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Home , David Morrison, Hebrew school, Lynn Gottlieb, Sally Priesand, Sara Hurwitz

Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal

The Roots and Development of Jewish in the United States, 1972-Present: A Path Toward Uncertain Equality

Jessica Evers

Division of Social & Behavioral Sciences, College of Arts & Sciences

Faculty mentor: Scott Rohrer, Ph.D., Division of Social & Behavioral Sciences, College of Arts & Sciences

ABSTRACT This research project involves discovering the pathway to equality for Jewish women, specifically in Reform . The goal is to show that the ordination of the first woman in the United States initiated , and while this raised awareness, full-equality for Jewish women currently remains unachieved. This has been done by examining such events at the ordination process of , reviewing the scholarship of Jewish women throughout the waves of Jewish feminism, and examining the perspectives of current Reform (one woman and one man). Upon the examination of these events and perspectives, it becomes clear that the full-equality of women is a continual struggle within all branches of American Judaism. This research highlights the importance of bringing to light an issue in the religion of Judaism that remains unnoticed, either purposefully or unintentionally by many, inside and outside of the religion.

Key Words: Jewish Feminism, , American

INTRODUCTION

“I am a feminist. That is, I believe that being a woman or a in the and up to the present. The great accomplishments man is an intricate blend of biological predispositions and of Jewish women are provided here, however, as the evidence social constructions that varies greatly according to time and illustrates, the path towards total equality is still unachieved. culture.” – Rachel Adler I am including two personal interviews with Reform rabbis, The purpose of this historiographic research paper is to both of whom attended Hebrew Union College. The sources support my claim that, despite popular belief, women included in this paper are both primary and secondary. All have yet to achieve absolute equality in Reform Judaism. books and journal articles are scholarly work and are written This paper explores the origins of Jewish feminism in the by historians, sociologists, or academic professionals. I utilize United States, beginning with the year 1972 and ending newspaper articles from the archives. All websites accessed with the present. The scholarship illustrates that the second- for this project are organizations and are scholarly in nature. wave of feminism during the is not the initial spark A conversation with a colleague initially sparked my for Jewish feminism; rather, the ordination of the first interest in this issue. My colleague was under the impression woman rabbi in 1972 deserves this credit. Reform Judaism that the struggle for women’s equal rights in Reform Judaism is the central focus of my research, as it is the first branch ended many years ago. I realized that this colleague was not of Judaism to ordain women as rabbis. In order to provide the only individual to believe that Jewish women have already an overall picture, my research briefly discusses women achieved equal rights in Reform Judaism. Understandably, in , as well as women in Orthodoxy. Reform Judaism is the most liberal of all the movements, but I have divided this paper into four main sections. The this idea is simply a misconception. I argue that the inequality first section, “Historical Overview,” provides the definitions of women in the Reform movement persists to this day, just and beliefs of the three main branches of Judaism, as well as it does for women in Conservative and . as a historical overview of women rabbis in Judaism, beginning in 1930s Germany. The second section, “The HISTORICAL OVERVIEW Path Toward Women’s Ordination: Overcoming Defeat,” To clarify terminology, Reform, or liberal Judaism, is discusses the ordination process of Sally Priesand, the first the largest branch of Judaism in America today. Reform woman rabbi within Reform Judaism. I discuss her early Judaism believes strongly in individual conscience and life and experiences at Hebrew Union College, as well as informed choice. The individual studies Jewish tradition her hardships concerning acceptance. Section three, “The and adapts it to modern life whenever possible. Reform Birth of Jewish Feminism: Finding a Voice,” illustrates the question ancient practices and may reject ancient or origins of Jewish feminism, initially sparked by Priesand in medieval teachings that are inconsistent with modern life. 1972. Jewish women begin to produce feminist scholarship Reform Jews study the same books that Orthodox Jews do, and find their voice concerning their second-rate status in as well as Jewish law; however, in the end, the individual the synagogue. The final section, “Jewish Feminism Today: conscience is their guide. Reform Judaism is the first sect Success and Challenges,” explores Jewish feminism beginning to declare women equal to men in terms of practice and

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roles in the synagogue. Jewish, but her feminist ideas were not limited to the position Theologically, Conservative Judaism stands between of . In her book, The Second Stage (1981), Orthodoxy and Reform. Similar to Orthodox Jews, Friedan discusses the reevaluated family and voluntaristic Conservative Jews accept Jewish law as the source of living; activity as desirable goals for all women, not just those who however, they are willing to change to meet new circumstances. are Jewish. Change comes about exceedingly slower for Conservative The ordination of Sally Priesand as the first , and they regard the practice of community a vital part woman rabbi in 1972 ultimately opened the door for the of their beliefs. In 1985, the Conservative movement began in American Judaism. Priesand’s ordaining women as rabbis, thus making their largest shift rabbinical schooling did not come without opposition, from Orthodoxy. The majority of Conservative synagogues despite the formal acceptance of women rabbis by the Reform admit women as equal participants in their services. Today, movement. She stated that her fellow students “thought she Conservative Judaism defines its practice as traditional but had come for a husband,” rather than to pursue a rabbinical modern. For decades, Conservative Judaism was the largest career. Priesand did gain a position as an assistant rabbi in Jewish denomination in America. Currently, it is second to a Reform synagogue in Manhattan upon her ordination. Reform Judaism. However, she continued to struggle to obtain a full rabbinical Orthodox or traditional Judaism is the most resistant to position, as she found herself consecutively denied for change. They base their foundation on the literally interviews. Initially, Priesand was not a strong advocate for given to Moses at Mount Sinai and believe that the laws of women’s rights. Speaking in response to feminism, Priesand Judaism cannot change under any circumstances, even in stated, “I feel the feminist movement is very important,” modern times. Modern forms of Orthodoxy do exist, and but she did not consider herself active in, or a leader of, the they aim to harmonize ancient traditions with contemporary women’s liberation movement. perspectives. However, they will not allow modern ideas, This changed for Priesand when she faced gender- such as feminism, to enter traditional teachings. Orthodox related opposition while attempting to obtain a full-time women have traditional roles in the home, they may not rabbinical position. She began to speak out among the become ordained rabbis, and they sit separately from the men Reform movement on women’s roles and equality within in the synagogue. Orthodox Judaism paradoxically considers Judaism. Priesand overcame opposition and prejudice when women separate but equal. she refused to accept a secondary role as a woman in Reform The role of women in Judaism, traditionally speaking, Judaism. She successfully obtained a post as the first female remains inside the home. This dates back to the Orthodox rabbi in the United States, and in doing so, she essentially definition of the traditional Jewish household, where the laid the groundwork for women’s equality in Reform wife and mother is literally the “mainstay of the home.” The Judaism, paving the way for female rabbis and equality in separation of Judaism into sects in Europe during the early the Conservative movement. Thirteen years later, in 1985, nineteenth century reversed this traditional idea of Jewish the Conservative movement ordained its first woman rabbi, women and, thus, adapted roles that were more liberal for . women outside of the home and in the synagogue. In 1935, The struggle for equality for American Jewish women a student in Germany named Regina Jones shattered the did not end with Sally Priesand’s ordination. Her ordination gender barrier in Judaism by becoming the first female rabbi. promoted awareness among Jewish women concerning Regina’s love for Jewish history, as well as the Bible and equality within the religious and secular world. Scholarship the , prompted her interest in rabbinical within Jewish feminism flourished, and Jewish women gained school. She enrolled in a rabbinical school located in Berlin great achievements in and synagogue life. specifically designed for liberal student rabbis. Regina argued The successes continue, and the struggles persist. The work that there simply was no prohibition in Jewish religious law Priesand began continues to this day, as American Jewish holding women back from being ordained. The work and women still struggle for absolute equality in every branch teachings of Regina Jones continued even upon her departure of Judaism. to Theresienstadt concentration camp, until her death in Auschwitz in 1944. THE PATH TOWARD WOMEN’S ORDINATION: The legacy and influence of Regina Jones eventually OVERCOMING DEFEAT found its way into the United States, although it took thirty- The struggle for women as ordained rabbis begins as far seven years from the ordination of Jones in Germany for the back as 1922. Historian Pamela Nadell illustrates the United States to ordain their first female rabbi in 1972. Prior struggle for a small number of women in the early 1920s, to 1972, feminism in Judaism was practically non-existent. which she claims tried to push the question of women’s Feminism among Jewish women in the United States ordination. The concept of ordination continued for these throughout the 1950s and focused on labor, marriage, women well into 1947, but the idea remained only as an and motherhood. For instance, Betty Friedan’s The Feminine inception. None of the women who lobbied for women’s Mystique (1963) focused on women’s problems based on ordination knew of Regina Jones, and it was long after social expectations and discriminatory laws. Friedan was World War II before anyone discovered her legacy.

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In 1947, a student named Nettie Stolper applied to The second-wave of feminism in the United States sparked Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, hoping an interest among the press. They began to take notice of the to become a rabbi. Her application was returned by Dean determined undergraduate student at Hebrew Union College Henry Slonimky with the following note: “Our school is who was adamant on becoming a rabbi. According to Nadell, so small and so exclusively geared to male students that we Priesand became an advocate for women’s roles in American find it impossible, much to our regret, to admit any women life even outside of the realm of Judaism. Newsweek, Time, students.” Nadell claims that it was women such as Stolper and the New York Times all expressed an interest in the who set the course toward women in the rabbinate. Stolpher’s shifting religious roles of women, especially Sally Priesand. experience is significant because it illustrates the first time The concentration from the media and organizations a woman attempted to enter Hebrew Union College. Her such as the National Organization for Women (NOW) denial surely closed the door to a number of Jewish women gathered the attention of the Union of American Hebrew aspiring to enter the rabbinate during the mid to late 1940s. Congregations Social Action Branch. Bruce Diamond, a As second-wave feminism spread in America during Reform rabbi at the Community Free Synagogue in Fort the 1960s and 1970s, Jewish women began to raise Myers, Florida, received his Doctor of Divinity from awareness of their status. This concern focused more on Hebrew Union College-Institute of Religion in 1978. their role in society rather than in the synagogue, as with According to Diamond, the push for women’s ordination Friedan’s book The Feminine Mystique. Jewish women was a cross between the Union of American Hebrew in America often felt they were a double minority, given Congregations and the new president of Hebrew Union the fact that they were both women and Jews, thus their College, Rabbi Alfred Gottschalk. Gottschalk geared his feminist role began modestly. The leaders of both Reform focus on the building of the college and did not want and Conservative Judaism during this time still held the to be portrayed as the religious leader of the Reform belief that the role of a woman should be restricted to the movement. Despite his traditional thinking, Gottschalk domestic sphere, and most Jewish women did not contest maintained belief in restructuring the dynamics of this until 1972, with the ordination of Sally Priesand. Reform Judaism, thus making it possible for Jews to Sally Jane Priesand was born in 1946 in Cleveland, , survive and adapt to social and cultural change. This one year before Nettie Stolper applied to rabbinical school change included admitting women as ordained rabbis. and was consecutively denied. As a child, Priesand did not Gottschalk ordained Sally Priesand in 1972, upon enjoy Hebrew school, nor did she consider herself religious. her formal admission into the rabbinical program. He Her family attended a Conservative synagogue and later called Priesand’s ordination an action that serves as transitioned to a Reform synagogue when she was in high a testament to Reform Judaism’s efforts at achieving school. The differences in the Reform movement versus “equality of women in the congregation of the Lord.” the Conservative movement sparked Priesand’s interest in According to Diamond, however, it was important for participating in the synagogue and Jewish education. Priesand the administration at Hebrew Union College at this point discovered that in the Reform movement men are not required not to push feminist ideas. As Diamond stated, “Hebrew to wear yarmulkes and women are encouraged to engage in Union College aimed to compose Priesand’s ordination as the prayer services. Upon her renewed interest in Jewish non-political, and to underplay public relations. The act education and Hebrew studies, and after graduating high of Priesand’s ordination was not a feminist statement.” school, Priesand begins to prepare her future at Hebrew Union Hebrew Union College was feeling the pressure of College in Cincinnati, Ohio. Her friends offered her support, Title IX of the 1972 Educational Act, which prevented but they remained leery of her acceptance as a woman rabbi. discrimination on the basis of sex in federally funded Acceptance into Hebrew Union College at this time was educational programs. Hebrew Union College was not not rare for women. Women graduated, but they did so in the required to comply, but this did not mean that they did not fields of social work and education. Priesand contacted the feel the tension to equalize women’s education. Protestant school and expressed her desires to become a rabbi. In June denominations already ordained women as ministers, 1963, Joseph Karasick, assistant to the provost, responded and all eyes began to look toward Reform Judaism. to Priesand’s rabbinical interests. He wrote, “We would The only logical reasoning behind Diamond’s thinking have to inform you candidly that we do not know what appears to be the reluctance of Hebrew Union College’s opportunities are available in the active rabbinate, since full acceptance of in Reform Judaism. we have, as yet, not ordained any women. Most women Ordaining Sally Priesand was not an act of equality among prefer to enter the field of Jewish religious education.” women in Judaism but an act of appeasement. To support This letter did not deter Priesand, and she persisted on Diamond’s theory, Priesand did state that she encountered acceptance to pursue religious and rabbinical studies. clear opposition to obtain a full rabbinical position; because In 1964, Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of of this, she felt she lost the support previously provided for Religion accepted Priesand into the undergraduate program. her by Hebrew Union College. The institute supported her She enrolled as a “Special Student.” This meant that she could rabbinical education, but remained unwilling to help her receive credits but that she was not a pre-rabbinical student. find her path in Reform Judaism following her ordination.

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THE BIRTH OF A JEWISH FEMINISM: FINDING A sexism. A strong counter-response began to emerge, as VOICE those who disagreed accused the feminists of destroying The Jewish feminist movement begins to take shape during Jewish principles and practices, threatening the stability of the 1970s, coinciding with the second-wave of feminism in the Jewish family, undermining the masculinity of Jewish the Unites States. The initial feminist objectives of Jewish men, and bringing about a general deterioration of Judaism. women include equality of women with men, both in the The negativity brought about by Jewish feminism stems religious setting and in secular affairs. Religiously, Jewish mainly from the Orthodox way of thinking. Historically, feminists questioned the reasoning behind women’s roles American Jewish parents felt that only boys needed, or in the synagogue. They lobbied for allowance to read aloud deserved, a Jewish education. When Jewish women of prayers in the synagogue and argued against their exclusion the Reform and Conservative congregations began to from the sacred centers of Jewish life: the synagogue, immerse themselves into Jewish history, religion, and Torah and . These Jewish feminists aimed to be full philosophy during the second-wave of feminism, they members of the Jewish community and called for changes in raised consciousness about their inequality. The year 1972 Jewish law to end discrimination against women regarding proved to be full of organization and new practices for synagogue separation, accommodation of lifestyle changes, Jewish women. However, the majority of Jews still viewed and inclusion of secular leadership. Judaism as a religion in which men had most, if not all, of In 1971, a group of articles on Jewish feminism appeared the public roles. Priesand’s ordination opened the door for in an issue of Davka magazine, the first of its kind. These many women applying to rabbinical school, but it posed a articles include personal testimonies of women on issues problem for women at the time desiring to be Conservative such as the place of women in Jewish law and community rabbis versus Reform rabbis. Gerson Cohen, chancellor life. Also in 1971, following her ordination a group of women of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New formed Ezrat Nashim (the name of the women’s section of York, states, “The faculty at the principal seminary of synagogue, also translated as “help of women”); the group Conservative Judaism in America has killed the possibility studied the status of women in Judaism, focusing on their of ordaining women as rabbis for the foreseeable future.” second-class status, and admittance to rabbinical schools. In For Orthodoxy, the issue of women rabbis did not pose 1972, a new journal, Response, published a special issue on a problem, simply because Orthodox institutions held that “The Jewish Woman” with the hopes of bringing awareness to rabbis must be men and that only men could fulfill the tasks a new emerging Jewish counterculture. This counterculture associated with the rabbinate. Not all Orthodox Jewish women created by young Jews confronted the Jewish “establishment,” accepted this view. Blu Greenberg, an Orthodox feminist, which spent decades maintaining its image of respectability. wrote and lectured about the possibility of reconciling These individual American Jews cared so deeply about traditional Judaism with feminism’s call for expanding their Jewish roots that they demonstratively challenged the human rights to include all women. Greenberg states in her existing institutions. Institutional changes include Priesand’s book, On Women and Judaism (1981), that women have the ordination in 1972 and the creation of task forces on the status same potential as men. Some Orthodox rabbis remained of women in the community established by various Jewish open to the idea of women’s participation in religious organizations, such as the National Council of Jewish Women. practice. The formation of women’s prayer groups allowed Jewish women continued to fight for equality, expressing their women to be on their own, in a separate space, to perform the level of commitment to Judaism. Upon Priesand’s ordination rituals previously restricted to men. Therefore, the changes in the Reform movement, women in the Conservative in Orthodox Judaism remained small and organized by men. movement called on Judaism to change and accommodate The second-wave of feminism in the United States to a new reality and accept the feminist challenge. lasted until the early 1980s. This period of feminist activity Certainly, the Jewish feminist movement in the United promoted great strides for Jewish women, but the recognition States made headway, and it even gained large support and applies mainly to the women who initiated the very first respect. More publications on Jewish feminism appeared, steps. The ordination of Priesand and the initiation of many following those in Davka and Response. Jewish women Jewish women to form organizations and promote feminist began to hold conferences, including the National Jewish scholarship influenced the lives of many Jewish women. Women’s Conference in 1973, and initiated steps to increase Marcia Cohn Spiegel, a 1979 graduate of Hebrew Union the role of women in religious and secular life. In 1976, College earned her graduate degree in Jewish Communal many books regarding Jewish feminism were published, Service. She worked to create change in the attitudes of including The Jewish Woman: New Perspectives and the Jewish community toward addiction, violence, and The Jewish Woman in America. However, despite this sexual abuse. Spiegel addresses these unspoken issues in progress, the struggle for equality largely remained. Many her book, The Heritage of Noah: Alcoholism in the Jewish of the first women rabbis, including Priesand, encountered Community Today (1979), the first documentation of the prejudice and discrimination, especially while searching disease in the Jewish community. In relation to the Jewish for a rabbinical position. A number of new women rabbis feminist scholarship during the 1970s and early 1980s, aimed to rewrite the traditional liturgy in order to remove Spiegel states, “We read about women who have transcended

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tradition to become rabbis, to chant from the Torah, to song Mi Sheberach (“May the One Who Blessed”) into assume nontraditional roles. These stories reveal both the a song of healing. Jewish feminists possessed the gift of joys and pleasures, and the ambivalence and marginality integrating Jewish and feminist identities in the practice of that Jewish women feel. Through their voices and tales, we religion, and in the case of Friedman, her music portrayed a are forced to reconstruct our image of a Jewish woman.” form of activism by rewriting Jewish liturgy. The foundation built by Jewish feminists is undeniable. JEWISH FEMINISM TODAY: SUCCESS AND The accomplishments of Jewish women today parallel CHALLENGES those of past achievements. The majority of working The early 1990s are typically labeled as the beginning of the Jewish women hold professional, semiprofessional, or third-wave of feminism in the United States. By this time in managerial positions. Today, Jewish women are among the America, the Jewish feminist movement was accomplishing most highly educated women in the United States. Despite great strides. In 1985, the Conservative movement’s Jewish these undeniable achievements, Jewish women continue to Theological Seminary ordained its first woman rabbi, Amy suffer from inequalities within American Judaism. Jewish Eilberg. The same year, Madeleine Kunin became the first women were at the forefront of third-wave feminism, and Jewish woman governor in America. In 1990, the Los Angeles the perception is that their achievements equal those of Jewish Feminist Center was founded, and Judith Plaskow, Jewish men. Their achievements most likely surpass the a professor of Religious Studies at Manhattan College, achievements of Jewish men, yet Jewish women earn only published her book, Standing Again at Sinai, the first text about fifty-six percent of what Jewish men earn. on Jewish . In 1993, Ruth Bader Ginsburg Myra Soifer, a Reform rabbi at the congregation Temple became the second woman, and the first Jewish woman, on Bat Yam in Sanibel, Florida, is one of the first ten women the Supreme Court; two years later, Dianne Feinstein and ordained in the United States after 1972. She received her Barbara Boxer of California became the first all-female state Doctor of Divinity from Hebrew Union College in 1978. In delegation in the United States. The list of achievements by an interview, Soifer chronicles her struggles to obtain her Jewish women continue into the 1990s, , and well into full rabbinical post at Temple Sinai in Reno, Nevada. Soifer, the present day. Their successes influence both religious and a friend and colleague of Priesand, knows the struggle for secular spheres of American Judaism. gender equality in Judaism all too well. She concludes that The work of Jewish feminists during the 1970s and 1980s equality for women is still a battle, even within the Reform dramatically changed the synagogue life for Jewish women. movement. Soifer states, “Women in Reform Judaism do Currently, most synagogues allow women equal participation not have full equality. I would call it ‘technical equality,’ in religious services. Sociologist Dina Pinksy states in her [because] there are still issues revolving around maternity book, Jewish Feminists: Complex Identities and Activists leave, equal pay, and the overall feeling of women getting the Lives (2010), that, presently, all Reform synagogues and the ‘big jobs’ in Reform Judaism.” Soifer is a current member vast majority of Conservative synagogues grant women total of the Women’s Rabbinic Network (WRN), created in 1975 equality. The Orthodox movement continues to separate to provide support and advocacy needed in the early years of men and women in the synagogue and provide gender women in the Reform Rabbinate. When asked if the Reform specific roles. However, some Orthodox congregations Rabbinate still needs the WRN today, Soifer replied, “Yes, slowly began to hire women spiritual leaders and label the issues of family leave and the salary gap still remain, and them as “Congregational Interns.” In 1997, Blu Greenberg, we still unfortunately deal with the uneasiness possessed by at the age of seventy-seven, founded the Jewish Orthodox male colleagues concerning full equality.” The road paved Feminist Alliance, a prominent voice for women’s equality by Jewish feminists thus remains unfinished. in Orthodoxy. The role of women in Jewish leadership positions and ritual equality in the synagogue are a direct CONCLUSION result of the Jewish-feminist movement brought about by Sally Priesand did not enter the rabbinate as a feminist. Sally Priesand, among other prominent Jewish women, in Myra Soifer describes her as “a quiet soul, desperately the 1970s and 1980s. wanting to be a rabbi.” Upon faced with finding a The Jewish-feminist movement, coinciding with both job, Priesand found that many congregations refused second- and third-wave feminism, provided space for the to interview her. She states she felt “disappointed and development of new rituals and Jewish-feminist culture in somewhat discouraged by these refusals.” Priesand’s art, literature, theater, and music. The 1990s saw Jewish experiences compelled her to adopt feminist ideals, and she women focusing on devoting themselves to asserting made the choice to speak out and provide a voice for all their Jewish heritage and to integrating Jewish women’s Jewish women. In her book, Judaism and the New Woman, perspectives into Jewish religious life. A Reform Jewish Priesand states, “Women must now take the initiative. They folksinger, Debbie Friedman, gave voice to these new rituals should seek and willingly accept new positions of authority and perspectives. Her album, Renewal of Spirit (1995), in synagogue life.” The feminist movement in Judaism was offered what she calls “a sense of spiritual connectedness.” already in place upon Priesand’s ordination, but she gave The majority of non-Orthodox liturgies adapted Friedman’s the movement the breath of life it appeared to be lacking.

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Scholarships among Jewish feminists continued to made great strides in all aspects of Judaism. It is unfortunate flourish during the second and third waves of feminism. The that, regardless of these great strides, there are those who aim achievements gained in both the religious and secular sphere to hold women back, but there will always be roadblocks are of great importance, and ultimately changed the role of to overcome. The Women’s Rabbinic Network continues women in the synagogue indefinitely. However, total equality, to hold conferences and educates Jewish women regarding the idea so passionately resonated by Priesand, continues to their second-rate status in Reform Judaism. Conservative be a struggle within Judaism. Rabbi Diamond takes a different Judaism, always a step behind Reform Judaism, still approach to women’s equality. He states, “Women are more struggles with some congregations and gender equality. than equal in Reform Judaism. As women become stronger For the most part, most Conservative congregations in the synagogue, the synagogue becomes feminized. The enact egalitarianism. Currently, the Orthodox movement question remains, did women gain these positions because is struggling with the possibility of ordaining women they earned them, or because men left them?” Rabbi Soifer rabbis. The Rabbinical Council of America, the country’s disagrees with Diamond and argues, “The idea of women main modern Orthodox rabbinical association, recently being more involved in the synagogue, and pushing men voted to ban the hiring of clergywomen by its members. out is complete nonsense, and is simply sexist propaganda.” This does not stop , a Modern Orthodox Interestingly, Diamond and Soifer were both ordained at rabbi in New York. Hurwitz is an ordained rabbi, according Hebrew Union College in 1978. The fact that they have to religious and educational requirements, but Orthodox such different views on gender equality comes down to the leaders refuse to acknowledge her as such. It is clear that difference in their own gender and experiences, and solidifies the definition of women’s roles in Orthodoxy will continue the ongoing issue of total equality in Reform Judaism today. to cause controversy for years to come. Professor Tova Rabbi Soifer raises an important issue with sexism. Hartman states, “Perhaps more than anything else, feminism In a recent study by the Social Science and Humanities has made us aware and sensitive to women’s subjective Research Council of Canada, Canadian and American Jewish experiences in societies. Thanks to feminism’s impact upon women were included in a study that examined sexism in religious women, we have also become very sensitive to Judaism. These Jewish women consider sexism similar to and aware of women’s religious subjectivity and the ways antisemitism; both are insulting and degrading. Of course, it may claim, connect to, and be infused by religious ritual antisemitism is more frightening than sexism, but sexism practice.” I feel hopeful that this process will continue. still has its hold on Jewish women. Many women in this study considered themselves to be “Jewish first, and women NOTES second.” Clearly, the idea of being both Jewish and a woman 1. David Morrison Bial, Liberal Judaism at Home: The is a complicated matter. Many of these women feared they Practices of Modern Reform Judaism (Summit: Union of might be labeled as a JAP, a Jewish American Princess. American Hebrew Congregations, 1971), 3-4. This stereotype alone was enough for many women to 2. Bial, Liberal Judaism, 7. disassociate themselves from their Jewish identities. Sexism 3. Marc Lee Raphael, Judaism in America (New York: within Judaism is not just an external issue. Internally, Columbia University Press, 2003), 62. Jewish women are subjected to sexism with their male 4. Raphael, Judaism in America, 56. counterparts, both in the religious and secular sphere. 5.Ibid., 84. , a rabbi in the Movement, 6. Neil M. Cowan and Ruth Schwartz Cowen, Our Parent’s claims that both women and men are finally acknowledging Lives: Jewish Assimilation and Everyday Life (New women’s rights to a nonsexist Judaism as a legitimate goal. Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 238. Despite this, there is still much work ahead for Jewish 7. Malka Drucker, Women and Judaism (Westport CT: women in the United States. In her book, She Who Dwells Praeger Publishers, 2009) 43. Within (1995), Gottlieb states, “I affirm my love of Jewish 8. Drucker, Women and Judaism, 44. people and culture despite revelations of our sexism. We are a 9. Ibid. thousand-year-old people who have much to preserve as well 10. Jonathan D. Sarna, American Judaism: A History (New as much to change.” Thus, the fight for women’s quality in Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2004), 339. Reform Judaism is not quite over. Perhaps it is just beginning. 11. Sylvia Barack Fishman, “The Impact of Feminism on American Jewish Life,” in American Jewish Life, 1920-1990, AFTERWORD ed. Jeffrey S. Gurock (New York: Routledge, 1998), 257. Why did it take so long for the Reform movement to 12. Elizabeth Lengyel, “Rabbi Sally Represents Change ordain women as rabbis? According to Nadell, these hopeful in Jewish Tradition,” The Day, New London, Connecticut, candidates had to prove that women were worthy, capable, December 4, 1972. serious, and intelligent simply because men felt that they 13. Lengyel, “Rabbi Sally Represents Change in Jewish were not. This research paper should not discourage the Tradition.” reader from believing that equality for women in Judaism 14. Daniel J. Elazer and Rela Mintz Geffen, The is unattainable. As I have illustrated, Jewish women have Conservative Movement in Judaism: Dilemmas and

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Opportunities (New York: State University of New York 45. Ibid., 351. Press, 2000), 62. 46. “Jewish Women Face Struggle for Ordination,” 15. Pamela S. Nadell, Women Who Would Be Rabbis: Lakeland Ledger, December 29, 1979. A History of Women’s Ordination, 1889-1985 (Boston: 47. Diner, The Jews of the United States, 352. Beacon Press, 1998), 61. 48. Ibid., 353. 16. Drucker, Women and Judaism, 44. 49. Alice Shalvi and Shulamit Peck, “Blu Greenberg,” 17. Nadell, Women Who Would Be Rabbis, 116. Jewish Women’s Archive, last modified 2009, accessed 18. Ibid., 117. November 18, 2015, http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/ 19. Riv-Ellen Prell, ed., Women Remaking American greenberg-blu. Judaism (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2007), 123. 50. Rachel Joseowitz Siegel and Ellen Cole, eds., 20. Sally Priesand in, Women Rabbis: Exploration & Celebrating the Lives of Jewish Women: Patterns in a Celebration: Papers Delivered at an Academic Conference Feminist Sampler (New York: The Haworth Press, 1997), Honoring Twenty Years of Women in the Rabbinate, 1972- xix. 1992, ed., Gary P. Zola (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College- 51. Siegel and Cole, Celebrating the Lives of Jewish Jewish Institute of Religion Rabbinic Alumni Press, 1996), Women, xix. 118. 52. Ibid. 21. “The Trailblazing Legacy of Rabbi Sally Priesand: An 53. Ibid., xxiv. Interview,” National Public Radio, January 7, 2007, last 54.“Judith Plaskow,” Jewish Women’s Archive, last modified July 17, 2011, accessed September 1, 2015. modified 2015, accessed November 19, 2015, http://jwa.org/ http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story feminism/plaskow-judith. php?storyId=6638554&ft=1&f=2. 55. Joyce Antler, The Journey Home: Jewish Women and 22. Ibid. the American Century (New York: The Free Press, 1997), 23. Michael W. Grunberger, ed., From Haven to Home: xxi. 350 Years of Jewish Life in America (New York: George 56. Dina Pinsky, Jewish Feminists: Complex Identities and Braziller, Inc., 2004), 160. Activists Lives (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois 24. Nadell, Women Who Would Be Rabbis, 152. Press, 2010), 17. 25. Grunberger, ed., From Haven to Home: 350 Years of 57. Pinsky, Jewish Feminists, 17. Jewish Life in America, 160. 58. Mark Oppenheimer, “Pushing for Change, Within the 26. Bruce Diamond, Interview by author, Fort Myers, Bounds of Orthodoxy,” New York Times, July 6, 2013. October 15, 2015. 59. Antler, The Journey Home, 291. 27. Dana Evan Kaplan, The New Reform Judaism: 60. Sarna, American Judaism, 354. Challenges and Reflections (Lincoln: University of 61. Ibid., 354-355. Nebraska Press, 2013), 80. 62. Antler, The Journey Home, xxi. 28. Kaplan, The New Reform Judaism, 81. 63. Ibid. 29. Ibid., 85. 64. Harriet Hartman and Moshe Hartman, Gender and 30. Diamond, Interview by author. American Jews: Patterns in Work, Education, and Family in 31. Ibid. Contemporary Life (Waltham: Brandeis University Press, 32. Nadell, Women Who Would Be Rabbis, 161. 2009), 90. 33. Ibid. 65. Hartman and Hartman, Gender and American Jews, 81. 34. Paul Zakrzewski, “Pioneering Rabbi Who Softly Made 66. Myra Soifer, Interview by author, Fort Myers, Her Way,” The New York Times, May 20, 2006. November 6, 2015. 35. Susannah Heschel, ed., On Being a Jewish Feminist 67. Soifer, Interview by author. (New York: Schocken Books, 1995), xi. 68. “Who We Are,” Women’s Rabbinic Network of 36. Heschel, On Being a Jewish Feminist, xxxiii. the Central Conference of American Rabbis, last 37. Karla Goldman, Beyond the Synagogue Gallery: modified 2010, accessed November 14, 2015, http:// Finding a Place for Women in American Judaism womensrabbinicnetwork.org. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 214. 69. Soifer, Interview by author. 38. Heschel, On Being a Jewish Feminist, xxxiii. 70. Soifer, Interview by author. 39. Haskie R. Diner, The Jews of the United States: 1654 to 71. Sally Priesand, Judaism and the New Woman 2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 315. (Springfield: Behrman House, 1975), xv. 40. Heschel, On Being a Jewish Feminist, xxxiii. 72. Priesand, Judaism and the New Woman, xvi. 41. Diner, The Jews of the United States, 316. 73. Diamond, Interview by author 42. Heschel, On Being a Jewish Feminist, xxxiv. 74. Soifer, Interview by author. 43. Ruth Wisse, “Women as Conservative Rabbis?,” 75. Nora Gold, “Canadian and American Jewish Women Commentary 68, no. 4 (October 1979): 59. and Their Experiences of Antisemitism and Sexism”, In 44. Diner, The Jews of the United States, 350. Celebrating the Lives of Jewish Women: Patterns in a

15 Evers DOI 10. 24049/aq.4.1.3

Feminist Sampler, eds., Rachel Josefowitz Siegel and Ellen The Washington Star. “Jewish Women Face Struggle for Cole (New York: The Haworth Press, 1997), 279. Ordination.” Lakeland Ledger, December 29, 1979. 76. Ibid., 284. Zakrzewski, Paul. “Pioneering Rabbi Who Softly Made Her 77. Ibid., 285. Way.” The New York Times, May 20, 2006. 78. Ibid. 79. Lynn Gottlieb, She Who Dwells Within: A Feminist Secondary Vision of a Renewed Judaism (New York: HarperCollins Adler, Rachel. Engendering Judaism: An Inclusive Theology Publishers, 1995), 10. and Ethics. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 80. Gottlieb, She Who Dwells Within, 10. 1998.

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