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Grazer Linguistische Studien 89 (Frühjahr 2018); . 89- 110. 0 0 1:10.25364/04.45:2018.89.5 and shift in a Malaysian Hakka family'

Ralf Vollmann & Tek Wooi Soon

University oJGraz , Institute oJ Linguisti ; ralfvollmann@uni-gra .at

Abs tract. Background.In multiethnic and mul tilingual , four sta n­ dardized (Malay, English, inese, Tami l) and a number of spo ken languages (.. Hakka, Bahasa Pasar , Malaysian Eng lish) serve pluriglossic purposes. Today, Standard ( ian) is used by ethnic Chinese not only at th e acrolectal, but also at th e me­ solectal (inter-gro up communication) and basilectal level (fa mily, friends). Studies have obse rved age shift of th e family lan gu age fro m a sma ller Chinese lan gu age to Malays ian Ma nda rin. Ma teria l & method. This study investi gat es th e lan gu age use in one Hakka family livin g in Peninsul ar Malays ia (KL, Penan g) and mainland ­ na. Spec ific lies on Hakka as th e famil y lan guage and its in ter­ generational development. Ana lysis. All family mem ber s are multi­ lingu al, th e older and middle ge ne ra tions use va rious lan gu ages be ­ side th eir family lan gu age, Hakka. The middle-aged spea ke rs cons i­ der th eir ow n Hakka 'impure'; code-s witching and multilingu al con­ ver ons are a regu lar occ ur rence. Int ereth nic marriages and school educa tion make the most suitable lan gu age for corn muni­ cation even in the famil y. Thus, Hakka is no lon ger actively acquired by th e ungest family mem bers. Conclusions. Hakk a is viewe as the fami ly langu age and still wid ely used, but its position is substan­ tially weake ne d in th e youngest ge nera tion.

Keywords. Hakka, Malaysia, ority lan gu age, multilingu alism , lan gu age loss

TI1e autho rs want to th ank Dörte Borch ers for comme nts on an earlier version of th is pap er. 90 Ralf Vollmann & Tek Wooi 500n

1. Background

1.1. The linguistic situation in Malaysian Chi­ nese

Malaysia is a multi-ethnic soc iety ith man y lan gu ages (Asmah 1992; Vikar 2004). Mal ay (Ml.) is the nationallan guage, En glish (EN), (IvlC), and Tamil are also used in th e media. Ther e are mor e spo ke n lan gu ages (er. Vollmann & Soon 20 18); th e ethnic Chinese usually spea South Chines e lan gu ages/: peop le will also use Malaysia n English ("Ma ng lish", ME) and Bahasa Pasar (BP), creolized forms of the respective lexifier languages . All speake rs are mul ­ tilin gual and choose their guisti resou rces in depend ence of th e situa tion and com munica tion partner s. Amo ng th e va rious ethnic Chines e lingui sti c groups, th e Min (Ho kkien, HO ), (Can to nese, CT), and Kejia (Ha kka , HK) spea­ kin g comm unities are th e most numerous in Malaysia (er. Platt 1977: 365). 111e speake rs of Teochew (TC), Taish an , ese, and othe rs form sma ller groups. When differ ent Ch inese sub-groups meet , a red lan gu age is need ed for com munication. 111is problem has tra­ dit ion all y been so lve d throu gh multilingu al com pe tence , but in recent tim es, Mandarin is reported to pr ogr essively taking thi s role, eve n in th e famil y dom ain, e.g. in (er. Ting & Cha ng 2008).

1.2. Hakk a

111 e Hakkas (t: ~ Keji ä), rep ortedly coming from th e North of Ch i­ na, ttle d in South gxi, West ern Min (), or Eastern Gu an g­ dong. Their lan gu age is close to the (Sagart 2002) and has converg ed w ith Guangdo ng varieties. Fro m her e, man y Hakk as migr ated to South and South- Eas t Asia, , and othe places such as Sur ina me (er. Leo 20 15). In Peninsu lar Malaysia, th e Hakka speech co mmunity is concen­ tr at ed in , Kajan g, Serdang (Seri Kemban gan ), along th e road to Titi Jelebu, sin g (near ), also in Bukit Mertajam These lan gu ages or Chinese dialects (7J 1; fängyan ) are not n1U ­ tu ally under st andabl e; non et heless, th ey are viewe d as bein g (ix.). Multilingualism and lan guage shift 91 and Balik Pulau (Pen an g). In , Hakk a is the largest Chinese sub-g roup (with 160.000 spea kers), conce ntra ted in Kuching (Ting & Cha ng 2008). In , Hakka even serves as lingu a [ra nca (Leo 2015: 76).

1.3. Standard and non-standard languages

In modern societies , it is mandatory for educa tiona l and eco nomic success to gain access to an elabora ted and reliable lingui sti c (cf. Maas 2008, 2010). Usually, a "language" is recogni zed as such through a pr ocess of standardization and pr opagati on of a cano nical and elabora ted form . All deviation from thi s cano nical form is then called a "", In a mod ern society, dialects turn into sociolects re­ pr esenting a sma ller identity beside the wid er identity represented by lan guage. In traditi on al societies, the written stan­ dard lan guage is distant to all (or most) spo ken vari eties, used on ly by few wr iters (clergy , officials), and ther efore does not influ en ce th e spoke n lan guages very much; the spea kers will simply ada pt to corn­ municative needs by learning othe r varieties, but will usu ally be ex­ cluded fro m the acrolectal level. A modern standardized spoken lan guage in combi na tio n with schoo l educa tion leads to widesprea d bilingu alism (standard/d ialec t), access to acrolectal uses and writte n inform at ion , and will gra dually take over functions of the spoken varieties, fro m acrolectal to meso­ lectal levels. Spoken varie ties will be influ en ced by th e standard lan ­ guage and undergo dialect levellin g; their usage will be confined to a basilectallevel. In the case of plur icentric lan guages, alterna tive stan­ dard s may develop. In the case of Chinese, the writing sys tem pr ovides lingui sti c unity since long. With the definition of modern Spoken and Written in the 20th century (* 1& 11; p ütonghu« ' the com­ mon lan guage'; Mand arin Chinese, MC), a pow erful new lingui stic resource becam e ava ilable through schoo l to the spea ke rs of the various Chinese dialects and was readil y adop ted also in Ma­ laysia. The substra tic linguistic situa tion has influ en ced the stan dard lan guage (Malays ian Mand arin, IvlM), but w ill also weaken the posi­ tion of the spoken Chinese va rieties. 92 Ralf Vollmann & Tek W ooi Soo n

While lan gu ages such as Hakk a may be considered abstand lan­ guages, i.e., varieties too distant to th e standard lan gu age to be con­ sidered a dialect, Chinese identity is inclusive of these spea kers.

1.4. Chinese identities

For ethnic Chinese , identity is construe d as famil y member s (ances ­ tor worship , tradition al famil y structure) , as people spea king a 'dia­ leer (e.g., Hakka) and bein g descend ants of a coun ty (e.g., Dabu, in the pr ovin ce Gua ng do ng/Canton ), as Chinese Ux.. ,Han ), and as state citizens of a country (Malays ian) - whi ch is summed up as " ". In Malaysi a, it is a pr actical necessit y (and pr esti gious ) to speak languages in addit ion to the one spoken by the group one identifies with, i.e. othe r Chinese dialects, Mandarin Chinese, and English). The Chinese dialects are neit her dialects in the Euro pea n se nse (as a geographica l ph en om en on ) nor sociolects on a social scale (as in urb an lan guage resear ch); th ey are based on th e family lineage, ancestry. The (outside of ) is (ofte n) different from wha t has been disc ussed for Wes tern cultures in that ethnic identity (race) is mor e imp ortant tha n language, religion , or culture (cf. Clam­ mer 1982); th er e are "ethnic Chinese" peo ple who do not speak Chi­ nese' or who speak a "Chinese dialec t" which is not un derstan dable by other Chi nese peopl e, but they all adhe re to the eth nic group of Chinese, feeling related to Chinese culture. Identity for Malays ian citizens with Chinese background is th e­ refore layer ed. Spea kinglreading Mandarin refer s to their Chinese ­ ness, speaking/understanding is a useful resource (in Kua­ la Lumpur; but also with ( kong) dram a series, movi es, music, new s, wri tten texts). Spea king Hakk a (0 1' any other Sout hern Chinese lan guage) refer s to a patri mony/ki nship lregional identi ty. Other lan­ guages are acquired if necessary. In gene ral, ethnic Chinese have a pr agm atic approach to languages (Platt 1977: 373).

1.5. The Chinese

TI1e Chinese writing system is usually only used for Mandarin Chi ­ nese, not for , e.g., Hakk a (in Malays ia). Due to Hongkong using Can­ tonese in media, the lan guage user s may read ar ticles or new s writ- Multilingualism and 93 ten in Cantonese. The same Chinese cha rac ters can be used for diffe­ rent langu ages and then be spelled differentl y; for example a sign­ board for a shop can be written in Chinese as f.& Vff, (MC yua n), but a Hokki en owner will put the English 01' Malay transl ati on as 'Hock Guan', a Cantones e owner will put it as 'Fook Yun', wh ereas a Hakk a owner will put it as 'Fook Yen'. For some lexemes, a different cha­ racter has to be used. Hakk a can be written, too; the followin g tw o sentences from our Hakk a data are rendered in Chinese cha racters, with a Mandarin translation (Hakka and Chines e below): (01) Writing a non- stan dard variety (Hakka) in Chinese script (a) Similar and writing

HK: 'Jt ;.z1t 1t ~f i#- :Y)(;ilf ~ ~ <$J 0 v;.z1t ~ iJi. :Y)(A1t ~ ~ MC: PJr « T 0 HK: S031rhi" ngi" an" rhong" " jiu" hau" fugScab' 1;} 24. MC: ö yf me shuö jiu hen fu za le. gloss: so such say then very complicated 1J you say so, thus it becomes very complicated. () Only little similarity (TR IOl 148) HK: 1t:~ ~ f. \8 4t 1§. 9EAm~ ~ ~ "ItT , MC: v;.z ilif 1~ {fl :if l \ k m G ~~ f.. HK: e5Sge" moi" coi" kiu'" giIldeu24nginl1 qiSSga24 iab2eSSaSS, ... MC: Na m ei ca i qia n tä men zi yä n a gloss: the CLF prsvd.veg. prev.ly 3-PL-people self prsv. REL PTC The preserved vegetables that the people made Oll their 0 \\111,. .. (c) Free tran slation of (b) int o IvlC IvlC: Yiqia n t äm en d öu zijI yän m ei ca i, before 3-PL all be self pickle prsvd.veg. In (a), regul ar phon ological inp ut-switcli rules (cf. Dressler 1984) allow to wri te the same for different spellings ; th e different words require different written characters. In (b), for instance, --} (MC gd) is used for CLF ge and REL e55; A (MC ) represents th e Il same meaning (man/people'), but in different pr onounciation (ng in ) 24n Il and funct ion (plura l marker deu gin ). Finally, only ift* (MC ) is used for the same word tmoi" cai5~ . A literal tran slation is pos­ sible with some minor differences (e.g., geSS CLF, xie CLF.PL) , but the Mandarin translation might bett er be rendered as in (c). 94 RalfVollmann & Tek Wooi 500n

2. Material & method

1her e are a number of studies on th e use (and possible decline) of th e use of Hakka in eth n ic Hakka- Chinese families in Mal aysia (cf. Platt 1977; Ku ang 2002; Ting & 2008; ng 2003a ,b ; Ting 2018). 1h is study describes one ex te nde d family (38 individuals, including deceased per sons), m ainly seate d in Ku al a Lumpur, and th eir multi­ lingual lin gu isti c co m pe te nce in relation to th eir Hakka identity. Th e in vesti gation assesses the lin guistic rep er toire and th e lin guistic en­ viro n me n ts of the family member s and th eir linguistic ac tivities in th e family an d outs ide , with special atte n tio n to th e linguis tic resour­ ces of th e yo unger generations, as we il as lan gu age att itudes of th e spe ake rs . Th e firs t ge n era tion (G I) of th e Hakka fami ly h ad mig ed fr om 24 Däbu (*...til] MC Dabu, HK tai" bU , Gu angd on g, Ch ina) to (near Kuala Lumpur) at the beginning of the 20th ce ntury; th e husband lat er returned to Dabu to build a h se for th e family member s th at had remained in Chi na . Gen er ation 2 (G2) w as born in Ma laya, but one so n w as se n t back to Dab u to rep air th e family' s hou se and was th en unabl e to return due to th e outbreak of WW2. th er efore m arried a w ife in Dabu an d returned to Malaya afte r the w ar , hi s w ife and tw o of th e three ch ildre n ' foll ow ed shortly a fte rwards . Ge ne ra tio n 3 (G3, 'grandparent ge ne ra tion ') were all born in Ch ina , but lived in Ma laysia m ost of their lives." G3 returned to Dabu fo r a visit in orde r to meet th eir rela tives." Gener ati on 4 (G4, 'paren ts ge ne ra tio n') liv es in KL, , an d one sis te r w ent to live abroad (Taipe i, Sha ngha i). Th e yo ungest family member s, ge ne ration S (GS, 'children ge ne ra tion'), are living in KL and in Shä ndö ng (C h i­ na). Curre n tly , th e family co ns ists of one m an and tw o w om en from (G3 ), S couples from (G4), and 10 youth and ch ildre n (GS). Th e fami ly m emb er s w er e observed and as ked abou t th eir lan­ guage use in 2017 on va rious occasions in KL and other places , and so me times via internet co m nica tion. Some family members of G3,

Th e visa applica tio n took so much time, that ano the r ch ild w as born in th e m eantime; one visa sho rt, th e eldest daughter had to stay in Ch ina . With th e excep tio n of th e one daugh ter in Ch ina. HK ZO hiong ha 'retu r n to horn eland') Mullilinguali sm and langu age shift 95

G4, and partly? G5 provid ed exte ns ive informati on both abo ut ea rlier tim es and th eir cur re nt lan gu age use; some of th ese conversations have been recorded ; not all family member s have bee n as ke d ex te n­ sively; instead , few peopl e provid ed mor e informa tio n abo ut the rn ­ selves and th eir relati ves. Inform ation abo ut deceased family mern ­ ber s we re included throu gh rep orts. Since th e assessme n t of multilin­ gua l compe te nce is rather subjective , thi s ana lysis gives a alitati ve description with examples retrieved during conversations .

3. Analysis

3.1. General description

The oldes t famil y members alive at th is point are (G3) one br other and tw o siste rs (2 in KL, one in Dabu). G4 are five so ns and two da ug h ters, w ith th eir resp ecti ve w ives/husban . All seven chi ldre n (G4) we re born in KL.G1-G4 are all pr oficient HK speake rs w ho learned HK as , but also learned , to va ry ing degr ees, IviC at school. G4 are now between 30 and 55 years old. The fam ily is struc tured in a tradition al way, w he re th e so ns (G4) live under one roof with th eir fathe r (G3). The men (G4) pursu e th eir own bus inesses or jo bs, but also coo pe ra te in many res pects. The fami lies of th e (G4) wome n live in modern small families outside of suc h tradition al settings . The father (G3) often stays in a coun tr y hou se and is visited th er e on weeke nds by th e family members. In G4, all marriages but one we re with non-Hakka pe rso ns . The spo use's mother ton gu es (G4) are ese, Iban, CT, and one person has a Taish an/Hakka background "w ith a accent" (i.e., influen ced by a HO and TC env iro nme nt in Bukit Me rtajam) . The non -Chiriese spo uses (and some of th eir re latives) learned IviC , not HK. The couples th us sp eak MC, not HK, w ith eac h othe r. . In G5 (10 per son s, age d 4-26), only th e eIde r yo uth (3 per son s) grew up pr ed ominantly with Hakka. All othe r chi ldre n/yout h are cons ide re d speake rs of IviC by th e family . The childre n do not see m to pick up Vietnamese 0 1' Iban .

The smal ler chi ldre n (G5) we re not "inte rv iewed". 96 Ralf Vollmann & Tek Wooi Soon

3.2. Linguistic repertoire of the family mem­ bers

GI (great-grea t-gra n dpa re n ts): 111e man was a co ns truction co n tr ac­ to r in Kuala Lumpur, he spoke Hakka an d also at least BP (i.e., not Sta ndard Ma lay) in or de r to deal w ith th e local people. 111e woman was a hou sewife and spo ke only Hakka. (02) Repor t from G3 uncle on G I wife a24ne3 1 mar' " vun' Idu" m" sid', " ga" garn" C024 aun t Malay even NEG know self dare sit f024 ca" hi" dau" bin" sang " train go DES Penang Grandma did not cvcn undcrsland Malay, but she dared 10 take a train 10 Penang alone. G2 (great-gra ndpare n ts) w er e living and doing bu siness in Seta pa k w here man y TC people resid ed . For bu siness pur pose, th e man also spoke TC and most probably CT and HO. 111e woman was a hou se­ wife, she co uld speak HK, CT , and a little bit of BP. 111e G3 man (gra ndfathe r) learned Ch inese and Eng lish in school. He took over th e busi ne from G2 and lived wi th Teoch ew people , was th us able to speak Te. He also kn ows CT, HO and BP. 7 111e G3 woman (gra nd the r) spo ke HK, CT and ~v1M. Al tho ugh she was helpin g in th e co m pa ny, she did not pick up HO. Ano the r G3 w orn an (siste r) learned IvlC and EN at school; she was also hel th e brother w ith th e fami ly business and spoke H K, CT an d MlvLSTh e G3 sister back in Da bu speaks only HK and Me. G4 (pa re n ts) curre ntly co ns ists of eigh t peopl e in th e family hou se (two died ): five br other s, tw o siste rs, one co us in. All peopl e of G4 have learned IvlC , EN anel Ml, at school, are proficient HK spea­ ker s, and all communicat e in CT , BP and ME. All men had to travel to differ ent sta tes in Peninsul ar Malaysi a and to Singapo re for bu si­ ness, wher e th ey cked up HO ; tw o brothers learned so me 111ai w h ile do ing bu siness in th e north. 111e G4 co us in (mo the r tongu e

Ch inese speake rs will ofte n not distinguish between BP and ML, what th ey are using is rather BP. 111e wornen fro m older generations kn ow fewer lan gu ages. For ins ta nce, a G3 siste r fro m th e mother lin eage (no t co nside red her e) speaks on ly HK and little MM . Mu ltilingu alisrn and language shift 97

HK) originally came from Bukit Mertajam wher e HO is also widely spoken ; he also sp eaks CT. TI1e two G4 women did not pick up HO in spite of working in th e famil y business, becau se th e sho p was situa ted in a HK and CT speaking area. On e wom an lat er studie d in Taiwan where Min-Nan (Hokkien) is widely spo ke n; when she th en moved to Taiping and Pen an g wher e HO is th e main lan gu age, she picked up th e lan gu age and is th er efor e able to under st and HO to a certa in ex tent. She do es not usu ally speak this lan gu age. While living in Shan gh for five years, she learned to under st and Sha ng ha inese. TI1e yo unge r dau ghter also moved to Pen an g at a lat er stage and th er eby picked up Hokkien passively . Amo ng th e wives (and ex-wives) of th e (G4) broth ers, onl y one is a Hakka woman who knows various languages as mention ed above. TI1 e othe r wives are from differ ent ethnic/ling uistic backgr ound. On e Vietn am ese wife learn ed MM and uses it regul arly, the othe r Viet na­ mes w ife kn ew EN and subse que ntly did not acquire mu ch in Ivle. On e wife is an Iban (speaking the Iban lan gu age) fro m a re-m ote area in Sarawak. She learned Ml, and EN at school; Like many Iban s, she learned Mlvl in orde r to work for Chinese peopl e. She com municates in IvlM w ith th e family and often uses BP. TI1e sbands and ex- hus bands of th e (G4) sisters are also not HK speake rs. On e speaks CT, Mivl, MLlBP, and Mf. ; th e othe r hu s ­ nd speaks CT, HO , Teoch ew , (little/late- lea r ned) IvlM, MLlBP, ME, and is cur re ntly learning (out of reli giou s inter est ). TI1e thi rd hu sband is a Hain anese speaker with compe te nce in HK, CT, HO , 1\1Ivl, ML, BP, and ME. Furthermore, th er e are tw o othe r male Iban spea ke rs in th e fa mi­ ly's house in Kuala Lumpur; beside Iban, thcy speak MLlBP, littl e ME, but also MM. Amo ng G5 (childre n), All iea rn(ed) MC, EN and ML at school. (a) TI1e eldes t three G5 were brou ght up pr edom in an tly in a HK-sp ea ­ kin g enviro nme nt both from father 's an d mother's side. TI1 ey are working in Kuala Lumpur (CT-s peaking area), having no need s to tr avel to any HO -speaking areas (i.e., th ey do not speak or under ­ sta nd HO ).(b) TI1e two middle-aged (youth) G5 who live in China wer e always br ou ght up in a Chinese-speaking envi ro nme nt by CT/ HK pa re nts not usin g these lan gu ages with th em . How ever , th ey have obviously picked up HK and CT passively. After learning MC, EN, ML at primar y school, th ey left to resid e in China at a yo ung age 98 Ralf Vollmann & Tek Wooi 500n and th er efor e rep ort not being able to rem ember ML. In China , th ey learn J\IIC and EN at school. They under stand Sha ng ha inese and pic ked up Weiha i dia lect. They ca n peak in th e style of (ME) and enjoy watehing Singapo rean and Ma laysian m ovies using ME. These childrcn pick up both th e linguisti c va ria tio n in Chi­ na and in Malaysia. (c) The five yo ung GS (children) communicate wi th th eir pa re nts in MM . The chi ldren of th e Iban mother may have picked up BP passively, as th eir mother uses BP ve ry often w ith her frie nds . W he n summ ing up th e lin guisti c rep ert oire of th e family mern ­ bers , we get an eve nly- spread distribution of lin guisti c compe te nce (table 03). (03) Lan gu age competence of 38 fam ily member s Lg. people 19. peopl e 19. people 19. peopl e HK 24 MM 34 CT 22 HO 13 T E 2 ML 25 BP 22 EN 249 In spite of ng a Hak ka fami ly, more family mem ber s kn ow Ma n­ dar in th an Ha kka (34:24 of 38), due to non -H akka famil y members.

3.3. Multilingual practices

The enumera tion of ma ny langua ges spo ke n by almost all famil y mcm ber s hid es th e fac t th at th ese lan gu ages are not all kn own to the sa me extent. W ha t ce rta inly helps learnin g langua ge s in Malaysia is th e high degree of gra mma tical converge nce of th ese lan gua ges, in­ cludi ng South Chinese lan gu ages, the Ma laysian form of Ma ndari n (MM) , Ma laysian English (ME), and Bah asa Pasar (BP). Lan gu age learning may pr ed ominantly mean ph onological and lexical ada pta­ tion .

(04) W ord-b y-w ord tr an slat ability of lan gu ages (HK, ME, 1\ll!vl) (a) Speaker L5M (G4) and tr an slati on s HK: aiss ngie!2 nga24 pen !' iU24 mai" " bu n'" ngai!' eSs. ME :'I11at day friend buy and give me one. MM : na tiän wo de pengy öu m äi lai gei wo de.

In th is coun t, th e children fro m 6;00 onwards have been consi­ der ed kn owl edgeabl e of Eng lish, as th ey learn Eng lish at school; of co urse, th e yo unger ones do not t kn ow mu ch . Multilinguali sm an d lan gu age shift 99

(b) Spe ake r YPK (G3) and tr an slation HK: ngai 11 ia2 4 m 11 di24 la24, Iv1E: I also don't kn ow lah, I also had no idea (c) Spe ake r MBW (G4) HK w ith ME tr an slati on HK: nga" rhi " se" se" jiu " bun " hoi" rh in " ga 24 my aun t.m sma ll-s ma ll th en give LE peopl e ME : Myaun t give to peopl e already when sh e is sma ll. gloss: nga" rhi " bun " rhin" ga 24 hoi" se" se" My au nt had been g iven to people, when slie \\'as sm all. Man y sentences are struc tur ally tran slatable word -by-word (a,b ­ HK/MM/ME), some seem to be more different (c - HK/ME); but we can see the indeclinability of the English tgive, is) and also their orientatio nal neutrality (aunt g ive :::: aunt was g iven), with 'al­ ready' as a fun ctional wo rd equivalent to perfective T (MC le; HK /h oi). The spea ke rs also follow a Chinese topi c-cornment struc­ ture in !vIE. As mentioned before, Mandarin has developed into a Ma­ laysian variant whi ch is recogni sable by othe r Chinese speakers, through spellings, lexical items, s, and style/s truc ture . 111e constant pr esen ce of vari ous lan gu ages leads to conversa­ tions that are often - or eve n mul tilingu al with frequ ent code­ switching. 111e conversa tions also reveal that the children (GS) hear Hakk a wo rds. (05) G4 to G3, loan w ords in Hakka ba" , ten" gong" ngid" ngai" " ngi" hi" Bu kit Bin tang dad, tomo rr ow I tak e you go Buki t Bint ang HK HK HK HK HK HKML sid' bu 'fei. ea t buffet Dad, tom orrow I take yo u to HK EN Buki t Binta ng to have bujje t. (06) G4 to GS, Ma ndarin , w ith kinship terms mostly in Hakka Qu jiao ni de fei bag' bag", da" da" , xiäo shüshu h e go ca ll yo ur fa t fa.eld.bro , gra ndfa. sma ll fa.yo. bro and Iv1C !,,1C NiC MC HK HK !v1C !viC sug' me" lai chi sa tay. fa.yo. bro .w ife co me eat sata y HK MC MCIv1L Go call yo urJat un cle (jather's elder broth er), grandpa, y oung est un cle (jo ther's yo ung er broth er) and aunt (jo ther's you/lge r brother's wije) to come to eat satay. 100 Ralf Vollmann & Tek Wooi 500 n

(07) G4 to G4, code-switching (CT , HK, HO) m ho y i si wo . ngai" g i n 2~ ngid " m " ded" han" ZO i55 ngi!'. I am sor ry PTC I tod ay not free drive yo u CT CT HK HK HK HK HK HK chiah ka-ki la. you eat self PTC F] F] F] F] I am sorry. Today I have 110 time to give you a lift . You take care 01 your O1\'n (transport). The compe tence in other Southe rn Chinese lan gu ages va ries, wi th TC and HO being least kn own, but a goo d com ma nd of CT by man y family member s. The men need to use other South Chinese lan gu a­ ges for bu sin ess purposes; th e wom en by and lar ge rep ort not urid er ­ standing othe r dialects suc h as HO ; but th ey also see m to kn ow "something", be it only fro m th e fact th at HO is an important in­ fluen ce on Bahasa Pasar which th ey can speak. In sho rt, th ese lan ­ guag es some how converge into a general communica tive co rn pe te n­ ce w he re word or lan gu age choice are basically pragma tically det er ­ mi ne d. Lan gu ages are picked up whe n necessar y, and ca n also be forgo tte n, whe n no lon ger need ed . Speake r (G3) reports he used to speak TC , but whe n he tries now , he ends up speaking HO: (08) Spea ke r (G3) on hi s co mpe tence 55 ll 55 m ' 1 rhid"ngion g" e , rhin/tvui " ngi e sh i"gierr" bierr' ma" n ot sa me-REL, becau se yo u-Rßl, time chang e-PTC. rh i'lqien " n g a 2 ~d eu 2 ~rhin ll 2 ~ m" ..., rh in 'Iga" nga'deu" in.the.past l-Pt -people all not, people I-PL tung!' cha u" zeu" rhin!' CU55, CU55 hoi" gieF d 0 2 ~ ngieri" : w ith Cha o.- pe ople live, live already so many year, gong " ch au Il z e u 2 ~ fa 5 5 e 5 5 ji u55 rh id" sien" g055. g i n 2~ ng a 5 5 gong " talk Teochew-Ig.-PTC jus t fluent. now speak cha u llzeu24fa 55 dU24 gong3ldau31 fug 2gien" faSS. m ' 1 hiau" Teochew-Ig. all spea k-DST Fujia n- Ig. not ca n gong " cha u' tzeur fa" . spea k Teochew-Iangua ge . (lt is) not the same as time can change. In the past, we didn't ... We peop/e lived with Teochew people, We lived so many years (wit]: Teo­ peop/e), talked Teochew j luent ly. Now (when I) speak Teochew, (I will) all speak [= mix it] Fujian. (I) cannot speak Teocliew (like I used to do). Multilingualism an d ianguage shift 101

3.4. Language choice

The standard Malay langu age, althoug h learned at schoo l, seems to be used only in rare, specific circumstances (e.g., in state offices); even then it may often be used in the form of BP rather than ML; the dialectalls poken ML is not always und erstood (in other piaces , such as Penang, Kelantan , Terengganu ). While English is a good candidate for int er-ethnic communica­ tion , it was not used very much during the observa tion, exce pt for loanword s. EngIish was und erstood, but people we re often shy to use EN with a non-Malaysian person. Inside the fami ly, the Hakk a family mem bers (G4, G3) speak HK with one another, and MM with the others (spou ses, GS). TI1e non­ Hakk a family memb ers and the younges t children do not acquire an active use of HK, and spea k Mlv! in the fam ily. Out side the family, CT and lv!M are most relevant. CT is also used with famil y memb ers of CT backgr ound (in-) , with friends, and at the workplace. HK or CT are used in the mark et with seIlers known to the spea kers. TI1 e initi al choice of lan gu age wi th unknown peo ple seems to be deIicate; spea kers wiII initiate the conve rsa tion wi th a Malaysian form of a standard langu age, not the educated variant: MC, ME, or BP. If there are ind ication s of the other person being, e.g., a CT or HK spea ker, the lan guage may be swi tched. TI1e choice of a common langu age serves to crea te grea ter intimacy. While it is not yet clear wh eth er the young child ren will also start to actively use HK or not, there is a differen ce insi de GS bet­ wee n the eIder children (18-26) bein g HK spea kers and th e younger children (4- 17) being spea kers of IvlC. [...], like my own children, ehm, th e father is Cantonese spea­ ker, and I am Hakka spea ker, but I decided to speak only Man ­ dari n with them since they were smalI. But they heard me tal­ king to my father and mother in Hakk a. So, surprisingly now I found out th at they were able to spea k Hakk a. (Mother, G4) Among the younge r children (GS), all but one are girls; It was obser­ ved that the grandfather (G3) and father/undes (G4) do spea k Hakk a to the youngest boy (GS, 4 yea rs), but not to th e girls. This may be at­ tribut able to the concep t of the male family Iineage. 102 Ralf Vollmann & Tek Wooi 500 n

3.5. Attitudes and identity

When asked about their attitudes and identities, th e (G3/G4) adults present as Malaysian s -- whi ch is maintain ed when livin g abroa d, e.g., in China. This identity is not ref1ected in the use of the Malay lan gu age. While the Hakk a-speaking famil y member s (G3, G4) have a posi tive attitude tow ard s Hakka as an identity marker for the fami­ Iy wh en asked, thi s is usu ally not discussed in daily life; Hakka is not consi dered a "lang uage" as compa red to Cantonese or Mandarin. Hakk a identity is a matt er of clan/ancestor affair ( ~ ;5k zöng ) for th e male lin eage with root s in Dabu 10; the Hakk a lan guage is a sy mbol, but not cons titutive, of the famil y identity. Chinese ness is the ethnic and cultural identity (~ A hu a ren) , lingui stic ally repre­ sented by the Chinese written lan guage. G4 speakers expressed the view that they do not spea k a 'rea l' Hakka, but just a Malays ian, mcd ified version. Due to a visit to Dab u, some of the family memb ers are awa re of im portant lingui stic dif­ ferences between them selves and their relatives in China. This is commo n for migr ants who do no lon ger part icipa te in the lingui sti c dy namics of their hom eland, but adapt to their new environment insteael. Origina l Hakk a elialects conve rge int o a Malaysian Hakk a. (09) G4 spea ker on his/h er compe tences in Hakk a I grew IIp speaking only Hakka. I learne d Manda rin when I went to schcol at th e age of 7; I ofte n we nt stay ing wi th differen t relati ves during holidays. I was very mu ch exposed to the Hakka spoken by grandmothers, grandaunts, uncles and aunties. I learn ed Cantonese from schoo l mates and TV pro grams. I remembered watehing a TV show called 'Empat Sekawan'!'. There we re four cha racters in thi s show, eac h of the m spoke one different dialect; e.g., spoke Hakka, Hon Ying spoke Can ta nese , Ho spo ke zho u, Hai Yon g spo ke Hokki en . I could und erstand Hakk a and Cantonese ea­ sily. As I hadlimited in Hakk a, wh en ever I needed to

10 The famil y looks back at an ances try line of 21 ge nera tio ns, the peopl e are kn own by nam e since the 16th gene ra tion. The family has a ge nea logical cha rt after which the sons of eac h gene ra tion are nam ed. The resp ective fathers follow ed thi s cus tom for boys, anelelid not nam e the girls in the famil y with these nam es. 11 'Empat Sekawa n', also known as 'Sei Hei Lam Mun ', thi s sitcom by RTM was one of the most popular sho ws in th e 60's. Multiling ua lis m and lan gu age sh ift 103

explain so me th ing in Hakka and lack of th at w ord, I wo uld repl ace w ith Ma ndarin 0 1' Ca nto nese. That 's w hy I think my Hak ka is not as original as my paren ts', uncles' and aun ties '. G3 spea kers are also aware that their lan guage has eha nged . (10) G3 on whe ther he ca n spea k like th e peopl e in Dabu (TR2011 75-7) 55b z 55 55 Z giSSded" loi" ji u" he" gong" tai u ; fa 10 • gin ; nga" remem ber come then be talk Dabu Ig. PTC now ji u" he" m" gi55de dZ ma" . ngion gvrnen" hiau" gi" ded"? just be not remem ber PTC how ca n rem ember (lJI) would remember, I would talk in Dabu language. Tow (I)just cannot reme m ber. How could (I) reme niber?

Hakk a eannot be read 0 1' writte n by the famil y. It has no othe r mer it than giving a famili al identity. Du e to its weak basileetal status , the parental desir e for edu eati on and social adva nee me nt leads to favo­ rin g Standard Mandarin (for some eve n P ütönghua instead of Ma lay­ sian Mandarin) in ehild upbrin gin g (disregarding the soe ioprag ma tie funetio ns of multilingual code-switching) , (11) G4 speaker on chi ld-directed language ch oice [00' ] and I w ant my children to speak "pure" Ch inese which means the "sta nda rd", bec ause usu all y people in Malay sia speak with a mix ture of ot her dialects, and also not th e right ton e. Yah , so, I would prefer my child re n to spea k standard Mandarin, Th at 's why I sta rted with Mandarin, only Mandarin.(Mo ther, G4) Like in othe r modern soeieties, eduea ted ur families will tend to­ wards a standard lan guage which may eve ntually lead to lang uage shift and a remodellin g of the soeio leetal situa tion (giv ing up a mino­ rit y lan guage and aequire soeioleets of th e new lan guage). In the ease of "Mandarin", a new between foreign standards (China , Taiw an) and a dom estie standard (Malays ia) with dialeets and so cio­ leets CMalays ian Mand arin", influene ed by different substrate lan ­ guages) replaees the fun etions of the traditionallingui stie variation. (12) G4 speaker on recognizin g dialectal differ ences Sometimes yo u can tell fro m th eir Ma ndarin, somet imes yo u can te ll fro m the ir Ch inese tha t this per son is speaking, you know , rou ghly whic h area is she from. From the northern part 01' the ­ th ern part , 01' she is very mu ch influen ced by Can tonese - yo u can tell th at. 104 RalfVollmann & Tek W ooi Soo n

Spea king Stand ard Mand arin is not well-received amo ng in most situa tions. Highly educa ted spea kers of Mand arin need to attune to the Malaysian standards in eve ryday life, 0 1' else they may be perceived as foreign ers 0 1' as snobbish/pretentious. On the other hand , educa ted speakers may attune to Putönghua 0 1' Tai­ nese Mandarin, wh en they are meeting with the respective gro ups. Taiw an ese and Chinese people may some times have troubl es understanding a spea ker of Malaysian Mand arin (MM).

3.6. Language change in progress

Since all Chinese lan guages do not diverge very much in gram ma ti­ cal cons truc tio ns, conve rge nce is very easy in the contact situation. For instan ce, the HK particl e liao in G3 is ofte n replaced by hoi in G4 which seems to be a (Malays ian) CT influence (for IvlC T le); the gramma tical categ ories expresse d by liao/le/h oi are identi cal in all three lan gu ages. (13) G3 and G4 in fre e conv ersation ; llsage of liao and hoi; (a) sai" gon" liau " aSs... speaker G3 sun-dry dr y LE PTC

After liaving dried under the sun, ....i. (b) g in 24 nga SS gia 24 lau" gung" go" sin" hoi",... spea ker G4 now 3PSS old-rna le pass.body LE Now her husband has passed away, ... Dialect levellin g takes place by replacing HK words with MC wo rds th at are ph on ologically int egrated int o HK. The following example shows the replacement of th e traditi onal expressions by a IvlC loan ­ word :

(14) Dialec t levelling in Malaysia n Hakk a (G3 = a,b and G4) (a) ngai!' o isS h iss Sill hang'", l- lf-.JfL shik eng]12 I need go shit dr ain. ss 24 24 (b) ngai !' oi hi sS siao" pen fong . [= 'Ht & xiäob ] I need go sm all.busines s room (c) ngai !' oisS hi ss sSS031. <- J&iJ pJT ce su ö I need go to ilet I need to g o to the toilet. 12 A kind of earth closet; but also the squatting toilet could be named such in earlier times. G2 (from China) is rememb ered having used th e word pun55 gong 24 (. fen gang ). Multilingu ali sm and lan gu age sh ift 105

Ihe word siao" pen" [ong" ('sma ll business roorn') wo uld be a goo d word for toiIet (for G3 spea kers); th e word si" hang" (shi t-drain') is no lon ger usable, as it refers to th e tradition al kind of toiIet. G4, 31 however , pr efer th e word ci" 50 borrowed from MC ce SUD (foilet') and adapted ph on ologically (loanword Integr ati on )." lvlC wo rds can eas ily be int egr at ed into HK du e to regul ar pho ­ nological and ton al correspo ndences (input-switches) . Th e fact th at MC has a full y developed lexicon for modern things and has presti ge mak es it a useful resource. In thi s way, smaller lan gu ages may con­ verge and tran sform int o mere soc iolects, varieties which are sys tema tically dependent on a standa rd. Differen ces between th e HK of G3 and G4 can be obse rve d in abunda nce ; for instanc e, G3 has va riants of so me words wh er e G4 has only one form ; loanword int egr ation (fro m non -Chinese lan gu a­ ges) is stronge r in G3 speakers (e.g. [SuIJ 24ma24] ~ Ml. [somu .a] 'se­ mu a'; [ba24sag24] ~ ML 'pasar'), while G4 uses EN and IvlC wo rds in an ada pted HK ph on ology (e.g. [bebi] 'baby'; [plen] ~ 'plan'). Code­ swi tching usin g EN is not see n amo ng th e olde r spea kers (G3), but happen s with yo unge r spea ke rs (G4). (15) Loanword integr at ion in G3 (a), and borrowing in G4 (b) (a) ai you, sarr" hong'" e31 SUi31 sung24ma24 leu 55 log55 IT] mountain on REL water all Ilow down ai" vui " a. there PTC. The waterfrom the mountei n all jlows down there. ll 24 55 (b) gia" ji" gien" g055 gi , in VUi gi" he" bsbi ma" 3 eld.sis see PIT 3 because 3 be baby PT C Her elder sister Iiad seen her, because she was a baby (at tliat tim e). Both G3 and G4 use th e man y particles Malaysian lan gu ages are kn own for. Ihe syntax is not different between G3 and G4, but th e lexem es some times are . Phon ological differen ces between G3 and G4 are also obse rve d; dialect levelling see ms to occur in th e direc tion of MC; for ins ta nce , th e HK mon ophthongs which are diphthon gs in MC get cha nged

13 TI1is exa mple can be compared to, e.g., Aus tr ian [abuat] ('Abort' ~ lat.) which is no lon ger used since two ge ne ra tions and was replaced by [kt.o.] (~ 'Klosett' ~ lat.) which is aga in rep laced by standard Germa n [toa'lsts] (Toilette' ~ fr.). 106 RalfVollmann & Tek W ooi Soo n fro m G3 to G4 : 1055 fu" ~ lau " fU31 ('tige r'; cf. Md . :::tt J1t läohu), 1055 31 ZU31 ~ lau" SU (mouse', cf. Md. :::tt tf\.. läosh ü), More obse rvations: (16) Phon ological differences obse rve d in the co rpus G3 G4 TRL ki 55 hi 55 go mag' pien" rnag" pen" cereal ngiong" ben" iarn" men" how ngien " nen ll year m 1lmai55 m' t moi" don't want do" dau" arrive mo!' mau " not liav e gin" nga" gin" nga" now

3.7. Borrowing

On e important differ cn cc for Malaysian Hakka vs . othe r va rian ts in mainl and Ch ina or Taiw an co me fro m th e integr ati on of EN an d Ml, loan w ords. Again, man y such w ord s have to do wi th th e au thorities , suc h as here: (17) ki bun mad a lokap hoi. He has been detained by 3 give poli ce ca ug ht COS the police. In th is sen tence (G3), th e word [m ad a] is fro m (spoke n) ML mat a­ mat a ('police ')14 , [Iok ap ] obvious ly is from EN 'lock up'. 111e HK ve rb [bu n] 'give' as a PSV marker co rrespo nds with lvlM r~ ge i / [vlC bei (:ft), [h oi] equals I\i1C le ( T). Other exam ples (in G3) fr om thi s sphe re are [m sd '] () itself; G4 uses HK [h i gOI) ha] ('go talk') which copies MC qu ( -* -i ~ ), or MC qu shuö sh uö k ~U1 (-* -ii -iJLfr)). 111e ML w ords salah 'w rong, unlawful', suka 24 5 'likc' (ML sub ~ HK su gag ) , pandai ~ HK ban" nai" 'clever, good at' are used in HK: .

(18) M L salah, suk: a, pandai in HK 55 55 (a) mau " dai" lC cud" mun" sa lah e a • VNE G br in g JC ou t door wrang REL PTC It is unlawjul to go out wirheut )'OU,- identity card (Ie).

14 G4 may aIso use [pak ' jiu] (tra ffic co p), in othe r lan gu ages, it will be [poli s] or ji ngcha ~ ~ (Me) inst ead of [mada ]. Multilingualism and lan guage shift 107

24gag5 (b) gi 11 m" su gi", she not like him She does not like him. (c) gi" tUg'SU24 hau" ban" nai" . he study very good He is very good at studying, Th e car sphe re ha s many loanw ords: roun(d)ab ou (t), [st rriij] (stee­ ring), [br ek] (bra kes), [;)Va11J] (overha ul), [taie bontj st '](tire punc ­ ture), [loli] (lorry), [pt'] ('road'; also Ml, jalan in G4, eventually HK lu ( ;?lJ.), [galadzi] (clutch ), [da signor] (HK give + sig nal), [bomba] (bum pe r), [ssoba] (shoc k absorber), [end zin] (en gine), [harj haiwei] (go by th e mot orway), [go tor] (pass the toll ), [tcksi] (tax i), modobai (mo to rbike) , [jsnbai] (exhaust pipe, MC yän :):I!l 'smoke' + pipe), [Iai son] (licen se " ), [bam ir] (permi t), [tf at(f)16 tsn] (char ge + MC bat ­ tery), [ka.pak'] or [pa.kin] ('(ca r) par k(in g)'), [bu n pa.kiij ] (HK 'give' + EN 'parking' + HO /HK 'money'). Furthennor e, man y othe r EN words found th eir w ay into Hakka: [aisgalim] (ice-cream), [mi ssi] (n urse, from mi ss), [bsbi] (ba by) , [aboi] (n ickna me for sma ll boy), [afst] (nickna me for a fat per son ), [kek] (ca ke) , [cukulu] (chocolate) , [ o/kao] (black/rnilk coffee; EN+HO), park, [lrt' tai] (nec k- tie), [nga lak bui] (glass+ ~1- ), sofa, [id dzag bia tciu ] (one jug17 of beer),18 [babik'u] (BBQ), [tso? ti- sat] (wear 3 1 t-shirt), [(na) sobana] « ta ke th e) spa n ne r); from J\I IL: [(zJ n ) gambong] « re tu rn to) home(town); Ma l. kampung 'village/ home­ town'), [hi ba.sag'] (go to pasar ), [ba:sag' mal am] (n igh t- marke t). 4. Discussion

In ge ne ra l, modern spo ke n standa rd lan gu ages quickly ga in gro un d at th e expe nse of smaller lan guages and dialects everyw he re . School education, par en tal as pira tions , and media consumption are all in favor of th e sta nda rd lan gua ge. Spoken vari eti es are then subject to dialect levelling and eve n tually their decline (lang uage sh ift).

15 Also used for passp ort, etc. 16 Ph on ological loanword integr ation dep ends on th e degree of ac ­ qu aintedness with Eng lish; th erefor e [tfat'] or [tfa(:)tf]. 17 Not th e HK zag, but EN 'jug ' (as a measure wor d), 18 cf. MC oJf. im pi jiü 'beer' (lit. beer +alc oh ol). 108 RalfVollm ann & Tek W ooi Soon

The Hakk a lan guage has experienee d eha nges in th e migrat ory situa tion, ada pted to the multilingu al env ironment (eonve rge nee , borr owing), and eonve rges with the standard lan guage whi in turn has adapted to the mult ilingu al setting of th e loeal envi ronme nt (lvUvl). We see a three-gen erati on decline of Hakka eom peten ee from fully profieient grandparents to still pr ofieient, but in seeure adult speakers, to young ehildren who are no longer expeeted to spea k the lan gu age and do not aetively use it. This development is favoured by intere thnie marriages and the eduea tiona l offer of a standard lan gua­ ge whieh serves needs of wid er eommuniea tion bett er and gives ac ­ eess to media, eduea tion and eeo nomie opportunities.

5. Abbreviations 3 pr on oun 3rd perso n LE Chinese T le par ticl e BP Bah asa Pasar 19. language Chin. Chinese LStvl a speake r 10 CLF classifier ~ ' IL Malay(sian ) lan gu age COS cha nge-of-state T MBW a spea ke r 10 C I' fro m Ca ntones e MD Manda rin OST dest inat ive particle tvlE Malaysian Eng lish EN Eng lish MM Malaysian lviandarin fr. Fren ch PL parfi ele HO Hokkien (Fujian) PTC (disco urse) particle G I, etc. ge ne ra tion 1, etc. REL conne cl ion particle HK Hakka SRC so urce JC identity card Std. sta ndard !TJ interjecti on TC Teochew KL Kuala Lum pur TRL tran slat ion tier LE gra mm. particle T YPK a speake r 10 lat.

6. References Asma h Haji, Oma r (1992). The Linguistic Scenery 01 Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur : Dewa n Bah asa Pustaka. Cheng, Kar en Kow -Yip (2003a). Lan guage shift and lan guage mainte­ nan ee in mixed marriages: A ease study of a Malays ian-C hines e fami ly. International Journal 01 the Sociology 01 Language 161, 81­ 90. https://doi.org/ 10.1515/ij s1. 2003.030 Multiling ua lism and lan guage shift 109

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