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Marginal Is Critical Marginal is Critical: A Comparative Study of Marginal Workers in Britain and Hong Kong by Hung Wong A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Sociology, Graduate School, The University of Warwick, in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Sociology The University of Warwick March 1999 For Ying, with love ii Table of Contents Table of Contents iii Acknowledgements vi Declaration viii Abstract ix Abbreviations x 1 Introduction 1 2 Research Design and Methods 25 3 Reasons for the Rise of Marginal Workers 54 4 Class is Still Central: 100 A Rethinking of Social Stratification Theory 5 Marginal Workers in Britain: 127 A Sedimentary Class Formation 6 Marginal Workers in Hong Kong: 209 A Disrupted Class Formation 7 Marginal is Critical: 288 Consciousness and Action of Marginal Workers 8 Conclusion: 345 Theoretical and Practical Implications Appendixes: 1 Target of Work and Life History Informants 369 2 Summary of Informants’ Characteristics 373 3 Topics and Questions of Oral History Interviews 382 4 Lists of Organisations Interviewed 385 References 388 List of Tables iii Table Title Page 2.1 Different Methods for the Three Levels of Unit of Analysis 32 3.1 Annual Average Changes in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) 61 of UK, 1971-1990 3.2 UK FDI Outward and Inward Stock and It’s Share in World 63 Total, 1980-1995 3.3 Estimated Value and Proportion of Outward Processing Trade 66 between Hong Kong and China, 1990-1995 3.4 Foreign Direct Investment in China by Countries, 1979-1993 68 (cumulative) 5.1 Distribution of Categories of Workers by Sex, Great Britain, 141 1991 Census — SARs 5.2 Residents Born in the New Commonwealth by Year of Entry 151 and Country of Birth, Great Britain, 1984 5.3 Labour Market Status of Single Parents with Dependent 191 Children, Great Britain, 1997 5.4 Work History of Joseph (UK14) 196 5.5 Work History of Mohammed (UK04) 201 6.1 Numbers of Persons Engaged in Manufacturing Industry by 233 Activity Status and by Sex, Hong Kong, 1976 By-Census 6.2 Percentage Distribution of Employed Local Population and 242 Migrant Population by Occupation, Hong Kong, 1981 Census 6.3 Working Population by Industry, Hong Kong, 1981, 257 1986,1991,1996 6.4 Work History of Mui (HK05) 271 6.4 Work History of Jan (HK10) 272 7.1 Differences in the Class Formation of Marginal Workers Class 344 in Hong Kong and Britain Lists of Figures Figure Title Page iv 2.1 Relationship between Different Methods in Different 33 Phases of Research 4.1 Forms of Determination: Limits, Selects and Transforms 119 4.2 Micro-Macro Linkage in Class Analysis 121 5.1 Classification of the Mainstream, Marginal or Unclassified 133 of the 2% Individual Samples of Anonymised Records from the 1991 Census of Population of Great Britain 5.2 Percentage Distribution of the Mainstream, Marginal and 142 Unclassified by Ethnic Origins, Great Britain, 1991 Census—SARs 5.3 Trends in ILO Unemployment Rates by Ethnic Origin, 177 Great Britain, Spring 1984 to Spring 1991 8.1 Original Theoretical Assumption: Relation between 352 Location, Consciousness and Action of Marginal Workers 8.2 A Class Analysis Model of Marginal Workers in Hong 354 Kong 8.3 A Class Analysis Model of Marginal Workers in Britain 356 8.4 A Dialectic Model between Action and Consciousness 359 v Acknowledgements The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the kind assistance of many people. First and foremost, I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Robin Cohen, for his indispensable and invaluable guidance during the whole research process. Every chapter of this dissertation is testimony to his advice and insight. His wide perspective and penetrating comments were an impetus to my study. Second, I am also grateful to the stimulating comments and useful suggestions given by the two examiners, Professor Jeff Henderson and Dr. Tony Elger. During the process of preparation of this dissertation, I have received ongoing advice, encouragement and support from many friends. My best friend, Chuen (Dr. T.C. Luk) provided critical intellectual comments, encouragement as well as substantial help. Darrall Cozens, another friend and comrade, gave critical, insightful and detailed comments and advice. Their comments have sharpened my ideas and arguments in the whole thesis. The brotherhood of Chuen and Darral made me feel that I have not really been alone on this long and lonely journey. I would also like to acknowledge Mr. T. Y. Lee and Dr. John Holford for their valuable and stimulating comments. Dr. C.W. Lam, Dr. H.C. Leung, Dr. Thomas, K.C. Tse, Ms. Yvonne Tse, Mr. K.M. Lee and Ms. Betty Horner provided practical assistance in the preparation of the dissertation. All of them deserve my gratitude from the bottom of my heart. In particular I have benefited a lot from the comments on my dissertation proposal made by Professors M. Archer, J. Beckford, R. Burgess, Drs. E. Annandale, P. Fairbrother, J. Foster, R. Lampard, and A. Philzacklea at Warwick. I am also grateful to the informants, the marginal workers in Britain and Hong Kong, who have shared their joy and sorrow with me. Their work and life histories have enlightened my intellectual pursuits and have revitalised my cherished vi belief that workers are not totally subsumed by the logic of capitalism. I would like to thank Mr. Darrall Cozens, Dr. Peter Fairbrother, the AKETA Project, the Hillfield Centre of the University of Warwick and the Trade Union Resource Centre in the UK and Ms. Fong Sau-lan, the Streetsleepers’ Service Project of the Salvation Army, the Asian Migrant Workers Social Service Project of the Caritas and the Christian Industrial Committee in Hong Kong for introducing informants. I am also grateful to the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) for allowing me to use the 1991 Census -- Samples of Anonymised Records. My study in the UK was partly financed by the Overseas Research Students Award and the University of Warwick Hong Kong Scholarship, whose financial assistance was essential. My debt to my wife Man-ying is of a different order. Without her unceasing support and indispensable assistance at every stage of the preparation of this dissertation, it would never have been completed. In order to assist me, my wife has temporarily forsaken her career and has had to take up several part-time temporary jobs in order to have more time to help. As a marginal worker, she has been exploited by her bosses, and as an unpaid research assistant, she has definitely been exploited by me. I can never repay all my debt to Man-ying. This dissertation is dedicated to her. vii Declaration I hereby declare that this dissertation represents my own work and that it had not been previously submitted to this University and any other institutions in application for a degree, diploma or other qualifications. _______________ Mr. Hung Wong March 1999 viii Abstract This study explores the rise of marginal workers in Britain and Hong Kong after the Second World War and argues that marginal workers are not minor, unimportant, powerless and transient elements of capitalist development. Marginal workers, however, are important and indispensable to the development of capitalism in both regions. The work and life histories of marginal workers in Britain and Hong Kong show that gender and ethnic inequalities are articulated through and intensified by class inequality. The overlapping of these inequalities creates different subgroups of marginal workers. The marginalisation of labour is the process of the identification and separation of marginal groups from mainstream society. With assistance from the state, capital has been able to increase its exploitation of and control over labour through intensified gender, ethnic, occupational and international divisions of labour. This thesis argues that marginal is critical. A marginal class location induces a marginal class consciousness, which is a counter, non-conforming and cynical attitude towards oppression and exploitation. Nonetheless, while the consciousness of British marginal workers is more aggressive, radical and well-shaped, that of marginal workers in Hong Kong is more self-defensive, conservative and amorphous. This thesis suggests that these different patterns of marginal consciousness are a product of their distinctive class formation process: marginal workers in Britain have undergone a ‘sedimentary’ class formation, their counterparts in Hong Kong have undergone a ‘disrupted’ class formation. The ‘sedimentary class formation’ of marginal workers in Britain is structured by its marginal trap of downward mobility and low geographical mobility at the macro level, alongside active shop-floor struggle and strong trade unionism at the meso level. The ‘disrupted class formation’ of marginal workers in Hong Kong is caused by its permeable class structure and covert class struggle, alongside the lack of shop-floor trade union organisers and experience of struggle. ix Abbreviations CCP Chinese Communist Party CIDL Changing International Division of Labour CSSA Comprehensive Social Security Assistance Scheme EPZs Export Processing Zones GDP Gross Domestic Product GEC General Electric Company GHS General Household Survey HK Hong Kong HKD Hong Kong Dollars HKFTU Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions ILO International Labour Organisation JETRO Japan External Trade Organisation JIT Just In Time IMF International Monetary Fund IWA(GB) Indian Workers Association (Great Britain) LFS Labour Force Survey MNCs
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