Mainstreaming WPS in the Armed Forces: The Case of Australia
Oxford Handbooks Online
Mainstreaming WPS in the Armed Forces: The Case of Australia Jennifer Wittwer The Oxford Handbook of Women, Peace, and Security Edited by Sara E. Davies and Jacqui True
Print Publication Date: Feb 2019 Subject: Political Science, International Relations Online Publication Date: Dec 2018 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190638276.013.43
Abstract and Keywords
The release of the Australian Government’s Nation Action Plan (NAP) in 2012 signaled the recognition by the Australian Defence Force (ADF) that implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 was imperative to improving military capability and increasing operational effectiveness. Since then, the ADF has made considerable inroads toward ensuring that the practical implementation of the NAP achieves the WPS outcomes being sought by the Australian Government. Moreover, this chapter observes that the ADF have in recent times employed the NAP to ensure that its political, social, aid, and diplomatic actions align closely with those of allied armed forces with respect to gender mainstreaming. Indeed, the ADF has focused on gender as an important element in the planning and conduct of national and international military peace and security efforts. This chapter argues that since the adoption of Resolution 1325, Australia has been actively involved in, and supported, a large number of high-level commitments to addressing the role of women in peace and security. In the main, this has been focused on political, social, diplomatic, and aid responses to crisis and conflict management, human rights, gender equality, and peacekeeping.
Keywords: Australian Defence Force, operational effectiveness, military capabilities, national action plan
THE adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) in 2000 offered a solid foundation for mainstreaming WPS principles into armed forces around the world, as it was the first time that the disproportionate impact of conflict on women and girls was institutionally recognized. Resolution 1325 called on UN member states to ensure women’s equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security, and urged all actors to increase the participation of women and incorporate gender perspective into peacekeeping. In
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Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 05 January 2019 Mainstreaming WPS in the Armed Forces: The Case of Australia addition, it spelled out a role for the armed forces in the implementation of Resolution 1325 in national institutions and in peacekeeping.
The implementation of Resolution 1325, and its subsequent resolutions, has generally been translated globally to armed forces through the development of National Action Plans (NAP) by UN member states. The release of the National Action Plan on Women Peace and Security 2012–2016 by the Australian Government in 2012, marked recognition by the Australian Defence Force (ADF)1 and the Department of Defence2 (collectively known as “Defense”)3 that implementation of the WPS agenda was an imperative to improving military capability and increasing operational effectiveness. Indeed, in 2013, the then Vice Chief of the Defence Force, Air Marshal Mark Binskin, acknowledged that “stability and peace can only be achieved through a gender-inclusive approach to conflict resolution and peace building” (Vice Chief Directive).
Defense has, since then, made considerable inroads toward ensuring that the practical implementation of the NAP achieves the WPS outcomes being sought by the Australian Government through political, social, aid, and diplomatic actions, that it aligns closely with those of allied armed forces, and that it builds on its already significant global contribution to Resolution 1325. This includes recognizing UN and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)4 frameworks on WPS, working closely with civil society to identify current and emerging WPS issues, supporting and assisting the development of implementation strategies for other armed forces, and contributing to national and international initiatives on integrating gender perspective into military operations.
(p. 570) The Australian NAP enabled Defense to focus its attention on, and fully embed, the principles of Resolution 1325, particularly on the inclusion of gender considerations as an important factor in promoting gender equality for women and girls in countries threatened by war, violence, and insecurity, and in the planning and conduct of military peace and security efforts for national and global security.
Defense recognized that ensuring the safety and security of women and girls in conflict contributes significantly to a reduction in conflict levels and the maintenance of sustainable peace. Using the NAP, Defense formulated key WPS thematic areas for implementation, guided by the principles of Resolution 1325, global commitments to WPS, international best practice in security sector reform, and building on pre-Resolution 1325 initiatives that supported the WPS agenda. Defense’s key strategy was to integrate a gender perspective into operations. This chapter provides a case study of the actions taken by Australian Defense to mainstream WPS into its military business and operations through the Australian NAP.
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Resolution 1325 and the Role of the Armed Forces
Resolution 1325 reaffirms the important role of women in the prevention and resolution of conflicts, peace negotiations, peace-building, peacekeeping, and humanitarian responses. Furthermore, it stresses the importance of their equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security. Resolution 1325 urges all actors to increase the participation of women and incorporate gender perspectives in all UN peace and security efforts. It also calls on all parties to conflict to take special measures to protect women and girls from gender-based violence, particularly rape and other forms of sexual abuse, in situations of armed conflict.
A critical point to draw from Resolution 1325 is that it does not seek to address issues solely related to women and girls. While there are numerous linkages to issues of diversity and gender equality, the scope of the initiative is broader, calling on nations to consider the impact of armed conflict on populations at risk and to acknowledge that those impacts may affect men, women, girls, and boys differently. Recognizing these differences and adapting actions to account for them is known as applying “gender perspectives” to operations, policies, and programs. The resolution notes that gender perspectives must be incorporated into the planning and execution of military operations, and that nations have a responsibility to protect populations at risk during armed conflicts (Vance 2016).
Giving women an active role to play in the security sector is essential, not only to ensure equal rights of both women and men, but to make these institutions more efficient and effective in responding to the different security needs of women and men. Their inclusion is an operational imperative due to their diverse range of skill sets. In the context of peace and stability operations, notably in Iraq and Afghanistan, women contributed substantially to widening the net of intelligence gathering, performing the cordon and search of women, and assisting in the aftermath of sexual violence (Valasek 2008).
Including women enables the military to better deal with the complexities of current conflicts especially where gender-based violence has become a weapon of war and where (p. 571) human rights violations and humanitarian crisis have become a mainstay of conflict issues (Hendricks and Hutton 2008: 4). Current evidence suggests that mixed gender peacekeeping units have significant effect: the contingent is more trusted by the community; more equipped to undertake key tasks, such as house and body searches, working in prisons, providing escorts for victims/witnesses, and screening combatants at disengagement, demobilization, and reintegration sites; more able to make meaningful contact with vulnerable groups and civil societies in local communities; easier to support conflict-affected women who would have difficulty speaking to male personnel; less likely to have problems with sexual exploitation and abuse; and they find it promotes and
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Understanding the needs and concerns of women and girls in conflict environments enables more comprehensive and effective planning of, and approach to, operational responses. The acknowledged benefits of applying a gender perspective into military operations include: more extensive information gathering capacities to improve access and communication with the local population in order to make better and more balanced decisions; overall situational awareness of all parties involved in the conflict to increase credibility and acceptance of the operation and the troops in theatre; and enhanced mutual understanding and respect to assure a better force protection (NATO 2009: 18).
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Pre-NAP Platform for The ADF’s Implementation of WPS
Australia has been integrally involved in global efforts to build and restore peace for more than sixty-five years, and has provided personnel to more than fifty UN and other multilateral peace and security operations since 1947. Prior to 1994, however, women were unable to undertake combat-related roles, and were further excluded from combat until 2011, which limited their capacity to be involved in peacekeeping. They were heavily concentrated in nontechnical and support roles, such as clerical, administrative, logistical, and health services, and under-represented in technical and war-fighting / combat roles. An expansion of their roles in military operations, ensuring gender equality through their participation, and identifying supporting protection mechanisms— inherently meeting the obligations of Resolution 1325—were the outcomes of three major initiatives that occurred prior to NAP implementation.
The first was the 2011 decision by the Australian Government to remove the gender restrictions on the remaining ADF combat roles.5 From January 2016, females have been recruited directly into combat employment categories.
The second initiative was the conduct of two independent reviews in 2011 and 2012 by the Federal Sex Discrimination Commissioner, Elizabeth Broderick, into the treatment of women at the Australian Defence Force Academy (Broderick 2011) and in the ADF (Broderick 2012). These reviews examined the adequacy and appropriateness of measures to promote gender equality, women’s safety, and to prevent sexual harassment and abuse, and sex discrimination, as well as efforts to increase women’s participation in the ADF and in key leadership positions.6
(p. 572) Thirdly, in an effort to meet operational imperatives,7 the Australian provincial reconstruction teams in Uruzgan Province, Afghanistan, deployed female engagement teams. This enabled them to tap into the local community and identify pressing security and domestic needs and concerns. They established a female development assistance program with a number of projects relating to education programs and economic development, and the provision of health services, school supplies and medicine to the local population. They also worked with the women’s ministries in the provincial Afghanistan government to improve the living conditions and access to basic services for rural Afghan women and their families. These activities contributed to the overall effectiveness of the operation by winning the “hearts and minds” of the local population.
These activities serendipitously aligned with the NAPs objectives on the role of armed forces; increasing the number of women in the armed forces and in international missions, integrating a gender perspective in pre-deployment training, and promoting protection of women’s rights in conflict and post-conflict areas (UN-INSTRAW, n.d.).
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These factors were critical for sustaining efforts to enhance capability building, improve operational effectiveness, and meet ADF’s commitments under Resolution 1325.
The Australian NAP
Australia’s work to implement Resolution 1325 is guided by its NAP, providing a coordinated approach across a number of government departments to integrating gender into Australia’s peace and security efforts.8 It identifies the strategies and actions that Australia is undertaking, nationally and internationally, to advance this important work and highlights the specific responsibilities.
The NAP sets out Australia’s plans to integrate a gender perspective into its peace and security efforts, protect the human rights of women and girls, and promote their participation in conflict prevention, management, and resolution. It seeks to structure its activities equally around the Resolution 1325 pillars—prevention of armed conflict; participation of women in all aspects of peace and security work; protection of women and girls in conflict situations; ensuring a gender perspective in all relief and recovery efforts; and integrating a gender perspective across all peace and security work (NAP 2012: 15). Australia recognized that determined and coordinated efforts were required to promote the protection and participation of women and girls, and to respond to their needs in fragile, conflict and post conflict situations (Australian NAP 2012: 19).
The NAP contains five high-level strategies aligned with the five thematic areas identified by the UN for conceptualizing and organizing activities in the implementation of the WPS agenda.9 There are twenty-four actions, which outline how each strategy will be practically delivered. Collectively, Defense and the Australian Civil Military Centre10 are responsible for seventeen actions; the majority are heavily focused on its contribution to peace and security efforts, implementation of WPS internationally, training for deployed forces, relationships with civil society in operations, and enhanced participation of women in peace and security operations.
The NAP is premised on the nexus between gender equality and peace; for Defense, this has played out in two ways. First, as described in the preceding paragraphs, with a greater (p. 573) focus on operations. The NAP reaffirms that implementation of the WPS agenda is long-term and transformative, and importantly, that it is about changing the approach to peace and security efforts. (Australian NAP 2012: 15)
The second approach involves ensuring that Defense is held accountable for its role in implementing the WPS agenda. Since 2013, Australian civil society has come together with government to hold an annual dialogue on WPS, which brings together the key agencies engaged in the implementation of the NAP to outline their actions and reflect on progress to ensure that implementation of the NAP remains both accountable to civil
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Defense Strategy for the Implementation of Resolution 1325 and the Australian NAP
In 2013, Defense formally acknowledged its obligations to the NAP, and recognized it as the mechanism to drive integration of gender perspectives into its operations, to enhance understanding of complex operational environments, improve capability and performance of the workforce through increased diversity, and enhance its reputation within the Australian and international community. The implementation strategy for Defense was specifically aligned with the intent of Resolution 1325, ensuring delivery of outcomes that built on the positive achievements of current cultural reform programs, and making certain that the process of planning, execution, and conduct of Defense-related NAP actions comprehensively and effectively demonstrated implementation of those actions. (CDF 2014: 1)
To facilitate this, Defense appointed a senior officer 11 in August 2013, initially reporting to the Vice Chief of the Defence Force, until July 1, 2014, when the Chief of the Defence Force assumed responsibility. This demonstrated senior leadership commitment to, and leadership on, WPS. It highlighted the importance of the WPS agenda to Defense’s strategic policy, gave prominence to Defense’s implementation strategy, and was pivotal to a coordinated, holistic approach in responding to its NAP responsibilities. Primary responsibilities included the development of a NAP implementation plan,12 liaising with the other government agency partners responsible for NAP implementation,13 and facilitating whole-of-government progress.
A working group was also established, with representatives from the three armed services, Joint Operations Command, and relevant Defense agencies, which met quarterly to report progress and to facilitate NAP actions within their respective areas. The inclusion of a civil society representative on the working group14 enabled transparency, collaboration, and the strengthening of Defense’s relationship with civil society, an important factor in accountability and ownership by Defense.
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Defense NAP Implementation Plan
The development of an implementation plan from late 2013 was seen as the primary means for mainstreaming WPS within Defense. The plan was informed by the outcomes of the (p. 574) 2013 Jumonji University Seminar and the 2013 Global Technical Review meeting,15 and the then NATO–revised policy and action plan for the implementation of Resolution 1325 (NATO 2014).16 This included regional, national, and international engagement with NATO allies and partners, international organizations, and civil society, and academia; operational responses, such as the inclusion of a gender perspective in the planning and conduct of operations and major exercises; addressing conflict-related sexual and gender-based violence; appointing gender advisers and developing female engagement capability; national initiatives to improve women’s participation in armed forces and military responses to conflict; and training and education in gender and the WPS agenda.
These core outcomes influenced the design of initiatives and tasks that Defense could implement that supported NAP actions, grouped under the NAP strategies but aligned with one of six thematic areas shown in Box 44.1. The Defense implementation plan was endorsed by key senior Defense officials, and has progressed over the past four years as a fluid and live matrix of activities.
Box 44.1 Six Key Thematic Areas of the Defense Implementation Plan
1. Key strategic guidance and operational planning documents and processes training; 2. WPS training and education; 3. Development of products by ACMC; 4. Increasing deployment and leadership opportunities for women; 5. Developing the gender advisor and female engagement capability; 6. National and international engagement on WPS.
Importance of Leadership in Implementing WPS
Defense’s progress against the NAP has been quite significant in a short period of time and this has been influenced by ministerial and senior ADF leader commitment and action, and Defense’s active engagement and transparency in collaboration with civil society. Air Chief Marshal, and currently Chief of Defence Force, Mark Binskin confirmed
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Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 05 January 2019 Mainstreaming WPS in the Armed Forces: The Case of Australia this approach during the 2014 Defence Women in Peace and Security conference when he said the following:
By 2019, one year after the NAP is completed, the WPS agenda will be fully embedded in our approach to personnel management, the planning and conduct of operations, throughout our policy frameworks and in our corporate guidance. It will enhance our ability to effectively contribute to peace and security operations within our region and internationally. We will have an increased relationship of collaboration and engagement with civil society and other Government organisations to ensure a coordinated and whole of government approach to the implementation of women, peace and security objectives. So—how can we be sure we will keep up with our early momentum? My intention is to continue my personal commitment to the women, peace and security agenda—and I expect everyone in Defence to do the same.
(p. 575) The Chief of the Defence Force has personally driven the strategy to implement the NAP within the Australian armed forces. The participation by Lieutenant General David Morrison, the then Chief of the Army, at the United Kingdom Summit on the Prevention of Sexual Violence in Conflict in June 2014, and his closing ceremony speech— which included the now famous “the standard you walk past is the standard you set” quote—cemented Defense’s role in, and commitment to, addressing sexual and gender- based violence in conflict-affected communities. This and other events helped reinforce Australia’s position on WPS and its implementation of the NAP as a best practice example of effective implementation of Resolution 1325.
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Integrating Gender Perspective into Peace and Security Policies
Primary to the success of mainstreaming WPS has been the development of a gender advisor capacity. In April 2014, the Chief of the Defence Force appointed the then executive director of the Australian National Committee for UN Women17 as his gender advisor. This not only enabled him to better address gender diversity within the ADF, it also increased the collaboration and engagement with civil society. Defense created additional positions to fully embed WPS into operational business, including a gender advisor to directly support Joint Operations Command; strategic gender / women’s advisors to the military chiefs of service; and a gender focal point supporting operations in the Middle East.
This gender advisor capacity has been instrumental to the introduction and streamlining of WPS initiatives and activities across the whole of Defense. Foremost among these accomplishments is the successful integration of WPS into key strategic Defense policy and guidance, and into operational planning documents and processes, thereby cementing its importance and priority for and within the operational context. This impacted Australian military planning considerations for major exercises, including the 2015 Australian / United States bilateral Exercise Talisman Sabre,18 with eight military gender advisers attached for the duration. Since 2014, Defense has included WPS goals in its corporate and annual business plans. 19 In 2016, the Defence White Paper20 provided specific reference to Defense’s obligations and initiatives under the NAP, and progress of the Defense implementation plan is reported to government as part of the White Paper implementation and as required under the accountability framework in the NAP.
The redevelopment of joint doctrine has further enabled the integration of WPS into operational considerations, with the inclusion of WPS into the lead doctrine development guide, as well as peacekeeping-specific doctrine relating to mission planning, humanitarian responses, and supporting international operations.21 Additionally, in December 2015, Defense published strategic guidelines for the protection of civilians, which provide a whole-of-government perspective on protection of civilians in international situations of armed conflict and other situations of violence. As a measure of the high regard in which these guidelines are held, Japan is translating them for their use in training Japanese military personnel for peacekeeping operations.
(p. 576) Building on the WPS training already conducted through the ADF peace operations training center for personnel deploying to UN missions,22 Defense also embedded WPS into force preparation training for the Middle East and other international operations. To compliment this, work has commenced to include WPS into the professional military and training continuum for all ADF personnel, and currently training is conducted for officers attending junior and senior command and staff
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Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 05 January 2019 Mainstreaming WPS in the Armed Forces: The Case of Australia colleges.23 To support all aspects of training, Defense published a WPS training manual and facilitator guide, and two key research documents to enhance understanding of, and training in, WPS.24
Defense is also examining ways to provide increased deployment and leadership opportunities for women. In the main, this effort is being captured by the implementation of the Broderick Review and the removal of the gender restrictions, which over time will increase the participation of women across all employment categories of the ADF.25
Over the last fifteen years, Australia’s operational experience has coincided with a growing awareness and understanding of women’s unique experiences in conflict-affected environments and their valuable contribution to peace and security efforts (Shteir 2015: 1). An increasing number of senior ADF women are deploying to and commanding on operations—as the 2016 Force Commander for Afghanistan, the Deputy Commander for Australian forces in the Middle East, and, in 2015, a senior female officer commanded the ADF’s contingent to the UN Truce Supervision Organization. Operations in Afghanistan over the last decade have given Defense an appreciation of the role that women can play in security sector reform. This awareness enhances the mainstreaming of WPS into Defense operations to continue to develop and deploy women across a range of increasingly nontraditional operational roles.
Supporting Civil Society to Increase Women’s Participation
The implementation of WPS has brought about a more collaborative and trusted relationship between Defense and civil society, which has contributed to the development of international best practice and increased Defense’s understanding and capability for WPS through a better understanding of how conflict impacts women and girls, and more holistic approaches and responses to address this issue. Defense’s primary focus has been on cooperating with other agencies and civil society in developing policy, educating the Defense workforce, and in the development of subject matter experts, such as gender advisers for key military international exercises and international operations.
Defense has also sponsored and funded numerous activities with civil society organizations to broaden its knowledge and understanding of conflict-related WPS issues. These include training with UN agencies in the Asia and Pacific, supporting and participating in the annual civil society dialogues to assess NAP implementation, and dialogues with international civil society organizations on gender justice, security, and women’s rights.
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(p. 577) Promoting WPS Implementation Internationally
Defence’s progress with the NAP has enhanced its reputation globally, and enabled increased opportunities for international engagement on WPS. The ADF has committed to permanent representation at the annual NATO Committee on Gender Perspective since 2011. In 2014, the committee considered the topic of “Recruitment and Retention in the [NATO] Armed Forces—National Human Resource Polices and Exchange of Best Practices.” The participation by the ADF, and by Elizabeth Broderick, in this conference, largely influenced two of the three major recommendations to the NATO Military Committee arising from the Committee’s syndicate efforts: that nations be encouraged to conduct assessments to identify and address potential gaps in policies and programs that may negatively impact the retention of women in the armed forces, and that nations be encouraged to establish an Advisory Committee to inform and shape military gender equality priorities (NATO 2014).
From 2014–2017, the Australian Human Rights Commission and the ADF participated in a NATO project to assess the impact of Resolution 1325 on the recruitment and retention of women in NATO armed forces.26 The project identified six principles, largely influenced by the Broderick Review, as best practice recommendations for security sector reform within other armed forces (UNSCR 1325 Reload 2015: 33).
Also in 2014, the annual ADF Gender Conference included presentations on the operationalization of Resolution 1325 in military operations from senior international military delegates.27 This contributed to lessons learned, information sharing, and raising the level of understanding and awareness of the importance of WPS and gender perspective in operations. This conference, which was attended by ADF members, civil society, academics, other government department representatives, senior Defense officials, and both the Minister for Defence and the Minister Assisting the Prime Minister for Women, left the audience in no doubt as to their commitment to the WPS agenda and the ongoing progress of the NAP within Defense and the broader Australian community.28
The ADF has continued to support international implementation of WPS: working with the Japanese Self Defense Force to develop a NAP implementation plan; creating a gender adviser capacity and exploring employment of gender advisers and female engagement teams in Japanese peacekeeping operations; supporting WPS seminars, workshops, and operations in the Asia and Pacific region; presenting at international and academic WPS conferences; participating in and conducting female military observer courses at international peacekeeping centers; contributing to public consultations on the development of the New Zealand NAP and New Zealand Defence Force implementation; assisting Canadian Armed Forces with the development of an implementation plan and
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Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 05 January 2019 Mainstreaming WPS in the Armed Forces: The Case of Australia gender positions; and participating in, and presenting at, key seminars and training sessions conducted at international military institutions.
To leverage global efforts to mainstream WPS, Defense is enhancing opportunities for senior ADF women to deploy in key peace and security positions overseas. In addition to the gender focal point in the Middle East, supporting the mainstreaming of WPS in multilateral operations, and as testament to the credibility and expertise of our gender advisers, the ADF has also maintained liability for gender adviser positions in NATO operations in (p. 578) Afghanistan since 2013; and in 2016, a female officer deployed as the first Military Gender Adviser to the UN Mission in South Sudan. Defense also established a five-year funded, non-ongoing position to UN Women in New York which commenced in 2017.
Overall, Defense has made a considerable contribution to the global implementation of the WPS agenda in military organizations and operations. This has reinforced Defense’s internal efforts to implement the NAP, and ensured that Resolution 1325 and the WPS principles were embedded into Defense business, which would not have occurred in the absence of a NAP, and without the leadership and direction of senior leaders within Defense.
Conclusion
Since the adoption of Resolution 1325 by the UNSC in 2000, Australia has been actively involved in and supported a large number of high-level commitments to addressing the role of women in peace and security. In the main, this has been focused on political, social, diplomatic, and aid responses to crisis and conflict management, human rights, gender equality, and peacekeeping. The ADF’s initial comprehension of WPS principles was demonstrated only through the recognition that military women could play a role in engaging with the local population in peacekeeping missions, and this occurred informally in regional missions in the early 2000s, and more formally through the use of female engagement teams in Afghanistan after 2011.
However, a more thorough integration of Resolution 1325 and related resolutions into the ADF’s approach to military operations through the Australian NAP has recognized the unique role that both men and women bring to peace and security efforts, and the need to capitalize on this capability to improve operational effectiveness. Using the NAP actions as a strategic framework, Defense identified six core areas that supported the Resolution 1325 principle of gender perspective in operations and were likely to increase operational effectiveness and enhance mission outcomes. The current suite of initiatives in the Defense implementation plan are not exhaustive and are designed to lay the groundwork for ongoing implementation as understanding and knowledge of Resolution 1325 and the WPS agenda increases within the Defense community.
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References
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Valasek, K. “Security Sector Reform and Gender.” In Gender and Security Sector Reform Toolkit, edited by Megan Bastick and Kristin Valasek. Geneva: Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces/UN-INSTRAW, 2008.
Vance, J. H. “CDS Directive for Integrating UNSCR 1325 and Related Resolutions into CAF Planning and Operations.” January 2016, http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/operations- how/cds-directive.page.
Vice Chief of Defence Force Directive. Recommendation 5, 2013. No 5/2013, 2013. (p. 582)
Notes:
(1.) Royal Australian Navy, the Australian Army, and the Royal Australian Air Force.
(2.) A Department of State, headed by the Secretary of the Department of Defence.
(3.) The “Defence” portfolio consists of a number of component organizations that together are responsible for supporting the defense of Australia and its national interests. This includes the Department of Defence and the ADF.
(4.) NATO is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed on April 4, 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defense whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party.
(5.) In 2011, the remaining combat roles previously excluding women were (Navy) Clearance Divers and Mine Warfare and Clearance Diving Officers; (Air Force) Airfield Defence Guards and Ground Defence Officers; and (Army) Infantry and Armoured Corps, some Artillery roles, Explosive Ordnance Disposal Squadrons, and Combat Engineer Squadrons—this represents 7 percent of total employment trades in the ADF.
(6.) Details about, and content of, these reviews can be found at “Collaboration for Cultural Reform in Defence,” http://defencereview.humanrights.gov.au.
(7.) In 2011, in response to NATO policy to integrate Resolution 1325 into military operations, and building on the US military’s experience and success in Iraq, the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan required all military units to create female engagement teams to build relations with Afghan women. These teams had dual and linked military and civilian purposes, one as a force multiplier and important part of evolving counter-insurgency strategy, and the second to promote the participation of women in conflict and post-conflict settings to help build more peaceful, equitable, and democratic societies. In taking this approach, the coalition was implementing a 1325 strategy that translated into practical measures and leadership opportunities for women on the ground.
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(8.) The departments are, namely, the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet (Office for Women); Department of Defence; Australian Federal Police; the Attorney-General’s Department; the Australian Civil-Military Centre; and the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.
(9.) These themes are prevention, participation, protection, relief and recovery, and normative.
(10.) The Australian Civil Military Centre is an Australian Government initiative to improve Australia’s effectiveness in civil-military collaboration for conflict and disaster management overseas.
(11.) This officer was a colonel equivalent.
(12.) The Defence Implementation Plan remains as the guiding program to support the ADF’s implementation of the NAP and provides direction on mainstreaming WPS.
(13.) These included the Australian Federal Police, the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, the Attorney General’s Department, the Australian Civil Military Centre, and the Department of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet.
(14.) Currently, Julie McKay, of the Australian National Committee for UN Women (2014).
(15.) The meeting was held November 5–7, 2013, organized by UN Women in collaboration with civil society and with financial support from Austria, Finland, and the Netherlands, to examine building accountability for the implementation of Resolution 1325.
(16.) The ADF has been working closely with NATO since 2012 on the development of its action plans on Resolution 1325, specific projects relating to women’s participation in armed forces, input into national reports, and development of products arising from the annual Committee on Gender Perspective.
(17.) National Committees for UN Women are independent nongovernmental organizations that support the mission of UN Women through their public awareness initiatives about UN Women and global women’s issues, and fundraising efforts to support UN Women programs worldwide.
(18.) Exercise Talisman Saber (also spelled Talisman Sabre, the spelling alternating between US and Australia) is a biannual joint Australia–United States military exercise conducted every two years.
(19.) The Defence Corporate Plan (DCP) sets out the purpose, activities, and results for four financial years, and builds on the longer-term strategic guidance contained in the Defence White Paper. The Defence Business Plan articulates how the activities in the DCP will be implemented.
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(20.) The Defence White Paper sets out the government’s direction to Defense to guide strategy, capability, and organizational and budget planning.
(21.) The policy guidance on all joint doctrine development and review. The JDDG is provided to all joint doctrine developers and provides specific guidance on developing the detailed analysis of requirements that establish the context, scope and content of ADF joint doctrine.
(22.) This training uses UN accredited core training material.
(23.) Australian Defence Force Academy, the Australian Command and Staff College, and the Australian Defence College.
(24.) Sarah Shteir, “Conflict-related Sexual and Gender-based Violence: An Introductory Overview to Support Prevention and Response Efforts.” Civil-Military Occasional Papers, Australian Civil Military Centre, 2014; and Sarah Shteir, “Gender Crisis, Gendered Response; The Necessity and Utility of a Gender Perspective in Armed Conflict and Natural Disasters.” Civil-Military Occasional Papers, Australian Civil Military Centre, 2014.
(25.) Defense and the AHRC have an ongoing collaborative relationship which looks at, among other areas, gender diversity and the treatment of women in the ADF.
(26.) The preliminary outcomes of this review were presented to the UN as part of the global review conducted for the fifteenth anniversary of Resolution 1325 in 2015, and the final report was released in October 2016.
(27.) Major General Jody Osterman, US Marine Corps, (ex-Deputy Chief of Staff Operations, Afghanistan); Captain Herve Auffret (Head of Policy and Doctrine in the Office of Military Affairs, Department of Peacekeeping Operations, UN Headquarters); and Lieutenant Colonel Jesus Gil Ruiz (NATO Office of the Gender Advisor).
(28.) Defense’s progress regarding the NAP from March 2012 to December 2013, and an update of 2014 initiatives, has been recorded in the first Progress Report to Government, which was tabled in parliament in July 2014.
Jennifer Wittwer Jennifer Wittwer, CSM, RAN, is an international consultant on gender and Women, Peace and Security. She is a former Policy Specialist and Military Liaison Officer, Peacekeeping and Sexual Exploitation and Abuse, UN Women, New York, USA, and prior to that,
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