Language Paper Two Knowledge Organiser
Paper 2 Overview: Language Diversity and Change
A. Language Diversity B. Language Change (Variation)
Major areas 1. History 1. Gender 2. World Englishes 2. Regional variation (accents and dialects) 3. Ethnicity 4. Occupation
May form part of a question 5. Age 6. Sexuality
How is it Section A - Diversity Section B - Language Discourses assessed? and Change
Written exam: 2 Q 1 or 2 (AO1, AO2) Q3 (AO1, AO3) Q4 (AO2, AO5) hours 30 One question from a Read two texts A directed writing minutes choice of two: about a topic linked task (e.g. an opinion Answer 3 Either: to the study of article) linked to the questions an evaluative essay diversity and same topic and the 100 marks on language change. ideas in the texts (30 diversity (30 marks) marks) 40% of entire A- Write an analysis of or: level how the texts use an evaluative essay language to present on language change ideas, attitudes and (30 marks) opinions about the
language topic (40 marks)
Language Paper Two Knowledge Organiser
Topic Theory/Studies/History Language Examples/Terminology Gender Theory: “Empty” adjectives (Lakoff) - Charming, sweet, Deficit (esp. Lakoff) adorable Dominance (esp. Spender and Affective Tag Questions (Holmes) - ‘we have Coates) never liked musicals, have we?’ Difference (esp. Tannen) Commands (Goodwin) - ‘give it to me man’ Dynamic (esp. Cameron) Lexical Asymmetry (Spender) - Buddy/Sissy, Performativity (Butler) Bachelor/Spinster
Man-Made Language (Spender) Hedges Studies: Super-politeness Cheshire (1982) – grammatical Expletives variations in the speech of young Hyper-correct grammar children Minimal response Coates (1996) – competition Proposals De Francisco (1991) – sounds of Topic control silence Back-channel behaviour Fishman, P (1980) – Conversational shitwork (Pamela Fishman) conversational shitwork Vocal fry Goodwin, M (1988) - playground High rise intonation/uptalk Holmes, J. (1984) – tag questions Use of ‘like’ Hyde, J (2005) – meta-analysis Diminutive suffixes - poetess O’Barr and Atkins (1980) - Marked terms courtroom Swann, (1989) - classroom Zimmerman and West (1975) – Interruptions
Rep: Baker 2013, Thelwall 2007
Language Paper Two Knowledge Organiser
Topic Theory/Studies/History Language Examples/Terminology Accent, Giles: Communication Lexical variations in regional accents - Dialect and Accommodation Theory; capital Cob/Bap/Breadcake/Bun Social Class punishment study (‘matched Grammatical variations in regional accents - It guise’) were, two mile, I come home Milroy: Social Network Theory Phonological Variation - Short/Long a sounds – (Belfast); dialect levelling bath, grass Cheshire: Sociolect (Reading) Accent / dialect Bernstein: restricted/elaborate Received Pronunciation code Standard English Labov: Martha’s Vineyard; Non-standard English Department Store (New York) Convergence (upwards, downwards, mutual) Trudgill: non-standard forms and Divergence (upwards, downwards, mutual) social class (Norwich) Overt prestige Petyt: social mobility (Bradford) Covert prestige Dixon, Mahoney and Cocks: Dialect levelling attitudes to accent (Birmingham) Code-switching Kerswill: dialect levelling Koine Foulkes and Docherty: Estuary English standardisation Examples of changes to dialects over time Watson: Liverpool English (including dialect levelling) Hamer: Liverpool English Causes of spread/change of accent/dialect
Topic Theory/Studies/History Language Examples/Terminology Occupation Theory Restricted Occupational Lexis – e.g. Habeas Discourse Community – Swales, Corpus, Prima facie in law Inferential Frameworks - Drew Face Threatening Acts (Grainger)“Put your arm and Heritage in” Politeness Strategies - Brown and Discourse Structure - Teacher reports, News Levinson items Instrumental and Inferential Jargon – e.g. vice, prototype, casting in Power – Fairclough mechanical engineering Phatic Talk – Koester Asymmetry Convergence Studies Divergence Grainger – Care Homes Overt Prestige Swann – Classrooms Covert Prestige O’Barr and Atkins – Courtrooms Imperatives Labov – Department stores, Hultgren – Call centres Hall – Sex line workers
Language Paper Two Knowledge Organiser
Topic Theory/Studies/History Language Examples/Terminology Age Theory Lexical Variation - Blud, tief, dench, beef Different views of age: Grammatical Variation - multiple negation chronological, biological, social (Martinez/Strenstrom) - “I ain’t never going to (Berland, Cheshire, Bigham) go” Sociolinguistic maturation Phonological Variation - Uptalk/HRI (Kerswill)
Studies Key influences on teenage speech Key features of teenspeak (Strenstrom, Strenstrom et al, Berland, Ives, Odato, Eckert, Martinez)
Contemporary shifts in social media
Topic Theory/Studies/History Language Examples/Terminology Ethnicity The history of pidgin and creole Key features of MLE: Alternative terms used for MLE Indefinite pronoun: man dem, Influences on the creation of MLE This is me as a quotative An end to h-dropping Studies Why…. for? question frame Sebba (1984,) – London Jamaican exaggerated dipthongs: coat Edwards (1987) – Dudley/Patois vocabulary: bare, beef Fox (2007) - MLE Innit as tag question Kerswill and Cheshire (2010) – MLE Key features of Black English: Sharma and Sankaran (2011) – Dentals - den Asian English Vowels - run as ron Pitts(2012) – Resistance Identity third person singular present tense verbs - John swim fast plurals - six car first person singular pronoun - me feel happy Lexical Variation (Caribbean Creole) Peelhead, brassface, bloodclart, Grammatical Variation (MLE) ‘Why you… for?” question frame Phonological Variation (MLE) House, Home (no h-dropping) Code-switching Pidgin Creole
Language Paper Two Knowledge Organiser
Topic Theory/Studies/History Language Examples/Terminology Sexuality Key moments in LGBT history Lexical Variation (Polari) Riah – hair, homee – (e.g. decriminalisation in 1967) man, Phonological Variation (Gaudio) (e.g. sibilance Studies elongated vowels, vocal fry) (Lakoff, Kiesling, Cameron, Hegemonic masculinity Barrett, Gaudio, Pierrehumbert Heteronormative et al, Leap)
Halliday and anti-languages
Case study of Polari
Topic Theory/Studies/History Language Examples/Terminology Social Theory Lexical Variation Groups Social Network – Milroy Familect - Hoofer-doofer, buttons Communities of Practice – Gamers - Fragged, Noob Wenger Grammatical Variation Familect – Powney Bucholtz – nerds - It’s my observation (I think) Sociolect Studies Communities of practice Eckert – Jocks and Burnouts Cheshire – Reading Bucholtz – Whiteness of nerds Milroy – Belfast
Thornborrow – language and identity
Language Paper Two Knowledge Organiser
Topic Theory/Studies/History Language Examples/Terminology Change History of Change Lexical Change Reasons for Change Borrowing - Album (Latin for White), Alligator (Spanish for The Lizard) Theory: Neologism - Muggle (From Harry Potter) Ease of Articulation Back formation - To beg (from beggar), Confess, (From Neatening or Regularisation confession) Standardisation (Haugen) Semantic Change Informality (Fairclough) Narrowing - Wife (not all women) Lexical Gaps Broadening - Holiday (not just a holy day) Substratum Theory (Labov) Pejoration - Cowboy (now used for builders) Random Fluctuation (Hockett, Amelioration - Pretty (formerly sly or cunning) Plotkin) Phonological Change Functional Theory Spread of the glottal stop from Estuary English (bu’er) S-curve theory of change (Chen) Grammatical Change Wave theory of change (Bailey) Object/Subject difference – cwen, cwene, Regularisation of plurals – shoen – shoes Attitudes to Language: Prescriptivism (e.g. Truss, Heffer, Case studies of linguistic reform (e.g. queer, nigger, slut) Lowth, Humphreys), descriptivism, Aitchison’s metaphors, Mackinnon’s Language Change terminology: explanation of views of language, Acronym Declinism and Sticklerism (Lane Affixation Greene), Complaint tradition Amelioration (Milroy) Back-formation Blending Political Correctness: Borrowing Supporters (Spender) Broadening Linguistic critics (Cameron, Clipping Fairclough) Compounding Political critics (Orwell, Hitchens) Conversion Determinism (Sapir-Whorf), Eponym Reflectionism Euphemism Euphemism treadmill (Pinker), Initialism Semantic reclamation (e.g Metaphor Galinksy – Queer) Narrowing Neologism Pejoration Weakening
Language Paper Two Knowledge Organiser
Topic Theory/Studies/History Language Examples/Terminology World Models of English – Kachru, English Strevens, McArthur, Schneider. Lexical Variation - Washroom (Canadian), Bathroom (British), Restroom (American) Future of English: Graddol, Grammatical Variation - I’m loving it (Indian Crystal McArthur, Ostler, English) Saraceni Phonological Variation - Indian English – syllable- timed, British English – stress-timed; Canadian Phillipson and Linguistic English – aboot. Imperialism Spelling - Colour (British and Canadian English) Color (American English). Criticise (British English as a Lingua Franca English). Criticize (American and Canadian (Jenkins) English)
History of English’s spread around the world (esp. colonialization)
Role of American and British English