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INDEX

Aalto, Aino, architect 241 Albrecht of Mecklenburg, king of Aalto, Alvar, architect 241 Sweden 10, 11, 14 Abrahams, Ray, anthropologist 299 alcohol 57–8, 193 Academic Karelia Society (AKS) 166, Alexander I, emperor of Russia 15, 64, 182, 184, 200, 201, 229, 232, 248 72, 73–9, 81, 83–5, 86, 88, 89, 90, active resistance movement 157 103, 123, 148, 165 activists 165, 181–2 Alexander II, emperor of Russia 82, Adlerberg, Nikolay, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107–8, governor-general 124 115, 121, 193 administrative reforms 284–6 Alexander III, emperor of Russia 123, Aejmelaeus, Johan, clergyman 98 125, 127–8 Agrarian Union 150, 167, 181, 184, Alexander III, pope 6, 168 185, 195, 235, 238, 248, 249, 250–3, Alexander VI, pope 16 262, 277, 318; (from 1965, Centre Alexander Nevsky, prince of Novgorod Party) 269, 270, 272, 277, 281, 317 8, 9 Agricola, Mikael, bishop of Alfred, king of Wessex 3 Turku 40 Alkio, Santeri, author, agrarian agriculture 112–13, 187–8, politician 134, 181, 322 287, 294–9 allied control commission in Finland Ahlqvist, August, professor of Finnish 232–3, 243 99, 117, 120 Alopaeus brothers 82 Aho, Esko, prime minister 278, 281, Aminoff, Berndt, major 90 282, 291 ancient tribes (Kweni, Hornfinns, Aho, Juhani, author 134 Biarmi) 3 Ahtisaari, Martti, president 282, 284 Andersson, Sven, Swedish defence A˚ land islands 8, 14, 17, 20, 21, 83, 104, minister 267 169, 176; disputed territory 191, 202; Anjala conspiracy 64, 68–70, 321 demilitarisation 204–5, 216;as Antikainen, Toivo, communist exile 202 autonomous region 300 Anttila, Akseli, communist exile 202 Alapuro, Risto, sociologist 168–83 Arakcheyev, Aleksey, minister of war 74 Albert of Buxtehude, bishop of Riga 8 Archangel 193 architecture 241

330

Index 331

Arckenholtz, Johan, politician and Born, Viktor von, nobleman 121 historian 59 Borodkin, Mikhail, nationalist Arctic Ocean 1, 3, 9, 232 historian 124 Armfelt, Alexander, state-secretary 87, Bothnia, gulf of 1, 3, 9, 16, 18, 20, 102 101, 106, 118, 122, 125 Brahe, Per, governor-general of Armfelt, Carl, commander of the Finland 38 Finnish army 68–9, 321 Brezhnev, Leonid, Soviet leader 259, Armfelt, Gustaf, soldier, statesman 71, 262, 263, 265, 266 74, 75, 77, 80, 84, 90–1, 123, 321 Britain 211–12; and Finland 224, Arwidsson, Adolf, historian and 249, 256, 274 polemicist 89, 91, 94 Browallius, Johan, clergyman and Askola 287 natural scientist 61 associational activities 115, 130–3 Browning, Christopher, political A˚ stro¨ m, Sven-Erik, historian 47 scientist 302 athletics associations (SVUL, TUL) 217 burn-beat cultivation 21, 22, 23, 112 Auer, Va¨ino¨ , geographer 225 Bush, George, president of the United Aurora society 66 States 278 Austria 281, 282 Buxhoevden, Friedrich Wilhelm von, Axelsson Tott clan 13 commander of Russian forces in Finland 72, 73 Baltic provinces 79, 122, 125, 128 Baltic Sea 1, 4, 7, 252, 258 Cainberg, Erik, sculptor 92 Baltic states 164, 198, 205, 215, 218, Cajander, A. K., prime minister 185, 219, 242, 278–9; see also Estonia, 195, 211, 248, 320 Latvia Canada 188 Bank of Finland 110, 186, 289, Canth, Minna, author 135 290, 291 ‘Caps’, political party 46 Barclay de Tolly, Mikhail, field-marshal, Carl XIV Johan (Jean-Baptiste governor-general 84 Bernadotte), king of Sweden 78, 88 Bartlett, Robert, historian 4 Castre´n, Matthias, philologist 94, 95, Belyakov, Aleksey, Soviet ambassador 102 265, 323 Catherine II, empress of Russia 68, 79, Bengt, duke of Finland 4 82 Berg, Friedrich von, governor-general Catholic church 4, 8 102, 106–7 censorship 272–5 Bessarabia 219 Charles V, emperor 17 Bidz, Konrad, bishop of Turku 26 Chernobyl nuclear accident 278, 301 Bielke, Erik, nobleman 16, 262 Christian II, last Union king 17–18, 28 Birger Jarl, nobleman 8 Christian III, king of Denmark 28 Birgitta, saint 25 Christian of Oldenburg, king of Sweden Black Death in Northern Europe 24–5 12, 13 Bobrikov, Nikolay, governor-general Christian People’s Party 318 128–30, 138, 139–41, 142, 143, 150 Christiansen, Eric, historian 8, 10, 25 Bolsheviks 159–60, 164 Christina, queen of Sweden 38 Bomarsund, fortress 103, 104 Church Law (1869) 113 Bonde, Karl Knutsson, regent, king of Churchill, Winston, prime minister 236 Sweden 13 Chydenius brothers 60–1 Bonden Paavo (Farmer Paavo) 98, 112 Chydenius, Anders, clergyman, Boris Godunov, tsar of Muscovy 30 advocate of free trade 58, 59, 60

332 Index

Chydenius, Wilhelm, social reformer 135 economy 47–53, 109–10, 113, 289–99 civil guard defence corps education 25, 60, 66, 86–7, 102, 115, (suojeluskunta) 161, 163, 165, 166, 118–19, 173, 186, 288, 294 167, 168, 174, 178, 179–80, 212, Ehrenstro¨ m, Johan, senator, planner of 216, 217, 232 Imperial Helsinki 82, 91 civil war (1918) 161–2, 201; legacy 167, Ehrensva¨rd, Augustin, military 168, 172–4, 175, 198–9, 216, 218, architect 44 271 Ehrnrooth, Casimir, state-secretary 125 Clemenceau, Georges, French politician Ehrstro¨ m, Erik, academic 91 127 Eklund, Artur, athlete, politician 133 Cneiff, Johan, scientist 48 elections: parliamentary 158, 159, 163, Comecon 269 171, 173, 176, 178, 185, 195, 235, Committee for Finnish Affairs 78, 84–5, 238, 252, 257, 260, 261–2, 270, 284; 87, 90; reconstituted 106 presidential 165, 178, 195, 220, 234, communism in Finland 114, 169, 240, 249–50, 254, 255–60, 265–6, 170–1, 176, 177–8, 189, 218, 219, 267, 276, 284 273, 322 Elizabeth, empress of Russia 43, 44, Communist Party of the Soviet Union 65, 321 (CPSU) 247–8, 249, 250, 265, 267–8 Elleman-Jensen, Uffe, Danish foreign constitution: (1919) 164, 165, 168, 272, minister 279 283 (1999) 283–4, 301 Enckell, Carl, foreign minister 236 Craucher, Minna, demi-mondaine 322 Engel, Carl, architect 82 crusades, in northern Europe 4, 6–8, 16 Englebrektsson, Englebrekt, rebel currency 110 leader 12 Cygnaeus, Uno, educationalist 87, 102 Erik IX, king of Sweden 6, 7 Czechoslovakia 168, 237, 238, 243, Erik XIII, king of Sweden 11, 12, 26 262, 265 Erik XIV, king of Sweden 28, 30, 37 Erikskro¨ nikan, medieval Daehn, Woldemar von, state-secretary rhyme-chronicle 8 125 Erkko, Eljas, foreign minister 206–7 Daladier, Edouard, prime minister of Estlander, Carl, professor of modern France 213 literature 104, 133 Dalarna 4, 12, 17 Estonia 28, 116, 198, 232, 278; see also Danielson, J. R., historian 125 Baltic provinces, Baltic states Daugava, river 8 European Economic Community (EEC), De poesi fennica 61, 66, 92 European Union (EU) 254, 255, 302; Denmark 6–8, 11, 12, 108, 212, 252, and Finland 263–6, 269, 270, 279, 261, 263, 264, 270 280–2, 303, 323 devaluation 289 European Free Trade Area (EFTA) and Diet Act (1869) 108 Finnish membership 254, 255–6, Diet of Porvoo 60, 73–5, 77; 264, 278 interpretations of 75–6, 88–9 Diktonius, Elmer, poet 186 Fagerholm, Karl-August, social Donner, Kai, activist 165, 182 democrat 250, 251, 252, 253, 254 Dvina (northern), river 3 famine 42, 47, 112–13 February manifesto (1899) 127, eastern Finland 22, 23, 24, 40, 43, 56, 129–30, 137 59, 95, 150, 216, 256 fennomani (Finnish-mindedness) 91–3, economic integration in Europe 249, 254 96–8, 100, 120

Index 333

fiefholding and service 9, 10, 11, 12, Finland at war (1939–1945) 198, 13–16, 17, 33, 218, 242–3 208–14, 222–31, 233; battles 210; financial institutions 133, 292–3 proposed Allied intervention 211–13, Finland 213–14; Soviet peace terms 214; as part of Sweden: definition 4;asa Finnish war aims 224, 225; public frontier country 16, 56–7; eastern opinion 227; Finnish efforts to leave frontier 9, 16, 30, 42, 65; frontier the war 227, 229–30; peace wars with Russia 13, 16–17; opposition 227; Ryti–Ribbentrop relationship to the kingdom of agreement 230; Soviet offensive Sweden 19–20, 29, 43, 44, 46–7, 230–1; armistice 217, 231–2, 287 63, 65–6, 76; conscription system Finland, gulf of 2, 8, 18, 68, 224, 322 31; occupied by Russian forces Finland Proper 4, 5, 8, 9, 13, 14, 18, 21, 43–4; fear of renewed war 70–1;as 29, 39 an issue in the riksdag 44, 58; Finlandia, symphonic poem 130 Enlightenment in Finland 59–63; ‘finlandisation’ 245, 246, 267, 280 relationship with Imperial Russia Finnish army: during the Swedish 65, 72–3 period 33, 45, 46, 53, 63–4, 68–70, as Grand Duchy: and the Russian 74, 76, 321; in the Grand Duchy Empire 76–9, 83, 87–91, 106, 102, 128, 129, 137, 140;in 120–1, 122, 123–30; model for independent Finland 161, 163, 165, proposed Grand Duchy of 204, 232; during the Second World Lithuania 78; capital moved to War 208, 222 Helsinki 78, 84; separated from Finnish Communist Party 145, 169, Sweden 83, 90, 94; autonomous 171, 195, 234–8, 242, 243–4, 249, government 84–8, 86–7, 89, 250, 253, 258, 264, 265, 267, 270, 109–10; constitutional position 273, 315 97, 107–8, 121, 123, 124–5, 138, Finnish Diet 89, 107, 108–9, 115, 122, 148; during Crimean War 102–4, 123, 127, 129, 142, 143, 147, 157, 105; period of reform 1931 I; 321 frontier regions 131; passive Finnish language 98, 100, 101–2, resistance 137, 138, 140–1, 142; 115–17, 134, 186, 300–1; chair of in last years of Imperial rule Finnish established 101, 102; 148, 151–2; during First World restrictions on publication 101 War 157–8 Finnish Literature Society (SKS) 92, as Republic: political instability 167, 94–6, 99, 116 179, 270; as a democracy 167–9; Finnish Literature Society in Viipuri economic crises 181, 252, 269, 95–6 270, 279, 291–3; frontier security Finnish nationalist movement 118–22, 191–2, 279; improving living 144, 154, 156, 157, 166, 184–5, 248; standards 196; national culture and idea of greater Finland 201, 196; and the Soviet Union 203–6, 202, 229 206–8, 240–2, 245–8, 277–9; and Finnish office-holders 44–5, 53–5, 76 Germany 203; and Sweden 204, Finnish parliament (eduskunta) 143, 206–7, 216; preserves its 147, 149, 151–2, 157, 158–9, 160, independence 242; and Nordic 161, 163–5, 204, 221, 224, 235, 237, countries 261, 263, 278–9, 302; 240, 252, 253, 257, 266, 269, 281, and economic integration 263–4; 283, 289, 315 trade with the Soviet Union Finnish People’s Commissariat (Red 268–9, 291 government of 1918) 162

334 Index

Finnish People’s Democratic Union Gezelius, Johan (the elder), bishop of (SKDL) 235, 236, 238, 252, 261, 262, Turku 40 270–1, 277, 315 (from 1991, Union Gezelius, Johan (the younger), of the Left) 277, 315 superintendant of Narva 41 Finnish Rural Party 270, 277, 298, 318 Glinka, Fyodor, poet 93 Finnish separatism 64, 106, 124 Goering, Hermann, Nazi leader 203 Finnish Social Democratic Party 144, Golitsyn, Anatoly, KGB agent, 145, 146–7, 150, 158–61, 167, 171, defector 259 172, 178, 185, 194, 195, 216, 218, Gorbachev, Mikhail, Soviet 224, 227, 235–7, 238, 250, 251–3, leader 278 254, 261, 262, 264, 266, 270, 277, Gotland 4, 7, 11, 18, 63 282, 284, 293, 315 Gottlund, Carl, collector of folk Finnish Socialist Workers’ Party 171–2 poems 94 Finnmark 3, 188, 190, 202 government of Finland: Imperial Senate Finns: as perceived by others 3, 39, 101, 79, 84–5, 95, 102, 106, 108, 118, 125, 129; in Imperial Russia 82, 122; 120–1, 122, 123, 125–7, 137–8, 139, in Soviet Russia 202; in Sweden 140, 142, 143–4, 147, 151, 152, 157, 22, 294, 298 236, 271; during revolution of Fleming, Klas, marshal of the realm 35 1917–18 158–9, 160–3, 164, 194; folk poetry 27–8 Council of State 163–5, 168, folkting (representative assembly for 283–4; during war years 211, Swedish-speaking minority) 170 213–14, 216–22, 227–9, 230; Forsman brothers (see Koskinen), in post-war period 235–7, Finnish nationalists 120 251–2, 252–3, 261–2, 264, 277, Forsska˚l, Peter, clergyman 59 278–9, 284 fra¨lse (tax-exempt providers of military Governor-General of Finland, office of services) 11, 14, 56 74, 78, 82, 85, 101, 106, 129 Fredrik I, king of Denmark 18, 28 Granfelt, A. A., organiser in the national Friedrich Karl of Hesse, chosen king of cause 116 Finland (1918) 163, 164 gravis admodum, papal bull 6 Frost, Robert, historian 31 Great Northern War 42 fundamental laws: 1772 Form of Green Party 318 Government 123, 160, 164; Gregory IX, pope 4, 8 1789 Act of Union and Assurance Grip, Bo Jonsson, nobleman 10 56, 108, 123 Grip, Nils Bosson, nobleman 17 fur trade 27 Gripenberg, Bertel, poet 133, 170 Furuhjelm, Oscar, artist, 156 Gromyko, Andrey, Soviet foreign minister 260 Gadd, Pehr, natural scientist 59, 66 Gulag Archipelago 274 Ganander, Kristfrid, clergyman 61 Gustav I Vasa, king of Sweden 17, 18, general strike (1956) 251 26, 28, 37, 81 gentry (herrat) 16, 53, 70, 137, 144, Gustav II Adolf, king of Sweden 29, 157, 188 30, 38 Germany 158, 161, 203, 254, 258, 261, Gustav III, king of Sweden 46, 57, 63, 279; and Finland in 1918 162–3, 68–70, 71, 84, 107, 164 199–200; and Sweden 204; and Gustav IV Adolf, king of Sweden Finland during Second World War 13, 71, 72 219–20, 221, 224, 242–3; West Guttorm, Hans Aslak, author 191 Germany and Finland 252 Gyllenstjerna, Nils, nobleman 14

Index 335

Haartman, Lars von, senator 86, 109–10 Ingman, Anders, professor of Hagman, Lucina, teacher, political exegetics 100 activist 131 Ingman, Lauri, prime minister and Ha˚kon, king of Norway 10 archbishop 173 Halonen, Tarja, president 284 Ingria 30, 41, 176 Ha¨me: people 3, 4, 8, 26; region 9, 13, Ingrian people 226, 302 18, 21, 23, 28, 34 interest groups 289–90 Ha¨meenlinna 109 interregional co-operation 302 Hamina 52, 68, 79 Ivan III, grand duke of Muscovy 16 Hanko peninsula 197, 206, 213, 215, 217 Ja¨a¨tteenma¨ki, Anneli, prime minister Hans, king of Sweden 13 282, 284 ‘Hats’, political party 43, 44, 46 Ja¨ger soldiers 158, 161, 162, 163 Hecksher, Eli, historian 14 Ja¨gerhorn, Jan, soldier, separatist Heiden, Fyodor, governor-general 121, 68–70, 91 128, 129 Jakobson, Max, diplomat 323 Helsinki conference on European Jalvi, Pedar, author 190 security 267, 323 Ja¨ntti, Toivo, architect 26 Helsinki: harbour 44, 203; town 3, 6, January engagement (1940) 216 46, 52, 109, 119, 127, 134, 140, 155, Joensuu 178 162–3, 171, 172, 196, 208, 213, 235, Johan III, king of Sweden 28, 35, 37 241, 273, 305; capital 81, 83, 186, Johansson, Gustaf, archbishop of 286; district 96, 300;in1905 Finland 141 revolution 142–3, 146; university Jordanes, historian of the Goths 3 184–5 Juslenius, Daniel, professor, bishop of Henry, bishop of Finland 6, 7 Skara 62, 65 Herder, Johann, critic and poet 92 Jussila, Osmo, historian 75, 139, Herkepaeus, Anders, merchant 53 238, 243 Herzen, Alexander, revolutionary 88 Juteini, Jaakko, poet 98 Hillila¨, Kaarlo, agrarian 235 Jutikkala, Eino, historian 48, 225 Hitler, Adolf, leader of Nazi Germany Jyva¨skyla¨ 179 205, 219, 221, 222, 230–1, 242 Holkeri, Harri, prime minister 278, 286 Kaila, Elmo, student activist 166 Holsti, Rudolf, foreign minister 203 Kairamo, A. Oswald, botanist, homicides 56–7 businessman 133 Honka, Olavi, presidential candidate Kajaani, J. F., historian 97 256–7, 258, 260 Ka¨kisalmi 41, 79 Hungary 237, 243 Kalevala, national verse epic 92, 94, 95, hunting and fishing culture 2–3, 48–50 100, 131, 134 Hwasser, Israel, professor of Kallio, Kyo¨ sti, president 177, 180, medicine 88 195, 220 Hyva¨rinen, Risto, diplomat 323 Kalm, Pehr, natural scientist 59, 61, 93 Karelia, Eastern 8, 100, 139, 166, 176, independence: idea of 64–5, 69, 157–9; 193–5, 201, 302; as part of the Soviet declared 164; recognised by Soviet state 198, 215; as object of Finnish Russia 160–1, 199; recognised by interest 93–4, 153, 200–2; under allied powers 163 Finnish occupation 224–5, industry 50, 51–2, 110–12, 114, 187, 225–6, 230 293–4 Karelia, Northern (Finnish) 57

336 Index

Karelian isthmus 9, 15, 16, 20, 21, 197, Kokkola 52, 102, 103, 119 208, 210, 211–13, 214, 230, 231, Kollontay, Alexandra, feminist 263, 264–5, 287 revolutionary 135 Karelian people 3, 16, 20, 24, 26, 28, Korsholm, castle 10 93, 197 Korsimo, Arvo, agrarian 251 Kares, Kauko, Lapua leader 177 Koskinen, Yrjo¨ , Finnish nationalist Karjalainen, Ahti, agrarian 251, 255, leader, historian 36, 37, 117, 118, 256, 258–60, 262, 264, 266–7, 119, 120–1, 134, 135, 138–9, 277, 296 242, 280 Ka¨rki, Niilo, student activist 166, 248 Kosola, Vihtori, Lapua leader 177, 180 Karl IX, regent, later king of Sweden 28, Kosygin, Aleksey, Soviet leader 263, 35–6, 37 266, 268 Karl X, king of Sweden 30 Kothen, Casimir von, senator 86, 87, Karl XI, king of Sweden 31, 42 119, 122 Karl XII, king of Sweden 31, 42, 45 Kriedl, Gottlieb, master Karl Peter Ulrik, duke of Holstein papermaker 111 44, 321 Kristoffer of Bavaria, king of Kastelholm, castle 14 Sweden 10 Katkov, Mikhail, journalist 124 Kuolaja¨rvi 190 Kaurisma¨ki, Aki, film-maker xvi Kuopio 100 Keckman, Carl, lecturer in Kurck, Arvid, bishop of Turku 26 Finnish 95 Kurjensaari, Matti, author 196 Kekkonen, Urho, president 182, 184, Kuropatkin, A. N., minister of war 3, 204, 229, 235, 236, 245–75, 276–7, 128, 129 284, 323 Kuusamo 41 Kemi 190, 321 Kuusi, Pekka, social theorist 271 Kennedy, J. F., president of the United Kuusinen, Hertta, communist 237, 238 States 259, 261 Kuusinen, Otto, communist, head of Kepplerus, Alexander, burgomaster of Terijoki government 145, 147, Loviisa 59 159–60, 171, 198, 207, 208, 215, Kerensky, Alexander, leader of Russian 235, 237, 243 provisional government 159 KGB and Finland 247–8, 249, 251, 257, labour movement 135–7, 144–5, 157, 259, 265 171, 172, 174, 243 Khrushchev, Nikita, Soviet leader Ladoga, lake 2, 3, 6, 8, 24, 30, 79, 123, 250, 254, 255–6, 260–1, 263 210, 215 Kianto, Ilmari, novelist 157 Laestadius, Lars, religious revivalist 189 Kilpi, O. K., economist 131 Lagus, Elias, clergyman 41 Kilpi, Volter, author 171, 173 Lalli, peasant and slayer of bishop Kivi, Alexis, novelist xvi, 99 Henry 6, 7 Kivima¨ki, T. M., wartime minister to land tenure 55–6, 113, 154–6, 222–31; Berlin 220 reforms 174, 187; ownership 187, Klick, Karl, soldier, separatist 73 298–9 Knorring, Bogdan von, general 74 landscape of Finland 1, 2, 18–20 Knutsson, Tyrgils, founder of Langenskio¨ ld, Fabian, senator 107 Viipuri 154 language legislation 118, 121–2, Koivisto, Mauno, president 263, 276–8, 138, 186 283, 284 Lapland 188–91; see also Sami people Ko¨ kar 18 Lappeenranta 79

Index 337

Lapua 174–6 Magnus, Johannes, exiled prelate and Lapua movement 167, 174–84, 194, historian 25 195, 235 Magnus, Olaus, bishop of Turku 26 Laqueur, Walter, political Magnus, Olaus, historian 5, 21, commentator 245 25, 27 Latvia 188; see also Baltic provinces, Malmberg, Lauri, commander of the Baltic states defence corps 166, 179 Laurbecchius, Petrus, bishop of Manner, Kullervo, communist 145 Viipuri 41 Mannerheim line 210, 213, 215 law and justice 10 Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf, president, Laxman, Erik, natural scientist 93 marshal of Finland 161, 162, League of Finnishness 248 163–6, 182, 201, 203, 206, 207, 208, League of Nations 191, 203–4, 211 211, 213, 214, 218, 219, 220, Leino, Yrjo¨ , communist minister of the 221, 222–6, 227, 228, 230–1, 234, interior 234–8, 243, 274 236, 239 Leinonen, Artturi, journalist 180 Mannerheim, Carl, senator 64, 73, Lenin, V. I., Soviet leader 192, 199 78, 86 Leningrad 197, 205, 215, 224, 226, 229 Ma¨ntsa¨la¨, attempted revolt 179, 182 (see also St Petersburg, Petrograd) Margareta, queen, architect of the Leskinen, Va¨ino¨ , social democrat 16, Union of Kalmar 10, 11, 12, 14 251, 253, 262, 323 Marshall aid programme 240 Liikala note 68–9 Martha association 131, 136 Liinamaa, Keijo, national Masku 18 arbitrator 269 Mechelin, Leo, senator, professor of Lilius, Carl-Gustaf, artist 274 jurisprudence 75, 120, 127, 138, 143, Lindegren, Yrjo¨ , architect 241 147, 151 Linder, Constantin, state-secretary 143 medieval Land Law 10 Linkomies, Edwin, prime minister Melartin, Erik, archbishop 87, 95 227, 234 Mennander, Karl, natural scientist 61 Linna, Va¨ino¨ , novelist 323 Menshikov, Alexander, governor- Linnaeus, Carl, botanist 61 general 85, 102, 106, 109 Lipponen, Paavo, prime minister Meri, Veijo, novelist 323 280, 284 migration 294 Liv people 8 Mikkeli 228 Lizelius, Anders, clergyman 61 military service law: (1878) 124;(1901) Lo¨ nnrot, Elias, compiler of the Kalevala 137, 140, 142 94–5, 99, 100, 322 Milyutin, D. A., minister of war 124 Lotta Sva¨rd auxiliaries 212, 217 Molotov, V. M., Soviet foreign minister Loviisa 52, 59 204, 205, 219, 222, 249 Lu¨ beck 18, 26 Montgomery, Robert, chief law Lund, archbishopric 6 officer 121 Lutheran church in Finland xvi, 25–6, Mo¨ rne, Arvid, poet 134 40–2, 83–4, 113–15, 141, 173, Moscow 171; see also Soviet Union 271, 304 Mu¨ nster, Sebastian, cosmographer 5 Murmansk 193 Madsen, Rolef, royal agent in Muscovy, state 13, 30, 41 Finland 17 Magnus Eriksson, king of Sweden 9, 10 Naantali 53 Magnus Ladula˚s, king of Sweden 4, 9 Napoleon I, emperor of France 72, 78

338 Index

National Coalition (conservatives) 185, Old Finn party 138, 141, 150, 151, 250, 252, 254, 262, 271, 277, 319 236, 316 national identity: forged in war 37; Olonets 93, 195, 226 scholarly interest in 60–3, 66–7, Olsson, Hagar, author 186 91–6, 97; and public opinion 106, Olympic games 196, 217, 240, 241 303–5; images of 7, 122, 130, 187, Onega, lake 2, 3, 6, 8 279–80, 288, 299 Onerva, L., author 173 NATO 254, 258, 261, 280 Order of the Sword Brothers in Livonia Nesselius, Israel, professor at the (from 1237, part of the Teutonic university in Turku 43 Order) 8, 9, 16, 321 Neumann, Hugo, engineer 111 Ordin, Kesar, historian and polemicist neutrality 103, 117, 123, 204, 259, 260, 75, 124 261, 262, 267, 281 Oreshek (Pa¨hkina¨saari, No¨ teborg), Nicholas I, emperor of Russia 87, 94, peace treaty 9 102, 123 Orthodox church 3, 4, 8, 41–2, 153 Nicholas II, emperor of Russia 127, 128, Oslo declaration (1935) 203 138, 151 Ostrobothnia region xvi, 10, 13, 20, 21, ‘night-frost crisis’ (1958) 253–4 27, 34, 35, 37, 38, 40, 42, 46, 50, 51, Niklisson, Dan, medieval governor of 52, 56, 71, 73, 83, 99, 102, 103, 119, the Finnish lands 9, 195 133, 150, 162, 174–6, 180, 300 Niukkanen, Juho, minister of Oulu 52, 103, 190, 210, 220 defence 206 Oulu river 50 Nokia company 288, 303 Ouluja¨rvi, lake 21 Norby, So¨ren, military commander 17, 18 Paasikivi, J. K., president 206–7, 220, Nordek (Nordic economic agreement) 228, 229, 231, 234, 236, 239, 240–2, 263–4 249, 250–1, 280 Nordic Council 240–2, 278 Paasikivi–Kekkonen foreign policy Nordic nuclear-free zone 278, 323 doctrine 194, 246, 260, 270, 271, Nordstro¨ m, J. J., professor of 272, 275, 278, 281, 304 jurisprudence 89 Paasio, Pertti, foreign minister 278 Norrland 4 Paasio, Rafael, prime minister 262, northern Finland 150, 172 269, 276 Norway, 11, 148, 188, 190, 202, 212, Paavolainen, Olavi, author 322 213, 219, 261, 264, 282, 301 Paimio sanatorium 241 ‘note crisis’ (1961) 257–61, 259 Pakkala, Teuvo, author 134 Nottbeck family, industrialists 135 Palme, Olof, Swedish prime Nousiainen 7 minister 267 November manifesto (1905) 143 Paris, university 25, 26 Novgorod 16, 17 Parliament Act (1906) 136, 147, 315 Novgorod, principality 3, 6, 9, 13 Patriotic People’s Movement (IKL) 183, Novosibirsk, meeting in 260–1 184, 195, 227, 232, 248 Nurmio, Heikki, composer 201 Paul I, emperor of Russia 79 peasant unrest 34–6, 70 Obolensky, Ivan, governor-general 143 Pekkala, Mauno, prime minister ‘official nationalism’ 94 235, 236 oil crisis (1973) 268 people (kansa) as a concept 90, Olav, king of Norway 11 118, 135 Olavinlinna, castle 20 Peter I, emperor of Russia 42, 79, 154

Index 339

Petrograd 160–1, 165; see also Rangell, Jukka, prime minister 227, St Petersburg, Leningrad 228, 234 Petsamo 190, 193, 232; nickel mines Rauma 25 217, 220 Rauthelius, Johannes, student of the Piae cantiones 27 university in Turku 62 Pietarsaari 52, 186 red guards 145, 146, 159, 161 Pihkala, Lauri, activist 176, 239 Red manifesto (1905) 142 Plehve, V. K., state-secretary 127, ‘red Olympics’ 217 138, 141 refugee minorities, immigrants Podgorny, Nikolay, president of the 301, 304 Soviet Union 268 Regnard, Jean, dramatist 48, 321 Poland: kingdom of 78, 88; republic Rehbinder, Robert, state-secretary 78, 168, 188, 203, 205, 242; revolt 80, 90, 123 (1863) 105, 107, 118, 120 Rehn, Elisabeth, presidential Polvinen, Tuomo, historian 130 candidate 282 population 27, 55, 56, 57, 86, 112, Relander, Lauri, president 180 286–8, 294, 295, 296, 300 religious orders (Franciscan, Pori 179 Dominican) 18, 321 Porkkala base 232, 240, 250 religious revivalism 99–100, 322 Porovsky, Lev, panslavist 93 Rentola, Kimmo, historian 235 Porthan, Henrik, historian 59, 61, 64, Renvall, Heikki, social reformer 135 65, 66, 70, 92 resettlement of refugees 216, 287, Porvoo 17, 25, 60 289, 296 Posse, Knut, commander of Viipuri revolution: (1905) 25, 142–6;(1917) castle 15 148, 158 poverty 47–50, 99, 112–13 Rhyzelius, Anders, clergyman 65 Prague, university 26 Ribbentrop, Joachim von, German president of the republic, office of 168, foreign minister 205, 220, 222, 282–3, 283–4 230, 242 press: in Finland 98, 100, 103, 106, 117, Rissanen, Otto, farmer 115 120, 122, 130, 137, 138, 144, 183, Rokassovsky, Platon, 262, 274, 275; in Sweden 117, 169, governor-general 107 185, 230, 266, 267; in the Soviet Roma people 301 Union 203, 251, 254, 262, 274 Rothovius, Isak, bishop of Turku 40 Progressive Party 185, 195, 316, 320; Rovaniemi 190 (from 1951, Finnish People’s Party) Royal Finnish Economic Society 66 317; (from 1965, Liberal People’s Rumyantsov, Nikolay, foreign Party) 317 minister 72 prohibition 16, 154, 156, 191–3 Runeberg, Johan, poet 98, 99, 112, 122, Proto-Finnish language 2 134, 156 Punainen viiva (The Red Line) 157 Ruotsalainen, Paavo, farmer, religious puukkojunkkarit (knife-fighters) xvi, 321 leader 99, 322 Rusk, Dean, secretary of state 259 Raahe 103 Russia 301; see Soviet Union railway construction 109 Russian Empire 71–2, 83, 87, 103; Raittiuden Ysta¨va¨t temperance policy towards Finland 83–4, 128, society 116 151–2; defence of western borders Ramsay, Henrik, businessman, foreign 124, 128; Imperial State Council minister 227 151–2; State Duma 151–2

340 Index

Russian language: attempts to augment Seina¨joki 179 its teaching in Finland 101, 122; made Seitsema¨n veljesta¨ (The Seven an official language in Finland 129, Brothers) 99 137, 141 settlement 2–3, 10, 18–23, 36, 188 Russian nationalism, 153 Seyn, Frans, governor-general 151, 157 Russian Provisional Government shipbuilding 52–3 158, 159 Sibelius, Jean, composer 130, 155 Russian revolutionary movement 141, Sigismund Vasa, king of Poland 28, 146, 147, 157, 158 35, 37 Russian support for Finnish separatism Sinebrychoff, Nikolai, brewer 101 43, 69–70 Sippola 131 Russian, or ‘Old’ Finland 79–80, 80–3, Sirola, Yrjo¨ , communist 145, 161 95, 122, 123, 154 Sjo¨ gren, Anders, ethnologist 93 Russo-Swedish war: (1788–90) Ska˚ne 63 68–70;(1808–09) 71, 83, 102 Skog, Emil, leader of social democratic rusthollari (providers of military opposition movement 251 services allowed tax reliefs) 31 Skytte, Gerhard, medieval governor of Rybachy peninsula 215 the ‘Eastland’ 9 Ryti, Risto, president 211, 214, 219, Sma˚land 59 220–1, 224, 227, 228, 230, 234, 320 Snellman, Johan, philosopher, senator 89, 97, 100, 102, 104, 109, 117–18, Saarikoski, Pentti, poet 288 120–1, 130, 139, 242, 280 Saarinen, Aarne, communist 218 social and political elites: in the Grand Saarinen, Eliel, architect 241 Duchy 85–6, 90–1, 106, 120, 123, Saimaa canal 216, 256, 263 133, 144, 147, 157, 203;in Saimaa-Pa¨ija¨nne lake system 51, 109 independent Finland 166–7, 171, 272, Salla enclave 215 280, 303 Salminen, Esko, professor 274 social classes: clergy 39–40, 115, 147–8, Salolainen, Pertti, EU negotiator 280 157; nobility 16, 17, 33–4, 37–8, 121; Salomaa, Erkki, communist 218 mercantile classes 46; peasantry 23–4, Samarin, Yuri, historian, polemicist 125 98–9, 120, 156, 187–8; working class Sami (Lapp) people 2, 3, 16, 21, 36, 41, 135, 300 188, 190–1, 301 Society for Peace and Friendship Satakunta region 10, 18, 20, 21, 179 between Finland and the USSR 218 Savo dialect 94 Society for Popular Enlightenment 116 Savo region 16, 20, 21, 26, 28, 34, So¨ dergran, Edith, poet 322 41, 57, 70, 73, 99, 100, 112, Sohlman, August, newspaper editor 117 115, 122 Sorsa, Kalevi, prime minister 264, Savonenkov, Grigori, member of the 292, 298 allied control commission 232 Sortavala 213 Savonlinna 68, 79 Soviet Union 178, 195, 218, 322; and Scarin, Algot, historian 5 Terijoki government 197–9, 211; Schauman, August, journalist 1912 policy towards Finland (1918–39) Schauman, Eugen, student 141 200, 202, 204; during Second World Scheel, Pa˚vel, dean of Turku 27 War 207; and Finland during Second Schweitzer, Robert, historian 128 World War 211, 219, 221–2, 229–30; Schybergson, M. G., historian 6 and Finland after 1944 16, 234, 243, Scott, John, American journalist 233 252–3, 254–5, 256, 260–1, 262–3, sea-routes in the Baltic 3–4 264–5; collapse of 245, 272, 279, 291

Index 341

Soviet–Finnish mutual assistance treaty Svinhufvud, Pehr, president 9, 144, 151, (1939) 197 160–1, 163, 177, 178–81, 182, 195, Soviet–Finnish non-aggression treaty 200, 220, 322 (1932) 203, 208 Sweden 31, 71, 261, 267, 301; medieval Speransky, Mikhail, adviser to kingdom 4, 6–9, 10, 184–5; Alexander I 74, 78, 80 administrative institutions 9–10, 12, Spo¨ ring, Herman, mineralogist 61 35–6, 98; crown and nobility 11–12, Sprengtporten, Go¨ ran, soldier, separatist 12–13, 37–8; and Finland 63–5, 66, 69, 70, 72, 73–4, 91 12–13, 37, 38; riksdag 12, St Petersburg 80–2, 98, 109, 129, 142, 45–6, 68, 108; as a great power 30–1, 155, 188; Academy of Sciences 93; 39, 62; in the eighteenth century 45, military district 128; see also 46, 63; and Grand Petrograd, Leningrad Duchy of Finland 88–9, 102, 105–6; St Pierre, Bernardin de, author 48 and the Republic of Finland 191, Sta˚hlberg, Kaarlo, president 164, 165, 196, 202, 219, 227, 231–2, 256; 166, 178, 179, 195 during Second World War 211–13, Sta˚larm, Arvid, military commander 35 221; and economic integration 264, Stalin, J. V., Soviet leader 10, 195, 199, 281, 282, 291 202, 204, 205, 206, 207–8, 210, 214, Swedish language in Finland 98, 120, 226, 228, 238, 239, 240, 242 131–4, 169–70, 227 state (valtio) as a concept Swedish language minority in Finland 89–90, 271–2 96, 97, 100, 119, 121–2, 134, 184, state-secretary for Finland, office of 74, 185–7, 300–1 78, 82, 85, 129 Swedish liberal-constitutionalist Stead, W. T., journalist, 127 party 138 Steinheil, Fabian, governor-general Swedish People’s Party 133, 147, 150, 76, 85 156, 170, 185, 191, 224, 227, 229, Stiernkors, Magnus, bishop of Turku 282, 319 15, 16, 26 Sysma¨ 44 Stjernwall, Carl, governor of Viipuri 80, 90 Tacitus, historian 3 Stockholm 17–18, 27, 39, 94 Taivalkoski 49 ‘Stockholm bloodbath’ 17 Tallinn 8, 27 Strauss, Franz-Josef, West German Tampere 135, 136, 137, 142, 162 politician 245 Tanner, Va¨ino¨ , social democratic student radicalism 271, 273 leader 11, 194, 195, 211, 214, 218, Sture, Sten (the Elder), regent of Sweden 220, 234, 240, 243, 251–2, 253, 13, 16 254, 261 Sture, Sten (the Younger), regent of Tartu, university 80 Sweden 17 Tavast, Magnus, bishop of Turku 12, 26 suffrage reform 142, 143 Tavaststjerna, Karl, author 135 Sukselainen, V. J., agrarian 254, 257 Tavinsalmi 18 Sulkunen, Irma, historian 94 tax-paying peasantry 14 Suslov, Mikhail, member of the central Teheran conference (1943) 228 committee of the CPSU 267, 268, 274 Tengstro¨ m, Jakob, bishop, later Suurpa¨a¨, Laurentius, bishop of archbishop of Turku 73, 83, 95 Turku 26 Tengstro¨ m, Johan, professor of Suursaari island 68, 205, 215 philosophy 91 Sveaborg fortress 44, 71, 81, 146, 147 Tengstro¨ m, Robert, philosopher 97

342 Index

Terijoki government 197–9, 207, Upton, Anthony, historian 242 208, 215 Utsjoki 190 Thaden, Edward, historian 123 Uusimaa 10 Thomas, bishop of Finland 8 Uvarov, Sergey, minister for Tokoi, Oskari, trade unionist, education 94 senator 158 Topelius, Zachris (Zacharias), author Vaasa 52, 162, 177, 186, 220 97–8, 104, 122, 156 Valdemar Atterdag, king of Denmark Tornio 16, 264 10, 11 towns in Finland 52, 186 valtalaki (enabling law, 1917) trade 51–2, 58, 110, 112, 187, 202, 249, 158–9, 160 254–5, 289 Va¨rmland 20, 22 trade unions 176, 177, 202, 216, 238, Vasili III, grand duke of Moscovy 16 289, 290 Va¨stergo¨ tland 19 treaty of friendship, co-operation, and Vaÿrynen, Paavo, foreign minister mutual assistance (FCMA, 1948) 238, 278, 281 239–40, 252, 254, 255, 258, 262, Vehvilaïnen, Olli, historian 229 264, 272, 277–9 Vennamo, Veikko, leader of Rural Party treaty of Hamina (1809) 77–8, 83 270, 277, 298, 323 treaty of Moscow (1940) 215–16 Verkko, Veli, sociologist 54 treaty of Paris (1947) 237, 256, Verla 111 258, 279 Vientirauha (strike-breaking treaty of Tartu (1920) 163, 190, organisation) 176–7 193, 202 Viiala 136 treaty of Tilsit (1807) 72 Viipuri: castle 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 42; Tsokkinen family 189 town 25, 40, 52, 60, 79, 82, Tuderus, Gabriel, clergyman 321 88, 95, 98, 109, 121, 146, 154, Turku: bishopric 7, 8, 13, 16, 25; town 161–2, 211, 213, 230, 321; 13, 17, 18, 20, 36, 39, 46, 52, 81, grammar school 95; province 79, 80; 121, 162, 172, 186, 300; castle bay 213, 215 9, 35; high court 10, 38, 45; Vilkuna, Kustaa, professor 251 academic circles in 65, 66–7, 92, 95; Virolainen, Johannes, agrarian 253, universities 184 262, 277 Tyynila¨, Markku, historian 84 Vladimirov, Viktor, KGB agent 251 Voionmaa, Vaïno¨ , social democrat 171 Union of Kalmar 11, 13, 18, 26, 28 Voroshilov, Klimenti, commander of the United Nations 239, 240 Soviet armed forces 210, 231 United States: Finnish emigrants in 22, 145, 188, 322; and Finland 224, 227, Walden, Rudolf, industrialist, minister 228, 230, 233–4, 238–9, 240, 249, of defence 220 258, 259 Walleen, Carl, chief law officer, 90 university: in Turku 38, 45, 59–61, Wallenius, Kurt, Lapua leader 62, 88, 89, 91, 92; transferred to 179, 190 Helsinki 80; Imperial Alexander war veterans’ organisations 218 university 86, 89, 95, 102, 106, 133; war-guilt trials 194, 228, 234, 248 and the issue of finnicisation 166, Weissenberg, Alexander von, chief law 169, 184–5 officer 127 Uppland 18, 19 Weizsa¨cker, Ernst von, state-secretary of Uppsala, archbishopric 6 the German foreign ministry 219

Index 343

Westermarck committee on agriculture Wright, Viktor von, manfacturer and 296–7 reformer 135 western Finland 4, 23, 24, 40, 43, Wuolijoki, Va¨ino¨ , social democrat 156 56, 59 White Sea 1, 3, 21, 188, 224 Yartsev, Boris, Soviet diplomatic agent Wickman, Albin, politician 229 204–5 Wikman, K. R., ethnographer 133 Ylikangas, Heikki, historian 58 wilderness (era¨maa) 20–1, 21–3, 97 Young Finn party 138, 150, 151, 316 Winterton, Paul, British journalist Yrjo¨ -Koskinen, Aarne, diplomat 203 233–4 Witting, Rolf, foreign minister 221, Zakrevsky, Arseny, governor-general 85 224, 227 Zhdanov, Andrey, chairman of allied women in public life 284 control commission 232–3, 237, Workers’ and Small Farmers’ Socialist 238, 243 Union (TPSL) 253, 262 Zilliacus, Konni, journalist 141 Wrede, Rabbe, senator 147, 170 Zschokke, Heinrich, German author 96