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Introduction 5 Table 1. Tones of Chángshā (6) (from Wǔ 1999) yin ping tone 33 儈 kau33 'tall' yang ping tone 13 ェ tin13 'poor' shang tone 41 ਓ khu41 'mouth' yin qu tone 45 㨌 tshai45 'vegetable' yang qu tone 21 tso21 'to sit' ru tone 24 ޝ lu24 'six' Table 2. 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Introduction 41 (46) vP vo Asp3P ("Realization P") Asp3' Asp3o Asp2P Asp2’ Asp2o Asp1P ("Telicity P") (phase complement) Asp1’ Asp1o VP V’ Vo The head of Asp1P is where the lexical endpoint is positioned (like sǐ 'dead' in (44a) and huài 'broken' in (44b)) and the head Asp2P is filled by the elements called phase complement (like diào 'off' in these examples), while the head of Asp3P is occupied by perfective marker le. In the following chapter, I assume Sybesma’s (2017) analysis, modifying it in at least one place in that I will argue that Asp20 may be occupied by different types of elements (not just these “phase complements”) and that its function varies accordingly. Above, I focused on Sybesma’s (2017) view of Inner aspect in Mandarin. Aside from concretely proposing the three-layered structure in between vP and VP, it also is one way in which researchers have shown that situation aspect is compositional in Mandarin. 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V+ta21 53 Chapter 2. V + ta21 2.1 Introduction An event can be presented as a whole, including the beginning and endpoint; it can also be presented with its inner stages. These two ways of presenting events are known as perfective and imperfective respectively. In Mandarin, these two ways are indicated by aspect particles. We have mentioned in chapter 1, that perfective is presented by the particle le. Imperfective is presented by preverbal zài or postverbal zhe. zài is a progressive marker indicating that an action in ongoing, and zhe is what is often called a durative marker indicating that a result state stays, but it can at other times also indicate that an action is in progress. There are cases in which the differences between zai and zhe are not so clear-cut, e.g., when both are used to indicate the continuity of an action. We will see later on that Tsai (2008) assigns different structural positions zài and zhe. In chapter 4, I will return to this particular point, but since the differentiation between them is not my concern in this chapter, I just use the term “imperfective” to refer to both zài and zhe. The expression of perfective and imperfective in Mandarin can be seen in (1b, 1c) and (1d, 1e) respectively. 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DORQJZLWKYRLFHDQGWKHOH[LFDOYHUE +DUZRRG 110 Chapter 2. V+ta21 21 21 The position of ta PERF and ta PROG is presented in (88). (88) vP v' vo Asp3P Asp3’ 21 ta PERF Asp2P Asp2' 21 ta PROG Asp1P VP V 21 I have already said a few times that both le and ta PERF, despite the fact that they are located in inner aspect, are interpreted in outer aspect. This was discussed in more detail in Chapter 1. It is important to emphasize that there is a difference between Mandarin and the Xiāng dialects in two, I think, correlating respects. First, whereas 21 in the Xiāng dialect Chángshā ta PERF is able to strengthen T such that the latter is enabled to license the event argument, Mandarin le is not. The second difference is that the phenomenon that we see in the Xiāng dialect Chénxī, that both the outer and the inner aspect position are filled (see (89), repeated from Chapter 1), is not found in any Mandarin dialect. 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V+ka41 123 ka41 will make the sentences ungrammatical. Note that for comparison, I will also point out that in the same cases in Mandarin, no such element is needed. 3.2.1.1 ka41 in achievements With only a few exceptions, achievement verbs always co-occur with ka41. Let us first look at ka41 in achievements in the perfective. Sentences with an achievement in the perfective expressed by the perfective marker ta21, always contain ka41 as well. This is shown in (5). (5) a. tha33 mn21 tsau41 tiu21 tau41 {ka41 ta21/*ka41/*ta21}. 3PL early then arrive KA PERF 'They have arrived long time ago.' b. tsh33tsi fan33 {ka41 ta21/*ka41/*ta21}. car turn over KA PERF 'The car turned over.' c. Tsansan xy33 {ka41 ta21/*ka41/*ta21}. lose KA PERF 'Tsansan lost (the game).' The verbs tau41 'arrive', fan33 'turn over' and xy33 'lose' are achievement predicates, and the sentences in (5) show that when presenting these events in the perfective, ka41 is obligatory, the perfective marker ta21 cannot do it alone. Only in a few cases of achievements is ka41 optional. These cases include the verbs lai13 'come' and tsou41 'leave'. The interpretation of the sentences differs whether or not ka41 is used. 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V+ka41 modal) the distribution of both elements is quite similar. More examples are presented in (113). (113) a. wǒ yóu wán le yǒng jiù huí qù. 1SG swimFINISH PERF swim then back go 'I will go back after I’ve done my swimming.' b. ŋο41 iou13 ka41 ta21 iun41 tiu21 fɛ13 khə41. 1SG swim KA PERF swim then back go 'I will go back after I have done my swimming.' c. ŋο41 iou13 oŋ13 ka41 ta21 iun41 tiu21 fɛ13 khə41. 1SG swim finish KA PERF swim then back go 'I will go back after I have done my swimming.' If we look at (113a, 113b), it appears that ka41 is like the lexical verb wán in Mandarin. However, this is not right. The main reason is that ka41 can co-occur with oŋ13 'finish' in Chángshā, as is shown in (113c). In other words, in sentences like these, Mandarin wán ‘done, finish’ and its Chángshā counterpart oŋ13 are lexical result denoting elements, just like comparable to kao33 ‘high’ in (29b). This confirms that ka41 is different and that it doubles the endpoint that is already there. Before we go on to the next section and discuss the analysis of ka41, there is one more observation to make. To put it briefly, whenever ka41 appears the endpoint of an event is not cancelable, not deniable. Consider (114): (114) a. Li41si iə41 ta21 i21 fǝn33 in41, ko41shi21 mau21 iə41 write PERF one CL letter, but NEG write οŋ13 finish. 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V+ka41 189 connective actions; in (130b) - (130c), the objects are quantized; in (131) - (132), there is a durative phrase san33 thian33 'three days', and pon45ko41iao41si13 'half an hour' respectively. Without these elements, ta21 cannot be missing, as we have seen in previous sections. There is always something else in the sentence in which ta21 can be missing. This sounds familiar from the discussion in chapter 2 regarding taprog, which is argued to be located in AsP2 position, a position which is too low to help a sentene to anchor to tense. To use taprog, other elements are needed to help anchor the sentence to tense. It seems that the same thing happens here. Before we can answer the story, we go back to the work by Tsai (2008). As we discussed earlier, Tsai (2008) discusses what he calls “incomplete” sentences in Mandarin. An example is given in (133) (Tsai’s (6a)): (133) ??AQ ná- le shū. AQ take-PERF book 'AQ took books.' We saw before that Tsai (2008) explains the unacceptability by claiming that all sentences must be “tense anchored” and that one way of doing this is for the Asp to move to T. Asp-marker le, however, is too low to raise to T. As a result, the necessary link cannot be made and the sentence is not acceptable. Tsai presents a number of methods in which these sentences can be “repaired”. Here is an overview: -by embedding the sentence in a bigger sentence (see (134)) -with negation (e.g., méi ná shū: not.have take book) -with modals (e.g., yīnggāi ná shū: ought to take book) -employing imperative/exclamative/counterfactual intonation -using contrastive focus -using other aspect markers (e.g., ná-guo shū: ‘he once took a book’; experiential aspect) -adding a sentence final particle -adding a temporal adverb -with event quantification or a quantified object (see (135)) 190 Chapter 3 V+ka41 (134) AQ ná-le shū, jiù zǒu-le. AQ take-PERF book then leave-PERF 'AQ left after taking the book. (135) a. AQ ná-le sān běn shū. AQ take-PERF three CL book 'AQ took three books.' b. AQ ná-le sān cì shū. AQ take-PERF three time book 'AQ took books three times.' As we saw above, Tsai's point of departure is the "Generalized Anchoring Principle", a general mapping mechanism of spelling out the event variable in a sentence. In English, Tsai claims, the event variable is bound by tense morphology, but Chinese “employs all sorts of eventuality construals such as event quantification, event coordination, event subordination and event modification to bring out the event variable” (Tsai 2008:681). Turning to the methods in which the sentences with ka41 in Chángshā can be repaired, we see that exactly the same type of methods is used as in Mandarin. In (130a), the two-consective actions are connected by the temporal adverb tiu21 'then'. Following Tsai we say that the first sentence is anchored to tense by the reference to the second one, that is why (129a) is grammatical (giving us the false impression that ka41 is a perfective marker). In (130b), we see yet other cases with ka41 and without ta21, with a perfective reading. These cases happen to also be similar to sentences used by Tsai, such as (135) above, involving event quantification to bring out the event variable. In (131) and (132), the sentences are presented with achievement predicates. There is a durative phrase in each sentence. The event variables in these sentences are hence brought out in the sense of Tsai (2008). To be brief, since ka41 is not a perfective marker, it cannot be used alone as 21 41 21 ta PROG is. This is because ka and ta occupy the same position and a sentence with them but without anything in Asp3 can be saved when other material helps to strengthen T to do its job. 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Conclusion 225 In (1a) - (1d), ta21 can be a progressive marker. To explain the fact that ta21 can be used as either a perfective or a progressive marker, I first explored the possibility that ta21 is a perfective marker and that the progressive and the duration reading are derived from the contexts. However, this turned out to be an impossible position. Subsequently, I argued that there are two forms of ta21, 21 21 with ta PERF indicating that an event is completed or terminated, and ta PROG indicating that an action is ongoing or continuous. (The duration reading is derived from its use as a perfective marker: the action is completed, the result state created by the action is left there.) To provide an account for the distribution and interpretation of ta21, I introduced Sybesma (2017). In Sybesma (2017), the perfective marker le is located not in Outer aspect position, but in Inner aspect position, and is interpreted in Outer aspect position. In the same line of Sybesma (2017) 21 arguing for Mandarin, I assume that ta PERF in Chángshā is also located in an Inner aspect position, but interpreted in Outer aspect position. In this part of the analysis, I also adopted insights from Tsai (2008), who argues that tense anchoring is a process of licensing an event argument. Importantly, in tensed languages with tense morphology, anchoring the event argument through tense is the default, while in languages without tense morphology, the process of tense anchoring can be done through the interaction between tense and outer aspect, or other semantic ways. In Mandarin, the tense, according to Tsai (2008), is weak, hence needs to be strengthened. To anchor an event to tense, aspect elements in outer aspect can move up to join T to anchor an event to tense. Otherwise other semantic means are used. For instance, event quantification, negators, modality or other operators can be used to bind an event variable. Tsai further assumes that only elements in Outer aspect position can move up to join T to anchor a sentence to tense, others, which are lower than little v cannot. 21 Basing myself on Tsai (2008), I proposed that ta PERF is like le in Mandarin. However, as regard to its location, I am in line with Sybesma’s (2017) analysis, in assuming that it is located in Asp3o, in Inner aspect, but is interpreted in Outer aspect. Since it is interpreted in Outer aspect position, it is 21 able to help the event anchor to tense. 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Conclusion 227 ˄2˅ vP v' Asp3P ("Realization P") vo Asp3’ Asp2P 21 ta PERF Asp2' Asp1P("TelicityP") 21 ta PROG 41 ka Asp1' VP Asp1o In (2), there are four layers of aspect: one outer aspect and three Inner aspects: Asp3P is RealizationP, indicating whether the endpoint has been reached or not. As to Asp2P, its function varies. If it is filled by ka41, then the process of preceding an endpoint projected in an event is not available to participate in 21 further syntactic operation. But if it is filled by ta PERF as is mentioned in chapter 2, then, quite the opposite happens, as it then indicates that an event is ongoing. Asp1P, or Telicity P, is occupied by lexical predicative elements, denoting the endpoint of the event. This is all illustrated in (3), with ka41 doubling the endpoint in (3ai) and the result is definitive, with the result of blocking further syntactic operations targeting the event, as is shown in (3b). Without ka41 this is all exactly the other way around, as shown in (3aii) and (3c). 228 Chapter 5. Conclusion (3) a. tha33 i41 kan33tin21 (ka41) ta21 i33 fu41. 3SG wash finish KA PERF clothes (i)With ka: 'He has washing the clothes clean.' (ii)Without ka: 'He has washed the clothes (not necessary cleaned/completed).' b. *tha33 tsai21 ko24 i41 kan33tin21 ka41 i33fu41. 3SG PROG wash clean KA clothes c. tha33 tsai21ko24 i41 kan33tin21 i33fu41. 3SG PROG wash clean clothes 'He is washing the clothes clean.' 21 41 21 5.4 tau …tsai in Xùpǔ and zhe in Mandarin in support of ta PROG 21 and ta PERF 21 21 In chapter 4, I mainly argued that the proposed analysis of ta PROG and ta PERF in Chángshā can be further supported by three piece of evidence. They are: (i) the use of tau21…tsai41 in Xùpǔ; (ii) the multifunctionality of Mandarin zhe; and (iii) the grammaticalization path of zhe. I started from the introduction of tau21…tsai41. In the previous literature, tau21…tsai41 has been argued to be a progressive marker (Hè 1997, Qú 2007). Hè (1997) argues that the combination is used to indicate ongoingness of an action. There is no great difference between the preverbal tsai41 (a progressive marker) and the tau21…tsai41 combination; both are used to indicate progressive meaning. However, I notice that the combination of tau21 and tsai41 can only be used in activities to indicate an ongoing action, while with achievement and accomplishment predicates, the combination does not produce the meaning of ongoingness but the completion 21 21 of an action. I argued that tau in the combination can be divided into tau PERF 21 21 and tau PROG, with tau PERF indicating the completion of an action, and 21 tau PROG indicating that an action is ongoing. I further pointed out that the multi-functionality of tau21 can be used to support my analysis of ta21, which is used to express either the perfective or progressive meaning, as we just saw. 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