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The Aerodynamics of a Modern Warship Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy By Rebecca Mateer School of Engineering University of Liverpool January 2020 The Aerodynamics of a Modern Warship Abstract Although modern warships routinely operate with on-board helicopters, the effect of the ship superstructure aerodynamics on the flying environment around the ship is generally not considered in the design process. The modern warship is now well designed for stealth in warfare, but the now bulkier, smooth-sided and sharp-edged superstructures create a significant disturbance to the oncoming wind, resulting in turbulent flow features in the lee of the ship, most often across the stern where the ship’s flight deck is located. Such conditions, coupled with hot exhaust gases from the ship’s gas turbine engines, ever- changing weather resulting in various sea-states, sea-spray, rain, fog, etc. create a potentially very hazardous operational environment. In addition, as the launch of unmanned aircraft (UA) vehicles from the flight deck is becoming commonplace, their successful launch and recovery is also directly impacted by the scale of the turbulent flow features in the vicinity of the flight deck. Through the use of time-accurate Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), this thesis addresses the impact of modern warship aerodynamics on helicopter and UAV operations. Full-scale, time-accurate, unsteady airwakes have been produced for an early design of the UK Royal Navy’s new Global Combat Ship (GCS), the Type 26 City-Class, and its predecessor, the Type 23 Duke-Class. The larger, stealthier design of the GCS has been shown to produce a more aggressive airwake compared with its predecessor, resulting in higher turbulence levels across the flight deck and greater aerodynamic loading on a helicopter. The larger main mast of the GCS also has a clear effect on the accuracy of the ship’s anemometer readings when compared with Type 23 thereby making it difficult to determine if the wind conditions are safe for helicopter launch and recovery. Simulation of the Type 23 and GCS exhaust gas efflux has shown that the more turbulent airwake of the GCS aids the cooling and dispersion of the ship’s exhaust gases with air temperatures above the flight deck being comparatively lower for the GCS in headwind and Green 30 wind-over-deck (WOD) conditions. As such, the dispersing engine exhaust plume of Type 23 presents a greater threat to the helicopter. Detailed analysis of the air flow around the GCS main mast has shown how CFD can be used to predict flow distortion at the ship’s anemometers. Issues with current practice for positioning anemometers on bulky main mast structures, detailed in the defence standard, DEFSTAN 00-133 Part 2, have been highlighted. Findings show that the defence standard should be modified to take account of the new ship geometries that are emerging; at the least, anemometers should be placed as high up the mast structure as possible on yard arms of suitable length. Additionally, an appropriately placed aft anemometer is recommended to yield more accurate wind measurements from astern. Analysis of the exhaust gas dispersion from the GCS has shown that significant cooling of the plume is achieved through the hot exhaust gases mixing with the ship’s turbulent airwake, but elevated, unsteady temperatures are present in the vicinity of the flight deck, particularly in the port side hover position in a Green 30 WOD, that can adversely affect an operating helicopter. The addition of an eductor to the exhaust outlet does reduce temperatures above the flight deck, but the temperatures remain elevated and unsteady. A new method for simulating the launch of lightweight unmanned aircraft into the turbulent CFD-generated ship airwake has been also developed. The simulation environment has shown potential for developing Unmanned Aircraft (UA) for maritime applications, for developing appropriate flight controllers, and for developing appropriate launch and recovery operational procedures. i The Aerodynamics of a Modern Warship Acknowledgements Following on from a thoroughly enjoyable undergraduate degree at the University of Liverpool, the opportunity to continue my studies and embark upon a PhD journey was one that I could not pass upon, and for that opportunity, Prof Ieuan Owen and Prof Mark White, I am so grateful. I would like to thank you both for your endless patience, selflessness and encouragement throughout what has been a difficult but rewarding few years. Very early on in my studies, I coined the term, ‘Work-Dads’, for you both, at first light-heartedly for your wise words and ever worsening Dad jokes, but reflecting upon the past few years, in the most endearing of ways you have at many times been more than just supervisors, and for that, I will always be so grateful. Thank you. Having the opportunity to work with BAE Systems Surface Ships, in particular, Niven McDowell, Kevin Brown and Geoff Roach, on the Royal Navy’s Type 26 City-Class frigate, was a highlight and is the contribution to which I am most proud of. Working alongside such a well-established industrial partner, learning so much in the process and providing a little bit of that expertise gained along the way has been a pleasure. Thank you. Particular thanks also go to Dr Linghai Lu for his expert help in producing a FlightLab model of a UAV system for a part of my research and Neil Cameron for his assistance in adding an automated control system – you have both been invaluable, thank you. Another special mention must also go to Denise Stewart, for her wise words, encouragement, always being there to talk to when needed, and never failing to make me laugh, even on a bad day – thank you! For all of the wonderful people I have had the pleasure of navigating PhD life with, firstly, Sarah Scott and Michael Kelly, for showing me the ropes and imparting your wisdoms at the beginning of my studies, you were both so patient and nothing was ever too much, thank you. Wajih Memon, for all of your help with everything sim related, you have been integral to the completion of my studies, thank you so very much. To you three and to the rest of my PhD team; Jade Adams-White, Chris Dadswell, Neale Watson, Josie Roscoe, Matt Hudson, Nick Fernandez and Isaac Stephens, thank you so much for the hours of thought-provoking conversation, hugs and support when they were needed, countless laughs and all the AJ trips in between! This whole experience was made by you. Finally, to my parents, Yvonne and Darren, who have always encouraged me to push myself to achieve whatever I have set out to, I would not have gotten to where I am today without the unconditional love and support you both continue to give me. I love you. Thank you. ii The Aerodynamics of a Modern Warship Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... ii Nomenclature .......................................................................................................................... vi Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 Background............................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1. Historical Context ............................................................................................. 2 1.1.2. Naval Aviation ................................................................................................... 4 1.1.3. Wind Measurement ......................................................................................... 6 1.1.4. Characteristics of a Modern Warship ............................................................... 8 1.1.5. Helicopter-enabled Warships ......................................................................... 11 1.1.5.1. Superstructure Aerodynamics: Stealth vs. Aviation? .............................. 14 Chapter 2. Computational Fluid Dynamics for Ship Airwake Modelling ............................ 17 Modelling of Ship Airwakes with CFD ..................................................................... 17 CFD Methodology ................................................................................................... 19 2.2.1. The Governing Equations ............................................................................... 19 2.2.2. Turbulence Modelling .................................................................................... 20 2.2.3. Thermal Energy Modelling ............................................................................. 21 2.2.4. Discretization Schemes ................................................................................... 22 CAD Geometry ........................................................................................................ 23 2.3.1. Preparation of CAD ......................................................................................... 23 2.3.2. Domain Shape and Sizing ............................................................................... 26 Mesh Generation ...................................................................................................
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