captain" supervising three six-pound artillery pieces and their cannoneers.28 On the morning of September 18, General James Rains met with his two artillery commanders, Emmett MacDonald and Churchill Clark, and made an offer of a gold medal for knocking down the federal flag flying on the south­ east corner of Mulligan's entrenchments. Clark, "whose gallantry and effi­ ciency were justly spoken of by all," quickly won the prize.29 Missouri State Guard Colonel John F. Snyder and Captain Hiram Bledsoe stood talking when a young man "hardly more than a boy" approached and asked whether they had any undersized six-pound shot. The young man, Churchill Clark, wanted to heat the shot for a cannon in his charge. Clark's initiative impressed Snyder, who had been a district inspector general for the Missouri Volunteer Militia in the prewar years. Clark had rigged a blacksmith's forge to heat the shot and planned to use the heated shot against the shingle roof and wooden gables of the college. As an aiming point, Clark's men used the Masonic emblem, the compass and square enclosing the all-seeing eye, painted on the gables. Several shots struck home, falling through to the floor where they were scooped up and thrown out the windows by the anxious defenders. Nightfall brought an end to the experiment.30 The next day saw intermittent skirmishing and shelling while Price, fear­ ing the arrival of Federal reinforcements, deliberated whether to assault Mulligan's works. Late in the day, some Missourians on the western side of the siege began using hemp bales as moveable breastworks. By morning on September 20, dozens of hemp bales were in position and being rolled slow­ ly toward the Federals. The Missourians had discovered that the bales, when wet, were nearly impenetrable to bullets and shot. After several hours of work, the Missourians were dangerously close to the Federal lines. With their ammunition dwindling and their water and rations nearly gone, the Union forces had little choice. Colonel Mulligan surrendered.31 On September 29, Price's army marched south from Lexington toward the Osage River. "During our two weeks' stay in the vicinity of Lexington the army ate up nearly all the food in the country," recalled one veteran. The ranks of the State Guard began to thin as the army moved south, and soon the Guard dwindled from eighteen thousand to barely seven thousand soldiers. "Our brilliant achievement at Lexington was barren of results," wrote

28 Clark to "My dear dear Brother," 22 August 1860. 29 Official Records, 3: 189. 30 John F. Snyder, "The Capture of Lexington," Missouri Historical Review 7 (October 1912): 3-4. 31 James A. Mulligan, "The Siege of Lexington, Mo.," in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, 1: 312. "Amidst Trials and Troubles" 11 12 Missouri Historical Review

Colonel Snyder after the war, "save to demonstrate the fact that the sentiment of Missouri was not in harmony with the secession movement."32 About the time his son was battering the Masonic College in Lexington, Meriwether Clark left his home in St. Louis to join the Missouri State Guard as a brigadier general. Clark's post as the commander of the Ninth Division was largely titular. Governor Jackson had organized the State Guard with one division and one brigadier general for each of the state's congressional districts. Clark's district, St. Louis County, had been the only district in Missouri to elect a Republican to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1860 and, later that year, was one of only two Missouri counties to be carried by Abraham Lincoln in the presidential election. In April and May of 1861, then Captain Lyon and Congressman Blair had raised ten full infantry regiments there for the Union army, largely from German-American volunteers. Opportunities for recruiting for the Missouri State Guard in Clark's district, now under tight Union control, were few. As father explained to son, "Of the 5,000 [Confederate sympathizers] sent out from St. Louis, I can find but few, the most part being scattered abroad amongst the forces of Pillow, Hardee" and other State Guard divisions. Despite the recruiting difficulties, General Clark did what he could, meeting with Generals Albert Sidney Johnston and Leonidas Polk in Columbus, Kentucky, in October. Meriwether Clark was proud of Churchill "for the noble stand" he had taken "in the cause of our country" and offered him a position on his staff as a lieutenant colonel.33 By the time his father's offer for a staff position reached him, Churchill Clark was thoroughly comfortable in his role as a battery commander. He reported to his father that he was now a captain of artillery in Brigadier General William Y. Slack's Fourth Division of the Missouri State Guard. Slack, most recently a lawyer, was "a very clever and brave man but not a military one," Clark explained. It no doubt pleased Meriwether Clark, an artillery commander in the Mexican War, that his son was now entrusted with four cannons: two six-pound guns, one iron and one brass, and two twelve- pound howitzers.34

32 Milo Quaife, ed., Absalom Grimes, Confederate Mail Runner (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1926), 24-25; Castel, General Sterling Price, 65; Snyder, "The Capture of Lexington," 8. Should Snyder's assessment be questioned, it should be noted that he was a sup­ porter of John Breckinridge in 1860. Long after the war, he added a note to a letter written to him by Thomas J. Bishop in June 1860, urging him to support Stephen Douglas: "After 24 years I. . . now acknowledge that, as a matter of policy, I was wrong ... I mean that the best policy for the Democracy to have pursued would have been to unite on Douglas. But, at last, the elec­ tion of Douglas would only have resulted in postponing the evil day for four years." John F. Snyder Papers, box 2-3, Missouri Historical Society. 33 Meriwether Lewis Clark to "My Beloved Son" [Samuel Churchill Clark], 12 October 1861, box 6, fol. 23, Clark Family Papers. Generals Gideon Johnson Pillow and William Joseph Hardee commanded Confederate troops in western Tennessee and eastern Arkansas. 34 Clark to "My Beloved Father" [Meriwether Lewis Clark], 5 November 1861, box 6, fol. 23, ibid. "Amidst Trials and Troubles " 13 Clark heard from the War Department in Richmond in November. He had been appointed a cadet in the Army of the Confederacy. During the win­ ter, Price was informed that he could begin enrolling men for the Confederate national service. By the end of January 1862, Price reported that sufficient volunteers for two infantry regiments, one cavalry regiment, and two batter­ ies had made the transition to Confederate service. The small brigade was commanded by Colonel Lewis Henry Little, a Marylander and a former U.S. Army officer who had been serving at Jefferson Barracks in early 1861. Clark was elected captain and commanding officer of the Second Missouri Artillery, C.S.A.35

35 Compiled Service Records of Confederate Soldiers Who Served in Organizations from the State of Missouri, record group 109, micro 322, reel 87, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereinafter cited as Compiled Service Records); John C. Moore, Missouri, vol. 12 of Confederate Military History Extended Edition, ed. Clement A. Evans (1899; reprint, Wilmington, N.C.: Broadfoot Publishing Company, 1988), 73.

Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis

Meriwether Lewis Clark served as a brigadier general in the Missouri State Guard. 14 Missouri Historical Review

Federal pressure in mid-February soon had the pro-Southern Missourians withdrawing southwest from Springfield. Clark's battery and the battery of Captain William Wade accompanied Colonel Little and his small brigade as the army's rear guard. Clark and Wade turned the retreat into a contest, contending for the honor of holding the rearmost position. They settled the game by agreeing to take turns daily as long as the retreat continued.36 The Missourians reached Keetsville (now Washburn) on February 16, "tired of retreating, completely broken down, weary, and foot-sore" and still a day's march from Arkansas. After a few hours rest, the troops went on the move again. The Union pursuit was only seven miles behind. Little's brigade and Clark's battery left their camps first to form a line of battle in the tree line on the brow of a hill, watching over Price's soldiers as they continued their move southward. Clark positioned his battery on the side of the road to command the Union line of approach. When the Federal cavalry came into sight, Clark's voice rang out, "Cannoneers, to your posts." Next came his commands, "Ready, aim, fire." The four guns of his battery seemed to bark as one, and the Union column recoiled in disorder. A cheer rose from Clark's command before a second salvo, more effective than the first, swept through the enemy ranks. The Federals were forced to unlimber their own artillery and delay their advance until the infantry could deploy. The Confederate withdrawal resumed, and on the next day, the Missourians whistled and sang "The Arkansas Traveller" as they crossed the state line into Arkansas.37 The young artillerist had become a favorite among the men. An admiring infantryman described him as he appeared at the time:

There he stands, just behind his battery, in company with part of his men, around some smouldering embers, parching corn from an ear which he is holding in his hand. His appearance is boyish, he cannot be over seventeen or eighteen, rather small and delicately formed; his features are regular and

36 Ephraim McD. Anderson, Memoirs: Historical and Personal; including the Campaigns of the First Missouri Confederate Brigade (1868; reprint, Dayton, Ohio: Morningside Bookshop, 1972), 144. 37 The Barry County town of Keetsville was destroyed during the Civil War. It was rebuilt in 1868 and renamed Washburn. Anderson, Memoirs, 148-149; Moore, Missouri, 76-77; Edwin C. Bearss, "From Rolla to Fayetteville with General Curtis," Arkansas Historical Quarterly 19 (autumn 1960): 248-250. The Federal riders were from the Third Illinois Cavalry, leading the advance of Colonel Eugene A. Carr's division. J. H. McNamara, "The Sixth Division [Missouri State Guard]," St. Louis Missouri Republican, 19 October 1883. McNamara praised Clark as "the Pelham of our army," a postwar accolade given in honor of John Pelham, commander of General Jeb Stuart's horse artillery in the Army of Northern Virginia. Pelham graduated from West Point in 1861, while Clark was an underclassman, and went to Virginia to command a bat­ tery. He rose to prominence in December 1862 for his bravery in the Battle of Fredericksburg, nine months after Clark's death. On March 17, 1863, Pelham was killed in action. Given the circumstances and timing, it might be more appropriate for Virginians to refer to Pelham as "the Churchill Clark of our army." Robert K. Krick, Lee's Colonels: A Biographical Registry of the Field Officers of the Army of Northern Virginia (Dayton, Ohio: Press of Morningside House, 1992), 302. "Amidst Trials and Troubles" 15

almost effeminate; cheeks fair and rosy, which war is beginning to bronze, and the expression of his face, bright and attractive. He wore a dark over­ coat, reaching below the knees to his boots; his hat was looped up on the side and surmounted by a black, waving plume. The free and easy inter- cource between him and his men exhibits a kind and cordial feeling. He has left West Point to assist in upholding a cause that he loved, and is consid­ ered one of the finest artillery officers in the West.38

Clark's commander, General Sterling Price, and Ben McCulloch, the Confederate commander in northwest Arkansas, had previously demonstrat­ ed difficulty in working together, so President Jefferson Davis selected a fel­ low Mississippian, Earl Van Dorn, to provide the unified direction and lead­ ership needed for the Confederate forces west of the Mississippi River. Major General Van Dorn arrived at Price's camp near Fayetteville, Arkansas, on March 3, 1862. There he explained to Price the plan he had already explained to Davis: he would unite Price's Missourians, McCulloch's small army, and reinforcements from the Indian Territory to fight across Missouri to take St. Louis. The retreat from their state had been demoralizing for the Missourians, but Van Dorn looked at it as offering an opportunity to strike the pursuing Union force as it moved steadily farther from friendly territory. On March 4, Van Dorn led his army north around the Federals' western flank, hoping to envelop his foe.39 On the wintry morning of March 7, 1862, Van Dorn launched "the most powerful rebel force ever assembled in the Trans-Mississippi" in a two- pronged attack from the north against Union General Samuel Curtis's forces near Pea Ridge, Arkansas. Price's command, including all of the Missouri soldiers, formed the eastern prong of the advance and had success in the day's attack. Missouri State Guard General James Rains later reported that Clark's battery and two other Missouri artillery units had "formed a living wall of fire which Missouri may well be proud of and fearlessly trust to for defense." That night Price's troops drew their lines around Elkhorn Tavern on the eastern portion of the battlefield.40 Price and the Missourians had been successful, but the western prong of Van Dorn's attack had been decisively stopped. This allowed the Union com­ manders to shift their strength from west to east to counterattack. As a result, Price's men faced a reorganized and reinforced enemy the next morning. The battle on March 8 "recommenced with redoubled fury," recalled a Louisiana infantryman. Van Dorn, fearing Price's troops would be unable to maintain their positions against renewed attacks, ordered a retreat. Price's

38 Anderson, Memoirs, 149. 39 Castel, General Sterling Price, 12-13; William L. Shea and Earl J. Hess, Pea Ridge: Civil War Campaign in the West (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 81. 40 Shea and Hess, Pea Ridge, 308; Official Records, ser. 1, vol. 8: 327. 16 Missouri Historical Review

Major General Earl Van Dorn

State Historical Society of Missouri disengagement and withdrawal was soon in danger of degenerating into disorder. Six Union batteries, concentrating their fire on the Confederate right, exacted a dreadful toll. The Confederate batteries were hard pressed to match the violence. During the night of March 7-8, the Confederate supply train had withdrawn, taking the reserve ammunition with it. Confederate batteries tried to pull out of the line as they ran out of ammunition, but they weakened the Missourians' defense as they did so. General Price turned to Clark, whose battery was not yet engaged, and asked, "My son, can't you hold the position?" Saluting, "the gallant commander of one of Price's most effective and distinguished batteries" responded, "Sir, I will do my duty." The young captain turned on his tall black horse and ordered his battery into action.41 The battle had reached a critical point. Colonel Little later reported that it was at this time that "fortune sought to dispossess our resolutions by mul­ tiplying disasters." Colonel Benjamin A. Rives, one of Little's regimental commanders, fell mortally wounded. Then, the Missourians "suffered an irrepairable loss in the fall of the young and chivalrous Clark."42 Clark and his battery were the last of several Confederate batteries to retire. As the young captain's last gun prepared to withdraw, a shot from the

41 William H. Tunnard, A Southern Record: The History of the Third Regiment Louisiana Infantry (1866; reprint, Dayton, Ohio: Press of Morningside Bookshop, 1970), 135-136; Alwyn Barr, "Confederate Artillery in Arkansas," Arkansas Historical Quarterly 22 (fall 1963): 248- 249; undated clipping, letter to editor, dated January 21, 1884, St. Louis Missouri Republican, from Carthage, Missouri, in scrapbook, box 11, fol. 6, Clark Family Papers; "Memorandum of Churchy's Horses," box 6, fol. 24, ibid. 42 Official Records, 8: 310. "Amidst Trials and Troubles" 17 opposing artillery took his head off. Lieutenant Sam Farrington pulled him­ self up on Clark's horse, holding the lifeless body in the saddle. Farrington rode with it until the horse was killed, forcing him to abandon his friend and retreat on foot. After the battle, Clark's body was recovered under a flag of truce and later buried in Van Buren, Arkansas.43 In his official report of the battle, General Van Dorn described Clark as "a noble boy." "We cherish the memory and virtues of that youthful martyr to the cause of liberty, S. Churchill Clark," wrote Colonel Little. Clark had been "conspicuous for the daring and skill which he exhibited," moving Little to describe the young man as "a child in simplicity and purity of character, a boy in years, but a soldier in spirit and a hero in action." When General Price learned of Clark's death, he was heard to exclaim: "My God, is my boy dead?"44 At the age of nineteen, Samuel Churchill Clark was no longer "amidst trials and troubles."

43 Undated clipping (ca. 1884), St. Louis Missouri Republican, scrapbook. 44 Official Records, 8: 285, 311; Historic roll of the Second Missouri Artillery (Clark's/King's Battery), Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-Columbia; Compiled Service Records, record group 109, micro 322, reel 87.

The Real Question

Unionville Putnam Journal, October 17, 1902. Many a young girl makes the mistake of thinking that because she would die for a man she truly loves him. In this restless, throbbing age it is necessary for her to ask herself in all seriousness, "Would I take in washing for him?"

The Horseless Carriage

Unionville Putnam Journal, October 24, 1902. An automobile is well enough as far as it goes, but if the gasoline gives out ten miles from town, it does not go far enough.

A Trying Question

Franklin Missouri Intelligencer, October 1, 1822. A carpenter being subpoennaed [sic] as a witness on a trial for an assault, one of the coun­ cil [sic], who was apt to interrogate witnesses very closely, asked what distance he was from the parties when the assault happened? [sic] The carpenter answered: "just four feet, five inch­ es and a half." "How came you so very exact?" said the counsellor. "Because I expected some fool would ask me," answered the witness. State Historical Society of Missouri Caissons and Calamity: The Tragedy and Triumph of Eads Bridge

BY KELLI RICHARDSON*

Standing shoulder to shoulder in the dimly lit air lock of the Eads Bridge caisson, the workmen listened to the hissing of the incoming air. The pressure in their ears and heads increased every second, relieved only temporarily by swallowing. Finally, the door to the caisson swung open, and the workers gazed upon a misty darkness lit solely by a few smoky lanterns, a sight from another world. In this world, where even the clearest voice lost its sound, they walked about as if in a dream. Knowing that many tons of masonry loomed overhead and that millions of gallons of water rushed past them every second, an eerie feeling of uneasiness came over the men. Pain in the ears, bleeding from the nose, and a feeling of suffocation were part of working in the pier caissons. But without these men enduring such suffering, a magnificent bridge could not have been built. The Eads Bridge in St. Louis was a civic, economic, and engineering triumph, but the caisson method used to build its piers led to many severe injuries and over a dozen tragic deaths. The Mississippi River had long been a major source of transportation for St. Louis, but by the 1860s, the river had become a barrier for railroads and thus a barrier to the city's economic development. "It was very evident that the great river no longer served all the needs of travel and commerce; on the

*Kelli Richardson is a sophomore at Rolla High School, Rolla, Missouri. This article received the State Historical Society's Floyd C. Shoemaker Award for the best paper on a Missouri history topic at State History Day in April. Caissons and Calamity 19 contrary, [it] was an apparently unavoidable hindrance to them."1 Obviously, a bridge was needed. In 1867, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Wells wrote to James B. Eads, a St. Louis engineer, indicating that the building of a bridge would be not only important to St. Louis but also to the whole nation.2 J. S. Walsh, a prominent St. Louis financier, noted that if a bridge was built, he would "look to its completion as the dawn of a new era."3 A St. Louis Missouri Republican writer commented that a bridge's "importance and advantage to St. Louis and her commerce will be of such magnitude, that words and figures are inadequate to the remotest conception of its realization."4 Before the city could build a bridge, several obstacles had to be removed. There were political battles to be fought and difficult engineering questions to be answered. Politically, the bridge would take away the monopolies held by the steamboats and the northern railroads and also stimulate the competi­ tion between St. Louis and Chicago. Lucias Boomer, the head of a Chicago bridge company, tried to get a twenty-five-year exclusive right to build the St. Louis bridge. Eads led a group that successfully stopped Boomer's intent. The two groups merged, and Eads became chief engineer.5 Construction of the bridge began in 1867. Eads's main engineering concern was how to construct the bridge's east piers on exceptionally deep bedrock that lay one hundred feet below the surface of the river. In 1867 he attended a meeting of engineers in St. Louis where C. L. McAlpine, a well-known bridge builder, described the pneumatic caisson method, an underwater construction procedure in use in Europe.6 In this method, compressed air was pumped into pneumatic caissons, enormous elliptical bells open at the bottom. This kept water out of the air chambers, the areas located at the deepest depths of the caisson where the men worked. Eads decided to use this technique for the channel piers and the east abutment. Construction of these structures began in the spring of 1869.7

1 "Gloria! 1776-1874," St. Louis Missouri Republican, 5 July 1874. 2 Wells to Eads, 1 June 1867, J. B. Eads Collection, Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis. 3 William Marion Reedy, ed., The Makers of St. Louis (St. Louis: The Mirror, 1906), 100; Walsh to C. K. Dickson, 1 October 1870, Walsh Collection, Missouri Historical Society. 4 "Illinois and St. Louis Bridge: The Greatest Enterprise of the Age," St. Louis Missouri Republican, 26 October 1869. 5 David Diaz, "Under Pressure," American Heritage of Invention and Technology 4 (1996): 52; Rosemary Yager, James Buchanan Eads: Master of the Great River (Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1968), 60; Quinta Scott and Howard S. Miller, The Eads Bridge (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1979), 81-82. 6 "The Bridge," St. Louis Missouri Republican, 12 November 1869; Proceedings and Report of the Board of Civil Engineers Convened at St. Louis, in August, 1867. . . . (St. Louis: George Knapp and Company, 1867), 26. 7 "Building the Bridge, An Important Problem Solved," St. Louis Missouri Republican, 1 March 1870; Joseph E. Vollmar, Jr., James B. Eads and the Great St. Louis Bridge (St. Louis: Engineers Club of St. Louis, 1974), 10; Diaz, "Under Pressure," 56. 20 Missouri Historical Review

With no formal training in engineering, James B. Eads achieved an internation­ al reputation for his work on the bridge named in his honor and construction of a channel for oceangoing ships at the mouth of the Mississippi River.

State Historical Society of Missouri

Workers entered the pneumatic caissons through air locks. The east pier air lock was a cylindrically shaped room, six feet in diameter and six feet high, made of very thick iron. The air lock had two doors, one on the north that opened to the stairway shaft and one on the east that opened to the air chamber. In order for men to work in the caissons, pumps forced air into the air chambers and pushed out the water. As the workmen dug, the caisson's sharp iron edge cut deeper into the riverbed, and the deeper the caisson sank, the greater the compression of air became in the chambers.8 Visitors or workers who entered the air chambers for the first time could not help but feel uneasy. The air in the chambers had a strange density and moisture that caused the men to feel as if they were in a fantasy world. It was not long before they wanted to go back to the real world.9 After exiting the air chambers, the workmen often developed severe pains in their arms and legs and, sometimes, shooting pains in their backs. They appeared "pallid and sallow." Some had a quick pulse, ranging from 90 to 110 beats per minute, while others had a slow pulse, as low as 60 beats per minute. Body temperatures did not change much, except in serious cases when the legs became cold and the skin clammy.10 Eads had little informa­ tion to draw upon about the effect of working at such high pressures. He had

8 L. U. Reavis, A History of the Illinois and St. Louis Bridge (St. Louis: Tribune Publishing Company, 1874), 10; A[lphonse] Jaminet, Physical Effects of Compressed Air . . . in the Construction of the Illinois and St. Louis Bridge Over the Mississippi River at St. Louis Missouri (St. Louis: R. and T A. Ennis, 1871), 8; Vollmar, James B. Eads, 10. 9 "Illinois and St. Louis Bridge"; Reavis, History of the Illinois and St. Louis Bridge, 11. 10 Jaminet, Physical Effects of Compressed Air, 40, 43. Caissons and Calamity 21

SECTION Of EAST PIER AND CAISSON ON LINE AB, PLATE VII.

SHOWING THE iNTt.RlOROF.THi;: VSAiN FNTRANCh. SHAFT AND AiR CHAMBiR AND THF WGRK'NG OF ONE Or THi: SAND PyMPS.

' M«inKi.liVMirf Shaft ..Si.U- Shaft*

.IW-.K-injjfoi'Shvll.

:«JI ^X^IE' **"": : "'**""" •: ~ JSx.:

•^•--»iO State Historical Society of Missouri

This cross section of the east pier and caisson shows the locations of the air locks and air chambers. 22 Missouri Historical Review

heard of similar troubles in Europe, which led him to believe that the symp­ toms were just inconveniences.11 At St. Louis, however, the situation proved much more serious. Some men had seizures, violent epigastric pains, paresis, and slight paraplegia. Others displayed more severe symptoms such as paraplegia involving the bladder and the rectum and intense pains about the middle of the spine that radiated in every direction in the lower half of the body.12 These men were sent to the city hospital, but tragically, some died. The symptoms became known as the "Grecian Bends," which was later shortened to "the bends." Nitrogen bubbles forming in the bloodstream during decompression caused the condition, which could be avoided only by a gradual reduction of air pres­ sure. As the caisson went deeper, the pressure increased, and the men became more seriously affected. Six hundred men worked in the air cham­ bers; 119 experienced the bends, and 14 died from the disorder.13 Eads could not figure out what caused the bends. St. Louis physicians offered several opinions. One doctor believed that the change from a very con­ densed atmosphere in the air locks to a much less condensed atmosphere out­ side caused the symptoms. Another doctor thought that the workmen left for the air chamber too soon after entering the air lock, not allowing the pressure in the air lock to build up slowly enough. Thus, the heart and the other inter­ nal organs could not adjust. This doctor also thought that the workers should reduce the pressure as quickly as possible when exiting the air lock. He rea­ soned that because the high air pressure was acting on the surface of the body, it would be best to remove the pressure as quickly as possible to prevent damage.14 In contrast, another doctor believed that rapid depressurization was the cause of the bends. He said that the blood vessels became stretched and swollen when the pressure was quickly removed from the body.15 Dr. Louis Bauer's hypothesis proved closest to the mark. He believed that the men absorbed a lot of oxygen into their bloodstreams when they worked under high pressure in the caissons. This led to an increased rate of metabolism, which produced excess gaseous waste. When the workers left the caisson, a sudden drop in pressure interfered with the normal method of waste removal and allowed the waste to be caught in the body. This was

11 James N. Primm, "The Monumental Eads Bridge: The Dramatic Story of How and Why It Almost Wasn't Built," Veiled Prophet Fair: Souvenir Program and Magazine, 1981, 128; Diaz, "Under Pressure," 58. 12 "Building the Bridge"; Diaz, "Under Pressure," 58; "Inquest at City Hospital, Effects of Compressed Air Considered," St. Louis Missouri Republican, 25 March 1870; Jaminet, Physical Effects of Compressed Air, 11. 13 Vollmar, James B. Eads, 10; Primm, "Monumental Eads Bridge," 128; Jaminet, Physical Effects of Compressed Air, 11. 14 Jaminet, Physical Effects of Compressed Air, 38, 102. 15 Diaz, "Under Pressure," 60; "Inquest at City Hospital." Caissons and Calamity 23 thought to be poisonous to the system. An autopsy performed on one work­ man showed "many stretched and swollen blood vessels, overcharged with 'dark and tarry blood.'"16 Many bogus methods were used to prevent or to cure the bends. Workers were advised to wear a voltaic apparatus of silver and zinc plates, which Eads bought in hopes that wearing them would help the men. Other purported cures included "King of Pains," a liquid medicine; magneto-electricity pro­ duced by a magneto-electric machine; warm and hot baths; and "Magic Oil," a patent liniment.17 Eads eventually hired Dr. Alphonse Jaminet, his personal physician, to study the strange sicknesses occurring under the high air pressure conditions. Based on considerable studies and tests, Jaminet concluded that exhaustion caused the bends.18 Drawing on Bauer's hypothesis, Jaminet reasoned that the increased respiration in the caissons exhausted the workers and that their fatigue increased when they underwent sudden decompression. He believed that the rapid temperature changes in the air locks, brought on by the rapid changes in pressure, made the fatigue problem worse. Jaminet also thought that excessively rapid compression and decompression led to problems with circu­ lation to the periphery of the body, which led to the disintegration of tissues.19

16 Diaz, "Under Pressure," 60. 17 Jaminet, Physical Effects of Compressed Air, 32-33. 18 Primm, "Monumental Eads Bridge," 128; Diaz, "Under Pressure," 60. 19 Jaminet, Physical Effects of Compressed Air, 100.

Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis

Dr. Alphonse Jaminet worked with Eads to determine the cause of the bends and to pro­ tect the men working in the caissons. 24 Missouri Historical Review

When the east pier reached bedrock, the pressure in the air chamber reached fifty pounds per square inch, a pressure that was even more danger­ ous to the workmen. Jaminet gave Eads a long list of medical recommenda­ tions. He believed the workers should work fewer hours, pass through the locks at a slower rate, and rest more during breaks. Instead of working three, two-hour shifts each day, the men should work only two, one-hour shifts, and they should be examined often. The men were checked every six hours, day and night. Unhealthy practices, such as smoking cr chewing tobacco or drinking excessive amounts of alcohol, were not permitted. To prevent these health hazards, the workers were not allowed to go ashore, even between shifts. To protect themselves from sudden temperature changes in the air locks, all the men were to wear flannel undershirts and an overcoat or a blan­ ket. The doctor concluded that it was possible to work in high air pressure if these rules were applied.20 Jaminet's recommendations decreased the number of cases but did not end them. Workers frequently did not take the time necessary to equalize the pressure in the air locks gradually, spending less than half the time required. As a result, the doctor appointed air lock tenders as monitors, but the tenders often did not do their jobs. When Jaminet learned that the lock tenders were

Ibid., 10, 81, 94, 115-116; Diaz, "Under Pressure," 61; "Building the Bridge.'

Construction of the East Pier

State Historical Society of Missouri Caissons and Calamity 25 still depressurizing rapidly, he installed smaller air valves, making it impos­ sible to depressurize faster than recommended.21 In an attempt to reduce the number of cases of the bends, Jaminet made other improvements. He had an elevator installed so the workmen would not have to walk up the long stairwell. Larger air locks were built to cushion the shock of pressure change. He also had the air supplied to the caissons cooled to keep the workmen from becoming too warm.22 Although Eads and Jaminet never understood the fundamental cause of the bends, fewer men died in the east abutment building phase because of improvements made to the method of compression and decompression.23 On July 5, 1874, following the official opening of the bridge, the Missouri Republican paid tribute to the workers: "These men dared much, endured much; toiled in the midst of danger, and are entitled to some of the honors of this great day of triumph. They performed their part well, when to go beneath the mighty flood into the air-chambers below the slowly settling piers was fraught with danger and death."24 In the end, the completion of the Eads Bridge provided an essential link between the East and the West, with St. Louis as the hub. Goods and resources could move easily back and forth across the Mississippi River. The construction was also a civic triumph for St. Louis, which benefited from the publicity of the bridge building and from working for a common good. The day following the bridge opening, the Missouri Republican stated: "It is something of which they [St. Louis citizens] cannot help talking and feeling proud. It thus attracts general attention to our city and state, and acts as a magnet, the poles of which are profit and fame, to draw trade and people into our midst."25 The Eads Bridge would eventually become "the heart of a gigantic railroad network which extended St. Louis's commercial hinterland to the Mexican border and the American Southwest. St. Louis was the nation's fourth city by 1900, in population and by most economic measure­ ments, in no small part because of the bridge. With the completion of Union Station in 1893, the city boasted unequalled facilities for handling passen­ gers, and it was second only to Chicago as a railroad center."26 Eads Bridge remains one of the greatest engineering successes of the nineteenth century, with foundations still among the deepest in the world.

21 Primm, "Monumental Eads Bridge," 128; Jaminet, Physical Effects of Compressed Air, 41, 93; Proceedings and Report, 28; Diaz, "Under Pressure," 61. 22 Diaz, "Under Pressure," 62; Jaminet, Physical Effects of Compressed Air, 90. 23 Vollmar, James B. Eads, 11. 24 "Gloria!" 25 "Illinois and St. Louis Bridge"; "Gloria!" 26 Primm, "Monumental Eads Bridge," 152. 26 Missouri Historical Review

"The grandfather of modern bridges with steel arches" can boast many firsts: the first made with a large proportion of cast steel; the first built with extremely long arches; the first in which cantilevering was used extensively during construction; the first time American bridge builders used pneumatic caissons; the first with piers to be sunk so deeply; and the first bridge on which sand pumps were used.27 As late as 1917, H. J. Pfeifer, one of Eads's engineers, stated, "This bridge . . . was one of the greatest engineering undertakings of its time, and the fact that it is in service today, carrying its full share of the enormous traf­ fic passing through this gateway, is a tribute to the boldness, vision, and skill of those who planned and built it."28 And to many, such as Carl Gaylor, another of Eads's engineers, it was "not only an engineering masterpiece but a work of art."29 Today, the bridge's beauty is a focal point for many local artists, and it continues to provide valuable passenger service to citizens of St. Louis as a part of the light rail system. Despite the tragedy of the caisson-related injuries and deaths, Eads Bridge was an important factor in the economic growth of the West, a civic triumph, and a milestone in the history of civil engineering. For the workers in the caissons, this may have been of little comfort. Upon leaving the air chamber and entering the air lock, the door behind them closed and fastened as firmly as if a mountain were behind it. The air, whistling, depressurized to normal within a few minutes. The door, no longer pressed from the dense atmosphere, opened easily. The workmen took a deep breath of fresh air and welcomed the light shining in from the top of the staircase.

27 Diaz, "Under Pressure," 63; Yager, James Buchanan Eads, 87. 28 Pfeifer, "Terminal Question," speech, 8 March 1918, Herman J. Pfeifer Collection, Missouri Historical Society. 29 Gaylor, speech to St. Louis Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers, February 1929, Carl Gaylor Collection, ibid.

Anyone You Know?

Maysville Weekly Western Register, April 1, 1869. Woman—A mass of fuss, feathers, and furbelows, with a considerable sprinkling of van­ ity and conceit. Is used by milliners, dressmakers, and hair-dressers to show off their wares to advantage. Man—A conglomeration of mock dignity, conceit, smoke and boots, derisively styled the "lord of creation." Is a useful appendage to woman, and occupies the moments of which his life is made up in twirling a cane, squinting through an eye-glass, and cultivating a moustache. State Historical Society of Missouri William Torrey Harris served as superintendent of the St. Louis public schools from 1868 to 1880 and as United States com­ missioner of education from 1889 to 1906. "Our Schools Are Not Charitable Institutions": Class, Gender, Ethnicity, and the Teaching Profession in Nineteenth-Century St. Louis

BY STEPHEN L. McINTYRE*

In 1882, Edward Long, the superintendent of St. Louis's public schools, declared, "Our schools are not charitable institutions designed to furnish employment to the needy as well as to educate the young." In so doing, he gave expression to a contemporary conflict occurring in school districts throughout the country over who would be allowed to teach. Unfortunately, this conflict has been obscured by the tendency of historians to assume that teaching has always been a middle-class occupation. As one recent study noted: "Throughout American history, teachers have generally come from . . . middle-class backgrounds. After all, teaching often has required a compara-

* Stephen L. Mclntyre is an assistant professor of history at Southwest Missouri State University, Springfield. He received the M.A. degree and the Ph.D. degree from the University of Missouri-Columbia.

27 28 Missouri Historical Review tively high level of education, and at least the appearance of respectability, attributes generally beyond the grasp of people in the working class."1 Although enhanced educational requirements may have led teachers to identify with the middle class by the early twentieth century, it would be a mistake to assume a similar consciousness among teachers in the late nine­ teenth century. During this period, many teachers in urban schools came from working-class backgrounds. Studies of schoolteachers in Chicago and Pittsburgh during the late nineteenth century, for example, have demonstrat­ ed that 50 to 60 percent of those cities' teachers came from working-class families. In both cities, however, new standards of "professionalism" estab­ lished with the support of school administrators and middle- and upper-class reformers significantly shifted the balance away from teachers with working- class roots and toward teachers from middle-class or professional families. The result, as historian Ileen DeVault has so persuasively argued for Pittsburgh, was that in "working-class neighborhoods the new 'professional' standards of teaching denied most residents' daughters entrance into the field and in doing so rejected their class- and ethnic-based values."2 Similar efforts to "professionalize" the hiring of kindergarten teachers in St. Louis in the 1870s led to open conflicts between school administrators and Irish-American school board members. Yet, because St. Louis teachers lacked a collective voice with which to be heard in these debates, neither side developed a position that fully protected the interests of teachers. The leading spokesman on the school board for the Irish-American position defended the claims of working-class women to jobs as teachers but in the process attacked the rights of women to continue their employment beyond marriage. Conversely, school administrators sought to limit the claims of ethnic, work­ ing-class women to teaching jobs while presiding over a school district that offered other women exceptional opportunities compared to most urban school districts.

1 Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the Board of President and Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools for the Year Ending August 1, 1882 (St. Louis: Slawson and Company, 1883), 86; John L. Rury, "Who Became Teachers? The Social Characteristics of Teachers in American History," in American Teachers: Histories of a Profession at Work, ed. Donald Warren (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1989), 9. For other characterizations of teaching as a middle-class occupation see Leslie Woodcock Tender, Wage-Earning Women: Industrial Work and Family Life in the United States, 1900-1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 81-82; Myra H. Strober and David Tyack, "Why Do Women Teach and Men Manage? A Report on the Schools," Signs 5 (spring 1980): 495; and Geraldine Clifford, '"Marry, Stitch, Die, or Do Worse': Educating Women for Work," in Work, Youth, and Schooling: Historical Perspectives on Vocationalism in American Education, ed. Harvey Kantor and David Tyack (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982), 252. 2 Marjorie Murphy, "From Artisan to Semi-Professional: White Collar Unionism Among Chicago Public School Teachers, 1870-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Davis, 1981), 106; Ileen A. DeVault, "Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work in Pittsburgh, 1870s-1910s" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1985), 97, 281. "Our Schools Are Not Charitable Institutions " 29

William Torrey Harris, the superintendent of St. Louis's public schools, was a key figure in this conflict. Harris, the son of prosperous Connecticut farmers, migrated to St. Louis in 1857 at age twenty-two after a two-year stint at Yale University. Although lured to the city by business prospects, Harris soon turned to teaching in the public schools as a livelihood. By 1868, Harris had advanced to the superintendency, a position he held until 1880. In St. Louis, Harris became acquainted with the writings of the German idealist philosopher G. W. F. Hegel and ultimately helped to found the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, a philosophical journal devoted to Hegelian thought. Harris's educational theories were guided by a conservative interpretation of Hegel that saw the development of industrial capitalism as both inevitable and desirable. His schools stressed regularity, punctuality, and obedience to authority as the keys to individual adjustment and success in an urban, indus­ trial society. Harris denied the existence of different class interests in soci­ ety and vigorously attacked socialists and labor unions in his writings.3 In his history of St. Louis, James Neal Primm characterized Harris's con­ trol of the schools and their teachers as absolute and uncontested. Primm wrote that Harris "so overawed the school board that his will prevailed without question; he had enlisted a superior corps of teachers, most of them trained in his own Normal School, and he marched them all toward his well-defined objectives like a good general. Every teacher knew where to go and how to get there, and free-wheeling was not encouraged. They did not often refuse the bit, because they believed in Harris, his views, and his methods."4 Harris was no doubt a powerful figure in St. Louis and a master at intimidating school board members. But Harris's own administrators questioned the superiority of the city's teachers, and the superintendent's efforts to control the hiring of teachers led some school board members to challenge his power. St. Louis's teachers in the late nineteenth century—like teachers in other cities—came largely from working-class and, increasingly, immigrant back­ grounds. During the 1870s, the daughters of skilled workers equaled or exceeded in number the daughters of merchants or professionals in the St. Louis normal school. If figures from other cities are any indication, many of these young women came from families of Irish immigrants. Certainly by 1900, first- and second-generation Irish-American women taught in the St.

3 Merle Curti, The Social Ideas of American Educators (reprint; Totowa, N.J.: Littlefield, Adams, 1978), 310-347; Stephen L. Mclntyre, "Hegelian Reformers and Labor Radicals: The St. Louis Workingmen's Party and the School Board Election of 1877" (master's thesis, University of Missouri-Columbia, 1989), 29-35. 4 James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri (Boulder, Colo.: Pruett Publishing Company, 1981), 341. 30 Missouri Historical Review

Louis public schools in numbers disproportionate to their numbers in the overall population of the city.5 During the 1870s, St. Louis school administrators engaged in thinly veiled attacks against these teachers from working-class and immigrant back­ grounds, thus calling into question Primm's conclusion that Harris had recruited teachers with whom he was satisfied. In 1871, Anna Brackett, prin­ cipal of the normal school, complained that "it is all in vain that a person without moral principle—no matter how well educated in mere acquire­ ments—endeavors to become a good teacher." The American Journal of Education, which was published in St. Louis and reflected the views of Harris and other St. Louis educators, lamented the poor quality of teachers that the St. Louis school board appointed in the fall of 1877, noting that they "have education enough, but they lack culture, and have outlandish manners, that no parent would wish a child to imitate. Grace, neatness and dignity, are indispensable essentials of a teacher. There have been employed those who are ungracefulf,] slovenly, and undignified."6 Clearly, not everyone believed that Harris had yet enlisted a superior corps of teachers. And the latter com­ ment suggests that at least part of the difficulty lay with the school board's control over the appointment of teachers. Harris's own discontent with the teaching corps surfaced with the intro­ duction of kindergartens in the St. Louis public schools during the 1870s. Kindergartens originated in Europe in the 1830s and incorporated Swiss edu­ cator Friedrich Froebel's belief that play improved children's personalities and advanced their intelligence. German immigrants first introduced private kindergartens in the United States in the 1850s. Given Harris's interest in Hegel and general admiration of German culture, St. Louis not surprisingly became the first American city to add kindergartens to the public schools. Harris opened an experimental kindergarten in September 1873 in the Carondelet foundry district with Susan Blow, the daughter of prominent St. Louis businessman Henry Blow, as its volunteer director. Susan Blow had become familiar with the kindergarten methods of Froebel while in Europe and studied in New York in 1872 with Maria Kraus-Boelte, a leading expert on Froebel's system. During the 1873-1874 school year, Blow and 3 unpaid

5 Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Board of President and Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools for the Year Ending August 1, 1883 (St. Louis: Nixon-Jones Printing Company, 1884), 53; Hasia R. Diner, Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), 97-98; Martin G. Towey, "Kerry Patch Revisited: Irish Americans in St. Louis in the Turn of the Century Era," in From Paddy to Studs: Irish-American Communities in the Turn of the Century Era, 1880 to 1920, ed. Timothy J. Meagher (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1986), 51, 96, 148-149. 6 Seventeenth Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools for the Year Ending August 1, 1871 (St. Louis: Plate, Olshausen and Company, 1872), 46; "School Boards," American Journal of Education 10 (August 1877): 4. 'Our Schools Are Not Charitable Institutions" 31

Friedrich Froebel, who believed that education should begin at a child's birth, established his first kindergarten in Blankenburg, Germany, in 1837.

State Historical Society of Missouri assistants—whose use was necessitated by a lack of funding for the kinder­ gartens—taught 68 children. By 1880 kindergartens were firmly entrenched in St. Louis schools, and 166 paid teachers and 60 unpaid assistants were teaching 7,828 children in the program.7 St. Louisans became interested in kindergartens in the 1870s in response to a growing awareness of the presence of poor children on the city's streets. J. A. Dacus, a prominent reporter for the St. Louis Missouri Republican, por­ trayed the plight of these children to his readers. "The condition of hundreds, and we may safely say thousands, of young children in St. Louis," he report­ ed, "is pitiable in the extreme. They know nothing of a home-life calculated to make them better. . . . Parents very poor, and often dissipated and vicious, their homes are grimy, filthy abodes, which must necessarily extinguish every lofty aspiration. ... A comparatively large number of the children do not attend school. They are left much to themselves; neglected and abused at home, they take to the streets." These children were destined, Dacus con­ cluded, to become "vagrants, tramps, and prostitutes."8

7 Michael Steven Shapiro, Child's Garden: The Kindergarten Movement from Froebel to Dewey (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1983), 50, 54; Selwyn K. Troen, The Public and the Schools: Shaping the St. Louis System, 1838-1920 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1975), 99, 103-104; Selwyn K. Troen, "Operation Headstart: The Beginnings of the Public School Kindergarten Movement," Missouri Historical Review 66 (January 1972): 212, 223; Primm, Lion of the Valley, 342; Twenty-second Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools for the Year Ending August 1, 1876 (St. Louis: Slawson, 1877), 83. 8 J. A. Dacus and James W. Buel, A Tour of St. Louis (St. Louis: Western Publishing Company, 1878), 407-408. 32 Missouri Historical Review

Harris was among the first to concern himself with these youngsters. In 1868 he ordered a series of "block reports" in order to learn more about them. These reports alerted the superintendent to the lack of school attendance by many children in the city's factory and levee districts. Those who did attend school usually did so for less than three years. This situation greatly con­ cerned Harris, who noted that those children not in school were "living in narrow filthy alleys, poorly clad and without habits of cleanliness." He warned: "The child who passes his years in the misery of the crowded tenement house or an alley, becomes early familiar with all manner of corruption and immorality. The children thus unhappily situated are fortunate if they are placed at work even in their tender years, and taught habits of industry, though deprived of school education. The unfortunate ones grow up in crime. But if they can receive an education at school besides the education in useful industry they are more than fortunate, their destiny is in their own hands."9 The problem, Harris argued, was that the children were corrupted by the streets as early as their third year, well before they entered the public schools. As a result, the superintendent insisted that schools must be made available to those children earlier than age six or seven. "The fourth, fifth, and sixth years," he observed, "are years of transition not well provided for either by

Troen, The Public and the Schools, 100; Twenty-second Annual Report. . . 1876, 79.

State Historical Society of Missouri

/' -•» X -j%_

rfj jjfeijjl 'SSf x"£l QsylS £p iMk This depiction of a dwelling place of the poor in St. Louis appeared in killer \C ~______* * J Dacus and BueVs A Tour of St. Louis. |R;fi 9rS Wr iff psi/j H •OH ~Oj—- P \S^m. n 'J?XV? tfi ISPX R^ wig i "Our Schools Are Not Charitable Institutions " 33 family life in the United States, or by Society." The kindergarten, Harris claimed, was the perfect solution.10 By the end of the decade, Harris also came to believe that the kinder­ garten might benefit middle- and upper-class children. In 1875, two years after the introduction of the first kindergarten in St. Louis, Harris had com­ plained that the resources of the program were being wasted because of the attendance of too many children from affluent families. By 1879 he had changed his mind, noting that the children of the rich became "self-willed and self-indulgent" because they met no "wholesome restraint." Because wealthy mothers wanted to play an active role in "society," he observed, they turned the care of their children over to "some servant without pedagogical skill and generally without strength of will power." As a result middle- and upper-class children became "incorrigible" by the time they went to school. The kindergarten, Harris concluded, could save the child of wealth from "ruin through self-indulgence and the corruption ensuing on weak manage­ ment in the family." Blow agreed that kindergartens could benefit more than poor children. She noted that many middle-class families had become cen­ ters of "sloth, gluttony and covetousness" and concluded that kindergartens were the perfect remedy for the deficiencies of such family life.11 The social upheavals in St. Louis in the summer and fall of 1877 proba­ bly spurred Harris's and Blow's reevaluation of kindergarten training for middle- and upper-class children. Nationwide railroad strikes that summer spread to St. Louis and culminated in a socialist-led citywide general strike that brought economic activity in the city to a standstill for several days in late July. Although an armed force organized by the city's leading industri­ alists and merchants ultimately crushed the strike, the Workingmen's Party, which led the work stoppage, used popular sympathy for its cause as a springboard to elect five directors to the school board in the fall.12 In the aftermath of the strike, community leaders placed full blame for the upheavals on misguided workers and radicals. Harris echoed those views, noting that it was the lack of education that had led the workers to strike. On September 15, 1877, he told a meeting of seven hundred teachers

10 Troen, The Public and the Schools, 102; William T. Harris, "The Relations of the Kindergarten to the School," in Addresses and Journal of Proceedings of the National Educational Association, Session of the Year 1879 (Salem, Ohio: Allen K. Tatem, 1879), 150-151. 11 Harris, "Relations of the Kindergarten to the School," 150-153; Troen, The Public and the Schools, 113; Curti, Social Ideas of American Educators, 323-324; Ann Taylor Allen, '"Let Us Live with Our Children': Kindergarten Movements in Germany and the United States, 1880-1914," History of Education Quarterly 28 (spring 1985): 29. 12 For the St. Louis general strike see David T. Burbank, Reign of the Rabble: The St. Louis General Strike of 1877 (New York: Augustus M. Kelly, 1966), and David Roediger, "'Not Only the Ruling Classes to Overcome, but also the So-called Mob': Class, Skill and Community in the St. Louis General Strike of 1877," Journal of Social History 19 (winter 1985): 213-239. 34 Missouri Historical Review and principals, "History teaches man's relations to institutions of government and industry, and had this been thoroughly understood by the majority of the people, there would have been no labor strikes to destroy institutions which gave labor more power than it ever before possessed."13 In the ensuing years, however, some observers began to criticize mem­ bers of the elite for the city's social problems. In 1878, Dacus reported what seemed to be a fairly widespread distaste among St. Louisans for those who spent their summers at resorts. These idle individuals, the reporter observed, "are persons in whose minds the genius of folly revels, in whose pockets the clink of dollars, acquired by frugal, hard-working ancestors, may be heard. They have done nothing for the world." Harris also began to reevaluate blame for the upheavals, commenting in 1879 that the "worst elements in the community" were the "corrupted and ruined" young men of wealth who had grown up to be self-indulgent and lacking in the ability to direct society. The educator later suggested that the behavior of this class of men created great animosity among the working classes. Their behavior, he concluded, largely resulted from deficient childrearing practices.14 Unwilling to accept the fail­ ures of industrial capitalism as responsible for mounting class conflict in society, Harris instead located the basis for these conflicts in the failure of middle- and upper-class women to carry out their domestic responsibilities. Victorian notions of respectability prominent among the urban middle and upper classes guided the kindergarten curriculum developed by Blow. Such values dovetailed neatly with Harris's assumptions about the need for disciplined students capable of meeting the demands of an industrial society. Kindergarten teachers trained children to be regular, punctual, industrious, obedient, clean, neat, and polite. In short, they were taught, in Harris's words, "to practice the etiquette and amenities of polite life." Blow revealed the class-biased nature of the kindergartens when she observed that training in cleanliness and neatness had been so effective that "strangers visiting the schools have failed to detect any difference of class among the scholars."15

13 St. Louis Missouri Republican, 16 September 1877. 14 Dacus and Buel, Tour of St. Louis, 378; Harris, "Relations of the Kindergarten to the School," 150-151; Curti, Social Ideas of American Educators, 324-325; "Productive Industry," American Journal of Education 10 (January 1877): 9. 15 On Victorian respectability see Daniel Walker Howe, "Victorian Culture in America," in Victorian America, ed. Daniel Walker Howe (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1976), and T J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981), 11-15. Troen, The Public and the Schools, 104; W. T Harris, "The Kindergarten," American Journal of Education 10 (July 1877): 8; Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools for the Year Ending August 1, 1879 (St. Louis: G. I. Jones and Company, 1880), 212; Twentieth Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools for the Year Ending August 1, 1874 (St. Louis: Democrat Litho. and Printing Company, 1875), 198. "Our Schools Are Not Charitable Institutions" 35

Susan Blow

Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis

Harris and Blow assumed that these values could only be inculcated by kindergarten teachers from "proper" middle- or upper-class families. Reflecting on the development of kindergartens in St. Louis, Harris told a National Education Association convention in 1879 that there was a "practi­ cal difficulty" in obtaining qualified women. "If the teachers are no better than the average mothers in our families," he remarked, "if they are not bet­ ter than the average primary teacher, it is evident that the [kindergarten] sys­ tem of FROEBEL cannot induce any great reform in society." Several years earlier, he had concluded that "it is useless to expect social regeneration from persons who are not themselves regenerated." Although Blow and Harris had been critical of many middle- and upper-class women's childrearing prac­ tices, Harris consistently indicated that it was from these classes, and not the working class, that kindergarten teachers should be recruited. In fact, he envisioned kindergarten service as a remedy for their deficiencies. He com­ mented that a one- or two-year apprenticeship in a kindergarten "ought to be regarded as a necessary 'finish' to the education of a girl" because the expe­ rience would prepare her to raise her own children properly and "to supervise and direct the labor of domestic servants."16 During the first few years of kindergarten instruction, Harris and Blow had little difficulty restricting kindergarten teaching to middle- and upper- class women. Because opponents of kindergartens in St. Louis criticized

16 Harris, "Relations of the Kindergarten to the School," 157; Twenty-second Annual Report. . . 1876, 85, 89-90. 36 Missouri Historical Review them as an unnecessary expense, the key to their expansion beyond an exper­ imental basis lay in the ability of Harris and Blow to minimize their costs. They economized primarily by using women volunteers as assistants. After beginning with only 68 children and 3 unpaid assistants in 1873, Blow quick­ ly expanded the kindergartens to teach 3,300 children by 1876. Yet, in that year only 32 paid kindergarten teachers were required because of the pres­ ence of 150 women who volunteered as assistants.17 Although some opposition to the kindergartens remained, their popular­ ity increased throughout the mid-1870s. As a result, by 1877, Harris, Blow, and the school board decided to commit the resources necessary to move away from the use of unpaid assistants and replace them with paid teachers. This process created the potential for conflict. Who would be employed as kindergarten teachers—the middle- and upper-class women who volunteered their services as unpaid assistants or the women who regularly sought employment in the public schools, many of whom were the daughters of working-class immigrants? In an effort to restrict kindergarten teaching to "morally fit" women, Harris and Blow sought control over the selection of teachers and assistants. Thus, in 1877 a formal system of certification replaced the informal process of appointing women to positions in the kindergartens. First, normal school instructors examined nominees and then established kindergarten teachers confirmed those nominees approved by the normal school instructors. Ultimately, the school board's teachers committee had to ratify these groups' recommendations. The board then issued diplomas of two kinds—one certi­ fying competence as an assistant, the other certifying competence to act as a kindergarten director and supervise assistants. Women usually moved from the position of unpaid assistant to paid assistant after a one-year apprentice­ ship, during which time they were expected to attend training classes taught by Blow.18 Board members clashed over this new process at a meeting on the evening of September 25, 1877. Prior to the meeting, Thomas Richeson, the president of the school board and an important industrialist, refused to sign the report of the board's teachers committee. He justified his actions to the full board by noting that the committee had ignored the recommendations of the kindergarten directors appointed by Blow to examine the candidates' cre­ dentials and instead had appointed candidates with insufficient training. Harris concurred with Richeson's dissenting views, pointing out that the teachers committee had appointed eighteen women as kindergarten directors

17 Twenty-fifth Annual Report. . . 1879, 195; Twenty-second Annual Report. . . 1876, 85, 88; Harris, "Relations of the Kindergarten to the School," 156-157. 18 Shapiro, Child's Garden, 60; Harris, "Relations of the Kindergarten to the School," 156-157; Twenty-second Annual Report. . . 1876, 84. 'Our Schools Are Not Charitable Institutions" 37

State Historical Society of Missouri Susan Blow opened her first kindergarten class at Des Peres School in the Carondelet foundry district in September 1873. By the end of the decade, children from all levels of St. Louis society were attending kindergarten classes. or paid assistants who were not properly trained and had been declared incompetent by Blow.19 In past years, Harris's comments to the board might have put an end to the dis­ pute. In the fall of 1877, however, educational issues had been highly politicized by the election of five school board directors running on the Workingmen's Party platform. During the campaign, party leaders charged that the school board had been "true to the rich and false to the poor." To reverse that favoritism, the party's platform called for compulsory education, free textbooks, and a redistribution of financial resources away from the high school, which served wealthier children, and toward the needs of working-class children who only attended school for a few years. Not surprisingly, a party comprising mostly skilled German-American workers strongly endorsed the expansion of kindergartens. One party leader seemed to echo Harris's sentiments when he observed that the state should prevent children from roaming the streets and learning "vicious habits." Thus, many German-American party members may have shared Harris's assumptions about the value of education, especially for the children of poor, unskilled immigrant work­ ers. Those shared views, as well as Harris's stature in the city, probably explain why the party did not make the school superintendent an issue during the cam­ paign, despite his open hostility toward the general strike and its leaders.20

19 St. Louis Missouri Republican, 26 September 1877. 20 David T. Burbank, City of Little Bread: The St. Louis General Strike of 1877 (St. Louis: privately printed, 1957, microcard ed.), 191; St. Louis Globe-Democrat, 6, 18 September 1877; St. Louis Daily Times, 6, 23 September 1877. 38 Missouri Historical Review

While the party's board members may have agreed that kindergartens were a valuable addition to the schools, they did not all agree that Harris and Blow should control the selection of kindergarten teachers. John O'Connell, an Irish-American sign painter elected to the board on the Workingmen's ticket from the Twelfth Ward, led the opposition to Harris and Blow's con­ trol. Elected with over 60 percent of the vote in a ward that included Kerry Patch—an area of shoddy tenements and shacks that housed primarily the families of unskilled Irish immigrant workers—O'Connell owed his victory as much to his identification with Irish-American causes as to his identifica­ tion with the Workingmen's Party.21 Although O'Connell's position may, in part, have been influenced by an Irish Catholic's concerns about the class and ethnic biases of kindergarten instruction, he was most concerned about the claims of working-class women—many of whom were no doubt Irish American—to teaching jobs in the kindergartens. At the board meeting on September 25, O'Connell argued in response to Richeson and Harris that the conflict with the teachers com­ mittee arose because of discrimination by school administrators against women from poor families. O'Connell noted that the kindergarten directors denied a diploma to one woman because she did not have "sufficient culture." But lacking "culture," he claimed, meant only that she lacked good clothes. Young women were being denied diplomas, he charged, "because they were poor men's daughters and for nothing else." O'Connell concluded that the kindergarten "was run in the interest of the rich man's daughter. It was a scheme by which the daughters of the rich might be appointed to positions for which they would get money to buy their clothes [and] dress up to the Queen's taste."22 Such conflicts between working-class immigrants and members of a large­ ly native-born middle and upper class over issues of refinement and gentility were not unique to St. Louis in the late nineteenth century. Throughout the country, working-class immigrants clashed with middle- and upper-class reformers over drinking customs, recreational pursuits, styles of dress, and expressions of sexuality that conflicted with Victorian notions of respectability.23

21 St. Louis Globe-Democrat, 3 October 1877; Gould's St. Louis Directory for 1878 (St. Louis: David B. Gould, [1878]); Elliot J. Kanter, "Class, Ethnicity and Socialist Politics: St. Louis, 1876-1881," UCLA Historical Journal 3 (1982): 41; New York Irish World, 5 May 1877, 2 March, 18 May, 14, 21 September 1878. 22 St. Louis Daily Times, 26 September 1877; St. Louis Globe-Democrat, 26 September 1877. 23 See, for example, Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789- 1860 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the- Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986). "Our Schools Are Not Charitable Institutions " 39

John O'Connell, who immigrated from Ireland at the age of five, served on the St. Louis school board from 1874 to 1888.

State Historical Society of Missouri At stake in this debate was the power of the school board to be the final arbiter of who would teach in the kindergartens. School directors offered conflicting opinions about the ability of the teachers committee to judge the competence of the candidates for kindergarten assistants. Ultimately O'Connell lost the battle when the board voted to appoint a committee headed by Susan Blow to conduct an examination of the kindergarten assistants and directors who had been appointed by the teachers committee. Unfortunately, the records do not indicate the closeness of the vote. Michael Steven Shapiro, the leading historian of the kindergarten movement in the United States, has char­ acterized this process as a "premature attempt to professionalize the kinder­ garten" that contracted the number of assistants and threatened the vitality of the experiment. This interpretation fails to consider Harris and Blow's goals and the nature of the victory they won with the board's decision to allow Blow to be the finalarbite r for the appointment of kindergarten teachers. This process removed the appointment of those teachers from the possible control of school board members such as O'Connell and thus allowed Harris and Blow to see that only morally "regenerated" women would teach in the kinder­ gartens. Far from threatening the vitality of the kindergartens, this profes- sionalization process was part of a strategy to restrict the access of working- class, immigrant women to kindergarten teaching jobs at a time when the growth of the program demanded the use of paid teachers.24

24 St. Louis Missouri Republican, 26 September 1877; St. Louis Public Schools, Official Report, 9 October 1877, 2: 361; Shapiro, Child's Garden, 61. 40 Missouri Historical Review

Following the defeat of his efforts to secure kindergarten teaching jobs for working-class women, O'Connell adopted a new line of attack aimed at providing jobs for unemployed teachers. The long depression of the 1870s had created a serious oversupply of teachers as an increasing number of young women enrolled in the city's normal school. At the same time, women teachers remained in their jobs for a longer period of time, even after marriage. At one point, unemployment among teachers was so severe that Harris briefly closed the normal school to new students. As late as 1879, 131 young women were without teaching positions after graduating from the school.25 In response to this crisis, O'Connell introduced a resolution that called for terminating the employment of married women teachers at a school board meeting in November 1877. He argued that priority should be given to unemployed single women who needed the jobs more than did the married teachers. Most of the married women, O'Connell observed, had husbands who "are amply able to maintain them in comfort." By contrast, he noted, "The winter months are now upon us, and as a consequence much suffering . . . will have to be endured ... by our young lady graduates of the Normal School." All he was asking, he claimed, was "justice for the daughters of our true tax­ payers."26 O'Connell framed the issue as a choice between supporting unemployed, single working-class women or "comfortable" married women, but ethnicity also played a role in his considerations. Although school district records do not provide the names of the unemployed normal school graduates, the increasing presence of Irish-American women in normal schools at that time suggests that in all likelihood many of them were O'Connell's constituents. Because Irish-American women tended to marry at a later age, the proposed resolution would have worked to their advantage. O'Connell's desire to see married women ousted from the ranks of teachers also may have been influ­ enced by strong Irish and Irish-American cultural opposition to the employ­ ment of married women. Not only did the Catholic Church preach against married women working, but many Irish Americans had recently come to believe that a working wife indicated the failure of the husband to provide adequately for his family.27 The school board defeated O'Connell's resolution in December 1877 by an overwhelming margin of twenty-three to four. The vote split the board along ethnic lines, with most Irish-American directors supporting the resolu­ tion and most German-American and native-born directors opposing it. Two

25 Twenty-second Annual Report. . . 1876, 28; Twenty-fifth Annual Report. . . 1879, 54-55. 26 St. Louis Daily Times, 12 December 1877; St. Louis Public Schools, Official Report, 13 November 1877, 2: 383. 27 Diner, Erin's Daughters, 96-98; Robert E. Kennedy, Jr., The Irish: Emigration, Marriage, and Fertility (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), 142, 159-161. "Our Schools Are Not Charitable Institutions " 41 of the five Workingmen's school directors elected that fall, both German Americans, joined with the opposition in defeating O'Connell's resolution. The other two—one of whom was probably German American—voted for the resolution. Angered by his treatment during the debate, O'Connell even­ tually voted against his own resolution, apparently out of frustration.28 The strong anticlericalism of many Germans in St. Louis, including members of the Workingmen's Party, partially explains the opposition of many of the German-American board members to O'Connell's resolution. German-American freethinkers and socialists saw the presence of Irish- American Catholic women teachers in the public schools as a threat to those schools. In fact, German-American workers in St. Louis, many of whom were skilled craftsmen, may well have considered themselves to have more in common with Harris and the other leaders of the community than they did with unskilled Irish-American Catholic workers. In this context, the opposi­ tion of some of the German-American Workingmen's school directors to O'Connell's resolutions may be seen as part of a larger cultural division in the American working class outlined by other historians.29 Similarly, many non-Irish Catholic teachers, especially those from mid­ dle-class families, may have preferred Harris's vision of the teaching profes­ sion to that of O'Connell. During Harris's tenure as superintendent, more opportunities existed for women teachers in St. Louis than in most other cities. These advantages were in part attributable to Harris. He argued that because society was arriving at a stage of development in which intelligence was more necessary than brute strength, women were liberated to participate more fully in society. Harris surrounded himself with women administrators who shared similar sentiments. Anna Brackett, the normal school principal, noted in 1871 "the immense advantage to a woman, as to a man, of an inde­ pendent self-supporting occupation." She considered teaching an opportuni­ ty for young women to avoid being "sent back home, a dependent upon the work of others."30 Women teachers, in fact, gained significant material benefits under Harris's administration. First, women could hold any position in the schools. Although most women teachers still occupied lower-level teaching jobs in

28 St. Louis Public Schools, Official Report, 11 December 1877, 2: 399. 29 Roediger, '"Not Only the Ruling Classes to Overcome,'" 221-223,227; Mclntyre, "Hegelian Reformers and Labor Radicals," 63-70; Rosenzweig, Eight Hours; Richard Jules Oestreicher, Solidarity and Fragmentation: Working People and Class Consciousness in Detroit, 1875-1900 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986). 30 Nineteenth Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools for the Year Ending August 1, 1873 (St. Louis: Democrat Litho. and Printing Company, 1874), 112- 120; Seventeenth Annual Report. . . 1871, 50-51. For Harris, Brackett, and nineteenth-centu­ ry feminism see William Leach, True Love and Perfect Union: The Feminist Reform of Sex and Society (New York: Basic Books, 1980). 42 Missouri Historical Review district schools, significant numbers of women advanced to the rank of high school teacher, principal, or administrator. Brackett is the most obvious example of women's opportunities under Harris, but many other women advanced as well. At the end of Harris's tenure as superintendent in 1880, women served as principals in fourteen of the city's forty-one schools in which the principal's name could be identified by sex. Second, women in St. Louis earned excellent salaries compared to women teachers elsewhere. Brackett, for example, earned $2,800 per year in the early 1870s, a salary greater than that of any other woman educator in the country at the time. Also, in 1878 the school board equalized the salaries of men and women high school teachers. Unlike most other cities where this action meant a pay cut for men and hastened the feminization of the teaching force, in St. Louis it resulted in the salaries of women teachers being raised to the level of their male colleagues. Finally, Harris's school district held out the possibility of upward mobility for women because they were allowed to continue teaching after marriage.31 One might interpret O'Connell's attack on married women teachers as a culturally conservative response to the small opening Harris and other admin­ istrators had provided for women teachers in St. Louis. Yet it is important to remember that Harris and Blow wished to exclude many women from such opportunities in the teaching profession. O'Connell was at least attempting to develop an alternative conception of economic justice that recognized the

31 Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools for the Year Ending August 1, 1880 (St. Louis: Slawson and Company, 1881), cxxxi-clxi; St. Louis Public Schools, Official Report, 13 June 1878, 3: 89; Leach, True Love and Perfect Union, 207'.

State Historical Society of Missouri

Under Harris's leadership, women teachers could hold any position in the St. Louis school system, and those teaching in the high schools were paid on a par with male colleagues. "Our Schools Are Not Charitable Institutions " 43 claims of unemployed working-class women to jobs—claims that Harris and Blow dismissed.32 Given this complexity, it is not clear which vision of the teaching pro­ fession St. Louis's women teachers would have preferred. Perhaps their views also would have fractured along class and ethnic lines. Therein lies much of the difficulty of unraveling the meaning of these two school board debates. The voices of St. Louis's women teachers have not been heard. This shortcoming replicates a general problem in the history of education. As his­ torian Sally Schwager laments, "Almost nothing is known about the experi­ ence of first- and second-generation immigrant women teachers." This is particularly true of immigrant women teachers in the late nineteenth century, a period in which this study and the work of other historians suggest that the claims of these women to teaching jobs were in jeopardy.33 This shortcoming may be only partially the result of historians' inatten­ tion. This author's research on St. Louis in the 1870s has uncovered no ref­ erences to the response of rank-and-file teachers to these debates. Perhaps their responses were not recorded in contemporary accounts of the delibera­ tions. It seems more likely, however, that these women—much like nine­ teenth-century working women studied by other historians—had not yet developed a collective voice with which to be heard.34 As a result, the voic­ es of O'Connell, Harris, and Blow can be heard, but not the voices of the women whose futures they determined. Nevertheless, these conflicts involving St. Louis teachers highlight the hazards of asserting that teaching has always been a middle-class occupation. Not only were many teachers in the late nineteenth century from working- class families, but the nature of these battles over access to teaching jobs sug­ gests that becoming teachers did not make these women middle class. If one considers class as a "relationship" rather than as a "category," then it is rea­ sonable to speculate that young women teachers who faced attacks on their manners and morals by native-born, middle- and upper-class educators and community leaders did not easily come to identify themselves as members of

32 In a similar vein, Alice Kessler-Harris argued that working-class demands during the Great Depression for married women to quit their jobs were "from the point of view of domes­ ticity ... a conservative plea for a return to traditional roles. From the perspective of work­ place concerns it becomes a demand for justice—for cooperation and sharing, and arguably for a different kind of market system." Alice Kessler-Harris, "Gender Ideology in Historical Reconstruction: A Case Study from the 1930s," Gender and History 1 (spring 1989): 44. 33 Sally Schwager, "Educating Women in America," Signs 12 (winter 1987): 359; Murphy, "From Artisan to Semi-Professional," 106; DeVault, "Sons and Daughters of Labor," 97, 281. For a recent attempt to rectify this shortcoming for the twentieth century see Ruth Jacknow Markowitz, My Daughter, the Teacher: Jewish Teachers in the New York City Schools (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1993). 34 Stansell, City of Women. 44 Missouri Historical Review

the middle class. Instead, facing such battles likely reinforced their depen­ dence on and identification with their customary immigrant, working-class communities.35 Yet historians of education, led by the white-collar identity of teaching to ascribe to it middle-class status, generally have failed to investi­ gate such conflicts in the late nineteenth century.36 Instead of making such assumptions about teachers' class status, histori­ ans need to explore the historical relationships among teachers, educational administrators, and community members to clarify the contingent nature of teachers' class allegiances. Some historians have begun this work for the early twentieth century, but this study suggests that the late nineteenth cen­ tury was a more critical juncture in efforts to exclude "undesirable" women from the classroom.37 Firsthand accounts by teachers of these battles are lacking, but by situating their struggles in a broader community context, his­ torians will be able to learn much about the transformation of teaching in the late nineteenth century.

35 The classic statement on class as a relationship is found in E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1963), 9-11. 36 For an exception to this generalization see David Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974), 97-104. On the hazards of equating white-collar work with middle-class status see Ileen DeVault, Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work in Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1990). 37 See, for example, Marjorie Murphy, Blackboard Unions: The AFT and the NEA, 1900- 1980 (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press, 1990).

Thinking Fast

Knob Noster Gem, September 27, 1878. "Johnny," said a sporting father, "Johnny, what have you got in your hand?" "Two pears," said Johnny. "Good hand," said the absent-minded parent, "take the pot—" then he blushed, and, pointing to a brass kettle, he added, "to your mother."

Keeping It Secret

Cameron Daily Vindicator, January 2, 1884. As regards height, the Scotch are first, Irish second, English third and Welsh fourth. The weight and height of Americans would be given, but there is no necessity for terrifying Europe just at this time.—Courier Journal. Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center, Ausmus Collection Tom Benoist: Pioneer Early Bird of St. Louis

BY THOMAS REILLY*

Ask anyone about airplanes—the novice or the expert. Almost everyone knows the names of Boeing, McDonnell, Douglas, Lockheed, and the Wright brothers. Fewer recall Glenn Martin or Glenn Curtiss. Almost no one knows the name of Thomas Wesley Benoist or of his influence and accomplishments in the design and construction of early American aircraft. Born in Irondale, Missouri, on December 29, 1874, Benoist migrated to St. Louis in 1893, finding work at the Buck Stove Foundry as a moulder. While there, he took evening classes in bookkeeping, stenography, and exec-

*Thomas Reilly is an aviation consultant and a licensed pilot. He holds a bachelor's degree from Bridgewater State College, Bridgewater, Massachusetts, and a master's degree from Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts.

45 46 Missouri Historical Review utive office procedures. In 1902, Benoist began working at the Mississippi Valley Auto Company. Changing jobs yet again, in 1904 he gained employ­ ment at McNish Auto Company as sales manager.1 While working at McNish, Benoist made his first free-balloon flight in 1904 as a director of the Berry Aerial Navigation Company.2 Three years later, he and his brother Charles opened the Benoist Brothers Manufacturing Company, an automobile supply company, and invented an improved storage battery called the Black Jack. They received a patent for this invention in 1908.3 Shortly afterward, Charles left the partnership, and Thomas converted the shop into the first exclusively aeronautic supply store in the United States. By November 1909, the Aeronautic Supply Company, popularly known as Aerosco, used the advertising slogan "First In All America."4 Benoist published a fifty-two-page illustrated catalog offering the parts to build nearly any airplane then flying. His inventory also included Santos-Dumont monoplanes, Antoinette monoplanes, and Curtiss and Farman biplanes. The store was located at 3932 Olive Street in St. Louis, with the field hangar on the grounds of the Aero Club of St. Louis at nearby Kinloch Field.5

1 Certificate of Death, State of Ohio, 15 June 1917, file no. 4541, Thomas W. Benoist, Department of Health, Bureau of Vital Statistics, Sandusky, Ohio; Reginald D. Woodcock, "Benoist" (Haverford, Pa., 1971), 1. 2 James J. Horgan, City of Flight: The History of Aviation in St. Louis (Gerald, Mo.: Patrice Press, 1984), 276. 3 Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office 151 (14 December 1908): 726. 4 "St. Louis Long Interested in Aviation," Greater St. Louis (August 1927): 5; Aero and Hydro, 25 April 1914,25. • Gay Blair White, The World's First Airline: The St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line (Largo, Fla.: Aero Medical Consultants, 1984), 58; Aero, 6 January 1911, 22.

Florida Aviation Historical Society Tom Benoist 47

The pronunciation of Benoist's name is subject to nearly as much debate as is his rightful place in the annals of American aviation history. Jack Henning, Benoist's vice president of sales, wrote that the correct pronuncia­ tion was "Benwah."6 Mispronunciation of the name apparently disturbed Tom Benoist. Fellow aviator and close friend Alexander C. Beech wrote:

There is a plane builder—Benoist, Whose feelings have grown very raw, Because his name's spoken, In French very broken. When it always should rhyme with "wah-wah."7

Benoist began constructing his own aircraft in 1909, starting with an old, redesigned Curtiss biplane. Eschewing the baling- and piano-wire contraptions that other early aircraft manufacturers used, Tom Benoist soon constructed at least three airplanes. His first flight in an airplane (also the inaugural flight at St. Louis's newly constructed Kinloch Field) took place on September 18,1910. The field was virtually deserted. Benoist had arranged to receive flight instruction from Howard Gill, the man who had sold him the airplane. Unfortunately, Gill was called out of town, and Benoist never received his lessons. Nevertheless, the would-be pilot decided to experiment, making several "grass-cutting" trips up and down the field. Shortly afterward, he took to the air and found himself in a steep and nearly out-of-control climb. Spectators on the ground feared he would fall out, but he successfully leveled off and brought the airplane back to earth. Lasting only a few seconds and covering a distance of less than two hundred yards at an altitude of fifty feet, Benoist's flight in a Curtiss biplane put him into the record books as the first St. Louis resident to fly an airplane.8 By the time Benoist bought the Gill biplane, it already had a long history. Originally constructed in Baltimore over Gill's garage by Gill, Hillery Beachey, and Harry S. Dosch in 1909, the biplane had been taken to Dominguez Field in California, where it flew at the aviation meet in January 1910. Author Reginald Woodcock claimed that Benoist "won his Aero Club of America license at Kinloch Field on December 22, 1910." A roster of licensed pilots current to the close of 1911, however, does not include Benoist's name.9 Few early fliers, including Benoist, escaped without an accident. At Amarillo, Texas, on October 12, 1910, a propeller struck him on the head and knocked him to the ground. The machine then ran over him, amputating three of his toes.10

6 Jack Henning to the St. Petersburg Chamber of Commerce, 10 August 1952, box 1, Gay Blair White Collection, Florida Aviation Historical Society Archives, St. Petersburg. 7 A. C. Beech, "In the Slip Stream," Aero and Hydro, 8 February 1913, 345. 8 St. Louis Republic, 19 September 1910. 9 Woodcock, "Benoist," 3; "Eighty-Two American Pilots Licensed Up to the Close of 1911 "Aero, 20 January 1912, 12. 10 P. G. B. Morriss, "An Early Bird Remembers," Sportsman Pilot, 15 May 1935, 26. 48 Missouri Historical Review

Florida Aviation Historical Society

Benoist's first pusher planes featured a tricycle landing gear.

By the end of 1910, Benoist had sold seventeen airplanes not of his own design. In the winter of 1910-1911, he opened the first flying school in St. Louis at Kinloch Field and attracted students from around the world. More than a dozen pupils had gone through the school by mid-June 1911. Almost all of the flights took place shortly after dawn and just before sundown when the air was generally free of updrafts and dangerous thermal activity gener­ ated by the heat rising from the solar-warmed ground.11 In March 1911, Benoist moved his shop to a larger facility at 6664 Delmar Avenue in University City. The new factory had seventy-five hundred square feet of floor space and featured well-equipped woodworking and machine shops. Benoist's workers had room to construct seven aircraft simultaneously.12 Seven months later, on October 20, 1911, a fire destroyed Benoist's new facility. Authorities claimed the "fire started very suddenly as though from an explosion or from spontaneous combustion." Benoist believed that the fire, which destroyed five airplanes, two engines, and his automobile, was the result of arson. Only the personal automobile of longtime friend Hugh Robinson was saved. The damage was estimated at $24,000; insurance cov­ ered only $2,000 of the loss. Since the move into the Delmar Avenue facility,

11 "Activity at the Flying Fields & Hydro Havens," Aero and Hydro, 7 June 1913, 191. 12 "Aerosco School Begins Field Work," Aero, 18 March 1911, 212; "Benoist Undismayed by $20,000 Fire," Aero, 28 October 1911, 82. Tom Benoist 49

Benoist claimed to have built twenty-eight machines. Within two weeks of the fire, he resumed business at 6628 Delmar Avenue.13 One man was inextricably linked with Tom Benoist's ultimate success and eventual failure. Antony Habersack Jannus, born in 1889 in Washington, D.C, became Benoist's chief pilot and collaborator in November 1911. Two months later, Benoist manufactured his 1912 Benoist headless biplane. A complete redesign from prior Benoist aircraft, the pusher incorporated the combined experience of Benoist and Jannus.14 The skeleton-framed biplane was designed to facilitate shipping. Capable of carrying two people, the final product had an increased maximum speed of sixty-eight miles per hour. The biplane used wing-tip ailerons; the wings were constructed of interchange­ able sections. On March 1, 1912, Jannus piloted the Benoist headless biplane over the parade grounds at Jefferson Barracks as Albert Berry made the world's first successful parachute jump from an airplane.15 The prime question concerned whether or not dropping a heavy object from a moving airplane would have a disastrous effect on the equipment and the aviator. Would the machine's stability be affected, possibly throwing the pilot from the airplane? Certainly, the extra weight and bulk had to be considered. Berry added over 22 percent in weight to the 925-pound airplane. The bulk of the passenger also sub­ stantially increased the area of resistance of the aircraft. The March 1 flight proved two things: first, dropping a two hundred-pound weight from a mov­ ing airplane did not cause an adverse effect on the machine's equilibrium; second, the airplane could provide a definite military use beyond scouting or observation functions. If a two hundred-pound man could be jettisoned safe­ ly from the underbelly of an airplane, so could a bomb. Benoist and Jannus received patent number 1,053,182 for inventing "cer­ tain new and useful improvements in parachute carrying and dispensing means carried by an airplane."16 Although Benoist reportedly filed for and received a U.S. patent for a quasi-aileron system that he called lateral end sta­ bilizers in 1910, no record exists of such a patent. In 1913, Benoist received patent number 1,066,981 for "improvements to an aeroplane" design.17 It was not, however, for lateral end stabilizers.

13 "Benoist Undismayed," Aero, 28 October 1911, 82; Aero and Hydro, 21 December 1912, 225. 14 Return of a Birth, Office of Health, Washington, D.C, Birth Certificate of Antony Habersack Jannus, [1889]; Antony Jannus, "The Benoist Biplane," Aeronautics 10 (March 1912): 98; "1912 Headless Benoist Biplane Described," Aero, 27 January 1912, 335. 15 E. Percy Noel, "Parachute Jump From Aeroplane Is Successful," Aero, 9 March 1912,453. 16 Jannus and Benoist Patent Approval, Patent Number 1,053,182, Official Gazette, 187 (18 February 1913): 533. 17 Ibid., 192 (8 July 1913): 403. 50 Missouri Historical Review

Benoist and Jannus produced three tractor biplanes in the spring of 1912.18 Frank M. Bell purchased one plane; Edward and Milton Korn bought a second; and Jannus used the third for exhibitions.19 Milton Korn crashed his airplane and died on August 13, 1913. In January 1914, Bell crashed in Meridian, Mississippi, and died of related injuries a month later.20 These first tractors were extremely crude. There was no cockpit; the pilot therefore sat atop the wooden fuselage. Edward Korn claimed, "Tom built a stronger plane than either Wright or Curtiss, but the Wright and Curtiss planes looked finished compared to Tom's planes."21 One of Benoist's greatest successes occurred at Chicago's Second Aviation Meet in September 1912. By the end of the meet, considered the "most ambitious venture into the field of aeroplane exhibitions attempted in this country this season," only two records had been set. Jules Vedrines had established a speed record in winning the Gordon-Bennett Cup. In a Benoist tractor biplane, Tony Jannus set an official endurance record for an aviator with three passengers.22 Benoist claimed that Jannus's Benoist Type XII Cross Country biplane was the only flying machine that went through the whole meet without repairs. The accomplishments of the Benoist hydroplane certainly should not be diminished. During the meet, however, Jannus did suffer an accident, albeit not a serious one, when he punctured a pontoon and the plane had to be towed to shore.23 The Type XII Cross Country model weighed 925 pounds and measured twenty-two feet long. Powered by a Roberts 75-horsepower engine, the biplane could reach speeds of up to sev­ enty miles per hour. A land use model cost $3,950; one equipped for water, $4,150. When outfitted for both uses, the aircraft sold for $4,350.24 Benoist formed the Benoist Aerial Exhibition Company in the spring of 1912. Led by Jannus, the team of fliers performed at hundreds of fairs and exhibitions. Flying Benoist tractors throughout the South and the Midwest, the exhibition team logged hundreds of flying hours while crashing only a

18 A tractor is an airplane with the engine mounted in front of the wings and the propeller placed in front of the engine. 19 In 1949, Edward Korn gave the rebuilt Benoist tractor model XII to Paul E. Garber of the National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C. The aircraft is now at the Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration, and Storage Facility of the National Air and Space Museum, Silver Hill, Maryland. 20 Edward A. Korn to Gay Blair White, 8 January 1953, box 1, White Collection; "Death of Frank M. Bell," Aeronautics 14 (February 1914): 58. 21 Korn to White; Louis S. Casey, Curtiss, the Hammondsport Era, 1907-1915 (New York: Crown Publishers, 1981), 146. 22 Advertising circular by the Benoist Company, 1912, Thomas Benoist Collection, Florida Aviation Historical Society Archives; Chicago Daily Tribune, 12 September 1912; E. Percy Noel, "Great Flying Seen at Cicero Meet," Aero and Hydro, 21 September 1912, 540. 23 Benoist Aircraft Company catalog, September 1912, Benoist Collection; New York Times, 23 September 1912. 24 Benoist Flying Boats and Hydro-Aeroplanes catalog, 1912, author's private collection. Tom Benoist 51

Florida Aviation Historical Society

few airplanes. Jannus, who received all of the credit, became the best known of the MEMPHIS HIR! Benoist fliers. He was not, however, the only famous pilot with the company. In 1912, Benoist hired Edward Korn, Walter Lees, Hugh Robinson, Ray Benedict, and Frank Merrill Bell. He later added Roger Jannus and Jay D. Smith. All flew in exhi­ bitions at county fairs, carried passengers, and taught students to fly while working for Benoist. For whatever reason, Tony HEP., AUGUST 28th Jannus received most of the newspaper coverage. Although Benoist flew exhibi­ ^ATAER|M,JiMlBiT

tions, he primarily confined his activities same Biplane and a viator for Wednesday also have been to the ground.25 s^Pia: tot:: the Gm^:^S^MM^i^0^l^ Because exhibitions sold airplanes, Benoist's pilots would go anywhere to fly. ^m^mw^^mM^^^&W^ A forty-day trip by Tony Jannus from Omaha, Nebraska, to New Orleans, Louisiana, proved to be one of Benoist's Thomas Reilly most successful exhibitions. The trip, which took place from November 6 through December 16, 1912, followed the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. Benoist used this extended flight to

25 The aviation magazines of this period advertised the aviators that were scheduled to appear at events such as county fairs. Other than on rare occasions, there is no mention of Benoist himself flying exhibitions. 52 Missouri Historical Review demonstrate to sportsmen the safety of his newest model, the hydroplane. Prior to Jannus's departure from Omaha, Benoist gave several newspaper interviews. He told an Omaha Nebraska News reporter: "There is no future in the aeroplane business unless we can put out a machine that will be safe enough to appeal to the sporting public. So far, we have found the hydro­ aeroplane to fill this bill, and we believe it will soon become almost as com­ mon upon the big inland lakes and rivers as motor boats." Jannus's record- setting 1,973-mile flight used a pair of Benoist hydroplanes, which were nothing more than biplaned tractors fitted with a large center pontoon and large wing-tip ailerons. The two-seated aircraft could fly for approximately two hours. Forty-two aerial exhibitions en route exposed thousands of Americans to the marvel of the airplane.26 In January 1913, Benoist produced a flying boat. According to a cata­ log, the flying boat represented "the result of four years of aeroplane experi­ mentation, construction and flying by Hugh Robinson, Tom Benoist and Tony Jannus."27 Potential sales no doubt guided Benoist's decision to build flying boats after achieving a certain amount of success with land airplanes. The flying boat would be more attractive to the wealthy sportsmen who were now buying motorboats and looking for greater speed. Usable airports were scarce. In 1913 fewer than thirty fields in the United States could accom­ modate everyday flying. Any lake, river, or bay could be a potential runway. Equipped with a 75-horsepower engine, the two-seated flying boat sold for $4,250. Russell Froehlich, a St. Louis photographer responsible for chroni­ cling many of Tom Benoist's accomplishments, claimed that Benoist began thinking about building a flying boat in 1909.28 As early as the spring of 1913, Benoist and Jannus discussed plans for a transatlantic flight, which Jannus expected to begin in July. They proposed outfitting a Benoist two-passenger flying boat with a 75- or 100-horsepower Roberts engine, side-by-side reclining seats, extra fuel tanks, and a small wireless radio. Benoist's plan included the establishment of a hangar at Newfoundland. Jannus would follow a transatlantic steamer crossing via the

26 Omaha Nebraska News, 7 November 1912; "Jannus Completes Long Flight in Benoist Hydro," Fly Magazine 4 (January 1913): 19; "Jannus Makes World Record In Benoist Plane," Aero and Hydro, 28 December 1912, 235. 27 Advertising circular, 1912, Benoist Collection. 28 Oral history by Russell Froehlich, Russell Froehlich Collection, Florida Aviation Historical Society Archives. Froehlich was a photographer for the St. Louis Post-Dispatch and the unof­ ficial photographer for the Benoist Aeroplane Company. Froehlich told Christy Magrath, an author and an early acquaintance of Benoist: "Tom had the flying boat idea in mind in 1909 but it was two years before he started his boat with wings. We had the ship out at Creve Coeur Lake waiting for the right engine from Roberts. We knew Curtiss was trying to get the hydro off the water, so I faked a shot of Tom's boat in the air a month before it actually flew. This made the Curtiss crowd mad as hell because they were jealous of Tom and his work. When Tom got the bugs out of his airboat which Hugh Robinson and Tony had built, it proved to be a better boat than Curtiss made. It was faster, carried more weight and was a very safe machine to fly." Tom Benoist 53

northern route, and fuel would be carried and put off by the steamer. He would trail the ship until a hundred miles from the coast of Ireland, then fly ahead to the coast. The plan eliminated the danger of an attempted nonstop flight and did not require a specially built machine. Both the publicity that would be derived from a successful ocean crossing and a $50,000 prize offered by Lord Northcliffe of England motivated Benoist.29 The Roberts Motor Manufacturing Company's refusal to loan Benoist a 100-horsepower engine derailed the trip.30 Roberts replied to Benoist's loan request by writing: "We would gladly do so except for the fact that at least ten aviators have asked for a loan of a motor for this flight. The Roberts Motor Company could not undertake to furnish such a number of motors free of charge but we have made them all this proposition which we will make to you. We will sell you the motor at our regular price with an agreement to refund to you the price of the motor in case the flight is successfully accomplished."31 For several years, Tom Benoist had been the staunchest supporter among airplane manufacturers of the Roberts engines. As other manufacturers moved away from the vastly inferior two-cycle engine, Benoist refused to change. In fact, Roberts's reason for declining Benoist's request stemmed from the realization that its engine could not handle such a flight. If Jannus crashed during an attempted transatlantic crossing, the negative publicity for Roberts would have been irreversible. Conversely, if Benoist had purchased one of its engines and Jannus successfully crossed the Atlantic Ocean, the publicity accruing to Roberts would have been phenomenal. The year 1914 ushered in many events that would have shattering effects on the world, including the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, which led to the outbreak of World War I, and the opening of the Panama Canal. Whether Americans liked it or not, the world had grown smaller. Benoist's company played a small part in this reduction. The St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line, recognized as the world's first scheduled passenger airline, was the brainchild of Benoist, Tony Jannus, and Percival Elliott Fansler of Jacksonville, Florida.32 On December 17, 1913, Benoist, Fansler, and several St. Petersburg, Florida, officials signed a four- paragraph contract making the airline a reality.

We, the undersigned businessmen of St. Petersburg, do this day promise to pay to the officials of the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line, fifty dollars a day through January and twenty-five dollars a day, through February and March, for every day, Monday to Saturday of each week over a period of

29 Frank Orndorff to Roberts Motor Company, 25 May 1913, Benoist Collection; E. Percy Noel, "Antony Jannus Will Try Trans-Ocean Flight," Aero and Hydro, 10 May 1913, 107. 30 Roberts Motor to Orndorff, n.d., Benoist Collection. 31 Ibid., 28 April 1913. 32 U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Radio Division, with the Cooperation of the Smithsonian Institution, Early Wings For Commerce, 1, 8 January 1939, 2. 54 Missouri Historical Review

three months, on which regularly scheduled flights from St. Petersburg to Tampa are made regardless of passenger or cargo, and on scheduled time. It is understood that if the public takes to the air in sufficient numbers to pay costs of the Airboat Line, such payments will be forfeit. The Benoist Aircraft Company, through the president, Thomas W. Benoist, does hereby promise and agree to furnish airboats, pilots and crew and maintain service on schedule two round trips daily for three months. Furthermore, the city of St. Petersburg agrees to build a hangar on the sea­ wall of the North Mole to house the airboats when not in operation, and agrees to keep the Central Yacht Basin and Bay in front of the Basin, free from boat traffic during the hours of scheduled flights.33

On the day of inauguration, Fansler said, "If it is successful the Benoist Company stands ready to extend their airlines all over Florida, using St. Petersburg, because of its central location and its enthusiasm, as a base from which to conduct air transportation throughout the state. It is contemplated to extend these lines during the coming Summer further along the New Jersey, Conn., and New York shores—as well as in other sections suited to this method of transportation." The airline, which began service with a route of twenty-one miles between St. Petersburg and Tampa, operated on a pub­ lished schedule from January 1 through March 31, 1914. In its three-month life, the airline, using two Benoist flying boats, carried 1,205 passengers and logged over eleven thousand miles.34 When the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line ceased operation, Tony Jannus and his brother Roger severed their ties with the Benoist Aeroplane Company. Several reasons caused the split. The reputation of Tony Jannus, the flier, had long since eclipsed that of Benoist, the aircraft manufacturer, and the brothers wanted to design and manufacture aircraft that bore the Jannus name. Money was also a factor. Benoist's precarious financial situation had long been a source of frustration, and it had worsened during the operation of the St. Petersburg- Tampa Airboat Line. Even with the subsidy offered by St. Petersburg, the airline barely broke even. Benoist had neglected his manufacturing business in St. Louis and had sold only one used aircraft while in Florida.35 The dissolution of the partnership between Benoist and Tony Jannus proved rancorous. In a letter to Henry Woodhouse, editor of Flying, Jannus questioned Benoist's integrity and character. "I am surprised at any act of Mr. Tom Benoist that could be construed as a reflection upon his character. However, the affairs of the Benoist Company have been in pretty bad shape for about a year and being hard pressed often demands subterfuge that addi­ tional hardship makes impossible to cover."36

33 Gay White, "First Airline," Delta Digest 21 (January 1964): 5. 34 St. Petersburg Daily Times, 1 January 1914; Antony Jannus, "Benoist Airline Operation at St. Petersburg," Aero and Hydro, 25 April 1914, 41. 35 Percival Elliott Fansler, "The First Commercial Airline," Aero Digest, December 1929, 57. 36 Tony Jannus to Henry Woodhouse, 31 August 1914, author's private collection. Tom Benoist 55

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Florida Aviation Historical Society

Jannus's veiled attack on Benoist's character should not be the last word. The separation of the two men was obviously very bitter. Froehlich offered another view of the man and his personality. The photographer remembered Benoist as "just about the most well balanced and finest man I ever knew. He didn't drink or smoke, always had a smile and never heard him say even 'damn' as long as I knew him. Tom never got mad like you or I would—it took an awful lot of upsets to get a frown on him, and you couldn't call him mad—perturbed is the word."37

Froehlich to Magrath, n.d., Froehlich Collection. 56 Missouri Historical Review

In March 1915, Benoist wrote to Jay D. Smith, Jannus's longtime mechanic, with an offer of employment. Benoist was extremely uncompli­ mentary about Jannus—the man, the pilot, and the aircraft designer. He claimed: "Tony is looked upon as a joke as a designer. In fact, no one expects him to accomplish anything in the constructing line. . . . Tony is impossible as an aeroplane designer, and only average as a flyer, and his conversational ability is the only thing that kept him going so far."38 Things had not gone well since the departure of Jannus, to whom many people have given much of the credit for Benoist's successes. General Frank Lahm, involved with the Wright brothers' first government acceptance flights, and Robert Fowler, the first man to fly from California to New York, claimed, "Tom Benoist leaned rather heavily on Tony's engineering knowl­ edge more than we are aware of."39 Benoist had become inordinately depen­ dent upon Jannus and relied on his exhibition flying to promote the Benoist company aircraft. Martha B. Davis, Benoist's sister, pointed out, "He [Tom] needed publicity but had no time to pursue it and Tony was just a natural to furnish it."40 Jannus's departure proved both financially and emotionally dev­ astating to Benoist. Following the demise of the St. Petersburg airline, Tom Benoist returned to St. Louis. The city showed little interest in him, and his operation, Kinloch Field, a one-time mecca of midwestern aviation, was virtually deserted except for the Benoist company. He frequently threatened to leave St. Louis, believing that he did not receive adequate financial and civic support there. The bottom line apparently was money; "the city charged him $15 each time he took a plane off the ground and required him to have both a city and state license."41 By January 1915, Benoist relocated his operation to Chicago. The far-sighted Benoist long believed that the airplane held great poten­ tial as a weapon of war. He became an early proponent of a strong and well- prepared U.S. aerial corps in the beginning years of World War I. In Aero and Hydro he wrote, "Manufacturers and others interested in the advancement of the science joined in urging Congress in general and some members in par­ ticular to consider favorable and immediate increments in the strength of the aerial corps—before it would be too late."42 While working out of Chicago during the fall of 1915, Benoist reached an agreement with the St. Louis Car Company in St. Louis to build the

38 Tom Benoist to Jay D. Smith, 9 March 1915, James Smith Collection, St. Petersburg Museum of History Archives, St. Petersburg, Florida. 39 Magrath to White, 3 May 1953, White Collection. 40 Martha B. Davis to White, September 1952, ibid. 41 White, The World's First Airline, 5. 42 Tom W. Benoist, "European Situation Great Aero Lesson to U.S.," Aero and Hydro, 19 September 1914, 308. Tom Benoist 57

Benoist Type 15 flying boat.43 With the resources of that company behind him, he hoped to attract British interest in the aircraft as both a light bomber and an observation machine. In January 1916, Benoist traveled to England and Milan, Italy, to sell his aircraft.44 If he was successful, the success was limited. On February 15, he advised the St. Louis Car Company that he had sold a demonstrator in Italy. Three days later from London he wired that he had sold a small demonstrator.45 Shortly afterward, a representative of the Roberts Motor Company wrote: "Benoist has just returned from abroad with a nice certified check and an order for 20 outfits for immediate delivery. He of course, hopes that this is only a starter. So, do we." It is unknown whether Benoist's aircraft were ever deliv­ ered to Italy and England. The St. Louis Car Company did produce two Benoist Type 15 flyingboats , one of which was test-flown by Roger Jannus.46 Benoist never fulfilled his big dreams. Shortly after the agreement with the St. Louis Car Company, Benoist reported, "Had the negotiations been successful, the Car Co. would have built nearly 5,000 planes at a cost of $6,100 each." A year earlier, Benoist had claimed "that we are figuring with the English Government for the sale of a hundred machines."47 During the spring of 1916, Benoist moved his factory from Chicago to the Roberts Motor Company in Sandusky, Ohio. Capable of producing sev­ eral aircraft at a time in his former workshop, he could barely accommodate one aircraft in this new location. By the time Benoist relocated to Ohio, his best days were long behind him. He probably manufactured no more than four aircraft while in Sandusky. In addition to the space problem, production costs were high, and everything had to be made from raw materials. With no assembly lines, no fancy machinery, and little prefabrication, it proved impossible to subcontract any of the work, and no one else had the necessary expertise. Benoist realized only a small profit on each plane.48 As Benoist struggled to pay the bills and keep his remaining employees from deserting him, his long-awaited government contract for aircraft seemed about to happen. He was called to Washington, D.C, to meet with officials regarding a proposed order. His designs ranged from the two-pas­ senger Model E-17 to the Model K-17, a seven-passenger, cross-country air-

43 Andrew D. Young and Eugene F. Provenzo, Jr., The History of St. Louis Car Company, Quality Shops (Berkeley, Calif.: Howell-North Books, 1978), 62. 44 Davis to White, 8 January 1954, White Collection. 45 Edwin B. Meissner, St. Louis Car Company, to W H. Burke, President, Roberts Motor Manufacturing Company, 19 February 1916, Benoist Collection. 46 Roberts Motor Manufacturing Company to Jay D. Smith, 9 March 1916, ibid.; Roberts Motor Manufacturing Company catalog, 8 March 1916, author's private collection. 47 Young and Provenzo, History of St. Louis Car Company, 62; Benoist to Smith, 9 March 1915, Smith Collection. 48 Reinhardt Ausmus, speech, n.d., 3A, in Aviation Collection, Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center, Fremont, Ohio. 58 Missouri Historical Review

craft powered by twin 100-horsepower engines. Sandusky newspapers reported in December 1916 that many thought Benoist would receive a large order from the federal government. In June 1917, Admiral Robert Peary was scheduled to travel to Sandusky to meet with Benoist and representatives from the Roberts company.49 On June 14, 1917, while hopping off a moving streetcar, Tom Benoist struck a light pole. He died within a few hours.50 Immediately following his brother's burial in Irondale, Charles Benoist assumed control of the Benoist Aeroplane Company. He remained in Sandusky only a couple of months before moving the company to Akron. By August, the nearly bankrupt company relocated to Canton. Charles Benoist either sold or gave his interest in the company to J. A. Bernower and C. E. Millally, president and treasurer, respectively. The new owners had relocat­ ed to Canton with the intention of raising capital and resuming the compa­ ny's manufacturing operation, but the efforts proved unsuccessful. The Canton facility had only a small shop barely large enough for an office; air­ craft and spare parts were stored in the Arctic Ice Plant and later at the Aultman Company Warehouse.51 Several things led to the ultimate erosion of Tom Benoist's fortunes. Throughout most of his adult life, he labored under a severe lack of funding. One of his students at Sandusky recalled the financial situation, "Thorn Benoist was a man of big heart [who] suffered his own financial pains [in] not letting anyone know how bad he was off."52 He never acquired the type

49 Sandusky (Ohio) Register, 16 June 1917. 50 Ibid., 15 June 1917; Certificate of Death, Benoist. The official cause of death was a "fractured skull, accidentally struck head on pole while leaving out of street car, shock, and hemorrhage from ears." 51 Charles Benoist oral history, 2 September 1952, Benoist Collection. 52 Reinhardt N. Ausmus to White, n.d., White Collection.

Benoist met his untimely death from injuries suffered after he exited a streetcar in Sandusky, Ohio.

Florida Aviation Historical Society Tom Benoist 59 of sponsorship associated with other well-known early manufacturers of air­ craft. The Wright brothers had the support of the U.S. Army Signal Corps. Glenn Curtiss had several backers, including Alexander Graham Bell, the collective group of the Aerial Experiment Association, and the wealthy Rodman Wanamaker. Benoist's brother Charles verified this, "Unlike Curtiss, he lacked the political drag and money needed to get over the rough spots."53 Benoist had enjoyed the regional support of Albert Bond Lambert while in St. Louis; however, Lambert had neither the government influence nor the knowledge of aviation that Wanamaker, Bell, and the others possessed. Benoist's selection of engines sealed his fate. Through several years of poor performance, Benoist had remained loyal to the Roberts engine. He could not afford to keep building airplanes without the assistance of Roberts, yet the Roberts engine caused him the most damage. Edward Korn, Tony Jannus's assistant, stated: "Tom was definitely hard up for cash, and I think he stuck to the Roberts engine because Mr. Roberts gave him a good price on engines and plenty of time to pay for them. The lagging payment plan of course, is my own idea. My reasoning along this line is that Roberts needed recognition in aviation and an outlet for his product and Tom Benoist was his best bet, therefore, he gave Tom every chance possible. For Tom to have changed engines would have required considerable cash."54 The Roberts engine also cost Benoist customers. A Benoist student, Reinhardt Ausmus, stated: "Every time a foreign representative would come here, Tom would say 'well, I guess we'll sell four or five planes.' Every darn time, it seems the old engine would knock a bearing out or something else would happen to it— it would always be the engine. The fellows would get disgusted and they wouldn't come back."55 Many of Benoist's contemporaries refused to buy one of his aircraft because of the Roberts engine. Jack Vilas recalled that he "almost bought a Benoist flying boat from him in the early spring of 1913. The biggest draw­ back to the old Benoist machine was the two cycle Roberts motor that Tom used. These motors were very undependable."56 The Roberts engine, a reworked marine engine, had its share of idiosyncrasies. Some of the engines had to have the cylinders shimmed up because of intake and exhaust cutoff. If a cylinder was machined off at the base a few thousandths of an inch too much, the intake and exhaust port were thrown slightly out of alignment with piston travel. Less power resulted. Tony Jannus may deserve much of the credit for getting maximum per­ formance from the Roberts engine. Edward Korn recalled: "Benoist was

53 Charles Benoist to Christy Magrath, 2 September 1952, Benoist Collection. 54 Korn to White. 55 Reinhardt Ausmus speech, n.d., box 2, Reinhardt Ausmus Papers, Hayes Presidential Center. 56 Jack Vilas, "Early Bird Questionnaire," 26 July 1952, author's private collection. 60 Missouri Historical Review using the Roberts 2 cycle 6 cylinder engine and was not having very good success with it. After Tony took it over he got real power out of the engine by putting on a larger gas line and mixing one quart of Mobile A oil to every 5 gallons of gasoline, instead of one pint of oil as directed by the manufac­ turers of the engine."57 Benoist nevertheless left behind a long and impressive list of achieve­ ments. His aircraft set a world's long-distance hydroplane record, a world's long-distance hydroplane record with passengers, and the American endurance record for an aviator and three passengers. The first successful tractor biplane designed and built in the United States has been attributed to Tom Benoist.58 The world's first successful parachute jump from an airplane was made from a Benoist headless biplane. Perhaps the most significant trib­ ute to Benoist was the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line, the world's first scheduled passenger airline. Benoist made valuable contributions to early airplane design and advancement. His flying boats were of leading performance ability, helping to stimulate the market and to attract a new group of fliers with the financial means to purchase aircraft. From the beginning, Benoist's philosophy of air­ craft construction was "safety-first." Many of his contemporaries claimed that he engineered more new developments in aircraft during the aircraft building phase of his life than any other American had for years. True or not, Tom Benoist's logo—the name Benoist in blue letters with a red arrow—was well known throughout the United States. On February 18, 1918, an advertisement attempting to sell the little remaining property of the Benoist Aeroplane Company appeared in Aerial Age. The remainder of Tom Benoist's company included: "Two 4 passenger flying boats; one passenger (2 place) flying boat; one Baby Tractor in process; one 2 passenger Flying Boat in Process; one Hall Scott motor, one Roberts motor; blue prints, drawings, patterns, all patent rights, and an assortment of aeroplane parts and accessories."59 P. G. B. Morriss, Benoist's vice president in charge of sales, claimed that the company was "making and selling more planes in this country than any other company with the excep­ tion of Glenn Curtiss." Aircraft number 106 was under construction at the time of Benoist's death. According to Professor James J. Horgan in City of Flight, Thomas Wesley Benoist was St. Louis's first truly great industrialist, and had he lived, "he would surely have ranked as the equal of Curtiss, Martin, Boeing, Douglas, or McDonnell."60 Tom Benoist was, without doubt, one of the pioneers of America's neophyte aviation industry.

57 Edward Korn, "Early Bird Questionnaire," 8 September 1952, ibid. 58 A Guide to Aircraft at the Paul E. Garber Facility, National Air and Space Museum, 5; Korn to White. 59 "Flying School Equipment For Sale," Aerial Age, 18 February 1918, 7. 60 P. G. B. Morriss to White, January 1954, White Collection; Horgan, City of Flight, 288. 61

HISTORICAL NOTES AND COMMENTS Society to Celebrate Centennial in 1998

Next year the State Historical Society completes its first century of exis­ tence. Founded in 1898 by the Missouri Press Association and made a trustee of the state the following year, the Society has evolved into a nation­ ally known specialized research facility with unparalleled resources for studying the history of Missouri and its residents. The officers, trustees, and staff of the Society are planning several special events and publications to mark this centennial year. Beginning the year's celebration will be a Founders' Day Dinner on February 7, 1998. This event, which will feature dinner and a speaker at the Reynolds Alumni Center on the University of Missouri-Columbia campus, will honor the Missouri Press Association winter meeting of 1898. At the January 21 session, held at the New Coates House in Kansas City, E. W. Stephens, editor of the Columbia Herald, on behalf of Richard Jesse, the president of the University of Missouri, first proposed the formation of a state historical society. The association immediately appointed a committee to prepare plans for establishing such an organization. At the association's annual meeting in Eureka Springs, Arkansas, the following May, the editors adopted the constitution and bylaws proposed by the committee. Columbia newspaperman E. W. Stephens and Isidor Loeb, a professor at the University of Missouri, were respectively elected president and secretary of the new Society. On April 16-18, the Society will serve as the host institution for the for­ tieth annual Missouri Conference on History. The newly renovated Ramada Inn in Columbia will serve as conference headquarters. The theme for the conference will be "A Centennial Celebration of History," and concurrent sessions of papers on various facets of history plus a keynote speaker and special events will be featured. The Society will hold two significant ninety-day art exhibits during the centennial year. On April 6, A Centennial Salute to George Caleb Bingham will open to the public, and A Centennial Salute to Thomas Hart Benton will open on October 5. For these special centennial exhibits, works by the two artists from private collections, trusts, and other museums will be featured. Two special publications will be issued as a part of the centennial cele­ bration. A history of the Society's activities during its first century, written by Professor Alan Havig of Stephens College, Columbia, is scheduled for publication early in 1998. Later in the spring, the Society will make avail­ able an illustrated volume bringing together for the first time the texts of the highway historical markers erected by the Society and the Missouri State Highway Department in all counties in the 1950s and 1960s. Short essays 62 Missouri Historical Review and photographs accompanying the marker texts will highlight an event, place, or person significant to each county's history. The Missouri Historical Review during 1998 will reprint noteworthy articles and annual meeting addresses from preceding issues. Other events and programs are also planned for throughout the centen­ nial year; details will be made available at a later time. The celebration of the Society's centennial year will culminate at the annual meeting to be held in Columbia on October 24, 1998.

Reference Library

In June 1995, Bill Caldwell and Chuck Price, owners of Missouri River Antiques and Books, Rocheport, made a remarkable purchase at an auction. For $250 they bought a large, leather-bound atlas of Boone County, Missouri, simply because it was a "neat-looking book." After researching their find, they discovered that the volume is the earliest known plat book of Boone County and a valuable research document for historians and genealogists. The 1853 plat book consists of twenty-six hand-drawn maps on pages 2172 inches long by 1672 inches wide. The maps include the name of the business, the person or the persons who owned each parcel of land, and the date of purchase. The dates do not extend beyond 1840. Ebenezer Clough drew the maps on commission for James S. Rollins, a Boone County lawyer, state representative and state senator, U.S. representative, twice gubernator­ ial candidate, and "father of the University of Missouri." It is believed that Rollins wanted to establish the exact location of available lands and to doc­ ument landownership throughout the county for personal financial reasons and to expedite public works projects. Railroad building began in Missouri in 1852; Rollins may have commissioned the atlas to assist in planning the location of tracks across the county. Although Caldwell and Price could have sold the atlas for several times the purchase price, they decided to place it in the care of Boone County peo­ ple who would make the information available to anyone interested. At a formal presentation on August 20, 1995, they donated the plat book to the Boone County Historical Society in Columbia. The volume, while in good condition, is too large and fragile to be han­ dled frequently by researchers. Since hundreds of handwritten names appear in the atlas, some form of duplication and enlargement became necessary to make the information more accessible. In a joint project with the Boone County Historical Society, the State Historical Society microfilmed the atlas. The Boone County Historical Society received a positive reel of microfilm for patron use and two negative reels for duplication and long-term preser- Historical Notes and Comments 63 vation. The State Historical Society retained a positive reel for patrons to use and stored a negative reel for preservation purposes. To make the best use of the plat book, the societies agreed that an index should be compiled and microfilmed with the atlas. Linda Brown-Kubisch, project coordinator, and Laurel Boeckman, senior reference specialist, both members of the State Historical Society Reference Library staff, undertook the indexing project. The librarians deciphered the handwritten names and compared them to known Boone County settlers' lists to facilitate accuracy. Once all of the names on the maps had been deciphered and transcribed, Josiah Parkinson, a Reference Library student assistant, created a computer­ ized database listing the names in alphabetical order with the corresponding land descriptions (township, range, and section numbers). The 101-page index and the 26-page atlas were then microfilmed together. The State Historical Society returned the atlas to the Boone County Historical Society upon completion of the project in March 1997. The State Historical Society's microfilm copy of the 1853 atlas is housed in the Newspaper Library, where it may be used by on-site researchers. Because the atlas belongs to the Boone County Historical Society, the microfilm reel is not available for interlibrary loan. The Boone County Historical Society plans to publish and sell a paper copy of the plat book and index in the future. Questions concerning the reproduction or use of the plat book should be addressed to Mark Hudson, Curator, Boone County Historical Society, 3801 Ponderosa Street, Columbia, MO 65201; (573) 443-8936. The State Historical Society of Missouri is grateful to the Boone County Historical Society for making this valuable document avail­ able to researchers using the Society's resources.

ERRATUM

The ordering address for Majoring in the Minors: A Glimpse of Baseball in a Small Town, by John G. Hall, was incorrectly listed in the July 1997 Missouri Historical Review. The book can be ordered from the author at 1709 Rainwood Place, Columbia, MO 65203. 64 NEWS IN BRIEF

The fortieth annual Missouri Conference the Society, retired from the department at the on History will be held in Columbia on April close of the fall 1996 semester. A nationally 16-18, 1998, at the Ramada Inn. The State recognized scholar on Thomas Jefferson and Historical Society of Missouri will serve as the Early Republic, Cunningham taught at host institution for the conference as a part of Wake Forest College and the University of the observance of the Society's centennial Richmond before joining the University of year. In honor of the anniversary, the confer­ Missouri-Columbia faculty in 1964. He ence theme will be "A Centennial served as chair of the Department of History Celebration of History." The program com­ from 1971 to 1974. Cunningham, who has mittee invites submissions of papers and written and edited eleven books and numer­ paper sessions, particularly those that trace ous articles, has received many fellowships, changes and trends in the study and writing grants, and awards and served as an officer of of all facets of history during the twentieth learned societies and on editorial boards. He century. Papers focusing on other topics are was named a Byler Distinguished Professor in also welcome. The deadline for submission 1980 and a Frederick Middlebush Professor in is December 1. Send a one-page abstract and 1986. A recipient of the university's Thomas a brief curriculum vitae to Lynn Wolf Jefferson Award in 1979, Cunningham Gentzler, Associate Director, State Historical became a University of Missouri Curators' Society of Missouri, 1020 Lowry Street, Professor in 1988. He will continue to serve Columbia, MO 65201-7298. as an officer of the Society.

In June three Missouri organizations The Friends of the Missouri State Archives received recognition from the American held its annual meeting on June 14 at the Association for State and Local History's 1997 Capitol Plaza Hotel in Jefferson City. The Annual Awards Program. The Boonslick keynote speaker was William S. Worley of the Historical Society was awarded a certificate of University of Missouri-Kansas City, who por­ commendation for its exhibit A Brush With trayed Thomas Pendergast. Lynn Wolf History—175 Years of Art in the Boonslick, Gentzler, associate director of the Society, was and Main Street Joplin received a certificate of elected to the Friends' board of trustees. commendation for the promotion and dissem­ ination of the history of Joplin. The Missouri The Journal of Policy History will hold a Historical Society, St. Louis, was the recipient conference commemorating the completion of an award of merit for its exhibit Meet Me at of its tenth year of publication on October 15- the Fair: History, Memory and the 1904 St. 18, 1998, in St. Louis. For more information Louis World's Fair. The awards program, now contact Policy Conference, Journal of Policy in its fifty-third year, recognizes excellence in History, Saint Louis University, 221 North the collection, preservation, and interpretation Grand Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63108. of state, provincial, and local history through­ out North America. Lynn Wolf Gentzler, asso­ ciate director of the Society, serves as regional The Harry S. Truman Library Institute is chair for the Missouri Valley area, and James offering grants in four categories: Research, W. Goodrich, executive director, is the state Scholar's Awards, Dissertation Year chair for Missouri. Fellowships, and Undergraduate Honors. For more information contact the Harry S. Truman Library, 500 West Highway 24, Independence, The University of Missouri-Columbia MO 64050-1798; (816) 833-1400. Department of History honored Noble E. Cunningham, Jr., with a reception at the Reynolds Alumni and Visitor Center on May The William P. Clements Center for 12. Cunningham, the fourth vice president of Southwest Studies in the Department of Historical Notes and Comments 65

History, Southern Methodist University, offers Omaha, Nebraska, March 12-14, 1998. two year-long, residential research fellowships Proposals consisting of a cover letter, for the 1998-1999 academic year. The abstract(s), and vitae can be sent to Lorraine M. Clements Research Fellowship in Southwest Gesick, MVHC Program Coordinator, Studies is open to researchers interested in the Department of History, University of Nebraska, humanities or the social sciences of the Omaha, NE 68182. The deadline for submis­ Southwest; the Summerlee Research sions is October 31, 1997. Inquiries can be Fellowship specifically addresses Texas histo­ made by e-mail to [email protected]. ry. Each fellowship, designed to bring book- Please do not submit proposals by e-mail. length manuscripts to completion, carries a $30,000 stipend, health benefits, a modest Missouri Secretary of State Rebecca Cook allowance for research and travel expenses, awarded eighty-three grants to local govern­ and support for book publication. ment agencies through the Local Records Applications must be received by January 15, Preservation Program administered by her 1998. For more information contact David J. office for the fiscal year 1998 that began July Weber, Director, Clements Center for 1. The program affords local Missouri gov­ Southwest Studies, Department of History, ernments the opportunity to organize and pre­ Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX serve documents on microfilm, thus providing 75275-0176; http://www.smu.edu/~swcenter/. for greater public access. Funding for the grants comes from a fee placed on documents Reference specialist Marie Concannon filed with county recorders. sold Society publications at the annual meet­ ing of the St. Louis Genealogical Society, held Missouri Congressman Roy Blunt has been on June 21 at Machinists' Hall in St. Louis. appointed to the National Historical Publications and Records Commission. The The Missouri Press Women presented commission is authorized to undertake a wide Avis G. Tucker, past president of the Society, range of actions to preserve historic documents, with the Bertha Bless Award during its annu­ including issuing grants to support state and al meeting in April. Named for a founding local government agencies, not-for-profit orga­ member of the MPW, the Bless Award honors nizations, and institutions in preserving state outstanding communicators. Tucker, pub­ and local records and publications. As lisher of the Warrensburg Daily Star-Journal, Missouri's secretary of state from 1985 to 1993, also received a Missouri Honor Award for Blunt established a local records management Distinguished Service in Journalism from the and grants program and developed a nationally University of Missouri-Columbia School of adopted program that utilizes historic docu­ Journalism in 1976 and served as president of ments as teaching tools. He is a founder of the the Missouri Press Association in 1982. Springfield-Greene County Historic Preser­ vation Society and was the first chairman of Greene County's Historic Sites Board. The History Museum for Springfield- Greene County was awarded an $11,000 grant Kansas City Mayor Emanuel Cleaver from the William T. Kemper Foundation in announced that $14.2 million in federal July. The grant will be used to computerize the grants and loans has been designated to help Fulbright Family Archive room at the museum, rebuild the historic 18th and Vine area. The enabling staff and patrons greater access to the area includes the Kansas City Jazz Museum, material stored there. The museum is located the Negro Leagues Baseball Museum, and at 830 Boonville Avenue in Springfield. the Horace M. Peterson, III, Visitor Center.

The Missouri Valley History Conference Eleven Missouri History Day winners were has issued a call for papers and sessions in all among the nearly two thousand students from areas of history for the upcoming meeting in across the United States who participated in the 66 Missouri Historical Review

National History Day competition held at the al level. Three of his students have been University of Maryland-College Park in June. awarded scholarships from Southeast Missouri Missouri winners included Michelle Froman, State University, Cape Girardeau, at district Columbia Catholic School, who placed third in contests. As the Missouri nominee, Froman junior historical papers. Nathan Skelley, Joplin also received the Joseph Webber cash award South Middle School, won second place in from the State Historical Society of Missouri. junior individual performances. Justin The State History Day program is sponsored Austermann, St. Margaret of Scotland, St. each year by the Society and the University of Louis, placed sixth in that division. Derek Missouri Western Historical Manuscript Wetmore, Wydown Middle School, Clayton, Collection-Columbia. ranked sixth in junior individual media. Shawn White, Carl Junction High School, took tenth The Daughters of Union Veterans of the place in senior individual exhibits, and Civil War, Missouri Department, is forming a Waynesville High students Hilary Reid and J- new tent in Springfield. Interested persons Pia Spruill placed tenth in the senior group should contact Connie Irby, 214 West exhibits category. In junior group exhibits, St. McCabe, Strafford, MO 65757. Louis students Maggie Brandt, Gina Zahibe, Monica Merkt, and Heather Dunsford, St. The public is invited to attend a viewing Raphael School, finished ninth. of documents and memorabilia pertaining to Mitchell Froman, Greenville, was chosen the Battle of the Bulge on display in the Old as the Missouri nominee for National History Ordnance Room at Jefferson Barracks in St. Day Teacher of Merit during State History Day Louis. The exhibit, organized by the Veterans activities in Columbia on April 12. For over of the Battle of the Bulge, runs through twenty years, Froman has inspired rural Wayne January 25, 1998. For admission charges and County students to participate in History Day. museum hours call (314) 544-5714, Tuesday In 1996 three of his students won at the nation­ through Sunday, 9:00-4:30.

Keep a Green Umbrella Handy

Hannibal Journal, May 16, 1853. To Check a Runaway Horse—throw an empty flour barrel at him. Green umbrellas are also good, but not always so accessible.

A Minute's Bet

St. Louis The Mirror, August 16, 1906. "Here, hold my horse a minute, will you?" "Sir! I am a member of Congress!" "Never mind. You look honest. I'll take a chance."- -Louisville Courier-Journal.

Eagerly Looking

Columbia Herald-Statesman, November 20, 1924. Young Wife—"George, I want a fireless cooker." Young Hubby—"I'll get it for you, dearie, just as soon as I can find a fireless employer." 67 LOCAL HISTORICAL SOCIETIES

Adair County Historical Society The Society meets the third Monday of each The Society gathered at the Sojourners month at 7:00 P.M. in the Cassville Club building in Kirksville on April 19 to cel­ Community Building. ebrate the Sojourners Club's centennial anniversary and to hear members discuss the Barton County Historical Society club's "Past, Present, and Future." The Society met on July 13 in the Law Chapel at the United Methodist Church, Affton Historical Society Lamar. Bob Douglas brought a pick, a shov­ The Society, with the Ladies of Oakland, el, a carbide lamp, and a lump of coal to illus­ held its twentieth annual July 4 breakfast buf­ trate his talk about coal mining in the county. fet on the Oakland House grounds. On July 10 at the Oakland House, the Society's regu­ Bates County Historical Society lar meeting place, members heard Carl In lieu of a July meeting, members attend­ Speiser's program on the diary of Lillian ed the county fair. Regular meetings are held Schumacher, a Wichita, Kansas, girl who on the second Thursday of each month at attended the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis. 7:30 P.M. at the museum complex in Butler.

Andrew County Museum Belton Historical Society and Historical Society The Harry Truman Chapter of the Sons of The National Institute for the Conservation the American Revolution displayed thirteen of Cultural Property awarded the museum a early American flags at the Society's July 27 1997 Conservation Assessment Program meeting. Members meet in October, January, grant. The grant will enable the museum, with April, and July at the Old City Hall. the help of two professional conservators, to evaluate collection care policies and proce­ Bingham-Waggoner Historical Society dures and environmental conditions. On June 7 the Society and the National Frontier Trails Center celebrated National Atchison County Historical Society Trails Day with "Trekkin' on the Trail," a day­ The Society held special meetings of the long festival that included live music by the Star School Preservation Committee on June Missouri Town Band and a program by the 17 and July 15 at the Star Hill Prairie Art Missouri Historical Interpreters. The Society Center in Rock Port. Members discussed the welcomed the public on July 12 to the annual future of Star School, a historically signifi­ antique and craft fair, the Bingham-Waggoner cant local landmark. estate's major fund-raiser.

Audrain County Historical Society Bonniebrook Historical Society On July 13 the Society held groundbreak­ The Society held its banquet and annual ing ceremonies on the site of the Pleasant View meeting on April 16. The One Rose Antique Christian Church, which members plan to ren­ Show, a benefit for Bonniebrook, the former ovate and transform into a model country home of Rose O'Neill, was held at the church typical of the late nineteenth century. University Plaza Trade Center, Springfield, on July 26-27. Barry County Genealogical and Historical Society Boone County Historical Society On May 31 at the Veterans' Parade festiv­ The spring benefit auction, held on May ities in Cassville, the Society dedicated a his­ 18, raised over $3,000 for the Walters-Boone torical marker about the 1861 Cassville meet­ County Historical Museum and other Society ing of Missouri's secessionist government. activities. With the Columbia Parks and 68 Missouri Historical Review

Recreation Department, the Society cospon­ Butler County Historical Society sored the annual Civil War reenactment on Photographs of the 1927 Poplar Bluff torna­ the museum grounds on June 14-15. Bill do were on display at the First United Methodist Taft, professor emeritus of journalism at the Church, Poplar Bluff, on May 9-10. On both University of Missouri-Columbia and former days, the Society offered for sale a reprint of Society president, presented a program on his Lloyd Miler's 1972 booklet of tornado pho­ book Wit and Wisdom of Missouri's Country tographs. Miler's photographs are on permanent Editors at the June 22 meeting, held in the display in the Poplar Bluff Museum. The book­ museum in Columbia. let can be purchased through the Butler County Historical Society, c/o Thelma Sanders, 951 Boone-Duden Historical Society Cynthia, Poplar Bluff, MO 63901. On May 18 Members met on April 28 at the Francis the Society sponsored a driving tour featuring Howell school district administration build­ some of Poplar Bluff's historic houses. ing to hear Dan Brown discuss the history of the school district. Bryan Uhlmansiek and Camden County Historical Society Celia Freese were respectively elected vice The Society sponsored a picnic in Linn president and secretary. The June 30 meet­ Creek over the Independence Day holiday. ing, held at the Busch Wildlife Area Lodge, The event, which revived a county tradition, featured "Every Item Served a Purpose," a featured a parade, demonstrations, and a talent program by Bill Loyd on clothing from the show. The Society meets monthly on the third 1760-1820 period. Monday at 6:30 in the Linn Creek Museum.

Boonslick Historical Society Campbell Area Genealogical The Society's Brush with History art and Historical Society exhibit, cosponsored with the Ashby-Hodge The Society meets the third Monday of Gallery of American Art at Central Methodist each month, except December, at 7:00 P.M. at College, Fayette, and displayed October the library. through December 1996, recently won a cer­ tificate of commendation from the American Carondelet Historical Society Association for State and Local History. A At the June 29 meeting in the Carondelet video tour of the exhibit is available for Historic Center, Lois Waninger presented a $20.00, plus $1.50 postage, from Lammers talk and slide show on the Biltmore estate in Video Memories, 1509 Jefferson Drive, Asheville, North Carolina, and the Boonville, MO 65233. During the summer, Hermitage, Andrew Jackson's house in the Society collected old photographs and Nashville, Tennessee. cameras in anticipation of an exhibit on nine­ teenth- and early twentieth-century photogra­ Cass County Historical Society phy in the Boonslick area. The exhibit will Belton Community Days, held June 19- be in place through December at various 21, celebrated the town's 125th anniversary. locations in the area. Members shared stories about personal heir­ looms at the June 29 meeting, held at Pearson Brown County Historical Association Hall in Harrisonville. The Association meets the second Tuesday of each month, except in July and August, at Chariton County Historical Society the First Baptist Church in Sweet Springs. Members heard "Music of the American West," songs of the nineteenth-century western Brush and Palette Club migration, presented by Steve Wiegenstein, The Club awarded its annual scholarship to associate professor of communications at Rebecca Faye Hall, a 1997 graduate of Culver-Stockton College in Canton, during the Gasconade County R-l High School in Hermann. July 20 meeting at the museum in Salisbury. Historical Notes and Comments 69

Civil War Round Table of Kansas City meets on the fourth Sunday of each month at Emory M. Thomas, University of Georgia the museum in Kahoka. historian and author of Robert E. Lee: A Biography, spoke to members on May 27 at Cole County Historical Society the Leawood Country Club in Leawood, On May 22 the Society sponsored its Kansas, the Society's monthly meeting loca­ spring garden party in the courtyard near the tion. Thomas received the Round Table's museum in Jefferson City. After wine and 1997 Harry S. Truman Award, honoring dis­ hors d'oeuvres, members and guests viewed tinguished scholars of Civil War military his­ the Missouri first ladies' inaugural ball gown tory. On June 24 members heard Louise Barry collection. The Society held an open house at present "Memoirs of Captain Pleasant the museum during the Independence Day Houston Spears, Co. D, 2nd Regiment holiday weekend. Arkansas Volunteers, U.S." Ed Shutt dis­ cussed the postwar activities of well-known Commerce Historical Society Civil War personalities at the July 22 meeting. The Society has published Diary of Joseph T. Anderson, which is now available Civil War Round Table of St. Louis for $8.00, plus $1.50 postage, from the Members gathered at the Two Heart Society at P.O. Box 93, Commerce, MO Banquet Center on May 21 to hear Richard L. 63742-0093. Proceeds will benefit the DiNardo, professor of history at Saint Peter's Society's work on the historic Old College in New Jersey, discuss Robert E. Lee. Commerce/Anderson Cemetery. The Round Table's new site on the World Wide Web can be found at http://home.stl- Concordia Historical Institute net.com/~cwrtstl. After an extensive renovation, the Institute has added a display to Concordia Seminary's Civil War Round Table replica of the log cabin seminary where of Western Missouri Lutheran pastors were first trained in Missouri. On May 14 and June 11, the Round Table The Institute has also produced a commemora­ held meetings featuring author Louise Barry tive medallion celebrating the five hundredth discussing her book and Jimmy Johnson's anniversary of the birth of Lutheran reformer talk on the "Plantation Pig." Members met Philipp Melanchthon. Contact the Institute for for a Civil War picnic on July 9 at the Lone details regarding the purchase of the silver Jack Battlefield and Museum Park. The ($100) or bronze ($35) medallions. An exhibit group meets on the second Wednesday of featuring Melanchthon can be seen at the each month, except in July, August, and museum through November. December, at the Truman High School library in Independence. Dade County Historical Society The Society has sought state aid to restore Clark County Historical Society the Washington Hotel on the east side of the At the June 22 meeting, members viewed square in Greenfield. Members hope to save the video Ellis Island, and European Influence the abandoned structure from demolition. in Northeast Missouri; Kristy Fishback pro­ vided commentary during the presentation. Dallas County Historical Society The Thunderbirds, an organization for people On March 20 in the Crescent School at with Native American ancestry or an interest the Buffalo Head Prairie Historical Park, the in preserving Native American culture, provid­ Society held its first meeting of the year. ed the program for the July 27 meeting. In Jane Hale entertained guests with "Memories addition to an informative oral presentation, of Roxdale." The April 17 meeting featured numerous items including crafts, tools, cloth­ Maxine Nimmo's talk on the once-thriving ing, and weapons were displayed. The Society communities of Charity and Thorpe. Max 70 Missouri Historical Review

Hunter presented "Music of the Past" at the Plata Amtrak station, where they meet on the May 15 meeting, and Leni Howe discussed first Monday of each month at 7:00 P.M. the Daughters of the American Revolution at the Society's June 19 gathering. In addition, Friends of Arrow Rock Alan Schmitt and Donna Wagoner of the The Friends held their annual meeting on Frisco Railroad Museum in Springfield pre­ May 4 at the Old Tavern in Arrow Rock. Gary sented "History of Railroads and the Railroad Kremer, professor of history at William Woods Dallas County Never Got." University, Fulton, presented a program on the local African-American religious community. DeKalb County Historical Society On the afternoon of June 14, the Friends cel­ The Society opened its museum, library, and ebrated Juneteenth with singing, storytelling, records center over the Memorial Day weekend, and ice cream. Members continue to restore with over two hundred guests in attendance. the Brown Chapel Free Will Baptist Church, a The complex will remain open through the end project made possible through a grant from the of October. On June 28 members gathered at the Missouri Humanities Council. Kremer spoke home of Mr. and Mrs. Loren Owen near at the Pennytown Freewill Baptist Church on Maysville for the annual picnic. The Society August 3. meets on the first Wednesday of each month at the museum on Main Street in Maysville. Friends of Historic Augusta The Friends1 August 14 meeting included Douglas County Historical a talk by Leslie Nader, who shared his recol­ and Genealogical Society lections of the Augusta post office. Also at The Society meets monthly on the third the meeting, Ruth and Glennon Stelzer, along Monday at 6:30 P.M. at the museum in Ava. with Van Reidhead of the University of Missouri-Columbia, presented "The Indians Fort Belle Fontaine Historical Society Among Us," a talk on the excavation of As a part of the Society's Traveling Trunk Native American artifacts in the Matson Series, members and guests explored the aban­ Bottom after the 1993 flood. The Friends doned trunk of an imaginary mountain man on meet on the second Thursday of each month July 16 and 19. There they discovered items at 7:30 at the museum in Augusta. common in the daily lives of Rocky Mountain explorers. On August 13 and 16, the trunk of an Friends of Keytesville Oregon Trail pioneer taught members about the The Friends met on July 13 at the Sterling hardships endured during that trek. Both pro­ Price Museum. In July members landscaped grams were held in the education room at the the grounds of the log cabin, located directly Bissell House. The Society held an open house north of the Presbyterian Church. with speakers, reenactors, and refreshments on July 20. On July 27, Steve Wiegenstein of Friends of Miami Culver-Stockton College, Canton, entertained On July 20 the Friends gathered for their members with folk music of the American West. annual meeting at the Miami Community Center to hear Robert Ault's program on rag­ Franklin County Historical Society time music. Members held elections at the June 29 meet­ ing. New officers include Roger Scheer, presi­ Friends of Missouri Town-1855 dent; Carol Eckelkamp, vice president; Helen Preceding the general and board meetings at Vogt, secretary; and Grace Crawford, treasurer. Woods Chapel on June 1, the Missouri Town Dancers entertained members. The village was Friends for La Plata Preservation the site of the Friends' annual Children's Day on Members have planted a variety of native June 7. The day's activities gave both children flowers and grasses on the east side of the La and adults opportunities to experience toys and Historical Notes and Comments 71 games used by pioneer youngsters. On June 21 Harrison County Historical Society members participated in bonnet-making and The Society meets at the Council of basket-making workshops at the village. Aging office in Bethany on the fourth Sunday of each month at 2:00 P.M. Gasconade County Historical Society The Society sold books, maps, and raffle Henry County Historical Society tickets at both the Maifest in Hermann and the Bill Sisney spoke on antique guns on June Bland Heritage Days this summer. Members 4, and on June 11 the Society held its gathered on July 13 at the recently restored Volunteer Appreciation Salad Luncheon, stone house of Kimble and Sherrye Cohn near both in the Adair Annex in Clinton. Members Woollam for the quarterly meeting. welcomed new museum director Cathy Marcrum Phelps. Glendale Historical Society Local writer Mildred Higganbotham Hickory County Historical Society Scott presented "Up Close and Personal" at The Society is considering the placement of the quarterly membership meeting on June 12 a marker at the site of the original Swedish set­ at the city hall. tlement east of Hermitage; those interested in contributing should contact the Society. Golden Eagle River Museum Meetings are held on the second Tuesday of On June 28 members assembled at the each month at the museum in Hermitage. Museum for a meeting and program on Webster Groves' steamboating history. Peter Fanchi, Jr., Harvey J. Higgins Historical Society former president of the Federal Barge Line, The Society has printed a book of talked about his river experiences at the July 28 excerpts from the Higginsville Jeffersonian, meeting, also held at the Museum. an early twentieth-century newspaper. For purchase information contact the Society at Grand River Historical Society 2113 Main Street, Higginsville, MO 64037. On July 8 the Society met at Simpson Park for a picnic, and members planned an Historic Madison County addition to the museum in Chillicothe. On June 3 members held a covered-dish dinner, and Walter and Mary Yancey reenact- Greene County Historical Society ed a Civil War-era wedding on June 13. John Hardin, Springfield city cartographer, Members shared personal items with the spoke at the May 22 meeting. He also brought group at the July 1 gathering. The organiza­ maps illustrating Springfield's annexation his­ tion meets the third Tuesday of each month at tory and the route of the Old Wire Road 7:00 P.M. at 104 North Main Street, through the city. On June 26 members pic­ Fredericktown, which is a new location. nicked at the Jenny Lincoln Park in downtown Springfield. John F. Wolfe, Civil War historian, Historical Society of Polk County spoke on the Battle of Springfield. The August Dawnella Holt, local tribal council repre­ 10 meeting was held in conjunction with the sentative of the Cherokee Indians, spoke to 136th anniversary of the Battle of Wilson's members on the tribe's history in the state on Creek. The program included a wreath-laying July 24. The Society meets every other ceremony and an address by Seventh District month on the fourth Thursday in the museum Representative Roy Blunt. in Bolivar at 7:30 P.M.

Grundy County Historical Society Holt County Historical Society The Society meets on the second Monday The Society recently acquired the afternoon of each month at 2:00 in the muse­ Fortescue United Methodist Church building um in Trenton. and grounds. The sanctuary will continue to 72 Missouri Historical Review be available for worship and will also serve munity band preceded the meeting. as the Society's meeting place. On July 11- 13, the Society held its second annual Black Jefferson Heritage and Landmark Society Powder Rendezvous at the Schoolhouse The Society recently finished its book on Museum Grounds near Fortescue. Jefferson County post offices; contact the Society at 712 South Main Street, De Soto, Huntsville Historical Society MO 63020 for more details. On May 20 members heard Hemchand Gossai's "Shaped by Two Lands: An Joplin Historical Society Immigrant's Story." Gossai, of the religion The Society's Dorothea B. Hoover and philosophy department at Culver- Museum recently merged with the Everett J. Stockton College in Canton, discussed his Richie Tri-State Mineral Museum to become personal experiences as an immigrant. The the Joplin Museum Complex. In May the Missouri Humanities Council funded his museum's collections storage area received visit. Members gathered on June 17 to hear improvements thanks to a sizable donation Frances Pevler speak on the history of the from a local business. U.S. flag. Civil War events in Randolph County provided the topic for Ralph Kansas City Westerners Gerhard's talk on July 15. The Society meets On May 13 writer G. P. Schultz discussed at the museum in Huntsville. his work with members and guests. Al Ogden spoke on the courtship of Harry S. Truman on Independence 76 Fire Company June 10, and on July 8 members heard a presen­ Historical Society tation by Ed Shutt on the Alamo. On August 12 Members traveled to Nebraska City, member Ron Miriani, professor of history at Nebraska, on June 14 to attend the Antique Park College, spoke on "Living History Every Fire Engine Muster. Day: Life in Kansas City's Historic Districts." The Westerners meet on the second Tuesday of Iron County Historical Society each month for a dinner program at the Golden Officers recently elected are Cal Dothage, Ox Restaurant in Kansas City. president; Mary Etta Killen, vice president; Lynn Thompson, secretary; and Carolyn Kimmswick Historical Society Sheehy, treasurer. Members held a potluck On May 5 members gathered at dinner at their July 20 meeting at Pilot Knob Kimmswick Hall to hear Lee Hendrix speak Park and heard the story of Julia Dent Grant on Mississippi River history and folklore. and her visit to the area during the Civil War. The Missouri Humanities Council sponsored his appearance. The Society toured the Jackson County Historical Society restored 1930s home of Mr. and Mrs. Roy The Society welcomed a new executive Sutton on June 2. director, Chris Wilt, who replaced longtime director Barbara Potts. Niel Johnson, appear­ Kingdom of Callaway Historical Society ing as President Harry S. Truman, performed John Tapia of Missouri Western State at the old courthouse in Independence on College, St. Joseph, presented "Under the Big May 17. A Haviland china exhibit was on Tent," which explored the history of chau- display at the Wornall House in Kansas City tauquas, on June 5. The Missouri Humanities during June. Council sponsored the program, which was held at the Callaway REA building in Fulton. Jasper County Historical Society The Society's June 1 meeting at the Old Kirkwood Historical Society Cabin Shop in Carthage included a program On June 10 the Society held its annual on early courthouses. A concert by the com­ strawberry festival on the lawn at Mudd's Historical Notes and Comments 73

Grove. The event featured music by the Meramec Valley Genealogical Missouri Fiddlers. The Society named local and Historical Society high school students Rachel Zapf, Kate The Society cosponsored a book sale on Pappageorge, and Leigh Ann Sweet as the June 14. Members toured the Muir family 1997 Nelly Mendham Poetry Contest win­ cemetery at their July meeting and then pic­ ners. Members gathered at Mudd's Grove on nicked on the cemetery grounds. June 29 for a garden tour and cocktail party. Mid-Missouri Civil War Round Table Landmarks Association of St. Louis Harold Miederhoff spoke on Civil War Association members and guests traveled medical practices at the May 20 meeting, to Columbus, Indiana, on April 11 to view the held at the Lewis and Clark Middle School in city's historically significant architecture. Jefferson City. On June 17 members gath­ For Historic Preservation Week, May 10-18, ered at the Walters-Boone County Historical the Association offered a variety of activities, Museum in Columbia to hear Bill Lay talk including programs on Laclede's Landing, about the Civil War in Howard County. Route 66, early twentieth-century women's organizations, and historic churches. Miller County Historical Society On July 13 members met at the museum Lawrence County Historical Society building in Tuscumbia for a potluck dinner Members cleaned and reset tombstones at and Gary Kremer's program, "A World We the Robert B. Taylor Cemetery on May 3 and Have Lost," the story of African Americans May 21. Through the end of October, the Society's museum in Mount Vernon will be who left the South and settled in Missouri open on Saturdays and Sundays, 1:00-4:30 P.M. after the Civil War. The Missouri Humanities Council sponsored Kremer's speech. On July Leasburg Missouri Historical Society 26 the Society held its annual ice cream The Society held a car show on July 19. social at the museum. The show, along with other fund-raising activ­ ities, will supplement the purchase of a perma­ Mine Au Breton Historical Society nent home for the organization. Members meet In celebration of Potosi's Moses Austin on the second Monday of each month in the Ike Heritage Festival on June 21-22, the Society Place Restaurant at 7:00 P.M. had special exhibits at its local historical sites. Members welcomed historian John Neal Lee's Summit Historical Society Hoover to the museum in Potosi on August 12. The Society's June 6 meeting, held at the Hoover's talk on naturalist and artist John Lee Haven Community Center, featured James Audubon and his travels in the West Hugh Miner speaking on his family's local included original folios, maps, and slides. cleaning establishment and Don Hale dis­ cussing his local history research. Missouri Historical Society Tuesday evenings during June featured Lincoln County Historical programs exploring attractions on the 1904 and Archeological Society World's Fair Pike. Highlights included tradi­ On June 1 members gathered at the tional Celtic song and dance; an East Indian Britton House for "Wedding Memories," a dance troupe; and jugglers, magicians, and program that included historic gowns, acces­ street performers. sories, and photographs. The Society meets on the third Thursday of each month at 7:30 Moniteau County Historical Society P.M. in the Troy City Hall. Those in attendance learned about the use of Maries County Historical Society newspapers in genealogical research at the May The Society met on June 24 to consider the 12 meeting, which featured Ray Grimes of the possible reprinting of several Society publications. California Democrat and Becky Holloway of 74 Missouri Historical Review the Tipton Times. Members gathered on June 9 Historical Manuscript Collection-Rolla at the to hear Ruth Norman speak on the importance May 23 meeting held at the American Legion of family histories. The Society's annual sum­ building in Caruthersville. On June 27, Rodney mer picnic was held on July 14 on the lawn of Ivey of the Missouri Department of Conservation the Maclay house in Tipton. spoke to those gathered.

Monroe County Historical Society Perry County Historical Society At the June 23 meeting, held at the Tanzez Members gathered on July 13 at the Insurance building in Paris, Society members museum to discuss next year's programs. planned an exhibit for the Mark Twain Old The Society held its annual ice cream social Threshers Festival, held in Paris, July 11-14. and quilt drawing on August 9 at the commu­ nity center in Perryville. John G. Neihardt Corral of the Westerners Members gathered at Jim and Eloise Phelps County Historical Society Denninghoff's house in Columbia on June 12 On June 7-8, Rolla's courthouse square for a buffalo barbeque. looked as it might have in 1861, as the Society cosponsored a reenactment of the Nodaway County Historical Society summer that marked the beginning of Rolla's Throughout the summer, members built a occupation by the Union army. The event new roof for the Hickory Grove School, featured period clothing, music, and a reen­ which was recently moved to a site adjacent actment of June 14, 1861—the day Union to the museum in Maryville. soldiers tore down the Confederate flag fly­ ing over the courthouse. O'Fallon Historical Society Members gathered on June 2 for a meet­ ing and a potluck dinner. The Society meets Pleasant Hill Historical Society The Society met on July 27 to hear Mary on the first Mondays of March, June, Margaret Ingels discuss the town's early September, and December at the log cabin in physicians. Civic Club Park.

Old Trails Historical Society Pulaski County Museum The Society toured Mudd's Grove in and Historical Society Kirkwood on June 21. After viewing the The Society meets on the first Thursday house, which is maintained by the Kirkwood of each month at the Society building in Historical Society, members ate lunch at Cafe Waynesville. Victoria. The Society's annual picnic was held on July 13 at the Bacon Log Cabin in Randolph County Historical Society Ballwin. The event included a silent auction At the June 26 meeting, Society members and tours of the cabin. learned about the history of the Wabash Railroad. The special program, presented by Osage County Historical Society James Holzmeier of Kirksville, traced the rail­ A group of Society members visited and road's history from its inception in 1851 to its dined at the Miller County Historical merger with the Norfolk Southern in 1964. On Society's museum in Tuscumbia on May 26. July 31 members viewed Tracy Robb's histori­ Members traveled to Jefferson City on July 1 cal map collection. The Society meets at the to hear Ken Leubbering and Robyn Burnett Historical Center building in Moberly. speak on Missouri's German immigrants. Ray County Historical Society Pemiscot County Historical Society Members gathered at the Eagleton Center Members heard Mark Stauter of the Western in Richmond on July 10 to hear Anne Historical Notes and Comments 75

Mallinson and Nancy Lewis of Kansas City the July 15 meeting, Judith Guthrie read from speak on "Petticoat Pioneers," women who Ruth Seever's autobiography. trekked westward in the nineteenth century. St. Francois County Historical Society Raymore Historical Society The Society meets on the fourth Wednesday The Society met on May 13 at the museum of each month in the Ozark Savings and Loan in Raymore. To mark the town's 125th meeting room in Farmington. Members anniversary, the Society began selling afghans watched a film on the 1904 Louisiana Purchase that feature eleven historic landmarks. At the Exposition at their May 28 meeting. Barbara June 10 meeting, also at the museum, members Serini spoke on cemetery research on June 25, prepared a collection of wedding gowns and and Bob Schmidt discussed the life of F. P. photos for a month-long museum exhibit. Graves on July 23.

Raytown Historical Society Sappington-Concord Historical Society Members dined at the Kupfer Chalet in The Society met on July 23 in the Anne Kansas City before their July 23 meeting, Morrow Lindbergh Room on the Lindbergh which featured John Joe Reyes speaking on High School campus in St. Louis to discuss "Indian Dancers." The museum will display Society business and to hear a presentation a collection of Saudi Arabian relics through on Grant's Farm. October 15. The exhibit, courtesy of the Nance Museum and Library in Kingsville, is Schuyler County Historical Society the second largest of its kind in the country. At their June 8 meeting in the museum, Lancaster, Society members decided to apply Reynolds County Genealogy for a Neighborhood Assistance Program grant to and Historical Society help financemuseu m maintenance and repairs. The Society and residents of the sur­ rounding communities gathered on July 11- Scotland County Historical Society 12 to celebrate the museum's grand opening The museum in Memphis is open in Ellington. Wednesday to Saturday, 1:00-4:00 P.M.

Ripley County Historical Society Scott County Historical Society On July 5 Society members attended the On May 17, June 21, and July 19, mem­ opening of the Heritage Homestead, a project bers gathered at the Benton Branch of the of the Doniphan Neighborhood Assistance Regional Library for monthly meetings. The Program. The event featured archaeologist James Society continues research on the county's Price and the Doniphan High School band. poor farm and plans to reprint several of its publications in the near future. St. Charles County Historical Society Members attended the Society's annual Seneca Historical Committee meeting on July 26 at the Mother-In-Law The Committee's collection of pho­ Restaurant in St. Charles. Archie Scott pre­ tographs of former city mayors is on display sented a slide show, "Evolution of an Historic in the Seneca City Hall. District, 1966-Present." Emily Corbett and Anita Mallinckrodt received the 1995 and Shelby County Historical Society 1996 St. Charles Heritage best article awards. Society members gathered at the museum in Shelbina to hear John Cullifer speak on his St. Clair County Historical Society experiences as a Civil War reenactor on June On June 17 members met in the Blackjack 13. Throughout the month, artifacts from the Church fellowship hall to hear a panel of local Battle of Shelbina were on display at the residents speak on Blackjack and Birdsong. At museum. 76 Missouri Historical Review

Sons and Daughters of the Blue and Gray William Tappmeyer speak on "Steamboat Civil War Round Table Recovery." On May 18 and June 15, members heard George Armstrong Hinshaw discuss "Things Washington Historical Society They Never Told You About the Civil War." To celebrate the "burning" of their mort­ The Society gathered to hear "Federal gage, Society members held a covered-dish Enlisted Men's Uniforms of the Civil War" dinner on June 10. A wine and cheese social on July 20 at their regular meeting place in preceded the event. the lower level meeting room of the Maryville Public Library. Webster County Historical Society The Society recently acquired Marshfield's Stone County Historical Society former Carnegie Library and plans to convert it The Society's June 1 meeting featured into a county museum. On July 4-5, members Peter Koss's discussion about Civil War reen­ held an open house, which included displays on actments. On June 20 at the Stone County Fair, all of the county's municipalities. the Society sponsored a booth to observe "Historical Society Day." Dave Eslick present­ Westport Historical Society ed a video, A Walk Around Springfield in the Members and friends of the Society met at 20 's, at the July 6 meeting. On August 3, Ben the Woodside Racquet Club on May 16 to hear Loftin entertained members with personal sto­ Rodney Staab speak on the Delaware Indians ries that will be included in the next volume of in Westport. On May 31 the Society joined the the Society's county history. Native Sons of Kansas City and the Daughters of Old Westport in dedicating a replacement Texas County Missouri Genealogical tombstone honoring Thomas J. Goforth, the and Historical Society first mayor of Westport. Members gathered for The Society held monthly meetings through­ a picnic and pig roast on the lawn of the Harris- out the summer at the St. Mark's Catholic Kearney house on June 8. Church fellowship hall in Houston. In May members recognized Texas County school White River Valley Historical Society superintendents. At the June 27 meeting, The Society held its annual meeting on Christine Hadley spoke on her trip to Virginia. June 8 in the banquet room of the Friendship House, College of the Ozarks, Point Lookout, Vernon County Historical Society and elected Jerry Gideon as president and The Nevada Public Library and the Viola Hartman as vice president. Members Bushwhacker Museum marked the grand heard Margaret Smothers speak on "Clothing opening of the new museum and library quar­ Through the Ages." ters with an open house on July 13. The building, built on the northwest corner of the Winston Historical Society town square in Nevada in 1920, was a recent The Society sponsored the Jesse James Days gift of the Finis M. Moss Charitable Trust and festival on July 11-13. The program included will house both institutions. gospel music, a baby contest, and Marlene Katz portraying Eleanor Roosevelt. The Society Warren County Historical Society meets on the first and third Thursdays of each On May 22 the Society met to hear month at 7:30 P.M. at the old Rock Island depot. 77

GIFTS RELATING TO MISSOURI

Robert Anschuetz, Alton, Illinois, donor: Five postcards of the University of Missouri, circa 1900. (E)* Robert Baumann, St. Louis, donor: Final Resting Place: The Lives and Deaths of Famous St. Louisans, by Kevin Amsler. (R) Mildred Schubert Breiland, Albuquerque, New Mexico, donor: Items pertaining to the Schubert and Marlatt families, including nineteenth-century diaries, books, and artworks. (M) Cass County Historical Society, Harrisonville, donor: Cass County, Missouri Book 'O' Deed Index, January 1838 to December 1855; Cass County, Missouri Book # '4 Deed Index, March 1868 to October 1869. (R) Colorado Historical Society, Denver, Colorado, donor, through Eric Paddock: Three cabinet cards by Missouri photographers. (E) Anne Cope, Neosho, donor: Items for the Runner and Trotter family files. (R) Friends for La Plata Preservation, La Plata, donor, through Ann Bullock: A 1937 speech about the history of La Plata, by Mrs. Fred L. Hudson. (R) William K. Hall, St. Louis, donor: Springfield, Greene County, Missouri Newspaper Clippings for 1992-1996, by the donor, microfilm. (N) Robert A. Jordan, Tulsa, Oklahoma, donor: John J. Jordan of Moniteau County, Missouri, by the donor. (R) Louise H. McEowen, Dallas, Texas, donor: Various issues of The Missouri Methodist, 1953-1957 and 1969-1970. (R) Mary Beth Marquardt, Columbia, donor: "Americanization of German Settlements in Osage County, Missouri: 1860 to 1910," by the donor. (R) Milfred Faurt Melton, Houston, donor: Celebrating 150 Years of Methodism in Houston, Texas County, Missouri 1846-1996, by the donor; two photographs of the Little Piney River, circa 1900, and Edna Ruth Starling, n.d. (R) & (E) Moreland Ridge Middle School, Blue Springs, donor, though Charles Brooks: Huskies, 1997 yearbook. (R) Siegmar Muehl, Iowa City, Iowa, donor: "Selections from: The State of Missouri, Portrayed with Special Regard to German Immigration, by Friedrich Muench, Published 1854," translated and edited by the donor and Lois B. Muehl. (R) William C. Paxton, Independence, donor: Dear Aunt Mary: The Story of Mary Paxton Keeley, America's First Woman Journalist, edited by the donor. (R) Walter and Beverely Pfeffer, Columbia, donors: Miscellaneous publications and brochures from a variety of Columbia area business, civic, cultural, political, and charitable organizations. (R)

*These letters indicate the location of the materials at the Society. (E) refers to Editorial Office; (R), Reference Library; (N), Newspaper Library; (M), Manuscripts; (RFC), Reference Fitzgerald Collection; (B), Bay Room; and (A), Art Collection. 78 Missouri Historical Review

Phelps County Genealogical Society, Rolla, donor: Phelps County Genealogical Society Quarterly, January 1995-April 1997; Surname Index, 1995-1997, by the donor. (R) Robert E. Powell, Creve Coeur, donor: "Memoirs of Funston Eudy," loaned for copying. (R) James A. Rogers, Columbia, donor: Midwestern Artists' Exhibition programs, 1922-1942, loaned for copying. (R) Rebecca B. Schroeder, Columbia, donor: The Osage in Missouri, by Kristie C. Wolferman; Orphan Trains to Missouri, by Michael D. Patrick and Evelyn Goodrich Trickel. (R) Seneca Historical Committee, Seneca, donor, through Virginia B. Hoare: Seneca, Missouri, the Little Town on the Border, Miss Venta 's WWII Scrapbook, by the donor. (R) Becky L. Snider, Columbia, donor: "A Survey of the Rural African-American Churches of Northern Boone County," by the donor. (R) South Howard County Historical Society, New Franklin, donor, through Timothy D. Dollens: The Missouri Law of Title to Real Property According to the Decisions of the Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal and Present and Former Statutes, by McCune Gill. (R) Otto Steinhaus, Columbia, donor: One Hundred Years, Methodist Women's Organizations, 1897-1997, by Doris L. Davault. (R) Robert Gail and Margie McDaniel Woods, Palmyra, donors: Palmyra United Methodist Church and Mt. Vernon United Methodist Church directories, 1997. (R)

Following Fashion

Knob Noster Gem, August 30, 1878. From the way some of these girls look in their walking-dresses, pulled back and tied tight around below the knees, two peanuts twice a day and a grasshopper on toast twice a month would make 'em fat. Their waists look like the thin part of an hour-glass with very little sand in it.—Courier-Journal.

Josh Billings Misses The Good Old Daze

Platte City Platte County Reveille, July 13, 1866. How I dew long (once in a while) for them good old daze. Them daze when there was more fun in 30 cents than there is now in seven dollars and a half. Them daze when deacons was as austere as hoss reddish, and ministers preached to men's souls in stid of their pockets. Them daze when lap dorgs and wet nusses want known, and when brown bred and baked goose made a good dinner. 79

MISSOURI HISTORY IN NEWSPAPERS

Adrian Journal May 1, 1997: "Jenkins-Fisk house still standing after 100 years," by Sharon Kiesel.

Albany Ledger June 25, 1997: "Dusting off the old ones: Local history as reported in the old Albany Ledger files," a series, recalled the early days of the Grandview consolidated school district, Gentry County, reprinted.

Anderson Graphic July 2, 1997: "Havenhurst reviving the past," on the banks of Sugar Creek, by Jane Frost.

Aurora Advertiser July 25, 1997: "Archeological Dig Takes Place Near [the Old Spanish] Fort," by Judy Dingman.

Boonville Daily News July 7, 1997: "Another View: The Associated Press looks at Boonville's historic sites," by Nicole Ziegler. Brunswick Brunswicker June 19, 1997: "Chariton County towns: Westville," by Blake Sasse.

Camdenton Lake Sun Leader June 10, 17, 1997: "More on the history of Willmore Lodge," a two-part series on this lakeside resort, by Jo Ann Rouse.

Cameron Citizen Observer July 17, 1997: "A walking tour of historical Cameron."

Campbell Citizen May 7, 1997: "How did Campbell get its name?"

Cape Girardeau Southeast Missourian July 6, 1997: "Remembering most of the century with Jean Bell Mosley," by Peggy Scott. July 13: "For whom the bells toll: Church bells remind faithful it's time to celebrate," by Peggy O'Farrell.

Carthage Press May 14, 1997: "Crisis at Carthage: A Historical Journal," a special section devoted to the 1861 Battle of Carthage. June 10: "A Salute to Hawthorne and Eugene Field Schools," a special section. July 5: "Importance of Sarcoxie cavern long overlooked," by Marvin VanGilder.

Caruthersville Democrat-Argus June 20, 1997: "CHS [Caruthersville High School] celebrates its 100th year," by Debbie Miller.

Chillicothe Constitution- Tribune May 12, 1997: "Atlas from 1878 chronicles rich heritage of Livingston County," by Bill Plummer. 80 Missouri Historical Review

Columbia Daily Tribune June 1, 1997: "Stones & Bones," Missouri archaeology, by Ed Schafer. June 8: "Mining Our Heritage," Missouri Mines State Historic Site in Park Hills. June 15: "Fragile History," Boonville's Ballantine house and Meierhoffer complex, by Becky Burns. June 22: "Kansas City's Diamond," Country Club Plaza.

Edina Sentinel March 26, April 2, 1997: "What I Remember of Knox City's History," a two-part series by Nelle Browning.

Ellington Reynolds County Courier May 8, 1997: "Civil War Fortress Discovered In Deer Run," Barnesville Redan. June 12: "Save the Poco or Bellvue Trail," by Gerald Angel. June 26: "Oldest House in Reynolds County Steeped in History of Lesterville."

Excelsior Springs Daily Standard July 14, 1997: "The Isley family contributed to the colorful history of Excelsior Springs," by L'Berta Shelton.

Festus Jefferson County Leader June 19, 1997: "Steamboats ruled the [Mississippi] river in century's early decades," by Keith Osterberg.

Florissant Valley Reporter June 24, 1997: "African Americans' legacy of conservation activism runs deep in Missouri," the accomplishments of Missouri's only African-American Civilian Conservation Corps company, organized in 1933. July 8: Historic "St. Stanislaus [Seminary] Winery Gives Way to New Development," in Hazelwood.

Gainesville Ozark County Times July 2, 1997: "Dawt [mill] celebrating 100 years."

^Gladstone Sun Chronicle July 30, 1997: "The automobile forever changed the Northland" of the Kansas City metro area and "Settling the Platte Purchase proved successful for many," both by Susan C. Trudeau; "Making Time—The story of the Clay County Courthouse Clocks," by Debra Hurst; "Depression days bring us back to Clay County," by Marion R. Stephens, Jr.; "The telephone comes to Clay County," by Vera Haworth Eldridge.

Hamilton Advocate June 11, 1997: "Caldwell County is rich in Mormon history"; J. C. Penney "Museum honors Hamilton's native son."

Hannibal Courier-Post July 28, 1997: "Old neighbors remember town [Cedar City] the flood swept away."

Independence Examiner April 5-6, 1997: "The Grateful Dead," restoring Independence's Pitcher Cemetery, by Jeff Adkins.

* Indicates newspapers not received by the State Historical Society. Historical Notes and Comments 81

June 15: "A Kansas City Gem: The Country Club Plaza celebrates its diamond anniver­ sary," by Christopher Clark. July 4: "A night at the inn: Mohawk Lodge owner writes book about life on U.S. 40 dur­ ing 1960s," by Bonnie Horner.

Ironton Mountain Echo May 21, 1997: "Wayne County wants to save Fort Benton" near Patterson.

Jefferson City Catholic Missourian June 13, 1997: "St. Anthony [Catholic Church], Camdenton, notes 50th." July 25: "Jefferson City Carmel[ite Monastery] Foundress Mother Teresa Dies at 94"; first African-American priest, "Fr. Augustus Tolton remembered," by Michael Wamble.

Jefferson City News & Tribune July 6, 1997: "In its heyday, [St. Joseph Lead] mining company owned everything in Bonne Terre." July 13: "'Mr. Baseball' of Jefferson City," Ernie Vivion, by Jodie E. Jackson, Jr. July 29: "A life of solitude and prayer," Mother Mary Theresa de Leon, by Nancy Vassell.

Joplin Globe April 10, May 22, July 24, 1997: "The way we were," a series, featured the Inter-State Grocer Company building, the Conner Hotel, and turn-of-the-century ice harvesting and home ice delivery. May 22: "Springfield Landmark Torn Down," Red's Giant Hamburg Restaurant. July 13: "Angling in the Archives," a series by Charles Gibbons, featured the closing of the Tri-State zinc-lead mines in 1947.

* Kahoka Hometown Journal April 15, 1997: "Alexandria Presbyterian Church Celebrates 150th Anniversary."

Kansas City Catholic Key June 15, 1997: "St. Bartholomew Parish celebrates first 50 years" in Windsor.

Kansas City Star June 5, 1997: "Renovator revels in [Muehlebach] hotel's details," by Joe Popper. June 17: "The Plaza turns 75," anniversary of Country Club Plaza, by Jennifer Mann Fuller. July 13: "Bend of the River: Kansas City in the 19th Century," a special section by Shirl Kasper.

Kearney Courier July 3, 1997: "Exploring a 'revolutionary' connection," Revolutionary War veterans set­ tled in the West, by Pete Maher.

Kennett Daily Dunklin Democrat June 11, 1997: "Dunklin County libraries celebrate 50 years," by Richard Reynolds.

King City Tri-County News June 27, 1997: "Historic Gentry County [Havana] bridge assured of place in nation's archives" and "Structure may have cost county more than others," both articles by Mary Ann Lowary. 82 Missouri Historical Review

Lathrop Clinton County News July 31, 1997: "The Mule Skinner News," a special section, featured Lathrop schools and the Lathrop House.

Lee's Summit Journal July 9, 1997: "Book answers old, poses new questions about James-Younger gang," by Ken Hatfield.

Lexington News July 16, 1997: "Brief history recorded of Lexington in July 1860."

Liberty Tribune-News July 16, 1997: "Old clock comes home," nineteenth-century courthouse clock returns to Clay County.

Lincoln New Era July 3, 1997: "Lincoln [Christian Church] Landmark Torn Down," by Courtney Barber.

Linn Unterrified Democrat July 9, 1997: "Chamois business destroyed by fire: Suspicious July 4th blaze guts down­ town historic building" at 100 Main Street.

Marshall Democrat-News June 6, 1997: "Missouri Town 1855 brings 19th Century back to life," by Maria Sudekum Fisher. July 24: "Archaeologists uncover black history one layer at a time" in Arrow Rock, by Nathan Wittmaier.

Mexico Ledger June 11, 1997: "Preserving the Past: State documenting artifacts from [the National] Guard," by Tom Purdom.

*Monroe City Lake Gazette June 24, 1997: "History in the making: Civil War history important to area," the life of veteran Jimmy Pollard. July 1: "Bell tolls for final time for St. John's Catholic Church in Hunnewell," by Desiree Hays. July 15: "Swinkey is steeped with tradition"; "Lore of Swinkey continues to draw large crowds."

Monroe City News July 17, 1997: "Special ceremony celebrates the heritage of Father Tolton," the nation's first African-American priest, by Juanita Yates.

Mound City News-Independent July 24, 1997: After one hundred years, Fortescue United Methodist "Church closing," by Linda Boultinghouse.

Neosho Daily News July 18, 1997: "Local Red Cross chapter celebrates 80th anniversary," by John Ford. Historical Notes and Comments 83

Nevada Entertainment Weekly May 22, 1997: "Fowler Family Remembers Past, Continues Work For The Future," by Charlie Johnson. July 10: "Harvest Brigade Continues Since 1944," with self-propelled combines.

New London Ralls County Herald Enterprise April 10, 1997: "Some New London History," written in 1919, by Benton B. Megown.

Owensville Gasconade County Republican July 30, 1997: "Our Back Yard," a series by Tom Warden, featured the county fair.

Ozark Christian County Headliner-News April 13, 20, June 15, 1997: "Peek Into The Past," a pictorial series, featured the White School House, Ozark Water Power and Light Company, and a "Tom Thumb" wedding, circa 1910.

Park Hills Daily Journal May 2, 1997: "Worth can't forget tornado that blasted town 50 years ago" on April 27, 1947. May 21: 1957 "Desloge tornado recalled," by Matt Ehlers.

Perryville Perry County Republic-Monitor June 17, 1997: The Herman and Emma "Fluegel Farm—Circa 1905" near Millheim in southwestern Perry County.

Piedmont Wayne County Journal-Banner April 10, 1997: "Piedmont United Methodist Church To Celebrate 120 Years." April 10, 17, July 3: "Historical Wayne County," a pictorial series, featured respectively: the Peter Ward family and house, the John Franklin Estes family, and Dr. Bert Toney. June 19, July 3, 10: "Kime, Mo. & the Papers of H. Y Mabrey," a series by Cletis R. Ellinghouse, featured the story of German immigrant Samuel C. Kime, the Rhodes surname, and the Matt Rhodes farm.

Plattsburg Clinton County Leader April 10, 1997: "1928 [Grayson] team surprised all with [Northwest Missouri High School Outdoor Basketball] championship," by Josh Barsch.

Poplar Bluff Daily American Republic May 9, 1997: "70 Years Ago Today . . . Survivor Of May 9 [1927] Tornado Vividly Recalls The Tragedy," by Laura Bohnsack.

St. Charles Journal July 4, 1997: "Patt Holt Singers celebrate 25 years," by Patt Holt.

St. Joseph News-Press April 18, 1997: "Saxton ties fame to [Hannibal and St. Joseph] railroad tracks," by M. R. Fisher; Wright's "Spring gushes forth fun," near Clarksdale, by Phyllis Carrel Bond. April 22: "Worth County remembers April '47" tornado. April 30: "50 years later, town [Worth] remembers tornado," by Mike Jones. June 15: "Cornerstone Cops," a history of the St. Joseph Police Department, by Rona 84 Missouri Historical Review

Kobell; "When the cops stopped to dance," the Police Pension Benefit Ball in St. Joseph, and "Pieces change in keeping the peace," the evolution of local police communication and weapons, both articles by Sally Wurtzler.

St. Joseph Telegraph June 12, 1997: "A tribute to my father [Ival V Lawhon]: A South St. Joseph packinghouse worker," by Mark E. Lawhon.

*St. Louis Meramec Journal May 25, 1997: "Room enough for memories," Antonia School, by Jennifer Florian.

St. Louis Post-Dispatch April 12, May 3, 10, 31, June 7, 21, July 5, 1997: "St. Louis Q&A," a series by Jerry Berger and Ray Jordan, featured respectively: Charles Lindbergh's 1927 return to St. Louis, the Four Courts building, Everding Dairy, Texas & St. Louis Railway/Cotton Belt Route, Hunter Farms; Hal LeRoy, 1918 influenza epidemic, Frank S. "Jake" May, Slack Furniture Company, East St. Louis Belt Railroad Company; WEW radio station, Frank O. Pinion (John Craddock), Woodlawn Country Club, Hubert "Shucks" Pruett; Piasa Bird, Pageant and Masque event of 1914, the Old Osage Theatre; Old Rock House, crash of four-motored bomber on December 15,1942, Parente's pizza par­ lor; brewer Edwin Lemp's Cragwold home, Rodenhauser's saloon; and Lynn Food Market. May 19: "Barely A Trace Of The Past," the childhood home of author Thomas Wolfe. May 20: "The Spirit of St. Louis," Charles Lindbergh's 1927 transatlantic flight. This and the above article by Sue Ann Wood. June 22: "Sisters of Loretto Celebrate 150 Years Here," by Victor Volland. June 23: "A Field Of Dreams Leaves Man, 100, With Memories," a Hampton Village baseball field built thanks to Jesse Henderson, by Valerie Schremp. June 30: "Maulling It: Local BBQ Sauce King [Louis T. Maull IV] Cooks Competition," by Repps Hudson. July 4: Jackie "Robinson Left Enduring Impressions," by Lorraine Kee. July 27: "City Presses On With Disliked Demolition Plan" of the 1902 Court Square building, by Robert W. Duffy.

*St. Louis South Side Journal May 25, 1997: "Remember the [1780] Battle of Fort San Carlos," by Janet Stanford.

*St. Louis Southwest County Journal May 25, 1997: "True stories: [University City] Walk of Fame honors St. Louisans," by Dan Yount.

*St. Louis West End-Clayton Word June 3, 1997: In Richmond Heights, "Franciscan Sisters of Mary to celebrate 125 years of service, healing," by Krista Grueninger.

*St. Peters Journal July 13, 1997: "City might preserve Laurel Park house," by Steve Yawitz.

Ste. Genevieve Herald June 25, 1997: "WCU [Western Catholic Union] Pilgrimage Honors 1st Black Priest Fr. [Augustine] Tolton"; "Foundation [for Restoration of Ste. Genevieve] Gets More Help From Schwent Family For Headquarters," in 1813 Kiel-Schwent house. Historical Notes and Comments 85

Sedalia Central Missouri News June 25, 1997: "A backward look at Sedalia and Pettis County," a special historical sup­ plement.

Sedalia Democrat April 13, 1997: "Everything Old is New Again: A young couple [Chris and Joy Heimsoth] adopts a piece of Cole Camp history," the former H. G. Fajen Grocery and Notions building, by Linda Faulhaber. July 27: "Sedalia's [Lincoln-Hubbard] school for black students and its principal [C. C. Hubbard] were the . . . Heart of the Neighborhood," by Ron Jennings.

Seneca News-Dispatch April 17, 1997: "Missouri History Series," a column by Matt Chaney, featured the dead­ ly 1925 tornado in southeast Missouri.

Sheridan Quad River News June 18, 1997: "Glenn Miller Landmark," boyhood home in Grant City.

Springfield News-Leader July 19, 1997: "Story recounts massacre" of police officers by the Young brothers in 1932, by Frank Farmer, reprinted.

Steelville Star-Crawford Mirror July 16, 1997: "Historical Society Lines," a series, featured the Big Bend schoolhouse in 1920, by Myra Henry.

Stockton Cedar County Republican June 18, 1997: "Neals spent 53 years living, loving," Lester Elmore and Minnie Fern (Cox) Neal, by Wynona Smith.

Troy Free Press May 14, 21, June 18, 25, July 9, 1997: "Lincoln County Recollections," by Charles R. Williams, featured respectively: Beck School, organization of county, Frank Brackett's wagon/blacksmith shop, the 1915 county fair booster trip, and county coal mines.

Unionville Republican June 25, 1997: Joseph and Alivra "Worthington history continues ..." by Brenda Mangels.

Vandalia Leader-Press June 25, 1997: "Owners-to-be plan to turn back the clock at Vandalia Hotel."

Washington Missourian April 16, 1997: Hiram Pierce and Kate Roller, "The Roller Family Prospers in Franklin County," by Sue Cooley. July 16: "Annual [John M. and Lida V. Williams] Bair Bash Reunion Held."

Waynesville Daily Guide May 19, 1997: "Residents Remember Tornado That Hit South Kansas City" on May 20, 1957. 86 Missouri Historical Review

August 3: "Old [Alley Springs] Mill's Beauty Makes It A Hit With Modern Day Visitors," by Michelle Friedrich.

Webb City Sentinel June 26, 1997: "F. A. Smith, one of the last Civil War vets," by Jeanne Newby.

Webster Groves Webster-Kirkwood Times June 22, 1997: "Workin' on the rails: Parking lot uncovers original 'Loop' line," part of Delmar streetcar line, by Toni Wills. July 3: "150 Years Of The Sisters Of Loretto," by Kevin Murphy.

Windsor Review June 12, 1997: "Generosity Gave Us the [Farrington] Park, Generosity Will Save the Park," by Courtney Barber.

The Straight Answer

Maysville Weekly Western Register, September 10, 1868. A calm, blue-eyed and self-possessed young lady . . . received a long call the other day from a prying old spinster, who said: "I've been asked a good many times if you are engaged to Mr. . Now, if folks inquire again whether you are, or not, what shall I tell 'em I think?" "Tell them," answered the young lady, fixing her calm, blue eyes with unblushing steadiness upon the inquisitive features of her interrogator, "tell them that you are sure it's none of your business."

Not Oversupplied

St. Louis Melting Pot, March, 1917. From Chicago, our ever interesting neighbor, so appropriately called the Windy City, comes the news that Prohibitionists in convention there assembled object to the scantiness of attire of the Miss Liberty who adorns the new two-bit pieces. One is tempted to ask how much clothing those people want for a quarter, but one refrains. It is too serious a matter for idle jest­ ing. . . . However, the rest of us will doubtless be able to get along with this charming and ingenuous female. They can't hand out too many of her photographs to suit us.—From the St. Louis Post-Dispatch.

With Good Reason

St. Louis Melting Pot, January 1915. "Hello, old man! Have any luck shooting?" "I should say I did. I shot seventeen ducks in one day." "Were they wild?" "Well, no—not exactly; but the farmer who owned them was.' 87

MISSOURI HISTORY IN MAGAZINES

American History July-August, 1997: "Shoot-Out on Pennsylvania Avenue," the October 31, 1950, assassi­ nation attempt on President Harry S. Truman, by Elbert B. Smith; "Teenage Lincoln Sculptor," Vinnie Ream, by Ethel Yari.

America's Civil War July, 1997: "Battle of Belmont: Grant Takes Command," by Max Epstein.

Ancestors Unlimited Quarterly, Barry County Genealogical and Historical Society May, 1997: "A Look at the Cassville school system 115 years ago," by Emory Melton, reprinted.

Area Footprints, Genealogical Society of Butler County May, 1997: "A Butler County Pioneer [Samuel Kittrell]: A True Story by Mrs. Cecil Burton"; "History of Coon Island," by Sylvester Dollins.

Boone's Lick Heritage, Boonslick Historical Society June, 1997: "A Brief History of Steamboating on the Missouri River with an Emphasis on the Boonslick Region," by Robert L. Dyer.

Border Star, Civil War Round Table of Western Missouri June, 1997: "Lone Jack: The Battle and Comments," by Douglas Seneker.

Bushwhacker Musings, Vernon County Historical Society July 1, 1997: "The Mushaney Family: 109 Years in Vernon County," by Harvey Mushaney; "Deerfield in its Heyday," by Homer Pettibon; "Nursing at Amerman's," a Nevada hospital, by Mae Hawks Hughs.

Chariton County Historical Society Newsletter July, 1997: "The 62nd Missouri Regiment Comes to Brunswick," by Tom Kenny; "Free Blacks in Chariton County (1820-1860)," by Blake Sasse.

Commerce Historical Society Newsletter May-June, 1997: "Latest War News," 1862 guerrilla attack on Commerce, reprinted; "History of the Commerce Baptist Church."

Concordia Historical Institute Quarterly Spring, 1997: "Rudolf Lange's Letter Written One Year Before the Founding of the Missouri Synod," by Edward J. Arndt.

County Lines, Boone County Historical Society June-July, 1997: "Fourth of July in Boone County 1865: Reunion of the People," reprinted.

DeKalb County Heritage July, 1997: "Historical Sketches of Maysville Citizens: Life History of the Older of the Business Men of this City, Based Upon Length of Continuous Community Service," reprinted.

Despatch, Recreated First U.S. Infantry and Missouri Rangers May-June, 1997: "War! The Sauk and Fox Indians, Part VI," by Mike Dickey; "Cannon at Horseshoe Bend," March 27, 1814, by John Alden Reid. Missouri Historical Review

Diggin' History, Andrew County Historical Society Summer, 1997: "Religious Bodies Fifty Years Ago," reprinted.

Friends of Arrow Rock Summer, 1997: "Religion in Arrow Rock's Black Community," by Gary Kremer.

Gasconade County Historical Society Newsletter Summer, 1997: "Owensville to mark sesquicentennial of horseshoe game that named the city," by Tom Warden.

Gateway Heritage, Missouri Historical Society Spring, 1997: " 'That's the Way It Was': Human Responses to Racism in Everyday Life, 1900-1960," by Vida "Sister" Prince; "Islam in Black St. Louis: Strategies for Liberation in Two Local Religious Communities," by Edward Curtis; "An Interview with [writer] Gerald Early," by Catherine Rankovic; "Jackie Robinson in Sportsman's Park," by Jeffrey E. Smith.

Gateway Postcard Club News April/May/June, 1997: "Postcards Recall Forgotten St. Louis Landmark," Robert Koch Hospital, by Steve Chou.

Glendale Historical Society Bulletin June, 1997: "Memories of North Glendale School In The [19]50s and 60s," by Bill Dowell III.

Greene County Historical Society Bulletin May-August, 1997: "Gleanings from the Greene County Archives," by Robert Neumann.

Grundy Gleanings Summer, 1997: "The Sires Family," by Glenda Joiner.

The Historical Society of University City News June, 1997: "Rabe Park," by Esley Hamilton.

The History and Genealogy Research Letter, Daniel Boone and Frontier Families Research Association Vol. 1, No. 3, 1996: "Part I—Boone Family History," by Charles and Mary Bowen.

Huntsville Historical Society Newsletter March, 1997: "More about Coal Mining" in Randolph County, by Ralph Gerhard, reprinted.

Journal of the Early Republic Spring, 1997: "Thomas Jefferson and the Missouri Crisis: An Alternative Interpretation," by Stuart Leibiger.

Kansas City Genealogist Spring, 1997: "Daniel Boone a Visitor to Fort Osage in 1816" and "Gone But Not Forgotten: General Samuel Millard Bowman," both articles by Fred L. Lee.

Lawrence County Historical Society Bulletin July, 1997: "Founded in 1886: History of East View Methodist Church," by Ruth Weihe Langston; "Part Two: Missouri Government in Exile 1863-65," by J. Dale West. Historical Notes and Comments 89

The looking Glass, Ray County Historical Society June, 1997: "Dedication of [Missouri River] Bridge Being Held Today," November 5, 1925, reprinted.

The Lutheran Witness May, 1997: Entire issue dedicated to 150 years of the Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod.

Mid-Missouri Black Watch Summer, 1997: "A Journey to Freedom," William Wells Brown; "Satchel Paige, Jackie Robinson, and the K. C. Monarchs."

Military History of the West Spring, 1997: " 'American Xenophon': American Hero Alexander Doniphan's Homecoming from the Mexican-American War as a Hallmark of Patriotic Fervor," by Joseph G. Dawson III.

Missouri Municipal Review July, 1997: "Ste. Genevieve, Missouri's Oldest City, Recovers And Emerges Stronger Following Floods Of 1993 And 1995," by Gary Edwards.

Missouri State Genealogical Association Journal Spring, 1997: "Hyer Family, Lake Spring, Dent County, Mo."

Newsletter, Boone-Duden Historical Society May-June, 1997: "Callaway Township."

Newsletter, Cass County Historical Society June, 1997: "Amarugia" Cemetery, by Donald Lewis Osborn.

Newsletter, Historic Madison County May, 1997: "St. Michael's [Church] Cornerstone Laying," 1927, reprinted.

Newsletter, Jefferson County Genealogical Society June, 1997: "Traveling in Jefferson County in 1883," reprinted.

Newsletter, Lincoln County Historical and Archeological Society Vol. 10, No. 2, 1997: "Briscoe."

Newsletter, Osage County Historical Society May, 1997: " 'Stories of the Missouri River,' Cote Sans Dessein, Chamois Landing, and the steamboat Wonderland? by George Kishmar, reprinted; "Orphan Trains: America's Secret," by Joe Popper, reprinted. June, 1997: "Dingley School—No. 72"; "St. Louis, 1904: Marathon Was Top Draw," by David Williams, reprinted. July, 1997: "Krueger School—No. 58."

Newsletter, Raymore Historical Society April, 1997: "Lewis Shackelford Letter," March 29, 1868.

Newsletter, Scott County Historical Society May, 1997: "Graysboro," by Sharon Sanders, reprinted. 90 Missouri Historical Review

Newsletter, Warren County Historical Society May, 1997: Case "Bethel Evangelical Church."

Newsletter of the Phelps County Historical Society April, 1997: "From Knobview to Rosati," by John F. Bradbury, Jr.

North Central News, North Central Columbia Neighborhood Association July, 1997: "Boone County Oil Co-op has long history in neighborhood."

Novinger Renewal News July, 1997: "History of the Growth of Novinger, Missouri 1879-1903," by Gary G. Lloyd.

Ozark Happenings Newsletter, Texas County Missouri Genealogical and Historical Society April-May-June, 1997: "New Texas County Courthouse Dedicated in August 1931."

Ozarks Mountaineer June-July, 1997: "Marshfield, Mo.'s Dickey House: A Regal Home Reigns Again," by Vicki Cox; "Aurora, Mo.—The Town That 'Jack' [John McNatt] Built," by Gary Presley; "A Rare Ozarks Cattle Drive," in Taney County, 1934, by Bert D. Hall.

Perry County Heritage Vol. 15, No. 1, 1997: "The Civil War Letters of George Washington Dean"; "The American Civil War as Seen from the Barrens, 1861-1865."

Quarterly Newsletter, Genealogy Society of Pulaski County Missouri August, 1997: "The Swedes of Swedeborg," by Joe Welschmeyer, reprinted.

Reporter Quarterly, Genealogical Society of Central Missouri May-June, 1997: "Boone County Tours: Know Your County, Part 5," reprinted; "Callaway County in the 1830s, from John W. Robinson's Boyhood Recollections," reprinted; "Along the Santa Fe Trail: Excerpts From the 1850 Handwritten Diary of Harrison Byrdine Jones," reprinted. July-August, 1997: "Vinnie Ream, Boone County Artist," by Jean McClure; "Civil War Incidents: James Barger Bullard Goes West," by Alicia Towster; "Peter Cooper's Memory Sketches of Early Callaway County."

Ripley County Heritage March, 1997: "Current River," by Margaret McCluskey Shemwell; "Ripley County Rural Schools." June, 1997: "Moonshining in Ripley County," by Ray Burson; "Bennett Holds Happy Memories," by Ermine Roberts Kelley; "Thomas J. Price: Photographer."

Rural Missouri July, 1997: "They rode the Orphan Trains," by Jim McCarty.

St. Charles Heritage July 11, 1997: "The One-Room Schoolhouse on Blase Station Road," by Marie Beckmann; "Justice of the Peace: Law and Order in the 1800's," by Anita Mallinckrodt; "1925—The Banner-News Top Ten News Stories," by Louis Launer. Historical Notes and Comments 91

St. Charles Historic Streets May, 1997: "St. Charles Historical Notes"; "The Old Market Place"; "St. Charles: Oldest Town In Missouri Founded by Louis Blanchette"; "The Sinking Of The [steamboat] Montana." St. Louis Bar Journal Summer, 1997: "Coroner's Inquest, the Slave 'Sarah,' Age 8," by Marshall D. Hier. The Semaphore, Winston Historical Society July, 1997: "Jesse James had a deep, dark past in St. Joseph," by Shirley Zimprich.

Show Me Route 66, Route 66 Association of Missouri Spring, 1997: "Sanders Standard Service" station, Springfield, by Lynn Sanders; "A Jewel In The Crown," Rail Haven Cottage Cabins, Springfield, by Gordon Elliott; "The Lurvey Boys," by Jean and Joan Lurvey.

Side Streets, Midwest Documentary Project Journals Spring, 1997: "German Immigration To Missouri Brings A Heritage Of German Spirit Through German Churches," by John Wickersham.

Southern Cultures Summer, 1997: Artist "Thomas Hart Benton and the Thresholds of Expression," by Robert Morgan.

Springfield! Magazine June, 1997: "When TV Was Young: Springfieldian [Bob Glazier] Assists In Winning First Emmy For Instructional TV"; "First Ladies of Springfield: Marjorie Strawn," by Elizabeth Stanfill; "Cavalcade of Homes, Part 96—The Fulbright-Fairman-Bowen House," by Mabel Carver Taylor; "Springfield Traditionally Is a City Of Churches, Part IV," by Robert C. Glazier; "Leonard Rader: At Home with Stress, part 1," by Sherlu Walpole; "Memories of the Barnes Sisters of Barnes Lane," by Kenneth Keller. July, 1997: "When TV Was Young: TV Series Promoted Home Reading Helps"; "Springfield Traditionally Is a City Of Churches: Part V—The Catholics," by Robert C. Glazier; "Cavalcade of Homes: Part 97—The Rule-Rainey House," by Mabel Carver Taylor; "Springfield, Missouri: An Almost Condensed History Of the Queen City of the Ozarks, Part I," by Robert C. Glazier; "First Ladies of Springfield: Constance Tyndall," by Sherlu Walpole. August, 1997: "An Almost Condensed History Of the Queen City of the Ozarks, Part II," by Robert C. Glazier; "First Ladies of Springfield: Mary Sophia Boyd," by Eleanor Williamson; "Springfield Traditionally Is a City Of Churches, Part VI," by Robert C. Glazier.

Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis Historical and Technical Society Newsletter Fall, 1996: "Once Upon the Terminal: The Story of the SH Tower and the East Approach to the Merchants Bridge," by Lawrence Thomas.

The Trans-Mississippi News Summer, 1997: "The Death of General [Lucius M.] Walker," by Robert Marks.

Tree Shakers, Meramec Valley Genealogy and Historical Society May-June, 1997: "Pacific in 1895," by Sue Cooley. July-August, 1997: "Henkels Family History," by William C. Kempen.

Wagon Tracks, Santa Fe Trail Association Quarterly May, 1997: "Captain William Becknell's Journal of Two Expeditions from Boon's Lick 92 Missouri Historical Review to Santa Fe," 1821, 1822, reprinted; "Memoirs of a Mexican War Volunteer: Charles Henry Buercklin," ed. Ladd H. Schwegman.

Washington University Magazine and Alumni News Summer, 1997: "The Historic Hilltop Busch Hall," by Candace O'Connor.

Waterways Journal May 12, 1997: "A St. Louis Steamboat Era Ended on May 18, 1947," the wreck of the Golden Eagle. May 26, 1997: Steamboat "Capt. Grant Marsh Inducted Into [National Rivers] Hall Of Fame." June 23, 1997: "Noted Missouri River Pilot [William F. Carroll] Is In Rare Photo." July 28, 1997: "Some Mississippi Boats Had Indians As Decorations." This and the above articles by James V Swift.

White River Valley Historical Quarterly Spring, 1997: "John H. Caynor Tobacco Company," by Robert P. Neumann; "The St. Louis Game Park: Experiments in Conservation and Recreation," by Lynn Morrow; "Early Recollections and Reminiscences of Springfield and Greene County"; "Haswell Vividly Recalls Ancient Mills in Ozarks," by A. W. Haswell.

Unjust to the Girls

Jefferson City Daily Tribune, February 12, 1893. Another objection is now being urged against lady clerks at Jefferson City. It is said that they consume valuable time during business hours by flirting with the men.—Palmyra Spectator. This is not treating the young ladies fairly. It is well known here that the young ladies employed at clerical work are industrious, competent and modest. As a rule, they are prompt at work, much more so than the young men. If any clerks deserve criticism, it is the young men who spend too much of their time trying to either make an impression on the lady clerks or con­ vince the public that they are growing stoop-shouldered from carrying so much brains around the legislative halls.

Why Boys Leave the Farm

Kansas City Missouri and Kansas Farmer, January 1, 1914. Boys leave the farm because they tire of work and pork; they want amusement and oys­ ters. . . . Some boys would rather hold a ribbon counter "position" with a board-and-clothes salary than be a millionaire farmer. . . . Boys leave the farm because they get tired of sowing and raising tame oats. 93 IN MEMORIAM

DOROTHY JOHNSON CALDWELL WILLIAM LESTER SIMPSON Former associate editor of the Missouri William Lester "Les" Simpson of Historical Review Dorothy Johnson Odessa died on June 16, 1997. Born in Caidwell died on July 10, 1997. Caldwell Columbia on September 27,1908, Simpson was born on February 16, 1904, in Native was the son of Laura Belle Blanton and American territory that would later become William Lester Simpson, Sr. He married Pawnee, Oklahoma, to Ralph Waldo and Madeline Blunt on January 5, 1930, in Lula Alice Bailey Johnson. In 1926 she Rolla, and she preceded him in death. married Weldon Perry Shofstall, a former Following graduation from Rolla High dean at Stephens College in Columbia. In School in 1926, Simpson worked at the 1950 she married Joseph Conrad Caldwell, Rolla Times, the family newspaper, until who preceded her in death. 1930. After a number of years in Kentucky, Two of Caldwell's interests—Missouri the Simpsons moved to Holden in 1944, history and women's rights—provided the where they purchased the local newspaper, focus for her education, employment, and the Holden Progress. Simpson served as community service. Caldwell earned a the paper's publisher until his retirement in bachelor's degree from Northeast Missouri 1975. State Teachers College, Kirksville, and Simpson was a member of the Missouri three degrees from the University of Press Association, serving as the organiza­ Missouri: two bachelor's degrees and a tion's president in 1957 and inducted into its master's degree. She was active in the Hall of Fame in 1992. While on the board Quota Club, a professional women's orga­ of regents for Central Missouri State nization, and served as an officer in the University from 1959 to 1977, he served as League of Women Voters and the the board's vice president from 1961 to University Extension Wives organizations. 1965 and as president from 1965 to 1971. Caldwell worked at the State Historical He received that university's Distinguished Society from 1955 to 1972. In addition to Service Award in 1995. Simpson was also editorial duties with the Review, she served a member of the Central Missouri Press as the research director of the Historic Association, the Holden Masonic Lodge, Sites Committee, resulting in the publica­ the Ararat Shrine of Kansas City, the tion of the Missouri Historic Sites Holden Chamber of Commerce, and the Catalogue in 1963. A charter member of First Presbyterian Church, Odessa. the Friends of Rocheport, Caldwell played Simpson is survived by a daughter, an important role in the town's placement Betty S. Spaar of Odessa, and two grand­ on the National Register of Historic Places children. and the founding of the local historical museum. She also served as chairwoman JO ANN TUCKWOOD of the town's planning and zoning com­ Jo Ann Tuckwood, a staff member at mission for thirteen years. the State Historical Society for seventeen Caldwell is survived by two daughters, years, died on June 23, 1997. The daugh­ Sara Shofstall Rau of Falls Church, Virginia, ter of Harry and Ethel Lake Wiles, she was and Rose Mary White of Rocheport; a step­ born on December 1, 1927, in Ardmore, daughter, Dorothy Pope of Las Vegas, Oklahoma. After graduating from Nevada; and twelve grandchildren. Ardmore High School, Tuckwood earned 94 Missouri Historical Review a bachelor's degree from Oklahoma State Minnesota; and a sister, Mary Jane Wiles University, Stillwater, and a master's of State College, Pennsylvania. degree in library science from the University of Illinois, Urbana. She mar­ ried Dwight Orlan Tuckwood on April 8, BARKER, MARVIN, Jefferson City: 1963, and he preceded her in death. July 22, 1912-March 5, 1997 Tuckwood joined the Society's staff BOETHEL, PAUL C, Halletsville, Texas: in 1980. From 1984 to her death, she March 3, 1904-November 14, 1996 served as the acquisition specialist. In FUNK, ERNEST M., Columbia: that capacity, Tuckwood was responsible January 11, 1899-January 5, 1997 for Society acquisitions, both purchases FUNK, JOHN L., Columbia: and gifts, in addition to overseeing the November 15, 1909-January 8, 1997 art collection. Prior to working at the HARTLEY, MARY ANN, Moberly: Society, she taught graduate courses in April 2, 1923-April 20, 1997 the library schools of the University of KRUEGER, SYLVIA, High Hill: Illinois and the University of Missouri- January 14, 1899-May 25, 1996 Columbia. She was a member of the MCCALEB, MIRIAM W., Columbia: American Library Association, the May 8, 1911-June29, 1997 League of Women Voters, and the MURPHY, VIRGINIA D., St. Louis: Missouri United Methodist Church. August 30, 1942-December 23, 1996 Survivors include a daughter, TODD, MARGUERITE, Moberly: Elizabeth Tuckwood of St. Paul, November 15, 1898-March 1, 1997 95

BOOK REVIEWS Frontier Doctor: William Beaumont, America's First Great Medical Scientist. By Reginald Horsman (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1996). xiii + 320pp. Illustrations. Notes. Bibliography. Index. $39.95.

It is a story familiar to every schoolchild—"the man with a hole in his stomach" and the American army doctor who saved his life and then per­ formed important experiments on his human subject. Reginald Horsman's biography of William Beaumont, M.D., is a colorful, richly detailed, and scholarly portrait of an almost obsessively driven doctor stationed on the outer limits of the western frontier who prevailed over hardship to achieve a major contribution to medical science during the period of the Early Republic. Beaumont's fame resulted from his pioneer work in gastric phys­ iology, and his book, published in 1833, proved that the process of human digestion was chemical. Horsman carefully crafts the stage upon which this drama will unfold, showing the development of Beaumont's complex personality, his unceasing need to rise in the world, and his use of his profession to achieve this. The volume fills a void that has existed for more than half a century in historical medical-scientific biography in the United States. The only previous com­ prehensive scholarly biography of Beaumont first appeared in 1912, written by Jesse Myer, a physician and member of the faculty of Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. Reprinted in 1939, this work has held the field until the publication of Horsman's volume. Born in 1785, William Beaumont grew up on a farm near Lebanon, Connecticut. Little is known about his childhood and youth. In the winter of 1807, he moved to Champlain, New York, where he sought to make his fortune, first as a schoolmaster and then, less successfully, in the apothecary business. Benjamin Chandler, a widely respected physician in St. Albans, Vermont, accepted Beaumont as a medical apprentice in the spring of 1809. The year and a half spent at Dr. Chandler's side constituted the only formal medical training Beaumont ever received. Beaumont took leave of his preceptor just as the War of 1812 was get­ ting under way. Licensed to practice medicine, he joined the army and suc­ cessfully launched his career, then petitioned the surgeon general as the war ended to remain in the service. The petition denied, Beaumont spent five years in Plattsburg, New York, practicing medicine before returning to the army under a new surgeon general, Joseph Lovell. Lovell offered Beaumont the position of post surgeon at Fort Mackinac in the northern Great Lakes. Here, in the spring of 1822, Beaumont encoun­ tered Alexis St. Martin, a Canadian voyageur who had been shot in the abdomen at close range. Summoned by men at the scene, Beaumont arrived to find his patient in a grievous condition, a gaping wound in his side from 96 Missouri Historical Review which protruded portions of the lung. For the next eighteen months, Beaumont tried several means to close the wound without success. With Lovell's encouragement and support, Beaumont observed and then experimented upon St. Martin's permanently open stomach for the next decade. In 1833 his book, Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of Digestion, became a reality. For Beaumont, the response of the medical profession to his book was crucial. "The first German edition of his book was published in Leipzig in 1834, and Beaumont's conclusions soon found their way into influential German textbooks of physiology. There was similar early interest in France and Great Britain, and the work ultimately attracted attention in other parts of Europe" (p. 193). After a year in the East, Beaumont received orders to report to Jefferson Barracks near St. Louis. He spent the final two decades of his life in St. Louis, where he became a successful practitioner and a controversial figure in medical circles. His career as an army surgeon ended in 1839 when a new surgeon general made it manifestly clear that the support of Beaumont's career by his office had ended with the premature death of Joseph Lovell. At the end of his life, Beaumont was forcing himself to maintain a full medical practice, and the accident that ultimately caused his death occurred as he made a house call and slipped on the ice. Horsman's biography is a must-read for those interested in nineteenth-century American medicine. His thoughtful portrait of "America's First Great Medical Scientist" achieves a solid likeness of Beaumont, finely drawn and absolving.

University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock Cynthia DeHaven Pitcock Selling Black History for Carter G. Woodson: A Diary, 1930-1933. By Lorenzo J. Greene, edited with an introduction by Arvarh E. Strickland (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1996). x + 428 pp. Illustrations. Appendix. Bibliography. Index. $49.95, cloth; $24.95, paper.

This is the second volume of Lorenzo Greene's fascinating diary. The first volume covered the years between 1928 and 1930 and appeared under the title Working with Carter G. Woodson, the Father of Black History: A Diary, 1928-1930. Arvarh Strickland edited both volumes. The bulk of Selling Black History focuses on the period between June 21, 1930, and September 4, 1931, and concerns Greene's and four companions' efforts to sell the publications of the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History across the South, Midwest, Philadelphia, and other eastern points. They traveled in a Model-A Ford. Only 8 pages of the 370-page diary discuss the period after 1931, but they relate a moving story of lost love and Greene's first impressions of Lincoln University, where he would spend the rest of his professional life. An appendix offers three examples of Book Reviews 97

Greene's poetry. In an excellent twenty-page introduction, Strickland places Greene's diary in proper context. He wrote: "The diary contains much that is autobiographi­ cal, and these sections provide a case study of one of the few African Americans who were maturing as scholars in the 1930s. In 1930, Greene was thirty-one years of age, unmarried, and well on his way to completing work on his doctorate. His ideas about what was expected of a scholar and academician reflected the views of the period, and these ideas helped to govern both his personal and professional behavior" (p. 7). A sensitive, observant, meticulous diarist, Greene offered valuable esti­ mates of the people and places he encountered. The diary allows the reader to experience the closely connected world of educated African Americans. It seemed that everywhere Greene traveled he knew someone from his days at Howard University or met someone who had known an acquaintance of his. Greene's observations about working and housing conditions in the various places provide extremely valuable insights into the lives of African Americans as the Great Depression descended on the country. During the spring of 1931, Greene conducted a survey of black employment in Washington, D. C, and the diary contains detailed information about wages, working conditions, and jobs. While completely devoted to the cause of black history and the associa­ tion, Greene frequently had conflict with Carter G. Woodson. At one point he observed: "Now about Woodson himself. He is the most arrogant, scorn­ ful, and depressing person I have ever been associated with. He has a viru­ lent temper, but does not like to see the same manifested by another. He is puffed up with his own importance and deprecates that of everyone associat­ ed closely with him. He possesses a humor which rankles, instead of warms, a wit which makes me wish to strangle him at times. Then, too, he reminds me of a politician. He has no honor. Like a reptile, he is sly [and] mole-like; he works underground, undermining his victim, until the latter is ready to step upon the hollow earth to his downfall" (p. 214). Greene is just as candid when he discusses his social life. The diary is a rich source of information about the way a young, unmarried, well-educated African American spent his leisure time. Arvarh Strickland, the Greene fam­ ily, and the University of Missouri Press should be commended for provid­ ing the public with this important work.

University of Missouri-Rolla Lawrence O. Christensen

Dred Scott's Advocate: A Biography of Roswell M. Field. By Kenneth C. Kaufman (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1996). xiii + 264 pp. Illustrations. Bibliography. Index. $29.95.

Within the first few pages of this book, author Kenneth C. Kaufman 98 Missouri Historical Review addresses why he chose Roswell M. Field, "Dred Scott's Advocate," as a sub­ ject for a book-length study. Quoting from a book entitled Decisive Battles of the Law, written in 1907, Kaufman endorses the view that "if the legal case is 'to be appreciated in its full historic value . . . [it] must be vitalized and peopled with the human beings that dominated it' " (p. 3). Hence, Mr. Kaufman chose Field, who became Dred Scott's attorney during the spring of 1852 and remained at least the attorney of record until the United States Supreme Court handed down its famous decision on March 6, 1857. It is worth noting, although Kaufman does not draw particular attention to this point, that Dred Scott first filed his petition for freedom on April 6, 1846, six years before Field became his attorney, and that Roswell Field was not much involved in the case during the last few months before March 1857, largely because his wife, Frances, died unexpectedly in November 1856 and his infant daughter, also named Frances, died one month later. Field, then, served as Scott's attorney during less than half the time the case was winding its way toward completion. Other St. Louis attorneys who merit the desig­ nation "Dred Scott's Advocate" include Francis B. Murdoch, Charles Daniel Drake, Samuel M. Bay, Alexander P. Field, David N. Hall, Montgomery Blair, and Arba N. Crane. Kaufman attempts to "vitalize" the Dred Scott case by seeking answers to two questions: "What reasons or circumstances prompted Roswell Field to become Dred Scott's attorney? What was it about the case that might have interested him?" (p. 4). He looks for answers to these questions "in the char­ acter of Roswell Field himself, his interests and beliefs, and the circum­ stances of the times in which he lived" (p. 5). Admirably, perhaps ominous­ ly, Kaufman warns his readers up front that "the answers to these questions remain elusive and obscure" (p. 4). These are not the kind of words readers feel encouraged by when they sit down to read a 264-page book; no one likes to be told that, in the end, there is no real conclusion. Indeed, this uncertainty is at the heart of the book's greatest weakness. Time after frustrating time, Kaufman qualifies his conclusions, making them no con­ clusions at all. Words such as "probably," "may have," and "perhaps" often appear more than a dozen times on a page, leaving readers, at least this reader, wanting to scream out to the author, "Is there anything you know for sure?" In Kaufman's defense, Roswell Field seems to have been an elusive fel­ low who was not inclined to commit his deepest thoughts and motivations to paper. The best Kaufman can offer as an explanation for Field's advocacy of Dred Scott is the following: "Perhaps Field can most aptly be described, not as an antislavery lawyer, but as a lawyer who was antislavery, and one who was probably more interested in the legal aspects of slavery than its moral and ethical issues" (p. 182). Students of Missouri history may find the most intriguing parts of the book to be Kaufman's identification of the connection between John F A. Sanford, brother of Dred Scott's owner, Irene Emerson, and proslavery orga- Book Reviews 99 nizations such as the Anti-Abolitionist Society and the Committee of One Hundred. Sanford was also the son-in-law of Pierre Chouteau, "probably the largest slave-owner in the city at the time" (p. 169). Indeed, it is Kaufman's writing about St. Louis history of the antebellum period that rescues this book and makes it worth a reader's while.

William Woods University Gary R. Kremer

Contented among Strangers: Rural German-Speaking Women and Their Families in the Nineteenth-Century Midwest. By Linda Schelbitzki Pickle (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1996). 311 pp. Illustrations. Maps. Appendixes. Notes. Index. $49.95, cloth; $14.95, paper.

In the 1960s, women's awareness that their personal experience of mar- ginalization had political ramifications was best articulated in the popular expression "The personal is the political." In Contented among Strangers, by Linda S. Pickle, the personal is the starting point for a historical investigation into German-speaking women in the Midwest. As one of the ten Americans in the Midwest who claims no trace of German ancestry, the reviewer approached this book with premonitions of ennui. It was a surprise to find it interesting, well researched, and thought provoking. Pickle uses her German-American grandparents as the springboard for her questions on the contributions to and the role of German-speaking women in American midwestern life. Given the reticence of German-speak­ ing women in particular and the paucity of records for women in general, this investigation represents a considerable research effort. Sometimes the research is quite original, as when she studies wills among German families in one Missouri county to determine if women had property to pass on, as well as whether women inherited property in families. Her research is evi­ dent in other more obvious ways as well: though the text of the book is only about 175 pages long, the addition of appendixes, notes, and an introduction extends the book another 100 pages. The focus is hardly a narrow one, the title notwithstanding. While much of the book examines farm women and their families (using demographic data, sociological paradigms, and anecdotal evidence), Pickle also looks at other groups of German-speaking women. One chapter explores the diversi­ ty of women's experiences in two orders of German-speaking nuns—one in southern Illinois in and around St. Louis, and the other in northwest Missouri in Nodaway County—and the lives of women in several communal experi­ ments—notably the Community of True Inspiration in Amana, Iowa. Pickle argues that German immigrants developed, adapted, and pros­ pered by using "strategies of cooperation, hard work, and perseverance ... to 100 Missouri Historical Review continue patterns of mutual aid and interdependence" (p. 6) that they had used to survive in Europe. In America, those strategies enabled them not only to survive but to advance themselves. Women played essential roles in preserving traditional ways and utilizing those strategies of family and com­ munity interdependence. In adapting to life in the Midwest, Germans retained traditional gender relations and argued against slavery, temperance, and women's suffrage, even as they adopted new habits and customs. In general, this is an interesting study, though it has one disturbing ele­ ment. Pickle's conclusion acknowledges the rich diversity of experiences among women and those who spoke German but seeks to detect some com­ mon patterns and values that become fully integrated with what are seen as core values of the Midwest. In short, those common values are emotional ret­ icence, separation of gender spheres, economic cooperation, conservatism, industriousness, thrift, cleanliness, and self-reliance. These qualities are hardly "German." This reviewer is acquainted with any number of Mexican- American families who display the same values. Her own family history is peppered with individuals who possessed the same qualities, and there is no evidence of any Germans there. Italians, though hardly noted for emotional reticence, are equally devoted to family, thrift, community, cleanliness, and hard work. One needs to read the conclusion of this book with these caveats in mind. Last semester, this reviewer taught a class on "Ethnicity" to a group of college-age students. There were men and women of Mexican ancestry and Filipino background, African Americans, and a larger number of European mixes. Interestingly enough, students in the class who claimed predomi­ nantly German ancestry complained about the lack of ethnic awareness in their lives. One even expressed envy of other groups who had distinctive­ ness. The students' chief complaint was that most of what passes for German ethnicity was just American commercialization of stereotypes. The next time the reviewer teaches the class, Contented among Strangers will be on the suggested reading list for those who need to learn what it means to be German. Those German-speaking women immigrants will continue to pre­ serve traditions long after they are dead and gone.

Northwest Missouri State University Janice Brandon-Falcone 101

BOOK NOTES Hugh Robinson: Pioneer Aviator. By George L. Vergara (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995). xvii + 136 pp. Illustrations. Bibliography. Index. $32.95.

Surviving test flights and fifteen serious crashes, daredevil Hugh Robinson was an important pioneering aviator and inventor. Born and mar­ ried in Neosho, where he owned a bicycle repair shop, his relentless quest to advance aeronautical technology took him around the world. Unlike most of the earliest pilots, Robinson lived through the embryonic stages of aviation to participate in man's pursuit of flight over the first half of the twentieth century. This book can be obtained through the University Press of Florida, 15 NW 15th Street, Gainesville, FL 32611-2079; (800) 226-3822.

History and Families of Mississippi County, Missouri, 1845-1995. (Paducah, Ky.: Turner Publishers, 1995). 160 pp. Illustrations. Maps. Index. $49.95, plus $5.00 for shipping.

The first portion of this work includes a brief history of Mississippi County, its businesses, houses, and significant events. Family histories form the remainder. A listing of the voters registered in the county in 1995 is included. The book can be purchased from Turner Publishers, 412 Broadway, Paducah, KY 42002-3101.

The Civil War Battle of Fredericktown, Missouri. By Jerry Ponder (Doniphan, Mo.: Ponder Books, 1995). v + 153 pp. Illustrations. Maps. Notes. Index. $16.95, paper, plus $2.00 for shipping. Missouri residents add $.80 for tax.

The author provides a detailed account of the events leading to and occurring during the battle at Fredericktown in 1861. Emphasis is placed on Confederate brigadier general and former mayor of St. Joseph M. Jeff Thompson. This volume can be ordered from Ponder Books, P.O. Box 573, Doniphan, MO 63935.

St. Clement Parish, Bowling Green, Missouri: Family of Faith, 1871-1996. By Anna Marie Dieckmann Henson (Marceline, Mo.: Walsworth Publishing Company, 1996). 200 pp. Illustrations. $50.00, plus $3.50 for shipping.

The book begins with a chronological history of the priests and nuns who have served at St. Clement. Two sections are devoted to businesses and schools in Bowling Green. Short sketches about parish families are also included. Copies are available through Anna M. Henson, 12432 Pike 403, Bowling Green, MO 63334. 102 Missouri Historical Review

Guided by the Hand of God: The History of the First Christian Church, Columbia, Missouri, 1832-1996. By Mary K. Dains (Columbia, Mo.: First Christian Church, 1996). 256 pp. Illustrations. Bibliography. Index. $20.00, plus $4.00 for shipping.

This work traces the history of the second-oldest church in Columbia, offering insight into its ministers and congregation in relation to the growth and change of the city. A significant portion of the book discusses the many social welfare programs that the church has supported throughout the years. Copies are available from First Christian Church, 101 North 10th Street, Columbia, MO 65201.

A Century of Faith, Pioneers in Missions: A History of Cuivre Baptist Association, 1891-1991. By Lenard Douglas McGlaughlin (n.p., 1996). xii + 320 pp. Illustrations. Appendixes. Index. $20.00, paper, plus $2.00 for shipping.

Organized in 1891, the Cuivre Baptist Association linked small rural churches in Lincoln, eastern Warren, and western St. Charles Counties. Today, the group is affiliated with the Missouri Baptist Association and the Southern Baptist Convention. This book traces the history of the churches and the min­ isters who guided them. A brief history of the Baptist Church from its begin­ ning in England to its inception in Missouri is also included. To order contact Doug McGlaughlin, 14211 Highway PP, Bowling Green, MO 63334.

AtoZ Missouri: The Dictionary of Missouri Place Names. By Margot Ford McMillan (Columbia, Mo.: Pebble Publishing, 1996). vii + 201 pp. Illustrations. Index. $14.95, paper, plus $2.00 for shipping.

A fascinating journey into the flip side of local history, this "dictionary" offers short explanations for many of the unique place-names that grace our state. Entries range from the ordinary to the incredible. The volume can be purchased from Pebble Publishing, P.O. Box 431, Columbia, MO 65205- 0431; (800) 576-7322.

Douglas County, Missouri: History & Families, 1857-1995. By the Douglas County Historical and Genealogical Society (Paducah, Ky.: Turner Publishing Company, 1996). 480 pp. Illustrations. Index. $65.00, plus $5.00 for shipping.

This work presents the history of Douglas County and its businesses, churches, and schools. The majority of the text is devoted to family histo­ ries. An alphabetical list of all military veterans from the county is includ­ ed. The volume can be purchased from the Douglas County Historical Society, P.O. Box 986, Ava, MO 65608. Book Notes 103

Tears and Turmoil: Order No. 11. By Joanne Chiles Eakin (Independence, Mo.: n.p., 1996). 117 pp. Illustrations. Index. $10.95, paper, plus $2.00 for shipping.

Personal letters, newspaper articles, and published reminiscences document the trauma experienced by civilians during the execution of Order No. 11 in 1863. The order, issued by Union General Thomas Ewing, commanded that all citizens of the border counties in west-central Missouri evacuate their homes unless they could establish their loyalty to the Union. Copies are available from Joanne Chiles Eakin, 12400 East 33rd Street, Independence, MO 64055-2317.

Forgotten Valor: The First Missouri Cavalry Regiment, C.S.A. By James W. Farley (Platte City, Mo.: James W. Farley, 1996). 475 pp. Illustrations. Maps. Notes. Appendixes. Bibliography. Indexes. $32.00 for Missouri res­ idents, $30.00 for nonresidents.

This volume, dedicated to the author's great-grandfather who served under Colonel Elijah Gates in the Civil War, chronicles one of the most dis­ tinguished units of the Missouri Brigade. Gleaned from material in the National Archives, the Missouri State Archives, and various publications and diaries, over half the work comprises appendixes of company rosters and compilations of the names of men who were killed or wounded. This book can be ordered from James W. Farley, P.O. Box 1130, Platte City, MO 64079.

Breaking the Barriers: The St. Louis Legacy of Women in Law, 1869-1969. By Lucile Wiley Ring (Manchester, Mo.: Independent Publishing Corporation, 1996). 243 pp. Illustrations. $16.95, plus $5.00 for shipping.

These brief essays about women in the profession of law reveal not only their personal histories but the history of the legal system in Missouri as well. Culled from the author's newspaper columns first published in the St. Louis Daily Record, the entries are simply written and highly readable. Copies can be obtained from L. W. Ring, 2041 Reservoir Loop Road, Selah, WA 98942.

"Indescribably Grand": Diaries and Letters from the 1904 World's Fair. Edited by Martha R. Clevenger (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1996). xi + 156 pp. Illustrations. Notes. Bibliography. Index. $34.95.

Diaries and letters written by four citizens attending the Louisiana Purchase Exposition of 1904 provide color and insight into the world's largest fair. A lengthy introduction details the history and social context that surrounded this event. Photos from the collections of the Missouri Historical Society and drawings made by one of the diarists contribute visual interest. This book is available from the Missouri Historical Society, P.O. Box 11940, St. Louis, MO 63112-0040. 104

I STATE HISTO CAL X SOCIETY OF MI ;OURI I X X

Founded in 1898, the State Historical Society is the preeminent research facility for the study of the Show Me State's heritage. It is the only statewide historical society in Missouri. The Society has assembled the largest specialized research library in the state and the largest collection of state newspapers in the nation.

The Society invites interested individuals to support its mission of collecting, preserving, and making accessible the state's history by becoming a member. Membership entitles you to a one-year subscription to the Society's quarterly publication, the Missouri Historical Review.

The State Historical Society is a not-for-profit, tax-exempt organization. Gifts of cash and property to the Society are deductible for federal income, estate, and gift tax purposes.

Individual membership $10.00 Contributing membership $25.00 Supporting membership $50.00 Annual sustaining membership $100.00 to $499.00 Annual patron membership $500.00 or more Life membership $250.00

To join the Society or to inquire about gifts or bequests contact:

James W. Goodrich, Executive Director State Historical Society of Missouri 1020 Lowry Street Columbia, Missouri 65201-7298 Phone (573) 882-7083

Celehatintj A Century of History CONTRIBUTORS TO MISSOURI CULTURE HOWARD NEMEROV

Former poet laureate of the United States Howard Nemerov is, of course, best remembered for his poetry. A prolific and versatile writer, however, this distinguished man of letters covered the literary gamut: novels, short stories, his journal, essays, and criticism, in addition to poetry, are represented in his twenty-six published books. Known for a dry, self-effacing humor, Nemerov was also a master teacher at the college level for forty- Washington University in St. Louis five years. A campus legend during his years at Washington University in St. Louis, Nemerov joined the faculty in 1969 after serving as a visiting professor the preceding year. He had taught at Hamilton College in New York, Bennington College in Vermont, and Brandeis University in Massachusetts before arriving in St. Louis in 1968. Over the next twenty-two years, Nemerov, wearing his signature blue-denim jacket and his book bag thrown over his shoulder, walked to campus each day from his house in University City two miles away. "Walking is good for poetry," he said, "that's why it comes in feet." Nemerov studied at Harvard from 1937 to 1941. "When I got to college, I discov­ ered that all the smartest, vainest, snobbiest, most arrogant people said they were poets. So, being pretty smart, snobby, vain and arrogant myself, I said, Til have one of those,' and that is how I got to be a poet." With his dry humor, the poet once declared that Harvard had turned him into "Howie, the Boy Intellectual." Following graduation, Nemerov served as a pilot in the U.S. Air Force in Great Britain. In 1946 he returned to the United States with Margaret, his British bride, and embarked on an illustrious teach­ ing career at Hamilton College. For someone who described himself as "a low-down fellow with lofty thoughts," Nemerov accumulated numerous accolades during his seventy-one years. His 1957 novel, The Homecoming Game, was made into the Hollywood movie Tall Story, starring Anthony Perkins and Jane Fonda. The Washington University Edward Mallinckrodt Distinguished University Professor of English won both the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award in 1978 for The Collected Poems of Howard Nemerov. In 1987 he was one of ten citizens awarded the National Medal of the Arts by President Ronald Reagan. The following year Congress appointed Nemerov poet laureate of the United States, the third person to hold the position. In this capacity, he wrote verses commem­ orating the two hundredth anniversary of Congress and the launch of the space shuttle Atlantis. Additionally, Nemerov was a chancellor of the Academy of American Poets, a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Following his term as poet laureate from 1988 to 1990, Nemerov returned to his St. Louis home, where he died on July 5, 1991.