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A Comparative Study of the Evolution of Prestige Formations and of Speakers’ Attitudes in Occitan and Catalan A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2010 Aurélie Joubert School of Languages, Linguistics and Cultures LIST OF CONTENTS List of figures……………………………………………………………………………6 Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….7 Declaration………………………………………………………………………………8 Copyright statement…………………..…………………………..……………………..9 Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………….10 CHAPTER ONE: Introduction: Two sister languages with opposite destinies……..…14 1.1 General introduction………..……………………………….………….14 1.2 Aims………………………..……………………………..…………….17 1.3 Sociolinguistic perspective…………………………….…………….. 18 1.4 Research questions and research hypothesis…………….……………20 1.5 Outline of chapters………………..…………………….………………20 CHAPTER TWO: Historical background: two languages with parallel external developments………………………………………………...…………………………23 2.1 Emancipation from the Latin model and prestigious literature (11 th - 15 th centuries)…………………………………...………………………………23 2.2 Gradual minoritisation (15 th - 19 th centuries)…………..………………25 2.3 The revitalisation period (19 th - 20 th century)………...…………………28 2.4 Recent dissimilarity (post 1978)………………………………………..30 2.5 Conclusion…………………………...…………………………………33 CHAPTER THREE: Conceptual framework: Interlacing micro and macro- phenomena………………………………………………………………………….34 3.1 Attitudes………………………………………………………………...35 3.1.1 Definitions…………………..….………………………………35 3.1.1.1 The cognitive aspect…….……………………………..36 3.1.1.2 The affective aspect………….…………………………38 3.1.1.3 The conative aspect…………………………………….40 3.1.2 Habitus……………………….…………………………………42 3.1.3 Attitudes and ideologies………….…………………………….44 3.1.4 Instrumental and integrative attitudes…………………………..47 3.1.5 Attitude variation and change………….……………………….52 3.2 Prestige………………………………………………………………….54 3.2.1 Prestige and the standard form…………………………………55 3.2.2 High and Low prestige…………………………………………58 3.2.3 Overt and covert prestige………………………………………63 3.2.4 Prestige as an ideology: language authority and language authenticity………………………………………………..………….66 3.2.5 Contextualisation of prestige…….…..………………….……72 3.2.6 Prestige variation and change………………….……………..74 2 CHAPTER FOUR: Methodological background: Between past and present representations of sociolinguistic groupings……………………………………...……79 4.1 Comparing Catalan and Occitan………….…………………………….79 4.1.1 Comparison or contrast………………………………………...79 4.1.2 Qualitative methods…………………………………………….81 4.1.3 Analysis of subjectivity………….……………………………..83 4.2 Two-fold analysis: the micro and the macro- level…….………………85 4.2.1 Interdependence between micro-and macro……..……………..85 4.2.2 Multidisciplinarity………………………….…………………..87 4.2.3Macro-sociolinguistics or micro-sociology of language….…….90 4.3 Combining synchrony and diachrony………………………………….92 4.3.1 Synchrony: interviews and Critical Discourse Analysis ………93 4.3.2 The diachronic perspective……………………………………..96 4.3.3 A dynamic approach……………………………………………98 CHAPTER FIVE: Analysis of grammaticographical texts………………………...99 5.1 Introduction to the analysis of grammaticographical texts……………100 5.2 Analysis of grammaticographical texts……………………………….102 5.2.1 Razos de trobar (Raimon Vidal, 1190-1213)…………………102 5.2.2 Leys d’Amor (Guilhem Molinier, 1356)………………………106 5.2.3 Gramàtica de llengua cathalana (Josep Pau Ballot, 1813)…...112 5.2.4 Gramática de la lengua catalana (Tomàs Forteza, 1915)…….116 5.2.5 Gramática de la lengua catalana (Pompeu Fabra, 1912)…….122 5.2.6 Gramatica Occitana segons los parlars lengadocians (Louis Alibert, 1935-1937)…………………………………………………128 5.3 Conclusion……………...…..………………………………………….137 CHAPTER SIX: Synchronic analysis…………………………………………….140 6.1 Data collection: ethnographic approach and semi-structured interviews 6.1.1 Fieldwork information………..………………………………141 6.1.2 Recruitment of informants………..…………………………..141 6.1.3 Interviews……………………………...……………………...142 6.1.4 Transcription of interviews…………….……………………142 6.1.5 Ethical issues……………………………..…………………...142 6.2 Data presentation and analysis………………………………….……143 6.2.1 Relation between language domains and language symbolisation…………………….………………………...………..143 6.2.1.1 Language as a marker of the community…………..….143 6.2.1.2 Low variety and language stigma……………………148 6.2.1.3 Raising language value: impact of militancy………..154 3 6.2.2 Relation between ideologies and attitudes…………………..160 6.2.2.1 Utility of languages: closeness vs. openness of regionality……………………………………………….…….160 6.2.2.2 Language authenticity and the challenge of second language speakers……………….…………………….165 6.2.2.3 Beyond dichotomies......................................................171 6.2.3 Interaction between prestige and attitudes…………………….176 6.2.3.1 Factors of prestige variation……..……………………176 6.2.3.2 Communities of practice………………………………180 6.2.3.3 Fragmentation of prestige……………………………186 6.2.3.4 Conflict of prestiges…………………………………..193 6.3 Data interpretation and discussion…………………………………….202 6.3.1 Similarities and differences between Occitan and Catalan………………………………………………………...202 6.3.2 Towards an interactive model of language prestige and attitudes……………………………………………………….204 CHAPTER SEVEN: Patterns of evolution of language prestige and language attitudes……………………………………………………………………………206 7.1 Limits to the loss or recovery of prestige…………..…………………207 7.1.1 Contextualisation of prestige…………...……………..207 7.1.2 Identity relations………………………………………208 7.1.3 Habitus and linguistic conscience……………………..209 7.1.4 Transnational influences……………..………………..211 7.2 The direction of change……………………………………………….212 7.2.1 Planned change: authority-building processes……….212 7.2.2 Unplanned change: individual preferences and social networks………………………………………………213 7.2.3 A question of legitimisation…………………………214 7.3 Language choice……………………...………………………………215 7.3.1 From personal to communal choices…….………….215 7.3.2 Choice of identity and plurilingual frame…….……..216 CHAPTER EIGHT: General conclusions………...………………………………219 8.1 Towards a theorisation of the concepts of language prestige and language attitudes ……………………………………………………………………………219 8.2 The comparison between Occitan and Catalan and the influence of the nation states………………………………………………………………221 8.3 The transnational era………………….……………………………..223 8.4 Final remarks…………………...…………………………………….225 8.5 Further research……………….…………………….………………225 4 REFERENCES……………………………………….……………………………….227 APPENDIX 1: Poem from a Troubadour……………………………………………..248 APPENDIX 2: ‘Voluntariat per la llengua’ Catalan language exchange scheme…….249 APPENDIX 3: ‘Volontariat per aranès’ Occitan language exchange scheme………..250 APPENDIX 4: Picture taken during fieldwork representing the commodification of Occitan………………………………………..……………………………………….251 APPENDIX 5: Interview structure……………………………………………………252 APPENDIX 6: Consent form…………………………………………………………254 APPENDIX 7: Transcription conventions………………………………………….255 APPENDIX 8: Interview transcripts…………………...……………………………..257 Word count: 89003 (with permission granted to exceed the word limit due to the non- translated data which counts 11 588 words) 5 List of Figures Figure 1: The relation between agent power and language choice…………..…………44 Figure 2: Diglossic division of prestige and attitudes…………………….……………65 Figure 3: Interaction of micro and macro-levels in prestige change……….…………..77 Figure 4: Model of the inter-influence of prestige and attitudes….……………………78 Figure 5: The inter-influence of power-based prestige and domain-based prestige…205 6 Abstract This thesis explores the nature and the mechanisms of change of language prestige and language attitudes in two neighbouring Romance languages: Occitan and Catalan. The concepts of language attitudes and language prestige call for a multidisciplinary approach which brings different facets to the analysis: social psychology allows the exploration of the relation between individuals and group identity, historical sociolinguistics sheds light on the evolution of the two minority languages and sociology reveals itself useful for the evaluation of the symbolisation of the non- national languages within a societal environment. The emphasis on the multidisciplinary aspect enables the author to depict the interaction between the formation of language prestige and the regulation of language attitudes. An important rationale in this thesis is the search for an understanding of the patterns of change in prestige representations. Prestige and attitudes are generally interpreted as static and given entities but a diachronic overview of the external history of Catalan and Occitan portrays signs of variance and evolution in their respective prestige descriptions. Indeed, Occitan and Catalan after being considered respectable early Romance codes have both gradually become marginalised by the political control of a nation-state associated with another Romance language. This study offers an in-depth analysis of the diachronic changes in language prestige and language attitudes by scrutinising the values attributed to Occitan and Catalan in selected grammars from different periods: from the early grammar traditions of the 12 th century to the more recent standardising grammars of the 20 th century. The data collected in semi-structured interviews with Occitan and Catalan speakers and processed with the method of Critical Discourse Analysis provides a synchronic perspective on the language situations. The combination of diachronic and synchronic analyses of language representations constitutes
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