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Home , Mongols, Pax Mongolica

“The Mongols made no technological breakthroughs, founded no new religions, wrote few books or dramas”

Why historically significant? To compare…

Imagine if… “the U.S., instead of being created by a group of educated merchants & wealthy planters, had been founded by one of its illiterate slaves, who, by the sheer force of personality, charisma, & determination, liberated America from foreign rule, united the people,… invented a new system of warfare, marched an army from to Brazil, and opened roads of commerce in a free-trade zone that stretched across the continents.” – Jack Weatherford in Genghis A Quick Background…

• • was the chosen leader • Need for water leads to conquest - Central lacked rain for agriculture • Greatest Opportunity was trade – ! What were the key factors that allowed fewer than 125,000 nomadic to build the largest in world history?

• Power

• Adapting to conquered lands cultures/talents

• Timing: conquering lands one by one (think of puzzle pieces being put together) Impact of the Mongols

• “The Mongols created a single economic, cultural, and epidemiological world system”

– Mongol Exchange – New methods of warfare – Trade from Venice to and beyond – Demographic change via the and major population shifts – Altered the political histories of , , – Unparalleled cultural diffusion

Strong Equestrians and Archers • The Mongols were oriented around extreme mobility. They carried their houses with them, drank their own 's blood to stay alive, and could travel up to 62 miles per day. • They had an elaborate priority- mail-system which allowed orders to be transmitted rapidly across . • Mongol archers were very deadly and accurate – Their arrows could kill enemies at 200 meters (656 feet) Mongol War Equipment

• The carried a • During winter they wore several protective shield made of light layers of wool as well as heavy leather armor leather boots with socks on – which was impregnated with a their feet. lacquer-like substance in order to • The legs were often protected by make it more impervious to overlapping iron plates resembling penetration by arrows, swords fish scales, which were sewn into and knives, and also to protect it the boots. against humid weather • Each warrior carried a battle axe, a • The Mongol warrior used to curved sword known as scimitar; a wear Chinese underwear, lance, and two versions of their if it could be obtained, most famous weapon: the Mongol because it was a very tough re-curved bow. substance – One of the bows was light and – If arrows are shot from a long could be fired rapidly from distance, it would not penetrate horseback, the other one was the silk heavier and designed for long- – It would also prevent poison from range use from a ground entering the bloodstream position Psychological Warfare

• Genghis Khan used combined fake retreats with accurate Horse Archers to pick off his European enemies.

• Genghis Khan slaughtered a few cities, in an attempt to scare all other cities to surrender without a fight. He, being a practical leader, also valued smarts more than bravery

• If enemies surrendered without resistance, the Mongolsusually spared their lives, and they provided generous treatment for artisans, craft workers, and those with military skills

• In the event of resistance, the Mongols ruthlessly slaughtered whole populations, sparing only a few, whom they sometimes drove ahead of their armies as human shields during future conflicts Genghis Khan

• In 25 years, subjugated more land & people than the Romans did in 400 years. • Destroyed LOTS of ‘less important’ cities – often along less accessible trade routes – to funnel commerce into routes that his army could more easily supervise and control. Genghis Khan • Valued individual merit & loyalty • Fighting wasn’t honorable; winning was. So, used any means necessary to win (trickery, etc.) • Conscripted peasants: Mongols just didn’t understand peasants who seemed like grazing animals rather than real humans who ate meat. “They used same terms, precision, & emotion in rounding up yaks as peasants.” • Refugees preceded Mongol attack as people from outlying areas fled to cities for protection but overwhelmed the cities & spread fear • LOVED negative PR: allowed & encouraged true or false stories to be circulated in order instill fear. • Fought on the move: didn’t care if chased or fled (unlike sedentary soldier-farmer), just wanted to kill the enemy. Genghis Khan – innovations

• Relied on speed & surprise and perfected siege warfare (not relied on defensive fortifications) • Used resources of land instead of relying on supply train • Allocated fallen soldiers’ share of loot to widow/children (ensured support) • Reorganized army so each unit had a mix of tribal/ethnic peoples and they had to live & fight together ---transcend kinship, ethnicity, & religion. • Religious tolerance  • Instituted postal system for communication • Ordered writing system created • Abolished torture & insisted on rule of law (to which even the khan was accountable)

Rule in conquered territories

 Ruthless annihilation of resistance (terror tactics).  General benevolence when no resistance.  Cities generally left under native governors.  Religious tolerance important in consolidating rule, gain support of minorities oppressed by . • Administration commonly more benign, less corrupt than pre-Mongol government. Overland Trade and Plague

–1. Mongol conquests opened overland trade routes and brought commercial integration of Eurasia.

–2. Disease including the spread among the world. “”

• Under the Mongols, there was unprecedented long- distance trade

• Mongols encouraged the exchange of people, , and information across their empire

• Weatherford: the Mongols were “civilization’s unrivaled cultural carriers…” en route to China Mongol Passport Pax Mongolica • By the mid 13th c, the family of Genghis Khan controls Asia from China to the Black Sea creating a period of stability during which trade flourishes to new heights along the Silk Routes. Before  lots of fighting in and fighting between Muslims & in the SW Asia, but now  stability brings trade in more volume & people who now travel the entire distance. Marco Polo traveling the Silk Roads • Encouraged great commercial, religious, intellectual exchange between the East & West. “The Mongols made culture portable: it was not enough to merely exchange goods, because whole systems of knowledge had to also be transported in order to use many of the new products” (e.g. drugs weren’t profitable trade items unless one possessed medical knowledge for their use, so moved Arab doctors to China & vice versa) Pax Mongolica: look at all these routes! Exchanges During the Mongol Era

From From From From Europe Southwest Asia South Asia East Asia

Honey Textiles Spices Horses Rugs Gems Firearms Glassware Incense Perfumes Rockets Slaves Finished iron products Textiles Magnetic compass Finished gold products Porcelain Silk Maritime Technology Paper Making Printing Tea

Christian missionaries Muslim merchants Indian merchants Buddhist religious objects Italian merchants Nestorian merchants Indian diplomats Chinese bureaucrats European diplomats Muslim diplomats Chinese artists, artisans East Asian diplomats

Sugar cane

Intellectual Exchanges of Ideas, Art, Architecture, Knowledge was constant

War with Persia 1218-1222

 War started after put Mongol military leaders to death.  War of annihilation on both sides.  Following conquest of Persia, Mongol troop circled Caspian.

The Mongol Drive to the West - Russia and Europe were added to the Mongols’ agenda for world conquest, and subjugating these regions became the project of the armies of the , which drove westward . - Kiev was in decline by the , and Russia was unable to unite before the Mongols (called by Russians) - Chinggis Khan’s grandson, Batu, defeated the Russian armies one by one, resisting armies were razed - Kiev was taken by 1240 …very few towns survived (only Novgorod and because they submitted) Regional Effects: Russia under the “Golden Horde” • In Russia…Mongol forces successfully attacked Russia in 1224 by defeating Kiev Rus. • Destroyed most cities & demanded high . • However, the Mongols left Russia largely to its own devices & few Mongol officials were there (INDIRECT rule). Russia had lots of independent principalities, each required to send tribute …or else. • New places --like Moscow (Muscovy) to the north --began to grow with the Mongols’ implementation of a postal system, financial structures, & census. Moscow became a cultural & economic center. • Armenians, Georgians, & Russians thought Mongols were a punishment from God who “fetched the Tartars against us for our sins.” • Limited Russia’s interaction with Western Europe (e.g. Russia was isolated from the cultural effects of the Renaissance) --a period of cultural decay except in northern Russia. • Lasted the longest of the all the (until 1480) Another description:

The Mongols were “terrible to look at and indescribable, with large heads like buffaloes’, narrow eyes like a fledgling’s, a snub nose like a cat’s, projecting snouts like a dog’s, narrow loins like an ant’s, short legs like a hog’s, and by nature with no beards at all…” An Armenian observer More Effects on Europe • Disappointed with loot from European invasions, Mongols allowed Italian merchants in Crimea to take many of their European prisoners to sell as slaves (esp. to Egypt) in exchange for large amounts of trade goods. • This began a long & profitable relationship between Mongols & merchants of Venice & Genoa who set up trading posts in Black Sea: Italians supplied Mongols with manufactured goods in return for the right to sell the Slavs as slaves in the Mediterranean market …slaves who would ultimately defeat the Mongols as the in Egypt. • Silk routes opened … & then spread PLAGUE to Europe.

And according to one Chinese observer:

“They smell so heavily that one cannot approach them. They wash themselves in urine…” The Mongols

The Good, the Bad & the Ugly THE GOOD (accomplishments & contributions) • Military Strategy & Innovation – , Horse Archers, surprise attacks, sieges - Genghis first needed to disband tribal loyalties • Religious Tolerance (converted to all faiths in region except Hinduism) • Common Legal Code • Utilized skills of conquered peoples – artisans, soldiers THE GOOD (accomplishments & contributions)  Discipline, obedience to own laws  Sense of honor and loyalty, respect for these qualities in others, even opponents  High status of women • These qualities attested to even by European observers who generally detested the Mongols THE GOOD, cont…

• Golden Horde was the only group to successfully conquer Russia • Created largest continental empire in history • TRADE – source of diffusion – goods, ideas & people - under Mongol rule it was less risky  Pax Mongolica The at its height THE BAD – (failures & struggles)

• Constant in-fighting for power – “Khan” • Genghis never setup centralized rule, Kublai struggled with it ( Dynasty) • Kublai failed to conquer Vietnam, Burma, & • Inability to control China without considerable force • Over-spending Shortly after Chinggis Khan’s death, his empire split into four Khanates THE BAD, cont…

• THE PLAGUE!!! • Over-extension – loss of control in Persia • Struggle between nomadic lifestyle and need to settle (centralized government) THE UGLY – (What!?! Those Mongols were CRAZY!!) • Surrender or Die • Looting & Destruction of Cities • Massacres (1.6 Million in 1 Afghan city, as many as 18.4 Million total killed) • Use of organized tactical terror • All exemplified by the ’s conquering of (Persia) THE UGLY, cont…

• Lots of Babies - as many as .5% of the Earth’s current male population can trace genetic lineage back to Genghis (500 wives) • Plague victim catapults • Strange diet, hairstyles and odor • Cannibalism Fall of the Mongols

• The large amounts of money spent on public works projects greatly weakened the economy of the Mongol Empire. A failed conquest of Japan also weakened the military presence of the . This left the empire in a state that was ripe for rebellion. Following the death of , power struggles emerged throughout the Mongol Empire regarding who would rule. Because of the empire's large size, centralized leadership was hard to maintain. Fall of the Mongol Empire

• In China, a series of floods and increases in taxes in the early further stressed the Chinese, and rebellions broke out against the . In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang led Chinese forces against the Yuan Dynasty and overthrew the Mongol emperor. The Mongols fled to and foreign rule of China came to an end. Question How did the Mongol conquests bring an end to the civilizations in , Western Europe, and ? Answer •Russia – end of Kievan dominance  power shifts to Moscow •Byzantium – Ottoman dominance and fall of Constantinople (1453). •Western Europe – limited direct impact but Black Death has later effect. Trade increases with East. The Impact of the Mongols

POLITICAL • Mongol conquest left Russia more divided culturally & less developed than Western European nations • Descendants of Genghis Khan & established the in India • Introduced new military techniques & organization to Turks & Europeans – such as small organized units, the use of cavalry & the effective use of gunpowder • Mongol defeat of the Seljuk Turks in 1243 CE allowed for the later rise of the Ottoman Turks in the Middle East The Impact of the Mongols ECONOMIC • Global trade expanded dramatically under Mongol control – Italians were the primary beneficiaries in Europe; security, use of paper currency, control & management of all increased trade in the Eastern Hemisphere • Europeans were exposed to a much greater number of Chinese goods on a large scale – gunpowder & printing being among the most influential • The global trade network became more intertwined • Mongol decline made land travel more dangerous & a shift to seafaring occurred in Europe & China after 1400 CE • Mongol conquest likely spread the Black Plague to the Europe which would have devastating economic effects The Impact of the Mongols SOCIAL • Mongols practiced religious toleration in the Middle East & Europe and often converted to local religions – allowed Islam & Orthodox Christianity to continue to thrive • Russia became isolated from European trends like the Renaissance – continued the split between Eastern & Western Europe started w/ the Byzantine Empire • The Black Plague devastated Europe in the 14th C • Mongol expansion & control of the Silk Road allowed for cultural diffusion & exploration on an unprecedented scale – including the journey of Marco Polo Global Connections – The Mongol Linkages

• Mongols brought the Muslim and European worlds new military knowledge, especially the use of gunpowder • Trade and cultural contact between different civilizations throughout Eurasia became much easier • Trading established in their dominions by Venetians and Genoese provided experiences for later European expansion • An unintended consequence was the transmitting of the fleas carrying the bubonic plague (black death) from China to to the Middle East to Europe