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Swahili and Workbook

“ and Workbook provides an in-depth, up-to-date student guide to modern Swahili grammar. The major aspects of Swahili grammar are explained clearly and illustrated with ample examples and exercises, and are arranged around distinct user-oriented grammar topics. The book fills an important gap in the Swahili linguistic literature and will be of great value to students of Swahili at different levels of proficiency.” Lutz Marten, SOAS, University of London, UK

Swahili Grammar and Workbook provides a practical and comprehensive companion to Swahili grammar, filling in gaps left by other textbooks. Presenting the essentials of Swahili grammar in a highly accessible fashion, reduces complex topics to helpful rules and mnemonic aids, enabling maximum grammar retention and accurate usage. Grammar points are followed by multiple examples and exercises, allowing students to consolidate and practice their learning. No prior knowledge of linguistic terminology is required. Key features include:

• Twenty-five language notes covering key topics such as: personal ; the Swahili class system; special class combinations; the imperative, the subjunctive, and the conditional moods; the use of comparatives; the use of monosyllabic ; the passive form and various other forms of extensions; the ; • clear, detailed, and jargon-free grammatical explanations supported by an assortment of helpful diagrams, figures, and tables and many relevant and up-to-date examples; • a wide range of communication-oriented exercises to reinforce learning and develop students’ ability to use Swahili actively; • audio files to support pronunciation practice, clearly linked to relevant sections of the book and available for free download at www.routledge.com/9781138808263 • four appendices, Swahili–English and English–Swahili vocabulary lists, a list of refer- ences and an index presented at the back of the book for easy access to information.

Written by a highly experienced instructor, Swahili Grammar and Workbook will be an essential resource for all students and teachers of Swahili. It is suitable for use both as a companion reference text in language courses and as a standalone text in independent grammar classes.

Fidèle Mpiranya is Lecturer in Swahili and African at the University of Chicago, USA. This page intentionally left blank Swahili Grammar and Workbook

Fidèle Mpiranya First published 2015 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2015 Fidèle Mpiranya The right of Fidèle Mpiranya to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Mpiranya, Fidèle, author. Swahili grammar and workbook / Fidèle Mpiranya. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. –Grammar. . Title. PL8702.M624 2014 496.392–dc23 2014015471

ISBN: 978-1-138-80825-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-80826-3 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-75069-9 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong To my daughter Mélyse, with love This page intentionally left blank Contents

List of illustrations ix Acknowledgments xi Abbreviations and conventional signs xii

Introduction 1

1 Swahili – key elements 3

2 Using basic vocabulary and markers 9

3 Personal pronouns 13

4 Swahili system 19

5 Noun/adjective and pronoun 29

6 The indicative mood and main verb tenses 40

7 Verb “be”/“have” in the main clause 50

8 Special class combinations and the 56

9 /stem contact rules vs. invariable adjectives/pronouns 61

10 Relative clauses and the use of reference pronouns 70

11 Imperative and subjunctive moods 83

12 Monosyllabic verb stems and the stem augment ku- 94

13 Auxiliary verbs and the expression of complex tenses 101

14 Expressing 107 viii Contents 15 The passive form of the verb 110

16 Locative agreement and coordinated noun agreement 116

17 The conditional mood 127

18 The extension of the verb 133

19 Reciprocal, stative, and applicative verb extensions 142

20 Adverbs in a broad sense 151

21 Adjectives in a broad sense 163

22 Noun formation and /diminutive processes 174

23 Reduced forms and special uses of various pronouns 186

24 Subjunctive vs. /indicative in coordinated and subordinate clauses 191

25 Double constructions and the use of “object markers” 202

Appendix A: Greetings and other polite expressions 215 Appendix B: Class agreements with all types of adjectives and pronouns 219 Appendix C: Clause connectors and other transition words 220 Appendix D: Use of verb tenses in Swahili proverbs 229

Vocabulary list 233 References 246 Index 248 List of illustrations

Maps 1.1 Swahili-speaking regions in East and Central 3 1.2 The Swahili Coast and neighboring places of the Basin 4

Figures 1.1 Place of articulation for the Swahili sounds /j/ [ɟ] and /y/ 6 1.2 Place of articulation for the English sound /j/ [dʒ] and Swahili /nj/ [ndʒ] 6 1.3 Place of articulation for /gh/ and /g/ 7 1.4 Place and manner of articulation for /ng’/ [ŋ] vs. /ng/ [ŋg] 7 7.1 Distribution of locative reference pronouns in Swahili 51 9.1 Main phonetic features of Swahili vowels 61

Tables 1.1 Swahili consonants illustrated 5 2.1 Verb tenses markers in the indicative mood (affirmative form) 11 3.1 Swahili personal pronouns 13 3.2 Noun/possessive agreement in for animates 16 3.3 Noun/possessive agreement in nouns for non-animates 16 4.1 Noun types and noun class assignment 22 4.2 Model sentences for Swahili noun classes 23 5.1 Noun/adjective vs. pronominal prefixes 29 5.2 Noun according to their agreement prefixes (listed in Table 5.1) 30 5.3 The demonstrative pronouns in different classes 33 5.4 Harmony between the hV- segment and the vowel of the following class prefix 33 5.5 Normal within a noun group 36 6.1 The indicative tense markers in affirmative form 40 6.2 Tense markers of the indicative in negative form 42 7.1 Verb “be” in different tenses of the indicative mood 50 7.2 of locative verb “be” 51 7.3 Locative prepositions and corresponding forms of the locative verb “be” 52 7.4 Verb “have” in all tenses of the indicative mood (affirmative/negative) 54 8.1 Model sentences for the classes [mu-u/ma-ya] and [mu-u/n-zi] 56 9.1 The prefix in class [n-i/n-zi] according to the following consonant or vowel 65 x List of illustrations 10.1 Reference pronouns/relative markers in different classes 70 10.2 Form and contextual restrictions on different relative clause patterns 74 10.3 The conjunction na “and/with” with the contrastive pronouns of first and second persons 79 11.1 Basic markers of the subjunctive 85 11.2 Imperative vs. subjunctive markers 85 11.3 “Polite” vs. “direct” imperative 91 12.1 Form of the tense/mood and absence of the stem augment ku- 96 16.1 Use of locative agreement patterns 116 16.2 The locative demonstrative pronoun in terms of proximity 119 16.3 Conjunction na with locative reference pronouns 119 19.1 Typical combinations 148 21.1 Color terms using the pattern “conjunction -a + noun” 165 23.1 Contraction between possessive pronouns and personal relationship nouns 187 Acknowledgments

Special thanks to Michael Pierson for editing an early version of my manuscript, and to Matthew Knisley for revising the final version. I also owe a debt of gratitude to my students, past and present, for their substantial feedback and suggestions about successive versions of this textbook. Comments from three anonymous reviewers also have helped in improv- ing the content and the form of this text, and I am very thankful for that. The data in this text are drawn from my own experience as a near-native speaker of Swahili. have been double-checked by Innocent Basso, a native speaker born and raised in Tanga, . Innocent also lent his for the audio materials provided online. I am very grateful to him for his important contributions. This book project would have been more difficult without the encouragement and the support of Larry Hyman, Salikoko Mufwene, Aimable Twagilimana, and Rachel Walker. I am thankful for their guidance and their friendship. Finally, I express my gratitude to Helle V. Goldman and Philip Carr for allowing me to reproduce a map and phonetic diagrams from their respective works. Many thanks also to Wiley-Blackwell, Philip Carr’ publisher.

Maps and figures credits Map 1.1: Adapted from CIA. 2013. The World Factbook. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency. Public domain. www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ docs/contributor_copyright.html Map 1.2: Adapted from Goldman, Helle Valborg. 1996. “A Comparative Study of Swahili in Two Rural Communities in Pemba, Zanzibar, Tanzania”. Ph.D. thesis, New York University. Reproduced with permission from the author. Figures 1.1–1.4: Adapted from Carr, Philip. 1999. English Phonetics and Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell. Reproduced with permission from the author and the publisher. Abbreviations and conventional signs

- : word part preceded/followed by another infin.: infinitive ~ : variant; roughly similar intr.: intransitive ø : zero, i.e. no prefix lit.: literally : additional material available online loc.: locative @ : more or less neg.: negative * : hypothetical; reconstructed form nomin.: nominal → : gives non-anim.: non-animate ↔ : vice versa non-sonor.: non-sonorous > : becomes noun gr.: noun group # : word end obj.: object adj.: adjective obsol.: obsolete affirm.: affirmative pers.: person anim.: animate pl.: C: consonant pres.: present cl.: class pron.: pronoun colloq.: colloquial pronom.: pronominal concr.: concrete ref. pron.: reference pronoun cons.: consonant rel.: relative pronoun/clause CV: consonant and vowel sb.: somebody demons.: demonstrative pronoun sg.: singular emph.: emphatic sth.: something fig.: figurative subj.: fut.: future subjunct.: subjunctive idiom.: idiomatic V: vowel Introduction

Though communicative approaches in language teaching must have primacy over gram- matical instruction, students of foreign often demand clear explanations of what sometimes appear to them as “unusual” phenomena, and seek simple ways to approach masses of new grammatical information. Experience shows that students are familiar with grammatical rules better grasp the structures of the language and are, therefore, more able to reuse these rules accurately and innovatively. There are communication textbooks with linguistic explanations, but they often appear incomplete. This is especially true for Swahili communication textbooks produced in both the USA and Europe in recent years. Though some of these textbooks have been authored by linguists and do include elements of linguistic explanation, they generally do not address in detail fundamental issues such as noun class agreements, the use of verb moods, or phonetic irregularities. Fortunately, there exist various reference that may provide the learner with broader linguistic information, such as Ashton (1944), Polomé (1967), Wilson (1970), Mohamed (2001), or Thompson and Schleicher (2006). However, these reference grammars are generally not organized in a way that they can be used step-by-step with a communication textbook. The present text supplements communication textbooks with comprehensive linguistic explanations and practical exercises. Rather than full chapters, it is comprised of 25 rela- tively short and progressively organized “language notes” that address the most common questions among students of Swahili as a foreign language. This textbook strives to show that the core system of the Swahili language is simple and well-organized. In particular, it departs from traditional approaches that present the typical Swahili noun classes piece-by-piece, with individual noun classes in different chapters. Instead, it presents the different agreement patterns as a single system, in different layers that progressively introduce contextual variations. The presentation of different verb functions follows a similar systemic progression. The approach adopted here better follows the pro- gressive exposure of the students to the complexities of the language, as they are introduced to diverse noun classes and verb functions from their earliest learning activities. Using the least possible amount of linguistic terminology, this text applies simple lin- guistic parameters to reduce complex language topics to a few simple rules that each other. As a result, grammar rules appear as mnemonic aids that facilitate retention and accurate application of different language patterns by the students. Such mnemonic aids also serve as a feedback tool for the teacher, allowing him or her to communicate efficiently with the students about the type of mistakes they make. For students interested in advanced interpretations, grammatical explanations are occasionally complemented with subsections that address in detail some specific language facts. 2 Introduction Additionally, grammatical explanations are illustrated by numerous examples and communication-oriented exercises that allow the students to reinforce and consolidate their learning. While review exercises address a single topic, application exercises address the different topics covered in a given language note, and cumulative exercises integrate features from previous language notes. For interested students, an automated corrector will be available on a dedicated web page, along with audio materials for pronunciation practice (shown in the book by the symbol ). This textbook covers topics such as consonant articulation, word accent and accent groups, the interrogative intonation, and the noun classes. It also addresses other essential aspects of the and , such as: the use of verb tenses, moods, and auxiliary verbs; the role of phonetics in the formation of different categories of verbs, nouns, and adjectives; the relative clause construction; the formation of adjectival and adverbial phrases; the use of object markers in different types of clause constructions; the use of clause connectors; and idiomatic constructions. This text is suitable as a supplement to communication textbooks and exercise books for beginners and intermediate level students, such as Moshi (1988a, b), Hinnebusch and Mirza (1997), Mugane (1999), Senkoro (2003), Biersteker (2005), Muaka and Muaka (2006), Mohamed and Mazrui (2007), Omar and Rushubirwa (2007), or McGrath and Marten (2012). It may also serve as a reference for Swahili grammar fundamentals. 1 Swahili – key elements

1.1. The most popular language of Africa Swahili is the most widely spoken language in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is spoken by approxim- ately 50 million people in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, eastern Congo (DRC), the Comoros, and, marginally, in northern Mozambique, southern Somalia, northern Malawi, and northern Zambia (Map 1.1). Swahili is a national language in Tanzania, Kenya, and Congo (DRC). It also has official status in Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda (along with English).

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Gaborone P - J / ' ' P M p u t o St. Helena (ohannesbiirg ^Mbabane (U.K.) LESOTHO SWAZILAND SO3UUTTH A | n / ______AFJRRIICPA ^ / " " * ■ "

Port Elizabeth

Map 1.1 Swahili-speaking regions in East and (circle indicates approximate extent) Credit: CIA 2013. 4 Swahili – key elements That said, Swahili is in most cases used as a second language, after local vernaculars. The majority of the people who speak Swahili as their primary language are concentrated along the East African coast, from northern Mozambique (city of Nacala) to southern Somalia (city of Barawa), and in the neighboring archipelagos of Zanzibar, Lamu, and the Comoros (Map 1.2).

Shiraz IRAN

PAKISTAN

Karachi ARABIA D ubai M uscat Mecca OMAN > •Mumbai INDIA

YEMEN Aden

Socotra (YEMEN)

SOMALIA Sivu Pate M anda Lamu Mogadishu Baraw a (Brava, Mwiini) KENYA Lamu Archipelago M alindi

'M basa KENYA

e P em ba Seych elle Islands C" | M om basa -5 U nguja (Z anzibar)

TANZAN M afia IKilwa T ang a Mwara Comoro Islands P em ba Pemba ay Nacala C / T u m b atu Island MOZAMB U nguja / Bagam oyo B e ira (S o fa la ) 4? TANZANIA Z anzibar * iM aputo

Mafia

Map 1.2 The Swahili Coast and neighboring places of the Indian Ocean Basin (Credit: Goldman 1996). Swahili – key elements 5 1.2. An authentic Bantu language Swahili belongs to a family of languages called “Bantu” mostly spoken in Africa south of the Equator. Swahili has preserved a majority of the original Bantu terms and grammatical patterns (Guthrie 1967–1971, Whiteley 1969, Nurse and Spear 1985, and Nurse and Hinnebusch 1993). However, due to its location in and along the Indian Ocean, Swahili has been exposed to a great number of cultures, languages, and ideas for a long time. As a result, the Swahili lexicon has increased through the creation of new terms and has incorporated numerous cultural terms from overseas languages like , Hindi, Persian, Portuguese, Turkish, and, more recently, English. In turn, these new terms have spread widely among continental African languages.

1.3. A relatively simple sound system The Swahili sound system is characterized by five simple vowels /i e a o u/, as in simba “lion”, jengo “building”, mama “mother”, kopo “tin can”, and uhuru “freedom, independ- ence”. (The pronunciation of different words listed in this section may be found online; see symbol .) It is also characterized by 25 consonants, as shown in Table 1.1. Like other , Swahili uses mostly a Consonant—Vowel—Consonant—Vowel syllable structure. In addition, Swahili does not use tones (variations in pitch height that dis- tinguish word meanings) but rather accents most words on the second-to-last syllable. These different features make Swahili easy to pronounce, despite a relatively complex morphology.

Table 1.1 Swahili consonants illustrated

Cons. Pronunciation Model word Gloss

1. b baba father 2. ch [ʧ], as in “chalk” chai; kuchukua tea; to take 3. d dada sister 4. dh [ð], as in “this” dhahabu; dhambi gold; sin 5. f kufaa to be suitable 6. g gari car 7. h habari news 8. k kuku chicken 9. l kulala to sleep 10. m mama mother 11. n na and; with 12. ny [ɲ], as in “Kenya”, “onion” nyota star 13. p papa shark 14. r rangi color; paint 15. s saa a watch; clock; time 16. sh [ ʃ], as in “show” shule school 17. t taa lamp 18. th [θ], as in “thirty” thelathini; thamani thirty; value 19. v kuvaa to wear 20. z -zuri nice; good 21. w wewe 22. y yeye him; her 23. j [Ɉ] (@ “g + y”, with “y” as in “yes”) juu; jana on top; yesterday 24. gh [ɣ] (@ “gr + h”, ± as French “gr”, in “gros”) lugha; ghali language; expensive 25. ng’ [ŋ], as in “wrong idea”, “sing a song”) ng’ombe; ng’ambo cow; abroad 6 Swahili – key elements Table 1.1 gives a list of Swahili consonants with phonetic indications for their pronun- ciation in the case of difference with English and for consonants written with two letters. It is import ant to note that double vowels generally mean that two vowels are pronounced and not long one (in this text, standard orthographic representations of individual sounds are given between slashes, while their phonetic representations are given between square brackets; sound representations between quotations marks are simple approximations). For a general presentation of the International Phonetic Alphabet used in square brackets in Table 1.1, and to hear the pronunciation of the different sounds, you may refer to this link: www.phonetics.ucla.edu/course/chapter1/flash.html (Ladefodged 2005). The next section provides indications about the articulation of particular consonants.

1.4. Articulation of the Swahili consonants: /j, gh, ng’/

1.4.1 The Swahili consonant /j/ [Ɉ] vs. the semi-vowel /y/ To pronounce the Swahili consonant /j/ [Ɉ], position the tongue as if you were to pronounce the semi-vowel /y/. In both cases, you hold the tongue tip behind the lower teeth and the body of the tongue to the roof of the mouth (or “palate”), as shown by the arrow in Figure 1.1. While the semi-vowel /y/ is pronounced with a very weak air release, the Swahili consonant /j/ [Ɉ] is produced with a tight contact of the body of the tongue and the roof of the mouth, followed by a strong air release. For that reason, the Swahili sound /j/ [Ɉ] appears as a com- bination of the consonant /g/ and the semi-vowel /y/, as Figure 1.1 Place of articulation for you may notice by pronouncing successively the sounds the Swahili sounds /j/ [Ɉ] and /y/. /ga, ya, gya/. In linguistic jargon, it is called an “implosive voiced palatal stop” (Polomé 1967) or, more simply, a “palatal plosive” (you may refer to the following link for the pronunciation: www.phonetics.ucla.edu/course/ chapter1/flash.html; Ladefodged 2005). By , the English sound /j/ [ʤ] and the complex Swahili sound /nj/ [nʤ] are pronounced by holding the tongue tip behind the gum of the upper teeth, as shown in Figure 1.2 (see the notion of “postalveolar affricate” in Polomé 1967). That said, the pronunciation of the simple Swahili sound /j/ varies considerably among speakers of Swahili as a second language, tending to appear like the English sound /j/ [ʤ]. Figure 1.2 Place of articulation for the English sound /j/ [ʤ] and Swahili /nj/ [nʤ]. 1.4.2 The consonant /gh/ [ɣ] vs. /g/ The sound /gh/ [ɣ] is produced by placing the body of the tongue as if you were to pro- nounce the sound /g/, that is, completely retracted and touching the soft part of the roof of the mouth (“soft palate” or “velum”), as shown by the arrow in Figure 1.3. The sound /g/ is produced with a tight contact between the back of the tongue and the back of the roof Swahili – key elements 7 of the mouth, followed by a strong air release, while /gh/ [ɣ] is pronounced by producing air vibrations be- tween the back of the tongue and the back of the roof of the mouth. Therefore, /gh/ [ɣ] appears like a combination of the sounds “grh” (see the series /ga, gra, grha/).

1.4.3 The consonant /ng’/ [ŋ] vs. /ng/ [ŋg] The Swahili sounds /ng’/ [ŋ] and /ng/ [ŋg] correspond to the English nasal /ng/, as they are pronounced by releas- ing the air between the back of the tongue and the back of the roof of the mouth and through the nose, as shown Figure 1.3 Place of articulation for /gh/ and /g/ (source: Carr 1999). in Figure 1.4 (see dashed arrow). The regular Swahili sound /ng/ [ŋg] is produced with a tight contact between the tongue body and the back of the roof of the mouth followed by strong air release. It corresponds to the English sound /ng/ [ŋg] in the words “engage” or “angry”. The Swahili sound /ng’/ is pronounced with a loose contact between the back of the tongue and the back of the roof of the mouth, followed by a smooth air release through the mouth, while most of the air is released through the nose. Accordingly, the consonant /ng’/ [ŋ] appears as a weak /ng/ [ŋg] and sounds like the nasal /ng/ in word- final position followed by a vowel in English, as inthe Figure 1.4 Place and manner of words “wrong idea” and “sing a song”. The contrast be- articulation for /ng’/ [ŋ] and /ng/ tween the two consonants may be observed by pronounc- [ŋg] (source: Carr 1999). ing successively the segments /nga, ng’a/ without moving the body of the tongue forward.

1.4.4 Review exercise: Read the following words aloud (1) dalili/dhalili “sign, symbol”/“abject, contemptible” (2) tamani/thamani “desire”/“value” (3) kangata/kang’ata “persist”/“feel great pain (esp. rheumatic pain)” (4) nyoa/ng’oa “cut (hair)”/“uproot” (5) njaa/jaa “hunger”/“dump” (6) haya/haja “shame”/“need, necessity” (7) gua/jua “peel”/“know” (8) gani/ghani “what”/“melody” (9) ghali/jali “expensive”/“care about”

1.5. The Swahili verb is comprised of many parts In general, Swahili verbs begin with a prefix which varies according to the subject of the verb. These prefixes are equivalent to the English subject pronouns “I”, “you”, “//it”, “”, or “they”. The “subject pronouns” are used in Swahili even in the presence of the 8 Swahili – key elements real subject of the verb (noun or pronoun). The verb also has another prefix that marks the tense (e.g. present, past, future), which comes after the . In the following examples (10–11), dashes are added in order to show the different components of the verb (normal orthography does not use dashes).

(10) Mwalimu a-na-sema Kiswahili “The teacher speaks Swahili” teacher a- na- sema Kiswahili Subject pronoun (“s/he”) present speak Swahili

(11) Wanafunzi wa-na- kitabu “Students are reading a book” students wa- na- soma kitabu Subject pronoun (“they”) present read book

As in English, the subject pronoun in Swahili also may be used in the absence of the real subject, if the latter is implied or has just been stated, as shown in (12–16). It is worth noting that Swahili has no masculine/feminine distinction and no articles.

(12) A- na- sema Kiswahili “She/He speaks Swahili” he/she Present speak Swahili

(13) Ni- na- sema Kiswahili “I speak Swahili” I Present speak Swahili

(14) Tu- na- penda Kiswahili “We like Swahili” we Present like Swahili

(15) Ni- na- soma kitabu “I am reading a book” I Present read book

(16) Ni- na- penda vitabu “I like books” I Present like books

1.6. Application exercises (17) Translate into Swahili. You may refer to sections 1.1–5 above for vocabulary and grammatical patterns. For all exercises in this text, you may consult the vocabulary list at the end of this volume or use a dictionary.

a. Students like books. b. The teacher is reading a book. c. He likes school. d. The students speak Swahili. e. Mother knows Swahili. f. We learn Swahili. (“learn, study” = “read”) g. The teacher cares about the school. h. Mother and father like tea. 2 Using basic vocabulary and markers

This section lists some elementary terms and illustrates the use of the basic verb and sentence patterns through practical exercises.

2.1. Basic nouns As shown in (1) and (2) below, most nouns in Swahili have a prefix that varies between singular and plural. Most nouns for animates have the prefix m- in the singular and wa- in the plural, as in (1a–d), or mw-/w- before a noun stem beginning with a vowel, as in (1e–h). Nouns for non-animates also may use prefixes, such as m- (mw-)/mi-, ki-/vi-, or ø-/ma-, as shown in (2a–d); with ø- meaning “no prefix”.

(1) Animates

Singular Plural Gloss a. mtoto watoto child/children b. mjomba wajomba maternal uncle(s) c. msichana wasichana girl(s) d. mvulana wavulana boy(s) e. mwalimu walimu teacher(s) f. mwanafunzi wanafunzi student(s) g. mwanamke wanawake woman/women h. mwanamume wanaume man/men (male human(s)) i. mama mama mother(s) j. baba baba father(s) k. mbwa mbwa dog(s) l. paka paka cat(s)

(2) Non-animates

Singular Plural Gloss a. mpira mipira soccer; ball(s) b. mlango milango door(s) c. kitabu vitabu book(s) d. darasa madarasa class(es); classroom(s) e. shule shule school(s) f. kalamu kalamu pen(s) g. meza meza table(s) 10 Using basic vocabulary and markers Importantly, the noun mwanamke “woman” in (1g) has a double prefix mw- and -m-, which becomes wa- and -wa- in the plural form wanawake “women”, because it is a com- pound word (mwana + mke, lit. “offspring + wife”). The male counterpart in (1h) is also a compound word (mwana + mume, literally “offspring + husband”). However, the second prefix of its plural form is not apparentwa ( naume), while the plural prefix wa- is fully realized in the simple form mume/waume “husband(s)”, that is, in word-initial position.

2.2. Prefix reduction in compound nouns (advanced analysis) The retention of the second plural prefix wa- described in the previous section in the case of wanawake preserves a two-by-two syllable pattern to the compound word, as Swahili words ideally comprise at least two syllables (see [wa na | wa ke]; a similar situation is observed with mwanamwali/wanawali “maiden(s), nubile girl(s)”; you may refer to the notion of “disyllabic minimality” described in Language note 12.6). The reduction of the second plural prefix in the case of wanaume (from wana + waume) is made possible by the fact that the stem of the second part of the compound word is disyllabic. The singular counterpart also tends to be reduced, as it may be realized as mwanamme or mwanaume depending on the speaker (TUKI 2000, BAKIZA 2010).

2.3. Basic verbs In (3), different action verbs are provided, while modal verbs are listed in (4). By function, modal verbs introduce other verbs, generally in infinitive form, as shown in (5).

(3) Action verbs

a. kuandika “to write” b. kusoma “to read/learn” c. kufunga “to close” d. kufungua “to open” e. kulala “to sleep” f. kuamka “to wake up” g. kuenda “to go” h. kutembea “to walk” i. kucheka “to laugh” j. kufundisha “to teach” k. kucheza “to play” l. kukaa “to sit/stay (somewhere)” m. kuchora “to draw” n. kuona “to see”

(4) Modal verbs

a. kupenda “to like/love” b. kutaka “to want” c. kujua “to know” d. kuweza “can; be able to” e. kuanza “to start” f. kumaliza “to finish” g. kufaulu “to succeed” h. kushindwa “to fail/lose” i. kukataa “to refuse” j. kukubali “to accept”

(5) a. A-na-penda kuandika “He likes to write/writing” b. Ni-na-taka kusoma “I want to read”

The Swahili infinitive, shown by the prefixku- , corresponds to the English simple infinitive or the form, that is, to the nominal form of the verb that ends in -ing (5a, 6). When conjugating a verb, the prefix ku- is generally dropped and replaced with a “subject pronoun” and a tense marker, as mentioned in Language note 1.5 and seen in (5). The prefix Using basic vocabulary and markers 11 ku- in kunapendeza/kunauma in (6) is also a “subject pronoun” referring to the infinitive forms kuandika/kushindwa (more details are given in Language note 8.3).

(6) a. Kuandika ku-na-pendeza “Writing is pleasant” (lit. “Writing pleases”) b. Kushindwa ku-na-uma “Losing hurts”

2.4. Various adverbs (7) Adverbs expressing time

a. jana “yesterday”/leo “today”/kesho “tomorrow” b. sasa “now”/zamani “long ago; in the past” c. asubuhi “(in) the morning”/mchana “(in) the afternoon”/ jioni “(in) the evening”/usiku “(by/at) night”

(8) Adverbs expressing intensity

kidogo “a little”/sana “very (very much)”/mno “too much”

2.5. Main verb tenses In their simple form, also called the “indicative mood”, Swahili verbs have four main tenses: past, , present, and future. Table 2.1 shows the prefixes used for these different tenses in the affirmative form.

Table 2.1 Verb tense markers in the indicative mood (affirmative form)

Past Perfect Present Future

-li- -me- -na- -ta-

You will observe that the Swahili present tense -na- corresponds to the English present progressive and the as shown in (9a). Future and past tenses are illustrated in (9b–c).

(9) a. Ninaandika sasa/Ninaandika usiku “I am writing now/I write at night” b. Utaandika kesho (u-: you, singular) “You will write tomorrow” c. Aliandika zamani “He/She wrote long ago”

As in other languages, the Swahili perfect tense -me- corresponds to a recent past that has effects in the present. It is equivalent to the English tense expressed by “have + past participial” or “be + past participial”, as shown in the following examples (10–11).

(10) a. Ni-me-fika leo “I have arrived today” b. Mwalimu a-me-ondoka sasa “The teacher has left now”

(11) a. Baba a-me-choka (-choka “get/be tired”) “Father has gotten tired/is tired” b. Wanaume wa-me-udhika (-udhika “get/be annoyed”) “The men have gotten/are annoyed” 12 Using basic vocabulary and markers 2.6. The verbs “be” and “have” in the present tense In the present tense, the verb “be” is generally expressed with the unique form ni, which cor- responds to the English forms “am”, “are”, “is”, or “it is” (see examples in 12). However, the form ni “be” is limited to the expression of an attribute or status, and only in the present tense. Other forms of the verb are used in the expression of other tenses and functions, such as the notion of location or “presence/existence” (this will be seen in Language notes 7.1 and 7.2).

(12) a. Baba ni mwalimu “Father is a teacher” b. Baba na mama ni walimu “Father and mother are teachers” c. Sasa, ni asubuhi Ulaya “Now, it is morning in Europe”

Additionally, the verb “have” in the present tense is expressed with the conjunction -na preceded by a “subject pronoun” (e.g. ni- “I”, a- “he/she”, tu- “we”, wa- “they [for animates]”), as shown in (13).

(13) a. Nina mtoto “I have a child” b. Tuna darasa “We have a class” c. Mwalimu ana watoto “The teacher has children” d. Watoto wana mpira “The children have a ball”

2.7. Application exercises (14) Read aloud and rewrite the sentences in the plural or in the singular (conjugated verbs are underlined). Translate your own sentences into English.

a. Mjomba anapenda watoto sana. b. Msichana amekataa kusoma leo. c. Mwalimu anapenda sana kucheka. d. Wanafunzi wanaanza kuandika sasa. e. Mvulana atacheza kidogo kesho. f. Jana, watoto walishindwa kuchora. g. Wavulana walicheza mpira.

2.8. Cumulative exercise (15) Translate into Swahili. Rewrite your own sentences, converting into plural each ele- ment in singular and vice versa, whenever relevant (e.g. “I” → “we”; “teachers” → “teacher”). In other words, give two answers per question.

a. Yesterday, I read a book. b. The teacher likes the students a lot. c. They will go in the evening. d. I want to sleep now. e. He/She speaks Swahili a little. f. The boy opens the door. g. He/She likes reading in the morning. h. I have finished reading. i. The boys will play soccer tomorrow. j. The teacher is a woman. k. The students have books. 3 Personal pronouns

3.1. Different types of personal pronouns Among personal pronouns Swahili distinguishes six “contrastive pronouns”: mimi “me”, wewe “you” (singular), yeye “him/her”, sisi “us”, ninyi “you” (plural), and wao “them”. As seen previously, Swahili verbs also use a “subject pronoun” that indicates the subject of the verb. These prefixes correspond to the English subject pronouns: ni- “I”, u- “you”, a- “he/she”, tu- “we”, mu- “you (all)”, and wa- “they”. In addition, Swahili verbs may include an “” that serves as an object (or complement) to the verb. The Swahili object pronouns -ni-, -ku-, -mu-, -tu-, -wa- . . . -eni, and -wa- correspond to the English object pronouns “me”, “you”, “him/her”, “us”, “you (all)”, and “them”. You will observe that the object pronoun for “you (all)” is in two parts, that is, includes the prefix -wa- and the suffix -eni. The prefix mu- (subject pronoun “you all”; object pronoun “him/her”) also is generally realized as m- before a consonant, and optionally as mw- before a vowel, depending on the speaker. Table 3.1 summarizes the correspondence between the different types of personal pronouns, including the six possessive pronouns on the right.

Table 3.1 Swahili personal pronouns

Person a. Contrastive b. Subject c. Object d. Possessive pronoun pronoun pronoun pronoun

1st.sg. mimi “me” ni- “I” -ni- “me” -angu “my; mine” 2nd.sg. wewe “you” u- “you” -ku- “you” -ako “your(s)” 3rd.sg. yeye “him/her” a- “he/she” -mu- “him/her” -ake “his/her(s)” (mw-/vowel; m-/cons.) 1st.pl. sisi “us” tu- “we” -tu- “us” -etu “our(s)” 2nd.pl. nyinyi “you all” mu- “you all” -wa- . . . -eni “you all” -enu “your(s) (all)” (~ ninyi) (mw-/vowel; m-/cons.) 3rd.pl. wao “them” wa- “they” -wa- “them” -ao “their(s)”

The segment order within the Swahili verb is fixed, with the subject pronoun appearing first, followed by the tense marker, then by the object pronoun, which comes just before the verb stem. In other words, the position of a given segment within the verb determines its function. This is shown with the following examples. In (1a), tu- is the “subject” and -wa- is the “object”. In (1b), -wa- is the “subject” and tu- is the “object”. 14 Personal pronouns (1) a. Tu-na-wa-ona [tunawaona] “We see them” b. Wa-na-tu-ona [wanatuona] “They see us”

The “contrastive pronouns” mentioned in the first paragraph above are optionally used in Swahili to draw the contrast between the subject or the object of a given verb with other persons or objects. The contrastive pronouns used in Swahili are similar to those used in French for instance (moi, toi, etc.), as the latter also serve to emphasize a subject pronoun ( je, tu, etc.) or an object pronoun (me, te, etc.). English emphasizes subject and object pronouns with an emphatic accent rather than with a “contrastive pronoun”. In the following Swahili and French examples (2–3), the contrastive pronouns are written in bold. The verbal pronouns with emphatic accents in the English glosses are underlined.

(2) a. Mimi ni-na-soma, wewe u-na-andika “I read, you write” Me I-present-read, you you-present-write b. Moi je lis, toi tu écris (French)

(3) a. A-na-ni-taka mimi “He wants me (implicitly, me, not someone else)” he/she-present-me-want me b. Il me veut, moi (French)

In this text, the term “pronoun” is used to refer to different elements that may stand for a noun, that is, based on their function, rather than their form, or the fact that they are attached or not to another element. Other studies on Swahili or other Bantu languages may use the term “subject prefix” or “object prefix” to refer to the items in Table 3.1(b–c), based on the fact that they are prefixed to the verb. The terms “subject marker” or “object marker” may be encountered as well. Regarding the form of the object pronouns seen in Table 3.1c, their vowel is generally maintained before a stem vowel, as shown by tu-na-wa-ona → tunawaona and wa-na-tu- ona → wanatuona in the examples (1a–b). As noted before, the object pronoun -mu- “him/ her” is optionally realized as mw- before a vowel, depending on the speaker (4). A con- sultation of Swahili pages available online suggests that this variation is less frequent before the vowels /u/, /o/ and /i/. This may be phonetically motivated, as the vowels /i,u/ are pronounced with a relatively closed mouth, and both /u/ and /o/ are pronounced with rounded lips (details will be seen in Language note 9.1). In addition, the object pronoun -mu- is realized as m- before a consonant (5), similar to the noun prefix.

(4) a. Tutamualika or tutamwalika (tu- ta- mu- alika) “We will invite him” b. Tutamuuliza or tutamwuliza (tu- ta- mu- uliza) “We will ask him” c. Anamuiga or anamwiga (a- na- mu- iga) “He is imitating him”

(5) a. Tunamtaka (tu- na- mu- taka) “We want him” b. Tunampenda (tu- na- mu- penda) “We like him”

As shown in (6a), the object pronoun “you (all)” is expressed by using the prefix-wa- with the suffix -eni. Depending on the speaker, this double construction is optionally reduced to the simple prefix -wa-, as in (6b), or replaced with the prefix -ku- used with the suffix -eni, as in (6c). Personal pronouns 15 (6) a. Wanawatakeni (wa- na- wa- tak- eni) “They want you all” b. Wanawataka (wa- na- wa- taka) “They want you all” c. Wanakutakeni (wa- na- ku- tak- eni) “They want you all”

Importantly, the possessive pronouns shown in Table 3.1(d), use “agreement prefixes” that vary according to the type of nouns they refer to. Nouns that prompt the use of similar agreement prefixes are considered to belong to the same “class”. For example, the prefixes w-/wa- seen in (7–8) refer to the nouns for human beings and animals, known as the “animate class”, such as mtoto/watoto “child(en)” and mbwa/mbwa “dog(s)”. Similarly, the i-/zi- prefixes are used to refer to a “class” of nouns for non-animates that look the same in singular and plural, such as nchi/nchi “country(ies)” or nyumba/nyumba “house(s)” (9).

(7) a. mtoto wangu (w-angu) “my child” b. watoto wetu (wa-etu) “our children”

(8) a. mbwa wako (w-ako) “your dog” b. mbwa wenu (wa-enu) “your (you all) dogs”

(9) a. nchi yangu (i-angu) “my country” b. nchi zetu (zi-etu) “our countries”

Superficially, the singular prefix w- and the plural prefix wa- that refer to the nouns for animates appear as /w/ before a stem that begins with a vowel. Similarly, the prefixes i- and zi- surface as /y/ and /z/ before a vowel, due to restrictions on vowel sequences in some positions within a word. As we will see in Language note 4, which presents the Swahili noun class system in detail, the base forms such as wa- and i-/zi- are plainly realized in other contexts. Though referring to human beings, kinship and other close relationship terms that look the same in singular and plural prompt the use of i-/zi- prefixes among personal possessive pronouns (-angu, -ako, -ake, -etu, -enu, -ao). This is the case for baba/baba “father/fathers” shown in (10), but also for terms like ndugu/ndugu “relative/relatives” or rafiki/rafiki “friend/ friends”.

(10) a. baba yangu (i- angu) “my father” b. baba zetu (zi- etu) “our fathers”

To express the possessive relationship between two nouns, the conjunction -a “of, for” is used. This conjunction generally varies like the personal possessives, as shown in the following examples (11–12).

(11) a. nyumba ya Juma “Juma’s house” (lit. “The house of Juma”) b. nyumba yake “his house”

(12) a. nyumba za Juma “Juma’s houses” (lit. “The houses of Juma”) b. nyumba zake “his houses”

Tables 3.2 and 3.3 summarize the use of “agreement prefixes” among personal possessives, based on different noun “classes”. You will observe that nouns for animates (humans, 16 Personal pronouns animals) prompt the use of similar agreement prefixes independently from the form of their prefixes (see Table 3.2a), while the agreement with non-animate nouns is generally based on the form of their prefixes (see Table 3.3). In both cases, the base forms of the agreement prefixes are given in brackets in the middle column. Examples of their actual realization are given in bold in the right column.

Table 3.2 Noun/possessive agreement in nouns for animates

agreement prefixes a. Most nouns for animates [w-/wa-] mtoto wangu/watoto wangu; e.g. mtoto/watoto “child(ren)”; paka wako/paka wako . . . paka/paka “cat(s)” b. Invariable terms for kinship/close [i-/zi-] baba yangu/baba zetu; human relationship rafiki yako/rafiki zako . . . e.g. baba/baba “father(s)”; rafiki/rafiki “friend(s)”

Table 3.3 Noun/possessive agreement in nouns for non-animates

agreement prefixes a. Non-animate nouns invariable [i-/zi-] nyumba yangu/nyumba zangu; in singular/plural habari yako/habari zako . . . e.g. habari/habari “news”; nyumba/nyumba “house(s)” b. Non-animate nouns with no prefix [li-/ya-] jina langu/majina yangu; in sg. and ma- in pl. gari lako/magari yako . . . e.g. jina/majina “name(s)”; gari/magari “car(s)” c. Non-animate nouns with prefix [ki-/vi-] kitabu changu/vitabu vyetu; ki- (⇒ vi- in the plural; chuo chako/vyuo vyenu . . . see ch-/vy- before a vowel) e.g. kitabu/vitabu “book(s)”; chuo/vyuo “college(s)” d. Non-animate nouns with prefix mu- [u-/i-] mlango wangu/milango yangu; (mw- before a vowel; m- before a mwezi wako/miezi yako . . . cons.; ⇒ mi- in the plural) e.g. mlango/milango “door(s)”; mwezi/miezi “month(s)”

It is important to know the plural form for non-animate nouns with no apparent prefix in order to be able to distinguish the nouns in Table 3.3a from those in Table 3.3b. As most nouns with no prefix are invariable in the plural (Table 3.3a), most dictionaries only give the plural form for nouns with the prefix ma- in the plural (Table 3.3b). Conversely, the nouns with no apparent prefix that are presented without a plural prefix are implicitly invariable, as in Table 3.3a. Personal pronouns 17

3.2. Review exercise: personal pronouns (13) Fill in the table with Swahili terms. (Keep previous sections covered.)

Person a. Contrastive b. Subject c. Object d. Possessive pronoun pronoun pronoun pronoun

1st.sg. me I me my, mine

2nd.sg. you you you your(s)

3rd.sg. him/her he/she him/her his/her(s)

1st.pl. us we us our(s)

2nd.pl. you (all) you (all) you (all) your(s) (you all)

3rd.pl. them they them their(s)

3.3. Disyllabic pronoun/adjective and the notions of word accent vs. accent group In addition to the issue of class agreement, it is important to know that the use of a pronoun may entail variations in the way its head-noun (i.e. the noun to which it refers) is pro- nounced. As noted before, Swahili words with two or more syllables are generally accented on the second-to-last syllable. However, nouns followed by a disyllabic pronoun or adjective are generally left unaccented, as shown in (14–16), though there is a certain variability in this area. That is, some sequences of words constitute “accent groups”, with one accent that falls on the second-to-last syllable of the group. In addition, if a noun is extended with a suffix, the accent moves to the second-to-last syllable of the new unit, as in (17). In the following examples, the acute accent indicates the accented syllable, which appears in bold. Unaccented segments that precede an accented syllable are underlined.

(14) a. mwanafúnzi “student” b. mwanafunzi wángu (noun + pronoun) “my student”

(15) a. kitábu “book” b. kitabu kíle (noun + pronoun) “that book”

(16) a. gári “car” b. gari zúri (noun + adjective) “a nice car”

(17) a. nyúmba “house” b. nyumbáni (noun + locative suffix -ni) “in the house; at home” 18 Personal pronouns 3.4. Application exercises (18) Read aloud. Convert plural elements into singular and vice versa, whenever possible (e.g. my ↔ our; he ↔ they). Translate into English.

a. Mtoto wako tunampenda sana. Tulimwona jana. b. Mwalimu wetu anatufundisha leo. c. Tutawafundisheni kesho. d. Mjomba wao ni mwalimu wangu. Atawatembelea kesho. e. Rafiki yangu atamfundisha Kiswahili. f. Mchumba wangu atanitembelea kesho. g. Ndugu yako anapenda kusoma.

(19) Fill in the blanks and translate into English.

a. Una ______sikia, na sisi ______na ______sikia. (Use “us”, then “we”, “you [sg.]”) b. Mama na baba ______na ______penda. Nina ______penda pia. (Use “they”, then “you [sg.]”, “them”.)

3.5. Cumulative exercises (20) Translate into Swahili. Read aloud.

a. Your (you all) students are playing football. We see them now. b. Her child likes you. I like him a lot too. c. My students live here. I want to visit them today. d. My teacher will visit me tomorrow. You will see him tomorrow. e. Juma is our teacher. He teaches us Swahili. We are looking for him. (“Look for”: single verb.) f. We will imitate you (you all). 4 Swahili noun class system

4.1. An agreement system based on prefixes In Swahili, each noun prompts the use of certain types of agreement prefixes with adjectives (e.g. -zuri “good”, -kubwa “big”, -moja “one”, -wili “two”), pronouns (e.g. demonstrative -le “that/those”), and verbs that depend on that noun in a given phrase or sentence. As mentioned in Language note 3.1, nouns that prompt the use of the same type of agreement prefixes are said to belong to the same “class” (a “noun class” is defined as a set of nouns that trigger the same types of agreement; see Corbett 1991).

4.2. Non-animate status and prefix-based classes The classes for non-animate nouns depend exclusively on the form of their prefixes or their lack of a prefix. Based on this principle, Swahili has four main classes for non-animate nouns, which are described in the following subsections. In this text, classes are named based on the agreement prefixes that they trigger, that is, on the adjective prefixes coupled with corresponding prefixes among pronouns and verbs, in both the singular and the plural. In other words, the names of different classes indicate the types of agreement prefixes that the adjectives, pronouns, and verbs depending ona given noun will use. The singular and plural forms of a given noun are considered to belong to the same class, while the singular and the plural forms taken individually are treated as subclasses.

4.2.1 Nouns with mu-/mi- prefix: class [mu-u/mi-i] Nouns for non-animates with the prefix mu- in the singular (m- before a consonant, mw- before a vowel, and mu- in a few contexts, as seen in the last paragraph of this section) and the prefix mi- in the plural trigger the use of the agreement prefixes mu-/mi- with adjectives and u-/i- with pronouns and verbs, respectively, in the singular and the plural, as seen (1a–b). Accordingly, nouns like mfuko/mifuko “bag(s)” or mwiko/miiko “wooden spoon; taboo” constitute the first noun class for non-animates in Swahili, referred to from this point as the class [mu-u/mi-i] (the singular prefixes are to the left of the slash mark, with the plural prefixes to the right, for all cases in the following sections). 20 Swahili noun class system (1) a. Mfuko mdogo ule u-na-toka Pemba

[mu-u] bag small that it pres. be from Pemba “That small bag is from Pemba”

b. Mifuko midogo ile i-na-toka Pemba

[mi-i] bag small those they pres. be from Pemba “Those small bags are from Pemba”

As seen in (1a–b), the noun in Swahili precedes the adjectives and pronouns that depend on it. The adjective prefix is generally similar to the prefix of the noun (see solid arrow) and both of them are referred to as “nominal” prefixes. Conversely, the prefixes used with the pronouns (like the demonstrative pronoun -le “that/those”) and the subject pronoun prefixed to the verb may differ from the corresponding nominal prefixes (see dashed arrow in (1)). As noted before, the nominal prefix mu- generally becomes m- before a consonant and mw- before a vowel. However, its vowel /u/ is preserved in some words of foreign origin, such as: muda/mida “period(s) of time”; muhula/mihula “quarter(s) [of the year]”; muhtasari/ mihtasari “summary(ies)”; muziki/miziki “music; musical genre(s)”. It is also preserved in some contexts before another vowel /u/ (e.g. muumba/waumba “creator[s]”) or the semi- vowel /w/ (e.g. muwania/wawania “contestant/s”; muwazi/wawazi “frank person”; muwako/ miwako “shine[s]”), and before a monosyllabic stem beginning with a semi-vowel (e.g. muwi/wawi “evil person”; muwa/miwa “sugar cane[s]”; muye/miye “vapor[s]”). The latter prevents the construction of nouns with one syllable, which would be irregular in Swahili.

4.2.2 Nouns with ki-/vi- or ch-/vy- prefixes: class [ki-ki/vi-vi] Nouns for non-animates with a prefix ki- in the singular and vi- in the plural, or ch-/vy- before a stem vowel, prompt the use of the same type of prefixes with dependent adjectives, pronouns, and verbs as seen in (2–3). The nouns of this category are said to belong to the class [ki-ki/vi-vi].

(2) a. Kitabu changu kimoja ki- me- fika “One of my books has arrived” book my one it-perfect-arrive b. Vitabu vyetu viwili vi- me- fika “Two of our books have arrived” book our two they-perfect-arrive

(3) a. Chuo kile ni kizuri “That college is good” college that is good b. Vyuo vile ni vizuri “Those colleges are good” colleges those are good

4.2.3 Nouns identical in the singular and the plural: class [n-i/n-zi] Nouns for non-animates that are identical in the singular and the plural prompt the use of the agreement prefixesn-/n- with adjectives and i-/zi- with pronouns and verbs, as in (4–5). They, therefore, constitute the class [n-i/n-zi]. Some of these nouns have a prefix n-, such as nguo/nguo “clothing/clothes”; others have no apparent prefix, such askalamu/kalamu “pen(s)”. Swahili noun class system 21 (4) a. Nguo nzuri ile inauzwa “That nice clothing is for sale” (kuuzwa “to be sold”) b. Nguo nzuri zile zinauzwa “Those nice clothes are for sale”

(5) a. Kalamu ile ni nzuri sana “That pen is very nice” b. Kalamu zile ni nzuri sana “Those pens are very nice”

4.2.4 Nouns lacking a prefix in the singular, with prefix ma- in the plural: class [ø-li/ma-ya] Nouns like jina “name” or gari “car” which have no prefix in the singular but have the prefix ma- in the plural (see majina “names”; magari “cars”) prompt the use of the agree- ment prefixes ø-/ma- with adjectives and li-/ya- with pronouns and verbs as shown in (6–7). They constitute the class [ø-li/ma-ya], with ø- meaning “no prefix”, as in (6a, 7a). As previously seen in (1a–b), the solid and dashed arrows refer here to the difference between the nominal prefixes (nouns/adjectives) and pronominal/verbal prefixes.

(6) a. Gari lile ni zuri. Linatoka Ujerumani “That car is nice. It is from ” ø-Gari li-le ni ø-zuri li-na-toka Ujerumani

[ø-li] car that is nice it-pres.-be from Germany b. Magari yale ni mazuri. Yanatoka Ujerumani “Those cars are nice. They are from Germany” ma-gari ya-le ni ma-zuri ya-na-toka Ujerumani

[ma-ya] car those are nice they-pres.-be from Germany

(7) a. Jina lile linapendeza “That name is nice” b. Majina yale yanapendeza “Those names are nice”

4.3. Animate status and the animate class [mu-yu,a/wa-wa] Nouns for animates (humans and animals) in the singular trigger the use of the agreement prefix mu- with adjectives, yu- with pronouns, and a- with verbs, as shown in example (8). In the plural, they trigger the agreement prefix wa- in all contexts, as shown in (9). Accordingly, animate nouns such as mwanafunzi/wanafunzi “student/students” belong to the class [mu-yu,a/wa-wa], also called the animate class (with mu- → mw- before a stem vowel; m- before a stem consonant).

(8) Mwanafunzi mzuri yule a-li-soma kitabu

[mu-yu,a] student good that he/she-past-read book “That good student read a book (past)” 22 Swahili noun class system (9) Wanafunzi wazuri wale wa-li-soma kitabu

[wa-wa] student good those they-past-read book “Those good students read a book (past)”

Importantly, the animate status overrides the form of the noun prefix. In other words, animate nouns prompt the use of the agreement prefixes [mu-yu,a/wa-wa] regardless of the form of their own prefixes, that is, even when they have a prefix different from mu-/wa-, or have no apparent prefix. This is the case for common nouns like kijana/vijana “youth(s)”, kiongozi/viongozi “leader(s)”, mtume/mitume “prophet(s)”, mungu/miungu “god(s), idol(s)”, baharia/(ma)baharia “sailor(s)”, nguruwe/nguruwe “pig(s)”, paka/paka “cat(s)”, mbwa/mbwa “dog(s)”, and ng’ombe/ng’ombe “cow(s)”. Proper nouns for humans also follow the same rule. Examples of -based agreement unrelated to the noun prefix follow in (10).

(10) Agreement in class [mu-yu,a/wa-wa] for animate nouns without mu-/wa- prefixes

a. Kijana yule anatoka Kenya “That young person comes from Kenya” b. Vijana wale wanatoka Kenya “Those young people come from Kenya” c. Mariam ana paka mmoja na mbwa wawili “Mariam has one cat and two dogs” d. Mariam na Abdalla wanapenda kuimba “Mariam and Abdalla like singing”

4.4. Noun class assignment and agreement prefix use As described in the previous sections, Swahili has one animate and four non-animate classes that relate to the noun prefix. Table 4.1 summarizes how different types of nouns are assigned to different classes or agreement patterns, in both singular and plural.

Table 4.1 Noun types and noun class assignment

Noun types Class Model noun

Singular Plural Animate noun mu - yu,a / wa - wa mtoto/watoto “child(ren)” (any or no noun prefix) (yu- → w-; see Table 4.2) paka/paka “cat(s)” Non-animate noun with . . . a. prefix mu- (m,mw) mu - u / mi - i mfuko/mifuko “bag(s)” b. prefix ki- (ch) ki - ki / vi - vi kitabu/vitabu “book(s)” c. no prefix & plural ma- ø - li / ma - ya gari/magari “car(s)” d. prefix n- or no prefix n - i / n - zi nguo/nguo “clothing; clothes” in singular and plural kalamu/kalamu “pen(s)”

↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ [Adj. - Pron.,Verb] [Adj. - Pron.,Verb] Swahili noun class system 23 As seen in Table 4.1, the adjective prefixes are generally similar to the corresponding noun prefixes, with a few exceptions like the animate nouns that have no prefix, those with a prefix other than mu-(m,mw)/wa-, and prefixless non-animate nouns. Accordingly, the name of most noun classes reflects the prefix of the noun. You will observe that in all classes the vowel of the pronoun prefix is similar to the vowel of the noun/adjective prefix, or has the form /i/ if the noun/adjective prefix does not have a vowel (see [ø-li] and [n-i/n-zi]). This gives the agreement system a certain logic and makes it easy to retain. As there are two types of non-animate nouns that may appear with no apparent class prefix (see Table 4.1c and 4.1d), it is necessary to know their plural form in order to determine their class. Accordingly, nouns with a ma- prefix in the plural are in class [ø-li/ma-ya] (e.g. gari/magari ⇒ gari lile/magari yale “that/those car(s)”), whereas those which are identical in singular and plural are automatically in class [n-i/n-zi] (e.g. barabara/ barabara ⇒ barabara ile/barabara zile “that/those road(s)”). As explained in 3.1, diction- aries generally give the plural form for nouns with prefix ma- in the plural, while other nouns with no prefix in the singular are implicitly invariable. Table 4.2 illustrates the use of class prefixes, with the nominal prefixes on the left side (for nouns and adjectives), and the pronominal prefixes on the right (for pronouns and verbs). In addition to the nouns found in Table 4.1, the present table uses the adjective -dogo “little; small”, the pronouns -le “that/those (over there)”, -angu “my; mine”, -ni- “me”, and the verbs -penda “like”, -pendeza “please”, and ni “is/are”. All of the sentences in this table follow the model: “That little child is mine; he pleases me/Those little children are mine; they please me.”

Table 4.2 Model sentences for Swahili noun classes

Class Nominal prefix Pronominal prefix

Noun, Adjective Demons., Possessive, Subject pronoun a. [mu-yu, a/wa-wa] mtoto mdogo/ yule ni wangu; ananipendeza watoto wadogo wale ni wangu; wananipendeza (yu- → w- / Vowel) b. [mu-u/mi-i] mfuko mdogo/ ule ni wangu; unanipendeza mifuko midogo ile ni yangu; inanipendeza (u- → w-; i- → y- / Vowel) c. [ø-li/ma-ya] gari dogo [ø- . . . ø-]/ lile ni langu; linanipendeza magari madogo yale ni yangu; yananipendeza (li- → l-; ya- → y- / Vowel) d. [ki-ki/vi-vi] kitabu kidogo/ kile ni changu; kinanipendeza vitabu vidogo vile ni vyangu; vinanipendeza (ki- → ch-; vi- → vy- / Vowel) e. [n-i/n-zi] nguo ndogo/ ile ni yangu; inanipendeza nguo ndogo zile ni zangu; zinanipendeza (zi- → z- / Vowel)

As seen in Table 4.2a, in the singular form of the animate class [mu-yu,a], yu- is used with pronouns, while a- is used with verbs. Additionally, the pronominal prefix yu- is re- placed with w- before a stem that begins with a vowel (e.g. w-angu “my; mine”). The use of w- instead of yu- prevents the realization of odd sequences of the form yu + Vowel or 24 Swahili noun class system

yw + Vowel. Before a stem that begins with a vowel, the vowel of the class prefix tends to become a semi-vowel (u- → w-; i- → y-), or to drop (wa- → w-; ya- → y-; li- → l-; zi- → z-), while the prefixes ki-/vi- generally become ch-/vy-.

4.5. Review exercise (11) Fill in the table with agreement prefixes of different classes (add in parentheses the variants used before a vowel; keep previous sections covered). Write corresponding phrases with the nouns listed below and the demonstrative -le “that/those” (see model in a-). Use the words: kitabu, mifuko, magari, mtoto, -dogo, nguo “clothing”, gari, vitabu, mfuko, watoto, nguo “clothes”.

Nomin. - Nomin. - Phrase in Phrase in pronom. prefix pronom. prefix the singular the plural a. ki - ki __ (ch) vi - ____ ( ) kitabu kidogo kile vitabu __dogo __le b. n - ____ ( ) n - ____ ( ) c. mu - ____ ( ) wa - ____ ( ) d. mu - ____ ( ) mi - ____ ( ) e. ø - ____ ( ) ma - ____ ( )

(12) Fill in the blanks when relevant (class prefixes: [mu-u/mi-i]; [ø-li/ma-ya]; [mu-yu,a/ wa-wa]; [ki-ki/vi-vi]; [n-i/n-zi]; use appropriate variants before vowel stems).

Noun, Adjective, Demonstrative, [is/are], Possessive, Verb a. nguo ___dogo ___le ni ___angu, ___nanipendeza / nguo ___dogo ___le ni ___angu, ___nanipendeza “That small item of clothing is mine; it pleases me/ Those small items of clothing are mine; they please me” b. gari ___dogo ___le ni ___angu, ___nanipendeza / magari ___dogo ___le ni ___angu, ___nanipendeza “That small car is mine; it pleases me/ Those small cars are mine; they please me” c. kitabu ___dogo ___le ni ___angu, ___nanipendeza / vitabu ___dogo ___le ni ___angu, ___nanipendeza “That small book is mine; it pleases me/ Those small books are mine; they please me” d. Mtoto ___dogo ___le ni ___angu, ___nanipendeza / watoto ___dogo ___le ni ___angu, ___nanipendeza “That small child is mine; he pleases me/ Those small children are mine; they please me” e. mfuko ___dogo ___le ni ___angu, ___nanipendeza / mifuko ___dogo ___le ni ___angu, ___nanipendeza “That small bag is mine; it pleases me/ Those small bags are mine; they please me” Swahili noun class system 25 4.6. Prefix-based vs. animacy-based agreement with close relationship terms As discussed in Language note 3.1, close relationship terms that look the same in singular and plural, like baba “father(s)”, dada “sister(s)”, kaka “brother(s)”, or ndugu “sibling(s)”, select their agreement prefix in class [n-i/n-zi] for the six possessive pronouns (13). This type of agreement is based on the noun prefixes, given the fact that the singular/plural noun prefixes ø-/ø- and n-/n- correspond to the class [n-i/n-zi].

(13) a. ndugu yangu (i-angu) “my sibling” b. baba zetu (zi-etu) “our fathers”

In all contexts other than the possessive pronouns, close relationship terms prompt the use of a prefix agreement in class [mu-yu,a/wa-wa], that is, a class agreement that is animacy- based. The following examples (14–15) illustrate the dual application of the prefix-based and animacy-based agreement triggered by the noun ndugu “siblings(s)”, in both singular and plural (the dashed arrows show the prefix-based agreement, whereas the solid arrows show the animacy-based agreement).

(14) ndugu yangu mkubwa anasoma chuo kikuu

[n-i] [mu-yu,a] sibling mine great he-present-study university (anim.,sg.) “My older sibling studies at university”

(15) ndugu zangu wakubwa wanasoma chuo kikuu

[n-zi] [wa-wa] sibling mine great they-present-study university (anim.,pl.) “My older siblings study at university”

Besides those seen in the paragraphs before, other invariable kinship terms that prompt dual class agreements are: mama “mother(s)”, bibi “grandmother(s)”, babu “grandfather(s)”, shangazi “paternal aunt(s)”, wifi “sister(s)-in-law”, shemeji “sister(s)-in-law/brother(s)- in-law”, jamaa “relative(s)”. A few other terms that express close human relationships also follow the same model of agreement. This last category includes cases like rafiki “friend(s)”, shoga “girlfriend(s) [for women]; gay man”, jirani “neighbor(s)”, and adui “enemy(ies)”. Using the agreement prefixes i- and zi- rather than the animacy-based agreement (i.e. the prefixes w- and wa-) prevents the confusion between singular and plural forms. For example, ndugu yangu and ndugu zangu clearly differentiate the singular and the plural forms. Using w-angu for the singular, and wa-angu for the plural would create ambiguity, as both forms would give wangu. With close relationship terms, the possessive conjunction -a “of ” uses the prefixesw- and wa- based on the animate class [mu-yu,a/wa-wa], rather than class [n-i/n-zi], as shown with the b. series in (16–17).

(16) a. baba yake “His father” b. baba wa Juma “Juma’s father” 26 Swahili noun class system (17) a. ndugu zake “His siblings” b. ndugu wa Juma “Juma’s siblings”

4.7. Alternative plural in ma- and “dual agreement” with kinship terms (advanced analysis) Many prefixless terms for human beings optionally use the plural prefix ma- (see balozi/ balozi or mabalozi “ambassador(s)”; rafiki/rafiki or marafiki “friend(s)”; shemeji/shemeji or mashemeji “brother(s)/sister(s)-in-law”; jirani/jirani or majirani “neighbors(s)”, etc.). However, nouns with this default plural marker for human beings (ma-) still require an agreement prefix in the [wa-wa] class, as shown in (18–19). Prefixless relationship terms also use the agreement prefix zi- for the possessives even with the default plural marker ma-, and wa- for other pronouns and the verb (20–21). In other words, the default plural marker ma- is syntactically inactive.

(18) bwana mmoja/mabwana wawili “one gentleman/two gentlemen” (19) jirani yule/majirani wale “that/those neighbor(s)” (20) Shemeji or Mashemeji zangu wote wanaishi hapa “All my brothers-in-law live here” (21) Je, umewaona majirani zako (or jirani zako)? “Did you see your neighbors? Walikutafuta. They were looking for you”

In addition, reduced terms of relationship wake and waume “husbands/wives” (as opposed to wanaume and wanawake “men/women”) optionally trigger the use of the agreement prefix zi- with possessive pronouns (e.g. wake zao “their wives”; waume zenu “your [pl.] husbands”) and, exceptionally, with the possessive conjunction -a “of” (e.g. wake za watu/ waume za watu “other people’s wives/husbands”). Here, the prefix wa- is a frozen segment, treated as part of the stem. In other words, waume and wake are treated in this context as if they had a ø- prefix, which is typical of plural nouns in class [n-i/n-zi].

4.8. Lexical frequency and noun class reference numbers Some classes have high concentrations of particular nouns. For example, in class [mu-u/ mi-i] we find many nouns for trees and body parts, such as mti/miti “tree(s)”, mnazi/minazi “coconut tree(s)”, mguu/miguu “leg(s)”, mkono/mikono “arm(s)”, moyo/mioyo “heart(s)”, etc. Similarly, the invariable subclass [ma-ya] contains many nouns for liquids, like maji “water”, maziwa “”, mate “saliva”, mafuta “oil, animal fat”, mawese “palm oil”, and manyanya “drizzle”. Other series of nouns also are exclusively used in the subclass [ma- ya], with no plural connotation. This is the case for some nouns of action or process that derive from verbs, such as mazungumzo “conversation” (from kuzungumza “to converse”), malipo “payment” (from kulipa “to pay”), maandishi “handwriting” (from kuandika “to write”), or mabadiliko “change” (from kubadilika “to change”). This is also the case for some foreign words beginning with ma-, such as maisha “life” or madhara “harm” (for detailed analysis, you may consult Contini-Morava 1994). As said before, this text labels noun classes based on agreement that they trigger among adjectives, pronouns, and verbs: [mu-yu,a/wa-wa]; [mu-u/mi-i]; [ø-li/ma-ya]; [ki-ki/vi-vi]; [n-i/n-zi]; [mu-u/n-zi]; [mu-u/ma-ya]; [ku-ku]; [pa-pa] (the latter four classes will be seen in 8.1–3 and 16.1). This corresponds to the reference numbers used in some Swahili dic- tionaries or grammars, and some Bantu language studies: [1/2]; [3/4]; [5/6]; [7/8]; [9/10]; Swahili noun class system 27 [11/10]; [14/6]; [15]; [16] (details are provided in Language note 8.2). Other texts also use the subject pronoun (often referred to as the “subject prefix” or the “subject marker”) or the noun prefix alone to refer to the noun classes.

4.9. Application exercises (22) Convert into plural whenever possible (e.g. my → our); translate into English. (Subject pronoun + na = “have, has”; na “and, with”. Replace -moja with -nne “four”.)

a. Mtoto wake ana kitabu kimoja. b. Mjomba wangu alinunua nyumba nzuri. c. Mfuko mdogo mmoja ulianguka. d. Nchi yako ina mto mrefu sana. e. Nyumba ile ina mlango mkubwa. f. Rafiki wa Mariam anakaa hapa. Rafiki yako anakaa na mimi. g. Basi langu limeondoka. h. Kijana yule ni kaka yake. i. Kiti chake kimevunjika.

(23) Fill in the table and translate the right column into English (nouns used: dada/dada, jina/majina, chakula/vyakula, shule/shule, mtoto/watoto, kazi/kazi, and mbwa/mbwa).

Meaning Noun + possessive Use the same noun as in left column + -a Juma (as shown in a. with mtoto) a. my child mtoto ___angu mtoto ___a Juma “Juma’s child” (lit. “the child of Juma”) b. my children c. your job d. your jobs e. his name f. her names g. our school h. her sister i. my sisters j. their school k. their schools l. my dog m. your dogs n. our food 28 Swahili noun class system 4.10. Cumulative exercises (24) Fill in the blanks. Translate into English.

a. Jina ____ake ni Aisha. Chakula ____ake ni ____tamu sana. (“delicious”) b. Mimi na rafiki ____angu ____naenda nyumbani. Mama ____na____taka. (use “she”, “us” in the second part) c. Ninapenda vitabu ____ake. Ni ____zuri sana.

(25) Translate into Swahili.

a. We want those oranges. b. One child is mine. Two children are his. c. The name of my wife is Lela. We have three children: one girl and two boys. d. My brother lives in Nairobi. His children live in Mombasa. e. Lela’s parents have a nice house. f. Their schools teach Swahili. My school teaches English. g. Little children like to play. h. My car is small. Yours is big. i. Our schools are small, but our classrooms are big. j. Those beignets (fried dough) are delicious, but that bread is bad. k. The city of Dar es Salaam is big and nice. Our cities are nice but small. 5 Noun/adjective and pronoun agreement

5.1. Agreement prefix selection: adjective vs. pronominal prefixes As mentioned before, most adjectives and pronouns agree with their head-noun. This is the case for descriptive and quantitative adjectives, as well as for various pronouns, such as the possessive, the demonstrative, and the interrogative. Adjectives use the same type of prefixes as nouns, that is, “nominal prefixes”. Conversely, pronouns use an agreement prefix that may be different from noun prefixes, that is, “pronominal prefixes”. Table 5.1 lists the nominal prefixes used for nouns and adjectives, contrastively with pronominal prefixes used for the pronouns.

Table 5.1 Noun/adjective prefixes vs. pronominal prefixes

Nominal - pronominal Nominal - pronominal Review exercise prefix prefix prefix prefix a. ki - ki vi - vi kitabu kizuri kile/vitabu . . . b. mu - yu,a wa - wa (w) c. mu - u mi - i d. ø - li ma - ya e. n - i n - zi (ø) (ø)

(Singular) (Plural)

Review exercise: Classify the following nouns in the right-hand column above and make singular and plural phrases using the demonstrative -le “that/those”; -zuri “nice; good”, as shown in a.: mpira “ball”, chakula “food”, mti “tree”, nchi “country”, jina “name”, msichana “girl”, kalamu “pen”, darasa “class”, kiti “chair”, shule “school”, and mwanafunzi “student”. Each row might have multiple entries.

Table 5.2 classifies different noun determiners (adjectives/pronouns) according to the type of agreement prefixes they use, that is, nominal vs. pronominal prefixes. Though it is not an adjective, the stem -ingine “other” uses a nominal prefix, following the same rule as -ingi “many, a lot of ”, with which it is phonetically similar. In both cases, the stem-initial vowel /i/ merges with a preceding identical prefix vowel /i/ (e.g. chakula ki-ingi → chakula kingi “much food”; vitabu vi-ingine → vitabu vingine “other books”). In addition, the stem’s initial vowel /i/ is changed to /e/ after a prefix with an /a/ (e.g. watu 30 Noun/adjective and pronoun agreement Table 5.2 Noun determiners according to their agreement prefixes (listed inTable 5.1)

+ Nominal prefix + Pronominal prefix

Descriptive Quantitative Pronouns with an Pronouns with an adjectives adj. initial consonant initial vowel

-dogo/-kubwa -moja; -wili; -tatu -pi? “which?” -a “little/big” “one, two, three…” (e.g. yupi?, wapi?, ipi?) “of; for, . . .” -zuri/-baya -mojawapo -le “that/those, over there” -angu; -etu “good/bad” “one of” (e.g. yule, wale, ile) “my/mine; our/s” -refu/-fupi -chache NB. “that/those, near you” -ako; -enu “long/short” “few” (e.g. huyo, hao, hiyo, . . .) “your/s [pl.]” and “this/these” -eupe/-eusi -ingi -ake; -ao (e.g. huyu, hawa, hii, . . .) “white/black” “many, a lot” “his; her/s; their/s” will be seen in 5.4. -zito/-epesi + -ingine -ote “heavy/light” “other” “all; the whole” -embamba/-nene -ngapi? -enye “thin/thick” “how many?” “with = that has” -pana/-finyu “spacious, wide/narrow” wa-ingi → watu wengi “many people”; watu wa-ingine → watu wengine “other people”; more details will be seen in 9.1). In subclass [ø-li], adjective stems beginning with a vowel, including -ingi and -ingine, use the prefix j-, as shown in (1a–b) and (1c).

(1) a. Sehemu hii ina vumbi jingi “This area has a lot of dust” b. Tafadhali, ninaomba andazi jingine “Please, I request another beignet ( fried dough)” c. Abdalla amenunua gari jeupe “Abdalla has bought a white car”

5.2. Use of pronominal prefixes in different classes As mentioned earlier, the prefix yu- of class [mu-yu,a/wa-wa] is replaced with w- before a vowel, as in (2a). Additionally, the contact between the prefix vowel and the vowel of the stem creates certain phonetic variations, such as: wa- → [w]; u- → [w]; i- → [y]; ya- → [y]; li- → [l]; ki- → [ch]; vi- → [vy]; and zi- → [z] (2b–g).

(2) Examples of pronoun use in different classes

a. [mu-yu,a] Mtoto yupi? Mtoto wangu, wetu, wako, wenu, wake, wao Which child? My, our, your, your (you all), his, their child b. [wa-wa] Watoto wapi? Wangapi? Watoto wangu, wetu, wako, wenu, wake, wao Which children? How many? My, our, your, your (you all), his, their children Noun/adjective and pronoun agreement 31 c. [mu-u/mi-i] Mfuko wangu wote/Mifuko yetu yote My whole bag/All our bags d. [ø-li/ma-ya] Gari lipi? Gari letu/Magari yapi? Magari yetu Which car? Our car/Which cars? Our cars e. [ki-ki] Kiti kipi? Kiti changu, chetu, chako, chenu, chake, chao Which chair? My, our, your, your (you all), his, their chair f. [vi-vi] Viti vipi?/Vingapi? Viti vyangu, vyetu, vyako, vyenu, vyake, vyao Which chairs?/How many? My/our/your/your (you all)/his/ their chairs g. [n-i/n-zi] Nyumba ipi? Nyumba yote/Nyumba zipi?/Nyumba zote Which house? The whole house/Which houses? All the houses

In the animate class, the singular pronominal prefix appears asmu- (mw-) in the presence of the pronouns -enye “with (that has/have)” and -enyewe “self/selves” as shown in (3). In non-animate classes, the two pronouns use regular pronominal prefixes, as shown in (4). Additionally, -enye is unaccented, as it constitutes a “compound adjective” with the following noun, with one accent that falls on the second-to-last syllable of the group (3a, 4a–b) (here, accented vowels are marked with an acute accent). Simple disyllabic forms of the verb “have” as those in (4c) are also unaccented.

(3) Pronoun stems -enye and -enyewe with the prefix mu- in the animate class

a. Mwalímu mwenye ujúzi/Walímu wenye ujúzi “A knowledgeable teacher (lit. ‘with knowledge’)/Knowledgeable teachers (lit. ‘with knowledge’)” b. Mwalímu mwenyéwe amecheléwa/Walímu wenyéwe wamecheléwa “The teacher himself is late/The teachers themselves are late”

(4) Pronoun stems -enye and -enyewe with regular prefixes li-( /ya-, i-/zi-) in non-animate classes

a. Nyúmba yenye bustáni/ “A house with a garden/ Nyúmba zenye bustáni Houses with a garden” b. Dúka lenye vitu víngi/ “A store with many things/ Madúka yenye vitu víngi Stores with many things” c. Nyúmba yenyéwe ina bustáni/ “The house itself has a garden/ Nyúmba zenyéwe zina bustáni The houses themselves have a garden” d. Dúka lenyéwe limefúngwa/ “The store itself has been closed/ Madúka yenyéwe yamefúngwa The stores themselves have been closed”

In addition, non-animate nouns in the plural require the use of the possessive -ake for “their”, instead of -ao “their”, which is only used with animate nouns (5).

(5) a. Nyumba hizi, wenyeji wake wamehama “These houses, their residents have moved” b. Ninapenda vitabu hivi na picha zake “I like these books and their pictures” 32 Noun/adjective and pronoun agreement 5.3. Interrogative words and the interrogative intonation In addition to the interrogative pronouns seen in the previous section, you will observe that Swahili does not use the so-called “interrogative ”, which typically places the object of the verb in clause-initial position, nor uses “interrogative auxiliaries” (such as “do/does” seen in (6)). In other words, interrogative clauses in Swahili are similar to their “statement” counterparts, as shown in (6), except for the intonation, as shown in (7).

(6) No “interrogative inversion” nor “interrogative auxiliaries” in Swahili

a. Unapénda kitabu kíle? “Do you like that book?” (lit. “You like that book?”) b. Una vitábu vingápi? “How many books do you have?” (lit. “You have how many books?”) c. Mariám anatáka kofia ípi? “Which hat does Mariam want?” (lit. “Mariam wants which hat?”)

The interrogative intonation raises the pitch of a sentence’s second-to-last syllable, that is, the last accented syllable (see 7a, c; accented vowels are marked with an acute accent; the rising pitch is represented with a rising curve). The interrogative intonation may also raise the second-to-last and final syllables, especially in high-register speech (see 7b, d). Addi- tionally, in the absence of another interrogative word, an interrogative particle je may be placed before an interrogative clause (see 7c–d). The only role of this particle is attracting the listener’s attention.

(7) Two forms of interrogative intonation in Swahili (a, c vs. b, d)

a. Mama yáko anakáa wápi? b. Mama yáko anakáa wápi? “Where does your mother live?”

c. Jé, húyu ni mtoto wáko? d. Jé, húyu ni mtoto wáko? “Is this your child?”

Question clauses may also use interrogative adverbs such as: kwa nini? “why?” (answer: kwa sababu “because”); mbona? “how is it that?; how come?”; vipi? “how?”; wapi? “where?”; lini? “when?”. As shown in (8), some interrogative adverbs relating to the notion of “cause” generally appear in clause-initial position, while other adverbs tend to appear after the verb. However, in (8b–e) these natural positions may be reversed, especially to express emphasis.

(8) Use of interrogative adverbs

a. Mbona umechelewa tena? “How is it that/How come you are late again?” b. Kwa nini unanitazama? “Why are you watching me?” c. Wazazi wako wanakaa wapi? “Where do your parents live?” d. Mizigo yako itafika lini? “When will your luggage arrive?” e. Unaandika vipi jina lako? “How do you spell (write) your name?” Noun/adjective and pronoun agreement 33 5.4. Demonstrative pronouns

5.4.1 Demonstrative pronouns and the notion of distance or proximity Generally, demonstratives imply a notion of distance or proximity in relation to the first , that is, “me”. In English, “this/these” refers to something “near me”, whereas “that/those” refers to something “away from me”. Swahili applies the same type of distinction, but also includes the notions of “near you” and “away from you”. Accordingly, demonstratives of the form huyu/hawa, or hiki/hivi refer to something “near me” and are translated as “this/these”, while the demonstratives of the form huyo/hao, or hicho/hivyo refer to something “near you” and are translated as “that/ those, near you”. On the other hand, the demonstratives of the form yule, wale, or kile refer to something “away from you and me”, and the proper translation is “that/those, over there”. While all three types of demonstrative include a class prefix that varies according to the noun they refer to, the demonstratives for “near you” and “away from you and me” also include, respectively, the segments -o and -le, which constitute their stems. Conversely, the demonstrative for “near me” is marked by the absence of a stem. Table 5.3 illustrates the three demonstratives in different classes.

Table 5.3 The demonstrative pronouns in different classes

Stem (–) -o -le Prefix near me near you away from you and me a. mtoto → yu- huyu “this” huyo “that” yule “that . . . over there” watoto → wa- hawa “these” hao “those” wale “those . . . over there” b. mfuko → u- huu huo ule mifuko → i- hii hiyo ile c. gari → li- hili hilo lile magari → ya- haya hayo yale d. kiti → ki- hiki hicho kile viti → vi- hivi hivyo vile e. nyumba → i- hii hiyo ile nyumba → zi- hizi hizo zile

As seen in Table 5.3, the demonstratives that imply “near me” and “near you” begin with a segment of the form hV-, whose vowel (V) harmonizes with the vowel of the class prefix which follows it. Accordingly, this segment appears as ha-, hu-, hi- depending on the vowel of the class prefix, as shown in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4 Harmony between the hV- segment and the vowel of the following class prefix

Form hV-prefix-(stem) hV-prefix-(stem) hV-prefix-(stem) Meaning near me → huyu (hu-yu) hawa (ha-wa) hiki (hi-ki) near you → huyo (hu-yu-o) hao (ha-wa-o) hicho (hi-ki-o)

The hV- segment has no specific meaning. It is an “augment” that serves to give a disyl- labic shape to the word. As seen before, in Swahili the second-to-last syllable of the word 34 Noun/adjective and pronoun agreement is generally accented. The disyllabic structure fits this natural pattern. Examples of demon- strative are given in (9).

(9) Examples of demonstrative use

a. Mtoto huyu ni wa dada yangu/Watoto hawa ni wa dada yetu “This child is my sister’s/These children are our sister’s” b. Mtoto huyo ni wako?/Watoto hao ni wenu? “Is that child (near you) yours?/Are those children (near you) yours (you all)?” c. Mtoto yule ni wako?/Watoto wale ni wenu? “Is that child (over there) yours?/Are those children (over there) yours (you all)?”

The review exercise in (10) addresses the three forms of demonstratives in Swahili in different classes, in both singular and plural.

(10) Review exercise: Combine nouns with demonstratives and give Swahili equivalents (e.g. this + pen: kalamu hii). Keep previous sections covered.

this . . . / these . . . that . . . / those . . . that . . . / those . . . (near you) (over there) a. chair(s) / / / b. girl(s) / / / c. table(s) / / / d. bag(s) / / / e. shirt(s) shati /mashati / /

As shown in (11a–b), the demonstratives -o and -le may be used respectively to refer to an entity just mentioned or related to an event in the past. This use of the demonstrative is called “evocative”.

(11) a. Jana, wageni wawili waliondoka. Wageni hao ni Lela na Liz “Yesterday, two guests left. Those guests are Lela and Liz” b. Je, uliweza kumwona mwalimu yule? “Have you been able to see that teacher? (about whom we talked some time ago)”

5.4.2 Demonstrative pronouns and emphasis All three types of demonstratives may mark emphasis through repetition, as shown in (12–15). Like the simple demonstratives, repeated demonstratives -o and -le also may refer to something just mentioned or related to an event in the past, as in (13–15).

(12) Unaweza kunipatia kitabu hicho? Hicho hicho “Would you pass me that book? Yes, that one”

(13) Mvulana mmoja alisema ni mgonjwa; mvulana huyo huyo nilimwona klabuni “One boy said he is ill; I saw the very same boy in a bar” Noun/adjective and pronoun agreement 35 (14) Kijana yule yule alinitukana “The same young person insulted me”

(15) Wanafunzi wale wale wanachelewa darasani “The same students are late to class”

Emphasis may also be marked by placing the demonstrative before the noun, in which case both the noun and the demonstrative bear an accent. Examples of emphatic inversion are given in (16b, 17b).

(16) a. Kitabu híki ni cha náni? “Whose book is this?” (“is of whom”) b. Híki kitábu ni cha náni? “This book, whose is it?” (“is of whom”)

(17) a. Nyumba íle ni yáko? “Is that your house?” b. Íle nyúmba ni yáko? “That house is yours?”

5.5. Contact rules between the nominal prefix n- and an adjective/nominal stem The prefix n- of the class [n-i/n-zi] drops before the consonants /p t ch k f s sh h/ (e.g. pana, tatu, tano in (18a–b)). These consonants are called “non-sonorous”, as opposed to their “sonorous” counterparts /b d j g v z/, which are pronounced with air pressure in the throat and, therefore, resonate more (compare with the consonants in “pitchforks”, which are non-sonorous, except /r/. For the pronunciation of different consonants, you may refer to the following link: www.phonetics.ucla.edu/course/chapter1/flash.html; Ladefodged 2005). The prefix n- also drops before nasal consonants /m n ny ng ng’/ (e.g. moja, nne, nane in (18b)). In addition, n- becomes ny- before a vowel, as shown with nyumba and nyingi in (18a–d). It also triggers phonetic variations in combination with other consonants, such as n-w ~ n-b → /mb/ and n-r → /nd/ shown in (18a, c) and (18d), respectively, with mbaya/mbili and ndefu (this topic will be seen in detail in section 9.2).

(18) Examples of sound changes involving the nominal prefix n-

a. nyumba mbaya pana (n-umba n-baya ø-pana) “(a) spacious ugly house(s)” b. nyumba moja/tatu/nne/tano/nane “one/three/four/five/eight house(s)” (vs. kitabu kimoja/vitabu vitatu “one/three book(s)”) c. n-umba n-wili → nyumba mbili “two houses” (vs. watu wawili “two people”) d. n-umba n-ingi n-refu → nyumba nyingi ndefu “many tall/long houses”

5.6. Word order within a noun group (noun, adjectives, pronouns) As seen before, nouns generally precede dependent adjectives and pronouns. The word order among adjectives and pronouns is relatively fixed as well. Possessives (e.g. -angu “my” and -ako “your”) generally come after the head-noun, followed by descriptive and quantitative adjectives (e.g. -eusi “black”, -eupe “white”, -ngapi? “how many?”, -ingi “many”, and -ingine “other”). 36 Noun/adjective and pronoun agreement Adjectives are in turn followed by all types of pronouns other than the possessives (e.g. -ote “all”, -pi? “which?”, -enye “with, that has”, and -enyewe “(him/her)self”), of which the demonstratives come last (e.g. -le “that/those, over there” or huyu/hawa “this/these”). Table 5.5 shows the position of different types of words within a hypothetical noun group. Illustrative examples are given in (19–23).

Table 5.5 Normal word order within a noun group a. b. c. d. e.

Noun Possessive Adjective (descriptive; Pronoun Demonstrative quantitative) (in general) mtoto -angu, -ako, -ake -zuri, -dogo, -eusi -ote, -pi? -le, huyu/hawa, hii/hizi nyumba -etu, -enu, -ao -ingi, -ingine, -ngapi? -enye, -enyewe huyo/hao, hiyo/hizo

(19) Kalamu zangu nyeusi zote zimepotea “All my black pens are lost”

(20) Kalamu nyeusi zile ni nzuri “Those black pens (over there) are nice”

(21) a. Kalamu nyeusi zipi zimepotea? “Which black pens are lost?” b. Kalamu zako zipi zimepotea? “Which of your pens are lost?”

(22) a. Anataka kalamu ngapi nyeusi? “How many black pens does he want?” b. Anataka kalamu nyeusi ngapi? “How many black pens does he want?” c. Anataka kalamu mbili nyeusi “He wants two black pens” d. Anataka kalamu nyeusi mbili “He wants two black pens”

(23) a. Nyumba zote zenye bustani zimeuzwa “All the houses with a garden have been sold” b. Nyumba zenye bustani zote zimeuzwa “All the houses with a garden have been sold”

As seen in (22a–b) and (22c–d), the order of adjectives can be freely switched. The same is true for general pronouns such as those listed in Table 5.5d, as seen in (23a–b). The principle of the possessive appearing just after the head-noun applies even with expressions made of two nouns connected by the possessive conjunction -a “of; for”, as shown in (24).

(24) a. Chumba cha kulala “Bedroom” (lit. “Room for sleeping”) → Chumba changu cha kulala ni hiki “My bedroom is this one” b. Kazi ya nyumbani “Homework” (lit. “at-home work”) → Kazi yake ya nyumbani imepotea “His homework is lost” c. Chakula cha mchana “Lunch” (lit. “food of the afternoon”) → Chakula chetu cha mchana ni “Our lunch is rice and meat” wali na nyama

In addition, demonstrative pronouns may be used contrastively (see “this in particular”), in which case they appear before the adjectives and other types of pronouns, as in (25). Noun/adjective and pronoun agreement 37 (25) a. Mkoba huu mweusi ni wa Juma “This black bag (in particular) is Juma’s” b. Nyumba hizi mbili zinauzwa “These two houses (in particular) are being sold” c. Ninataka chumba hiki chenye televisheni “I want this (particular) room with a television”

5.7. The variability of the pronoun -ingine “other” (advanced analysis) The pronoun -ingine “other” displays remarkable variation depending on the speaker, appearing as -engine and/or with a pronominal prefix (see li-, i-, zi-). Though most speak- ers say jingine in the subclass [ø-li], others say jengine or lingine. You may also hear nyengine and yingine in the subclass [n-i], and nyengine, zingine, or zengine in the subclass [n-zi], instead of nyingine, which is the most common form in class [n-i/n-zi]. On the other hand, yengine is not heard in the subclasses [ma-ya] and [n-i] (based on hypothetical *ya-ingine; *i-engine). This indicates that the stem -engine and the occurrences of the stem -ingine with a pronominal prefix are restricted to certain classes and appear as local variations.

5.8. Object pronouns and vowel contact rules As seen in 3.1, Swahili verbs may include an “object pronoun” that typically serves as an object (or complement) to the verb. In most classes, the object pronoun is identical to the equivalent pronominal prefix. However, as already seen in 3.1, the object pronoun in the animate class in the singular [mu-yu,a] has the form mu- instead of yu-. Additionally, the vowel of other object pronouns is maintained before a stem vowel, though the object pronoun mu- of the animate subclass [mu-yu,a] is optionally realized as mw- before a vowel, as seen in (26a). The following examples illustrate the use of the object pronoun in different classes (26a–e). You will observe that the object pronoun appears just before the stem in all tenses and all forms of the verbs. The topic of verb conjugation will be discussed in the next note. Appendix B also makes a general presenta- tion of the agreement prefixes.

(26) Use of the object pronoun in different classes

a. [mu-yu,a/wa-wa] Mtoto yule ninampenda. Nilimwona jana/ Watoto wale niwapenda. Niliwaona jana That child, I like him. I saw him yesterday/ Those children, I like them. I saw them yesterday b. [mu-u/mi-i] Mfuko ule ninaupenda. Niliuona jana/ Mifuko ile ninaipenda. Niliiona jana That bag, I like it. I saw it yesterday/ Those bags, I like them. I saw them yesterday c. [ø-li/ma-ya] Gari lile ninalipenda. Nililiona jana/ Magari yale ninayapenda. Niliyaona jana That car, I like it. I saw it yesterday/ Those cars, I like them. I saw them yesterday 38 Noun/adjective and pronoun agreement

d. [ki-ki/vi-vi] Kiti kile ninakipenda. Nilikiona jana/ Viti vile ninavipenda. Niliviona jana That chair, I like it. I saw it yesterday/ Those chairs, I like them. I saw them yesterday e. [n-i/n-zi] Nyumba ile ninaipenda. Niliiona jana/ Nyumba zile ninazipenda. Niliziona jana That house, I like it. I saw it yesterday/ Those houses, I like them. I saw them yesterday

5.9. Application exercises (27) Fill in the blanks, then convert into plural whenever possible (e.g. my book → our books), that is, write two sentences per question. Translate into English (see nani? “who?”; nini? “what?”).

a. Jina ____a mwalimu ____le ni nani? b. Kazi ____ako ni nini? c. Gari ____ako ni ____ pi? d. Mfuko ____ake ni ____ pi? e. Chakula ____a mtoto ni ____le. f. Kitabu h____o ni ____a nani?

(28) Fill in the blanks. Translate into English.

a. Anataka shati ____ako. Ana____ penda sana. b. Huyu ni kaka ____angu. Una____fahamu? Ndiyo, nili____ona jana. c. Ni maji ____etu. Tuna____tumia. d. Nyumba ____angu ni h____. Je, una____ penda? e. Mfuko ____angu ____dogo ____mepotea. Je, ume____ona? (see “be lost”)

(29) Match the sentences and fill in the blanks when relevant (apply contact rules when necessary).

a. Kamusi ____kubwa ____le ni i. Many computers are ____angu. Zao ni ____dogo damaged b. Kompyuta ____ingi ii. We saw three nice houses zimeharibika with spacious yards c. Safari ya kurudi nyumbani iii. My pants are white and ni ____refu sana black d. Suruali zangu ni ____eupe iv. That big dictionary is mine. na ____eusi Theirs are small e. Tuliona nyumba ____zuri v. The trip back home is ____tatu ____enye bustani very long ____ pana Noun/adjective and pronoun agreement 39 5.10. Cumulative exercises (30) Translate into Swahili (see adjectives/pronouns in Table 5.2 and possessives in Table 3.1).

a. Which book is yours? My book is that one (lit. “Your book is which?/My book is that, over there”). b. How many chairs do you want? c. Many trees are tall, but one tree is small. d. Many cars are big. e. One house is mine; the other house is my father’s (lit. “is of my father”). f. Which child is hers? All the children are hers. g. I like white houses. h. That chair is from Pemba (lit. “comes from”). i. One teacher has returned to Nairobi. j. These rooms are very small. Which room do you like? Mine is this one (lit. “mine is this”). k. How many brothers do you have? I have four brothers and one sister. l. I want three bananas and four beignets. She wants two books and one pen. m. How old are you? (lit. “How many years do you have”?) I am eighteen years old (lit. “I have eighteen years”). n. Her lessons are very difficult. Do you like them (the lessons)? o. Has the teacher left? p. Do you like writing? 6 The indicative mood and main verb tenses

This section presents the indicative mood of the verb in Swahili, that is, the form of the verb that serves to state facts without a particular connotation. In Swahili, the verbs in the indicative mood are the only ones that formally mark tenses in their morphology. Verbs in other moods are implicitly in the present tense (see “conditional”, “imperative”, and “subjunctive”). The following paragraphs present the four main tenses of the Swahili verb using the stem -ona “see” (kuona). Next, we will see secondary tenses (also called “aspects” in linguistic studies), which describe how the action of a verb takes place.

6.1. Main verb tenses in the indicative mood

6.1.1 Affirmative As shown in Table 6.1 below, the Swahili verb marks four main temporal distinctions: the past, the perfect, the present, and the future.

Table 6.1 The indicative tense markers in affirmative form

Past: -li- Perfect: -me- Present: -na- Future: -ta- a. niliona /ni-li-ona/ nimeona /ni-me-ona/ ninaona /ni-na-ona/ nitaona /ni-ta-ona/ “I saw” “I have seen” “I see” “I will see” b. mliona /mu-li-ona/ mmeona /mu-me-ona/ mnaona /mu-na-ona/ mtaona /mu-ta-ona/ “you all saw” “you all have seen” “you all see” “you all will see”

As seen in various examples before, the use of the present tense marker -na- refers to an action or a state of being that is ongoing or regularly takes place, as in the a. series in (1–3). In contrast, the perfect tense -me- expresses an action or a state that took place in a “recent past”, that is, that still has some effects in the present, as in the b. series in (1–3). The progressive present tense -na- generally corresponds to the construction “be + present participial (-ing form)” in English, while the perfect tense -me- generally corre- sponds to the English construction “have + past participial” that refers to the notion of “recent past”.

(1) a. Ndege i-na-ondoka “The is leaving/leaves (e.g. in the morning)” b. Ndege i-me-ondoka “The plane has left”

(2) a. Ni-na-soma Kiswahili “I am studying Swahili/I study Swahili” b. Ni-me-soma Kiswahili “I have studied Swahili” The indicative mood and main verb tenses 41 (3) a. Salima a-na-umwa kichwa “Salima is suffering from a headache/suffers from headaches” b. Salima a-me-umwa kichwa “Salima has suffered from a headache” With verbs that inherently imply the “beginning of a state that continues”, the use of the marker -na- rather expresses a state that is just taking place or regularly takes place. The marker -me- then expresses a state that took place in the recent past, or a state of being that is “completed” in the present time. In this category we find verbs that correspond to the pattern “be + past participial” in the present tense and “have + past participial” in the recent past in English, such as -fa “die/be dead”, -vunjika “break/be broken”, or -iva “cook/be cooked (of food)”. We also have verbs that correspond to the pattern “get/be + adjective” in English, such as -kasirika “get/be angry”, -choka “get/be tired”, -jaa “get/be full”, -chelewa “get delayed/be late”, or -haribika “get/be damaged”. In the examples in (4 – 8), the a. series illustrates the use of -na- to express a state that is just taking place or regularly takes place, while the b. series illustrates the use of -me- to express a state that took place in the “recent past” or a “completed state” in the present time. The comments in parentheses associated with the glosses for the present tense intro- duce the notion of repetition. (4) a. Mimea inakufa “The plants are dying/The plants die (e.g. each season)” b. Mimea imekufa “The plants have died/The plants are dead”

(5) a. Chakula kinaiva “The food is cooking/The food cooks (e.g. quickly)” b. Chakula kimeiva “The food has been cooked/The food is cooked”

(6) a. Kwa nini unakasirika namna hii? “Why are you getting/do you get angry like this?” b. Kwa nini umekasirika? “Why have you gotten angry?/Why are you angry?”

(7) a. Dada yangu anachelewa “My sister is running late/My sister is regularly late” b. Dada yangu amechelewa “My sister has been late/My sister is late”

(8) a. Gari linaharibika “The car is getting damaged/The car gets damaged (e.g. easily)” b. Gari limeharibika “The car has been damaged/The car is damaged” It is worth noting that the use of the marker -me- with the verb -lala “sleep” may express a “completed state”, though its English counterpart uses the -ing form (9c). In addition, the marker -me- may also refer to the “recent past”, which corresponds to “have + past participial” (9d), while -na- refers to repetitive occurrences (9a) or a state that is just taking place (9b). 42 The indicative mood and main verb tenses (9) a. Analala hotelini “He sleeps in a hotel (e.g. regularly)” b. Analala mbele ya darasa “He is sleeping in front of the class (dozing)” c. Amelala sasa hivi “He is sleeping right now (is asleep)/He has just fallen asleep” d. Amelala hotelini “He has slept in a hotel”

With -vaa “wear/be wearing”, a verb of action that triggers a state of being, the perfect marker -me- may also express the notion of “completed state”, while the present tense marker -na- refers to an action that is just taking place. As shown in the example in (10), English uses the pattern “be + present participial (-ing form)” in both cases.

(10) a. Juma anavaa shati “Juma is wearing a shirt (is putting on a shirt)/Juma wears a shirt” b. Juma amevaa shati “Juma is wearing a shirt (is dressed in a shirt)/Juma has worn a shirt”

Finally, in spoken Swahili, the present tense -na- is optionally reduced to -a-, which gives forms such as those in (11). In this context, the prefix vowels generally become semi-vowels, as in (11a–b). However, the vowel /i/ of the prefix ni- “I” is dropped and the bare vowel a- “he/she” merges with the reduced tense marker -a-, as shown respectively in (11c) and (11d).

(11) a. u-(n)a-penda → Unapenda kusoma? or Wapenda kusoma? “Do you like reading?” b. tu-(n)a-hitaji → Tunahitaji likizo or Twahitaji likizo “We need a vacation” c. ni-(n)a-toka → Ninatoka shuleni or Natoka shuleni “I’m coming from school” d. a-(n)a-ku-hitaji → Lela anakuhitaji or Lela akuhitaji “Lela needs you”

6.1.2 Negation markers in main verb tenses As shown in Table 6.2 below, the indicative negative has the same tense division as the affirmative, though the tense markers may be different for all except future tense. Accord- ingly, the markers -li-, -me-, and -na- of the past, perfect, and present tenses are replaced with -ku-, -ja-, and -i respectively.

Table 6.2 Tense markers of the indicative in negative form

Past: -ku- Perfect: -ja- Present: -i Future: -ta- a. sikuona /si-ku-ona/ sijaona /si-ja-ona/ sioni /si-on-i/ sitaona /si-ta-ona/ “I didn’t see” “I haven’t seen” “I don’t see” “I won’t see” b. hamkuona hamjaona hamuoni hamtaona /ha-mu-ku-ona/ /ha-mu-ja-ona/ /ha-mu-on-i/ /ha-mu-ta-ona/ “you all didn’t see” “you all haven’t seen” “you all don’t see” “you all won’t see”

In the indicative mood, the negation replaces the subject pronoun ni- “I” with the nega- tion marker si- (Negation.“I”) and uses the negation marker ha- in other contexts, as seen The indicative mood and main verb tenses 43 in Table 6.2a and 6.2b. Before the prefix u- “you” and a- “he/she”, the negation marker ha- appears as h-, as shown in (12a–b). It is maintained before the vowels of the subject pronouns for non-animates, including the prefix u- of the subclass [mu-u], as shown in (13).

(12) a. Hutapotea “You will not get lost (singular)” b. Hatapotea “She/he will not get lost”

(13) a. Hautapotea “It will not get lost” (in the subclass [mu-u]) b. Haitapotea “It will not get lost” (in the subclass [n-i]) “They will not get lost” (in the subclass [mi-i])

In addition, some speakers use the variant -to- to mark the future negative, instead of -ta- (e.g. sitoona/hamtoona “I/you will not see”; sitofanya, hamtofanya “I/you will not do”). The origin of this marker is unclear. It appears as an alteration of the regular marker -ta-, possibly by analogy with the negation marker -to- used in the infinitive form (seen in 8.3). The review exercise in (14) addresses the use of different tenses, in both verbs of action and verbs of state.

(14) Review exercise: Translate into Swahili (see -soma “study”; -choka “get/be tired”).

a. I am studying k. They are tired b. I am not studying l. They are not tired c. I studied m. They will get tired d. I did not study n. They will not get tired e. I study o. They have gotten tired f. I don’t study p. They have not gotten tired g. I have studied q. They get tired h. I have not studied r. They don’t get tired i. I will study s. They got tired j. I will not study t. They did not get tired

6.2. Habitual tense: hu- The “habitual tense” is a variant of the present tense, which means “usually/usually not”. In the affirmative form, the habitual tense is expressed by the marker hu- for all persons, with no subject prefix (15a), or the particle huwa followed by the regular indicative verb (15b). To avoid confusion, hu- is generally used with a noun or a contrastive pronoun, as in (15a). The negation of the habitual tense uses the particle huwa, followed by the main verb in indicative negative (16).

(15) a. Mama/Yeye humwona asubuhi “Mother/She usually sees him in the morning” b. Huwa anamwona asubuhi “She usually sees him in the morning”

(16) a. Huwa hatuwaoni asubuhi “We usually don’t see them in the morning” b. Huwa hawachelewi “They usually are not late” 44 The indicative mood and main verb tenses 6.3. Context-dependent markers and tense markers with particular connotations

6.3.1 Past consecutive and emphatic tense -ka- The marker -ka- expresses the past consecutive tense, referring to an event that comes after a main verb in the past or perfect tense (17a, 18a), or to the first event that took place in a series of multiple events (19). In the former context, the marker -ka- is used in alter- nation with the form “na + infinitive”, depending on the speaker, if the two verbs have the same subject (17b, 18b).

(17) a. Tulikaa chini tukaongea “We sat down and conversed” b. Tulikaa chini na kuongea “We sat down and conversed”

(18) a. Nimefungua mlango nikaondoka “I have opened the door and left” b. Nimefungua mlango na kuondoka “I have opened the door and left”

(19) Hapo zamani, mfalme akaoa mke . . . “Once upon a time, a king married a woman . . .”

In the animate class in the singular (in the subclass [mu-yu,a]), some speakers may use the marker ka- to emphasize a single event that took place in the recent past, instead of the perfect marker -me-. The subject pronoun a- is then omitted (20). While the uses of the marker -ka- noted in the previous paragraph are quite common in Swahili and other Bantu languages, the use of the marker ka- described here seems quite limited. The reader interested in its genesis may refer to Bertoncini-Zubkova (1995).

(20) a. Juma kafaulu mtihani mia kwa mia! “Juma has passed the exam (with) a hundred percent!” b. Mbwa wetu kapotea “Our dog is lost”

Clauses with the marker -ka- lack a proper negative form and instead are negated by using the regular negation marker ha- (or h-, si- depending on the context), followed by the past or perfect markers -ku- or -ja- (21–23) (compare with the affirmative counter- parts in (17–19)).

(21) Hatukukaa chini wala hatukuongea “We did not sit down nor converse” (22) Sijafungua mlango wala sijaondoka “I have not opened the door nor left” (23) Juma hajafaulu mtihani “Juma has not passed the exam”

6.3.2 The “already/not yet” tense: -sha-/-ja- (bado) The marker -me- of the perfect tense may be enforced by the marker -sha-, which conveys the notion of “already”, or “yet” in interrogative clauses (24a–b). This special tense cor- responds to the negative marker -ja- enforced by the adverb bado “not yet” (24c). The latter may also be used with the present tense, as in (25) (similar constructions are seen in Language note 13.2). The indicative mood and main verb tenses 45 (24) a. Nimeshaona/Tumeshaona “I/we have already seen” b. Umeshaona/Mmeshaona “Have you/you all seen yet?” c. Sijaona bado/Hatujaona bado “I/we have not seen yet”

(25) Sioni bado/Hatuoni bado “I/we don’t see yet”

6.3.3 Secondary uses of the “already” and “emphatic” tenses (advanced analysis) In alternation with the form seen in (24a), which is the most common usage, two other forms shown in (26) are optionally used. The three forms have the same meaning and are used interchangeably. They correspond to the same negative form seen in (24b).

(26) a. Nimekwisha ona/Tumekwisha ona “I/we have already seen” b. Nimekwisha kuona/Tumekwisha kuona “I/we have already seen” (lit. “have finished seeing”)

The marker -sha- seen in (24a) has developed historically from the modal verb kwisha “to finish” shown in (26a), through the deletion of the residual infinitive prefix kw- and the stem initial vowel /i/ (with the verb kwisha “to finish”, the prefix kw- is optionally retained in the conjugated verb and treated as part of the stem). Ultimately, the form in (26a) derives from the one in (26b), via the deletion of the prefix ku- of the second verb (here, kuona). The particle -sha- may also be used alone, with an emphatic connotation, or combined with the emphatic marker ka- in the third person singular (27–28). In the latter case, the tense marker takes the form kasha- or kesha- (28a–b), which suggests a derivation from the verb stem -isha “finish”, that is, ka-isha → kesha- vs. ka-sha → kasha-. In colloquial use, the emphasis marker -sha- may also appear in combination with the past tense marker -li- to mean “already”, as in (29a), and with the conditional -ki- “if/when” (described in Language note 17.1) to mean “as soon as; once” (29b).

(27) a. Nishasema “sitaki!” “I have already said that I refuse!” b. Sisi wananchi tushachoka siasa zake! “We the citizens are tired of his politics!”

(28) a. Alikuta dada yake kashamaliza chakula! “She found out that her sister has finished the food!” b. Alikuta dada yake keshamaliza chakula! “She found out that her sister has finished the food!”

(29) a. Unadhani alishamwona? “Do you think he has already seen him” b. Bwana mkubwa akishasema nani atabisha? “Once the big boss has spoken, who will dispute?”

6.3.4 Using a time division noun to complement a verb As suggested by the examples in (30–31), nouns referring to time division are used as complements to a verb, without any other temporal marker (a preposition or suffix). 46 The indicative mood and main verb tenses In (30) are listed the basic temporal meanings of common time division, while practical examples are listed in (31).

(30) Common time division nouns

a. asubuhi [n-i/n-zi] “morning” → “in the morning” b. mchana [mu-u/mi-i] “afternoon” → “in the afternoon” c. jioni [n-i/n-zi] “evening” → “in the evening” d. usiku [mu-u] (seen in 8.1) “night” → “during the night” e. mwaka jana/kesho [mu-u] “year + yesterday/ → “last/next year” tomorrow”

(31) Examples of use of time division nouns as verb complements

a. Aliondoka asubuhi/mchana “He left in the morning/afternoon . . .” b. Tutafika kesho usiku “We will arrive tomorrow night” c. Watatutembelea mwaka kesho “They will visit us next year” d. Niliinunua mwaka jana “I bought it last year”

The indications of time and the names of the days also are used without temporal markers, as shown in (32–33). You will observe that there are six hours of difference between the way of saying time in Swahili as compared to English. In other words, one adds or subtracts six to the English time in order to get the Swahili equivalent (e.g. 9am = 9 - 6 = 3 = saa tatu asubuhi lit. “hour three, in the morning”).

(32) a. Ninaamka saa moja asubuhi (see 7 - 6 = 1) “I wake up at 7am” b. Aliondoka saa kumi na mbili jioni (see 6 + 6 = 12) “He left at 6pm”

(33) Jumapili ninafanya mazoezi “On Sunday, I do exercises”

6.4. Polite expressions and the use of the indicative mood and the infinitive form Polite expressions in Swahili use different forms of the verb, among them the indicative mood and the infinitive form (34–35). The expression Hujambo in (34) literally means “Don’t you have any problems?”, that is, “Are you okay?” It is analyzed as h- u- na- jambo [negation - you - (have) - problem]; vs. ha- mu- na- jambo (hamjambo) in the plural. Similarly, sijambo and hatujambo literally mean “I/we don’t have any problems” and are analyzed si- na- jambo [negation.“I” - (have) - problem] and ha- tu- na- jambo [negation - we - (have) - problem]. While the verb in (35a) is in infinitive form, the one in (35b) is in indicative form and is analyzed as tu-ta-on-an-a [we - future - see - each other - final vowel] and literally means, “We will see each other” (see Appendix A for other greetings and polite expressions).

(34) Use of the indicative form in the expression of formal greetings

a. Hujambo?/Sijambo! “How are you?”/“I am fine!” b. Hamjambo?/Hatujambo! “How are you (all)?”/“We are fine!” The indicative mood and main verb tenses 47 (35) Infinitive and indicative forms in the expression of “good-byes”

a. Kwa heri ya kuonana! “See you soon!” b. Tutaonana!/Tutaonana kesho “See you again!/See you tomorrow!”

6.5. Application exercises (36) Key phrases, on the topic of “necessity”: Match the sentences or words and read aloud in Swahili.

a. Ninaumwa sana. i. Danger! b. Mizigo yangu imeibwa. ii. I am hungry! c. Nahitaji kwenda hospitali. iii. I am not sure! d. Nahitaji teksi. iv. I am thirsty! e. Naomba dawa ya kichwa, v. I don’t understand well. Please tafadhali. speak slowly. f. Naweza kutumia choo, vi. I forgot my bag here. Have you tafadhali? seen it? g. Nina njaa! vii. I have a headache/stomach pain. h. Nimeumia. viii. I need a taxi. i. Nina kiu! ix. I need to go to the hospital. j. Nimesahau mkoba wangu hapa. x. I want to go to the American Je, umeuona? embassy, please. k. Ninaumwa kichwa/tumbo. xi. I’m hurt. l. Hatari! xii. I’m very sick. m. Pasipoti yangu imepotea. xiii. May I have a cold drink, please? n. Funguo zangu zimepotea. xiv. May I have some headache medicine please? o. Pole, sina pesa. xv. May I have a painkiller, please? p. Samahani, sielewi. xvi. May I have some food, please? q. Sielewi vizuri; sema polepole xvii. May I have some water, please? tafadhali. r. Sijui vizuri! xviii. May I use the bathroom, please? s. Tafadhali, naomba chakula. xix. Sorry, I don’t understand. t. Tafadhali, naomba dawa ya xx. My keys are lost. maumivu. u. Tafadhali, naomba kinywaji baridi. xxi. My luggage has been stolen. v. Tafadhali, naomba maji. xxii. My passport is lost. w. Tafadhali, nataka kwenda ubalozi xxiii. Sorry, I have no money. wa Marekani.

(The verb sema in q. is in the imperative form, constructed by dropping the infinitive prefix ku-.)

(37) Key phrases, on the topic of “necessity”: Translate into Swahili (keep previous section covered).

a. May I have a cold drink, please? b. I am hungry! 48 The indicative mood and main verb tenses c. I am not sure. d. I am thirsty! e. I forgot my bag here. Have you seen it? f. I have a headache (stomach pain). g. I need a taxi. h. I need to go to the hospital. i. My passport is lost. j. I want to go to the American embassy, please. k. I don’t understand very well. Please speak slowly. l. I’m hurt. m. I’m very sick. n. Sorry, I don’t understand. o. Danger! p. May I have some headache medicine please? q. May I have a painkiller, please? r. May I have some food, please? s. May I have some water, please? t. May I use the bathroom, please? u. My luggage has been stolen. v. Sorry, I have no money. w. My keys are lost.

(For more of these types of expressions, see Ali and Mazrui 2004.)

(38) Convert into negative form, then translate the new sentences into English. Note the use of the conjunction kwa “by (means/manner)” in a., and the directional prepositions kutoka “from” and kwenda “to” in h.

a. Tunataka kwenda Mombasa kwa treni leo. b. Mtaenda Nairobi pia? c. Ndiyo, tutaenda. Tutarudi leo jioni. d. Kitabu hiki nilikisoma. Je, ulikipenda? e. Watoto wetu walitutembelea mwaka jana wakakaa nyumbani kwa siku tatu. (in neg.: na “and”) f. Masomo yataanza kesho. Umeshamwona Mwalimu Juma? (with the object pronoun -mu-/-mw- used to refer to Mwalimu Juma) g. Mimi nimekinunua. Je, na wewe umekinunua? h. Treni kutoka Nairobi kwenda Mombasa huwa linachelewa?

6.6. Cumulative exercises (39) Travelling and saying the time: Translate into Swahili (see the use of conjunctions/ prepositions in (38)).

a. I have not gone to Africa yet. My wife and I will travel to Africa this week. b. When will you (all) leave? We will leave on Sunday. c. How will you (all) travel? We will not travel by train. We will travel by car, then by plane. The indicative mood and main verb tenses 49 d. Have you (all) already bought plane tickets? e. My brother and I live in the city. When will you (all) return to the city? f. I will return tomorrow, but my brother will not return. He will return next year. g. The train from Dodoma has arrived at 6am. The plane to London will leave at 11am. h. The bus to Bagamoyo leaves at 1pm every day. i. The trip to Zanzibar by boat is one hour and thirty minutes. j. Our guests from Europe will arrive tomorrow at 10pm. k. The train has left now. We are late (see “to get/be late”). l. We usually travel by car, but our car has not yet arrived. 7 Verb “be”/“have” in the main clause

7.1. Verb “be”: kuwa vs. ni/si in simple present In the present indicative, the verb “be” with no particular connotation appears as ni in the affirmative and si in the negative form (“am/are/is [+ not]”). As shown in (1–3), these simple forms of the verb “be” are used in phrases that describe the subject or equate it with the complement of the verb.

(1) Mimi ni mwalimu/Mimi si mwalimu “I am a teacher/I am not a teacher” (2) Wewe ni mwalimu/Wewe si mwalimu “You are a teacher/you are not a teacher” (3) Wao ni wazuri/Wao si wazuri “They are good/They are not good”

In other tenses, the verb “be” with no particular connotation is rendered by the stem -wa as shown in Table 7.1. As a monosyllable, the stem -wa generally retains the prefix ku-, the negative form of the past tense being one of the few exceptions to this rule (monosyllabic verbs are described in 12.1).

Table 7.1 Verb “be” in different tenses of the indicative mood

Past Perfect Present Future a. Affirm. nilikuwa, ulikuwa, nimekuwa, umekuwa, ni nitakuwa, utakuwa, mlikuwa mmekuwa mtakuwa b. NegAtive sikuwa, hukuwa, sijakuwa, hujakuwa, si sitakuwa, hutakuwa, hamkuwa hamjakuwa hamtakuwa

(ni- “I”; u- “you”, m- “you all”; tense markers in bold.)

When used in the present tense, kuwa has a “progressive” meaning, that is, “to be get- ting/becoming” (4b–5b).

(4) a. Mambo ni magumu “Things are difficult” b. Mambo yanakuwa magumu “Things are getting difficult”

(5) a. Ni baridi hapa “It is cold here” b. Inakuwa baridi hapa “It is getting cold here”

7.2. Locative verb “be” When the verb “be” implies the notion of location (“be at; on; in; there . . .”) in the present tense, it requires the use of the locative reference pronouns -po, -ko, or -mo. These refer, respectively, to: location at a specific point (e.g. “right here; right there”); location in a large Verb “be”/“have” in the main clause 51 space (e.g. “around here; around there”); and location inside something (e.g. “in here; in there”). As shown on Figure 7.1, the locative reference pronoun -ko is inclusive by nature. It may refer to the location in a large space, but also to the general notion of location, including the “location inside something” or at a “specific point” (“here; there”). In particular, -ko is used in open questions that refer to location (e.g. “where is/are”), instead of -po and -mo.

GENERAL AREA -ko “around here; around there”

-po -mo -ko “here; there” “right here; “in here; right there” in there”

SPECIFIC POINT INSIDE

Figure 7.1 Distribution of locative reference pronouns in Swahili.

In the present tense, the locative verb “be” has no apparent stem. It is expressed by a locative reference pronoun -po, -ko, or -mo preceded by a pronominal prefix. In particular, it uses the pronominal prefix yu- in the subclass [mu-yu,a], rather than the verb prefix a-, as shown in Table 7.2(c).

Table 7.2 Present tense of locative verb “be”

Person or class Specific point: -po General: -ko Inside: -mo singular/plural right here; right there here; there in here; in there a. mimi / sisi nipo / tupo niko / tuko nimo / tumo b. wewe / ninyi upo / mpo uko / mko umo / mmo c. mu-yu,a / wa-wa yu po / wapo yu ko / wako yu mo / wamo d. mu-u / mi-i upo / ipo uko / iko umo / imo e. ø-li / ma-ya lipo / yapo liko / yako limo / yamo f. ki-ki / vi-vi kipo / vipo kiko / viko kimo / vimo g. n-i / n-zi ipo / zipo iko / ziko imo / zimo

As with other verbs, the negative form of the locative verb “be” in the present tense replaces the prefix ni- with the negation marker si- in the first person singular (6). It uses the negation marker h- before the prefix u- “you” (7), but ha- in other contexts (8–11). As seen in different examples in (6–11), the particle -ni is suffixed to non-animate nouns to give them a locative connotation (“in; at; on; to; from; etc.”).

(6) a. Nimo darasani/Tumo darasani “I am/We are in the classroom” b. Simo darasani/Hatumo darasani “I am/We are not in the classroom”

(7) a. Umo darasani/Mmo darasani “You/You all are in the classroom” b. Humo darasani/Hammo darasani “You/You all are not in the classroom”

(8) a. Mtoto yumo chumbani/Watoto wamo chumbani “The child(ren) is/are in the room” b. Mtoto hayumo chumbani/Watoto hawamo chumbani “The child(ren) is/are not in the room” 52 Verb “be”/“have” in the main clausen (9) Mkoba uko nyumbani/Mkoba hauko nyumbani “The bag is/is not at home”

(10) Wazazi wangu wako mjini/Wazazi wangu hawako mjini “My parents are/are not in town”

(11) Kitabu kipo mezani/Kitabu hakipo mezani “The book is/is not on the table”

Like the suffix -ni, different locative prepositions used with a noun prompt the use of the locative form of the verb “be” in the present tense. Table 7.3 presents the most common locative prepositions and the forms of the locative verb “be” that they require. The locative pronouns -po, -ko, and -mo are optionally used with the verb -wa “be” in

Table 7.3 Locative prepositions and corresponding forms of the locative verb “be”

Preposition Locative “be” Example a. katika “in” -mo (-ko) Karatasi zimo/ziko katika kabati la kwanza b. ndani ya “inside” “The papers are in the first cabinet” c. juu ya “over; on; on top of ” Miwani iko juu ya meza d. chini ya “beneath” “The eyeglasses are on the table” e. baina ya “between” Mti uko kati/baina ya nyumba mbili f. kati ya “between” -ko “The tree is between two houses” g. mbali na “far from” h. karibu na “near” Shamba liko karibu na mto i. kando ya “beside; aside; along” “The farm is near a river” j. kwenye “on; in” -po; -mo (-ko) Swali lipo/liko kwenye ukurasa wa pili “The question is on page two” Wazazi wamo/wako kwenye sebule “The parents are in the living room” tenses other than the present tense, in the presence of the locative suffix -ni or a locative preposition, such as kwenye or katika (see kuwapo/kuwako/kuwamo “to be right there/there/ in there” in the infinitive form) (12–14).

(12) a. Kitabu kilikuwa(po) mezani “The book was on the table” b. Kitabu kitakuwa(po) kwenye meza “The book will be on the table”

(13) a. Nilikuwa(ko) mjini “I was in town” b. Atakuwa(ko) mjini “He will be in town” c. Wamekuwa(ko) mjini “They have been in town (animates)”

(14) a. Vilikuwa(mo) darasani “They were in the classroom” (cl. ki-ki/vi-vi) b. Vimekuwa(mo) darasani “They have been in the classroom” (cl. ki-ki/vi-vi) c. Vitakuwa(mo) darasani “They will be in the classroom” (cl. ki-ki/vi-vi) d. Vitakuwa(mo) katika darasa hili “They will be in this classroom” (cl. ki-ki/vi-vi) Verb “be”/“have” in the main clause 53 In addition, the locative pronouns -po, -ko, and -mo are omitted when the verb -wa is used with locative demonstratives, proper nouns of location, or the term mahali “place; location” (15a–c).

(15) a. Kesho, Juma atakuwa hapa “Tomorrow, Juma will be here” b. Mwaka jana, tulikuwa Mombasa “Last year, we were in Mombasa” c. Vitabu vilikuwa mahali pote “Books were everywhere” (lit. “in all the place”)

As seen in (15b), proper nouns for location are incompatible with the suffix -ni. They are also incompatible with the preposition kwenye, while the use of katika “in” in this context is also exceptional and involves the connotation of “within”. From the examples in (12–15), you will observe that the conjugation of the verb kuwa (ku-wa) generally retains the infinitive prefix ku- (details are given in Language note 12). In addition, the plain verb kuwa follows regular rules of negation. Accordingly, the prefixni- of the first person singular is replaced with the negation markersi- (sitakuwa[po], sikuwa[ko] . . .), while the negation marker h- is used before the prefix u- “you” and a- “he/she” (hutakuwa[po], hakuwa[ko] . . .), and ha- is used in other contexts (hautakuwa[po], hawakuwa[ko], havikuwa[ko] . . .). Some speakers also use kuwepo/kuweko/kuwemo, instead kuwapo/kuwako/kuwamo, with no particular connotation. As shown in (16–18), the locative pronoun -ko is also used to express the notion of “existence” and other connotations such as “numeric presence” or “presence with”. In addition, it is used in expressions that refer to a “state of being”, as shown (19) (see also (23)).

(16) a. Mungu yuko “God exists” b. Mungu hayuko “God does not exist”

(17) a. Mko wangapi? “How many of you are there?” (lit. “How many are you?”) b. Tuko wavulana wanane “We are eight boys”

(18) Watoto wako na nani? “With whom are the children?”

(19) a. Niko tayari kumsaidia “I am ready to help him” b. Mbona mko kimya? “How is it that you are silent?” c. Ninaona hauko sawa “I see that you are not okay”

The locative reference pronouns -po, -ko, and -mo may also be used to express the notion of “availability/presence” (“be there/in there”) (19–20).

(20) a. Mayai yapo?/yako? “Are there any eggs?” (lit. “Eggs are there?”) b. Mayai hayapo/hayako “There are no eggs”

(21) a. Mama yumo/yuko “Mother is in/is there” b. Mama hayumo/hayuko “Mother is not in/is not there” 54 Verb “be”/“have” in the main clausen As shown in (22–23), the locative reference pronouns in the present tense are optional in the affirmative form. This reduced construction is relatively rare. Nevertheless, itis commonly used in greetings, such as those in (23).

(22) a. Mama yu (~ yuko) wapi? “Where is the mother?” b. Chakula ki (~ kipo) mezani “The food is on the table”

(23) a. U (~ Uko) hali gani? “How are you?” (lit. “What state are you in?”) b. Mu (~ Mko) wazima? “Are you (all) okay?” (lit. “healthy”)

Importantly, nouns for location and locative pronouns used as the subject of the verb “be” trigger the use of the form ni “is”, as they do not imply the notion of “being placed/ situated at/in/on”. This is illustrated in (24–25).

(24) a. Morogoro ni wapi? “Where is Morogoro?” b. Morogoro ni hapa “Morogoro is here (e.g. not there)” c. Hapa ni Morogoro (siyo Mombasa) “Here is Morogoro (e.g. not Mombasa)”

(25) a. Nyumbani ni wapi? “Where is home?” b. Nyumbani ni mbali “Home is far” c. Hapa ni nyumbani “Here is home”

7.3. Verb “have” or “be with”

In simple present tense, the verb “have” has the structure [Subject ProNouN -na], as shown in Table 7.4 (“present” column).

Table 7.4 Verb “have” in all tenses of the indicative mood (affirmative/negative)

Past Perfective Present Future a. nilikuwa, ulikuwa, nimekuwa, umekuwa, nina; una, ana, nitakuwa, utakuwa, mlikuwa . . . + na tumekuwa . . . + na tuna, mna; wana mtakuwa . . . + na “I had/you had . . .” “I have had/you “I have/you have . . .” “I will have/you have had . . .” will have . . .” b. sikuwa, hukuwa, sijakuwa, hujakuwa, sina, huna, hana, sitakuwa, hutakuwa, hamkuwa . . . + na hamjakuwa . . . + na hatuna, hamna, hawana hamtakuwa . . . + na “I did not have/you . . .” “I have not had/you . . .” “I have not had/you . . .” “I will not have/you . . .”

In other tenses, it has the same structure as the verb “be”, followed by the particle -na, that is, [Subject ProNouN-tense-(ku)wa na], similar to the infinitive form kuwa na “to be with”.

7.4. Application exercises (26) Convert into plural or singular whenever possible and translate into English.

a. Je, umeona kitabu changu? Kiko mezani. b. Mji huo uko kando ya ziwa kubwa. Verb “be”/“have” in the main clause 55 c. Kijiji changu kiko mbali na mji. d. Kalamu yako iko karibu na mkoba wangu wa shule. e. Vyombo vyeupe vimo makabatini. f. Viatu viko chini ya vitanda, lakini soksi iko kitini.

(27) Convert into the past tense and translate into English.

a. Mbwa yumo garini. b. Mna watoto wangapi? c. Niko dukani. Nina dola kumi. d. Wazazi wako hali gani? e. Yeye si mwalimu, ni dereva.

7.5. Cumulative exercises (28) Translate into Swahili.

a. Our guests are not in the living room. They are in the bedroom. They are resting. b. Between this book and that one, which one do you like? (lit. “you like which”?) c. All the books are inside the trunk. d. We went to Zanzibar. Liz also went to Pemba, but I didn’t go. e. Did you not visit Tumbatu Island? (lit. “the island of Tumbatu”). No, we didn’t (visit it). f. Is our teacher there today? No, he is not there. Sorry. g. Where are your siblings? All of them are in the US. h. Where is my computer? It is under the table. But your book is here. i. Long ago, my uncle had a car and a bike. Now, he has only a bike. He has sold his car. j. Now, I am a student. Later, I will be a doctor. k. The men are angry. l. Abdalla has three children. One girl and two boys. m. Juma’s wife has four children. 8 Special class combinations and the reflexive pronoun

8.1. The u- nouns and the classes [mu-u/ma-ya] and [mu-u/n-zi] Along with regular classes seen in Language note 4, there exist two other classes that consist of nouns with a u- (w-) prefix in the singular and ma- or n- (ø-) in the plural, that is, they belong to the subclasses [ma-ya] or [n-zi] in the plural. These nouns are considered members of subclass [mu-u] in the singular because their agreement patterns are the same as those of the non-animate nouns with a mu- (m-, mw-) prefix in the singular. In particular, they prompt the use of the prefix mu- (m-, mw-) with adjectives. Therefore, the u- nouns belong to the class [mu-u/ma-ya] or [mu-u/n-zi] based on the form of their agreement prefixes as shown in Table 8.1, with additional examples in (1).

Table 8.1 Model sentences for the classes [mu-u/ma-ya] and [mu-u/n-zi]

Agreement prefixes Noun, Adjective, Demonstrative, [is/are], Possessive, Verb a. [mu-u/ma-ya] Unyoya mdogo ule ni wangu; unanipendeza/ Manyoya madogo yale ni yangu; yananipendeza “That (those) small feather(s) is/are mine; it/they please(s) me” b. [mu-u/n-zi] Ubao mdogo ule ni wangu; unanipendeza/ Mbao ndogo zile ni zangu; zinanipendeza “That (those) small board(s) is/are mine; it/they please(s) me”

(1) Additional examples for the classes [mu-u/ma-ya] and [mu-u/n-zi]

a. Ugonjwa mkali huu unatisha wananchi/ “This virulent disease terrifies citizens”/ Magonjwa makali haya yanatisha wananchi “These virulent diseases terrify citizens” b. Wimbo mzuri huu uliimbwa na Mkenya/ “This nice song was sung by a Kenyan”/ Nyimbo nzuri hizi ziliimbwa na Wakenya “These nice songs were sung by Kenyans” c. Ukuta mrefu huu ulijengwa zamani sana/ “This high wall was built a long time ago”/ Kuta ndefu hizi zilijengwa zamani sana “These high walls were built a long time ago” Class combinations and reflexive pronoun 57 Class [mu-u/n-zi] is prolific in Swahili. Some terms in class [m-u/n-zi] are ubavu/mbavu “rib(s)”; wimbo/nyimbo “song(s)”; wembe/nyembe “razor blade(s)”; wakati/nyakati “time(s)”; uma/nyuma “fork(s)”; uzi/nyuzi “thread(s)”; ulimi/ndimi “tongue(s)”; upanga/panga “sword(s)”; ufunguo/funguo “key(s)”; ukuta/kuta “wall(s)”; ukucha/kucha “nail(s)”; ukumbi/ kumbi “hall(s), living room(s)”; and ukurasa/kurasa “page(s), web page(s)”. Conversely, class [mu-u/ma-ya] is rare. The most common terms in this class are ugonjwa/magonjwa “disease(s)”; unyoya/manyoya “feather(s)”; ubele/mabele “feather(s)”; uwele/mawele “bulrush millet grain(s)”; and utete/matete “reed(s)”. Some abstract nouns with prefix u- also may be used in the plural with the prefix ma-. This is the case for words such as: uhusiano/mahusiano “relation(s)”; uuaji/mauaji “killing(s)/murder(s)”; ulezi/malezi “rearing/upbringing”; ugomvi/magomvi “quarrel(s)”; uamuzi/maamuzi “decision(s)”; upungufu/mapungufu “flaw(s)”; uhitaji/mahitaji “need(s), necessity(ies)”; uonevu/maonevu “injustice(s)”; ugeuzi/mageuzi “change(s)”; and utembezi/matembezi “walk(s)”. Many mass nouns are only used in the singular and have an invariable class prefix u- (or w- before a vowel). This is the case for: ugali “stiff porridge”; uji “gruel; thin porridge”; and wali “cooked rice”. Additionally, by adding the prefix u- to a noun or an adjective, it is possible to produce a virtually unlimited number of abstract nouns, such as: mtu “human being” → utu “humanity (quality)”; mzuri → uzuri “goodness; beauty”; mwalimu → ualimu “profession/fact of being a teacher”; and mwizi “robber” → wizi “robbery”). Abstract nouns with a prefix u- are also only in the singular.

8.2. Origin of the [mu-u/ma-ya] and [mu-u/n-zi] classes (advanced analysis) The Swahili classes [mu-u/ma-ya] and [mu-u/n-zi] correspond historically to the Common Bantu classes 14/6 and 11/10 respectively. The Common Bantu subclass 14 originally used the prefixes *[bʊ-bʊ], whereas the subclass 11 used *[dʊ-dʊ] (Guthrie 1967–1971). First, there has been a historical loss of the prefix-initial consonant in the subclasses 11 and 14, due to consonant weakening in word-initial position. This led to a general similarity between the pronominal prefixes of those subclasses and the pronominal prefix u- of the subclass [mu-u] or Common Bantu subclass 3 (i.e. *dʊ- > lu- > u- in subclass 11, *bʊ > wu- > u- in subclass 14, vs. original pronominal prefix *ʊ- in Common Bantu subclass 3, which became u-). Subsequently, there has been an analogical alignment of the subclasses 11 and 14 to the subclass 3 for the adjective prefix. In other words, the adjective prefix u- of subclass 11 and subclass 14 was replaced with mu-, due to a comparison with the agreement pattern of subclass 3. All three agreement patterns had become identical, constituting a single subclass (see definition of the noun class/subclass in 4.1). On the other hand, the plural agreement in class [n-zi] and [ma-ya] are a direct reflection of the plural forms of the Common Bantu classes 11/10 and 14/6.

8.3. The infinitive form of the verb and the noun class [ku-ku] In some contexts, the infinitive form of the verb in Swahili corresponds to the English gerund. Like any other noun, the Swahili infinitive may serve as the subject of a conjugated verb and trigger an agreement prefix among pronouns and adjectives, as shown in (2). Accordingly, the infinitive constitutes a noun class characterized by the nominal and pronominal prefix ku-. 58 Class combinations and reflexive pronoun (2) Use of agreement prefixes in class [ku-ku]

a. Kusoma kwake ni kuzuri; kunanipendeza “His manner of reading is good; it pleases me” b. Kufika kwenu kulitupendeza “Your arrival pleased us” (lit. “your arriving”)

In the negative form, the infinitive uses the marker -to- (e.g. kuona/kutoona “to see vs. to not see; not seeing”; kufanya/kutofanya “to do vs. to not do; not doing”).

8.4. Object pronoun in class [mu-u/ma-ya] and [mu-u/n-zi] As shown in (3) the use of the object pronoun in the classes [mu-u/ma-ya] and [mu-u/n-zi] follows the same rules as those applicable to the equivalent subclasses [mu-u], [ma-ya], and [n-zi] seen in 4.4 and 5.8 (Appendix B gives a general presentation of the use of the agreement prefixes).

(3) Additional examples for the classes [mu-u/ma-ya] and [mu-u/n-zi]

a. [mu-u/ma-ya] Utete ule ninaupenda. Niliuona jana./Matete yale ninayapenda. Niliyaona jana That reed, I like it. I saw it/them yesterday/Those reeds, I like them. I saw them yesterday b. [mu-u/n-zi] Ubao ule ninaupenda. Niliuona jana/Mbao zile ninazipenda. Niliziona jana That board, I like it. I saw it yesterday/Those boards, I like them. I saw them yesterday

8.5. The reflexive pronoun -ji- In addition to the simple object pronouns mentioned before, we also have the pronoun ji- “himself/herself/itself/themselves”. This type of object pronoun is called “reflexive”, because it refers to the subject of the verb, as shown in (4). Similar to other object pronouns, the vowel of the object pronoun -ji- is maintained before the stem vowel, as shown in (4b). The reflexive pronoun ji- is also used idiomatically with some verbs, as shown with the examples in (5).

(4) a. Mjomba wangu anajidanganya “My uncle is lying to himself” b. Vijana hawa wanajieleza sana “These young people have explained themselves” c. Nchi yetu inajitegemea kwa chakula “Our country relies on itself for food” d. Dada yangu amejikata kidole “My sister has cut her finger”(lit. “cut herself [on] a finger”) Class combinations and reflexive pronoun 59 (5) Examples of idiomatic uses of the reflexive pronoun -ji-

a. -jigamba “brag; boast” (lit. “praise oneself”) b. -jiona “be arrogant/conceited” (lit. “see oneself”) c. -jitolea “volunteer” (lit. “give oneself for”) d. -jifungua “give birth” (lit. “open up oneself”) e. -jiweza “be rich” (lit. “be able of oneself”) f. -jikimu “provide for one’s need” (lit. “look after oneself”) g. -jisaidia “go to the toilet” (lit. “help oneself”) h. -jituma “be dedicated” (lit. “commission oneself [to do something]”)

8.6. Review exercise (6) Fill in the blanks with singular and plural sentences (keep previous sections covered).

Noun, Adjective, Demonstrative, [is/are], Possessive, Verb a. Unyoya ___dogo ___le ni ___angu; ___nanipendeza / . . . “That/those little feather(s) is/are mine; it/they please me” b. Ubao ___dogo ___le ni ___angu; ___nanipendeza / . . . “That/those little board(s) is/are mine; it/they please me”

8.7. Application exercises (7) Fill in the blanks/apply contact rules when relevant and convert into plural or singular, whenever possible (two sentences per question). Translate into English.

a. Ukurasa h___ (“that”) ni ___ako? Uli___anza lini? b. H___ (“this”) ni uonevu. Siwezi ku___kubali. c. Ubawa ___a ndege huyo ni ___refu na ___pana. (“wing”) d. Kucheza ___ake ni ___zuri, nina___penda sana.

(8) Translate into Swahili.

a. One key is mine; two keys are Mariam’s. b. Her relationship with her mother has become bad. c. Selma is looking at herself in a mirror. d. Today I have heard a nice song on the radio. Whose song is it? (+ convert into plural) e. This disease is serious but it can be cured (lit. “but it heals”) (+ convert into plural) 60 Class combinations and reflexive pronoun 8.8. Cumulative exercises (9) Possessive pronouns: Fill in the blanks and translate (use each pronoun once): wenu, wetu, zao, changu, zenu, yako, letu, yangu, wake, wao, zake, yao, vyako, yao, wake, yenu.

a. Mariam ameleta vitabu ______. b. Habari ______, Juma? c. Je, umesoma kitabu ______? d. Nyumba ni ndogo lakini kuta ______ni nene. e. Mikono ______ni mirefu sana. f. Mji ______ni mkubwa sana. g. Dada ______anasoma Kiingereza. h. Mazoezi ______ni magumu sana. i. Mtoto ______anapenda kula sukari. j. Wimbo ______ni mzuri sana. k. Kaka ______wameenda wapi? l. Sipendi sana nyimbo ______. m. Zoezi ______ni gumu kidogo. n. Ukuta ______ni mrefu sana. o. Ninapenda sana watoto ______. p. Nyumba ______ni ndefu sana.

(10) Translate into Swahili. (Some of the nouns used here: suruali, soksi, kitu, chungwa/ machungwa, kalamu, koti/makoti, shati/mashati, and kiti. Reminder: -a nani? “whose?” [lit. “of whom?”]. Model sentence: Kitabu hiki ni cha nani? Ni chake/Ni cha Juma.)

a. Whose pants are these? They are mine. I like them at lot. (lit. “These pants are of whom?”) b. Whose shirt is this? It is hers. Where did you see it? c. Whose socks are these? They are ours. We like them a lot. d. Whose coat is this? It is yours. Do you like it? e. Whose board is this? It is Juma’s. He is selling it. f. Whose houses are these? They are theirs. They are selling them. g. Whose book is this? It is ours. We are selling it. h. Whose child is this? He is Juma’s. He likes him a lot. i. Whose chair is it? It is not yours. It is mine. I am selling it. j. Whose house is it? It is not mine. It is hers. Do you like it? k. Whose things are these? They are Juma’s. He is selling them. l. Whose oranges are these? They are yours. Mine is this one (lit. “is this”). Do you see it? m. Whose dog is it? It is mine. I am selling it. n. Is this pen yours? It is not mine. It is my sister’s. She likes it. 9 Prefix/stem contact rules vs. invariable adjectives/pronouns

This section summarizes sound variations specific to the contact between class prefixes and the noun and adjective stems. It also addresses special class agreement and the issue of invariable adjectives and pronouns.

9.1. Contact between prefix and stem vowels Noun prefixes and agreement prefixes use three types of vowels: /i a u/ (vowel /i/ with the subclasses [mi-i], [ki-ki], [vi-vi], [n-i], and [n-zi]; vowel /a/ with [wa-wa] and [ma-ya]; and vowel /u/ with [mu-u] and [ku-ku]). The way prefix vowels interact with the stem- initial vowel depends mostly on the phonetic features of the former.

CLOSED i u CLOSED

Front Rounded e o

MID

a OPEN

Figure 9.1 Main phonetic features of Swahili vowels.

As seen in Figure 9.1, the vowel /a/ is called “open” because it is pronounced with a fully open mouth, unlike /i,u/, which are pronounced with a relatively closed mouth and are, therefore, called “closed”. As /e,o/ are neither “closed” nor completely “open”, they are called “mid”. In addition, the vowels /u,o/ are called “rounded”, as they are pronounced with rounded lips (see also the rounded semi-vowel /w/). The vowels /i,e/ are also called “front” because they are pronounced with the body of the tongue in the front part of the roof of the mouth, that is, in the same area used for the semi-vowel /y/ shown in Figure 1.1. The following paragraphs show how the phonetic features of prefix vowels determine the way they interact with the stem vowel. They also show how verb-derived nouns and those that naturally begin with a vowel tend to apply special rules, such as vowel sequences between the prefix and the stem, as opposed to the pronouns, adjectives, and original noun stems, which tend to trigger vowel merger or consonant change. Class prefixes composed of a single vowel generally become semi-vowels when they are connected to a non-identical stem vowel. As shown in (1a–b), the rounded vowel /u/ 62 Prefix/stem contact rules vs. no prefix gives the rounded semi-vowel /w/ before a non-identical stem vowel, while the non-rounded /i/ gives the non-rounded semi-vowel /y/. Conversely, the prefix u- is retained before a stem vowel /u/ (1c–d).

(1) Bare vowel prefix + Vowel: semi-vowel formation: u- → /w/; i- → /y/

a. u-imbo → wimbo “song” (subclass [mu-u]; see [n-zi] in the plural) b. i-angu → yangu “my; mine” (subclass [mi-i]) vs. c. u-undaji → uundaji “construction (act)” d. u-ungwana → uungwana “civility; courtesy; honorable behavior”

For prefixes composed of a consonant and a vowel, the prefix vowel is generally retained before an identical stem vowel within nouns and infinitive forms, as in (2a–e). Conversely, the prefix vowel generally merges with the following identical stem vowel in adjectives and pronouns (2f–h). As seen before in 1.3, double vowels generally mean that two vowels are pronounced and not one long one.

(2) Identical prefix and stem vowel sequence vs. vowel merger among adjectives and pronouns

a. mi-iko → miiko “taboos” (singular: mwiko) b. mi-iba → miiba “thorns” (singular: mwiba) c. ki-ingereza → Kiingereza “English” d. ma-andazi → maandazi “beignets” e. ku-ungana → kuungana “to unite” vs. f. mi-ingi → mingi “many” g. ki-ingi → kingi “a lot of” h. vi-ingi → vingi “many, a lot of”

In addition, the vowel of the prefixes mu- and wa- generally merges with identical stem vowels among non-derived nouns (3a–c), except those that may be used as adjectives (“non-derived” refers here to the nouns that do not derive from a verb). In the latter case, the prefix vowels tend to be maintained (3d–e), as they are among derived nouns (3f–g).

(3) Vowel merger with mu- and wa- among non-derived nouns vs. vowel sequences

a. mu-ume → mume “husband” (mu-yu,a; see wa-ume → waume “husbands”) b. wa-alimu → walimu “teachers” (wa-wa) c. mu-ungu → mungu “god; idol” (mu-u; see mi-ungu → miungu “gods; idols”) vs. d. mu-ungwana → muungwana “gentleman; honorable (person)” (adjectival) e. wa-arabu → waarabu “Arabs; Arabian (people)” (adjectival) f. mu-ungano → muungano “union” (from kuungana “unite”) g. wa-andishi → waandishi “writers” (from kuandika “write”) Prefix/stem contact rules vs. no prefix 63 Before a non-identical stem vowel, the prefix vowel /i/ is generally retained (4a–g). However, it becomes the semi-vowel /y/ in adjectives as shown in (4f–h).

(4) Prefix vowel /i/+ Vowel: vowel sequence (nouns) vs. semi-vowel formation (adjectives)

a. mi-embe → miembe “mango trees” (sg. mwembe) b. mi-ezi → miezi “months” (sg. mwezi) c. mi-aka → miaka “years” (sg. mwaka) d. mi-oyo → mioyo “hearts” (sg. moyo) e. mi-ungano → miungano “unions” (sg. muungano) vs. f. mi-eusi → myeusi “black” g. mi-embaba → myembaba “thin” h. mi-ororo → myororo “smooth”

The prefixes ki-/vi- display a special behavior when connected to a stem that begins with a non-identical vowel, becoming ch-/vy- among pronouns, adjectives, and a few nouns (5a–e). Conversely, they are maintained as such in most nouns, especially those that are verb-derived or derive from a noun beginning with a vowel (5f–j) (for detailed analysis, you may refer to Mpiranya 1995).

(5) ki-/vi- + Different vowel: ki- → ch/vi- → vy- (pronouns, adjectives, and a few nouns) vs. vowel sequence (most nouns, especially verb-derived and base nouns with initial vowel)

a. ki-eupe/vi- → cheupe/vyeupe “white” b. ki-angu/vi- → changu/vyangu “my; mine” c. ki-akula/vi- → chakula/vyakula “food; meal(s)” d. ki-ungu/vi- → chungu/vyungu “cooking pot(s)” e. ki-oo/vi- → choo/vyoo “bathroom(s); toilet(s)” vs. f. ki-oo/vi- → kioo/vioo “mirror(s)” g. ki-ungo/vi- → kiungo/viungo “(s); (s)” (from kuunga “to season”) h. ki-uno/vi- → kiuno/viuno “hip(s)” i. ki-elelezo/vi- → kielelezo/vielelezo “illustration(s); model(s)” (from kueleleza “illustrate”) j. ki-arabu → Kiarabu “Arabic” (see Arabuni “Arab world”)

The contact between the rounded prefix vowel /u/ and a non-identical stem vowel varies depending on the roundedness or non-roundedness of the latter. If the latter is non-rounded, the prefix vowel becomes a semi-vowel, as shown in (6). If the stem vowel is the rounded vowel /o/, the prefix vowel also becomes a semi-vowel in most cases, as in (7a–d). How- ever, with some nouns begining with /o/ and the pronoun -ote “all”, the prefix vowel is dropped, as in (7e–i).

(6) “Rounded” /u/ + “non-rounded” vowel: semi-vowel formation (u- → w)

a. mu-alimu → mwalimu “teacher” (mu-yu,a) b. ku-ako → kwako “your” (ku-ku) 64 Prefix/stem contact rules vs. no prefix c. mu-ingi → mwingi “much; a lot of” (mu-u) d. mu-eusi → mweusi “black” (mu-u)

(7) “Rounded” /u/ + “rounded” /o/: semi-vowel formation in general (nouns, adjectives) vs. prefix vowel elision for a few nouns (comprehensive list) and the pronoun -ote

a. mu-ororo → mwororo “tender; smooth” (mu-u; e.g. mwili mwororo “smooth body”) b. mu-ongozo → mwongozo “guideline; direction” (mu-u) c. mu-ongo → mwongo “liar” (mu-yu,a) d. mu-oga → mwoga “coward” (mu-yu,a) vs. e. mu-oyo → moyo “heart” (mu-u) f. mu-oto → moto “fire” (mu-u) g. mu-oshi → moshi “smoke; steam” (mu-u) h. ku-ote → kote “every; everywhere” (locative agreement seen in 16.1) i. mu-ote → mote (also mwote) “everywhere inside” (locative agreement seen in 16.1)

The contact between the “open” prefix vowel /a/ and a “mid” stem vowel /e,o/ also shows a contrast between non-derived word stems and verb-derived nouns. Original word stems trigger the elision of the prefix vowel, as in (8a–e), while verb-derived nouns allow vowel sequences between the prefix and the stem, similar to the nouns that naturally begin with a vowel in the singular (8f–i).

(8) “Open” vowel /a/ + “mid” vowel: Prefix vowel elision in general vs. vowel sequence among verb-derived nouns and nouns beginning with a vowel in the singular

a. wa-ote → wote “all of them” (wa-wa) b. ya-ote → yote “all of them” (ma-ya) c. ma-embamba → membamba “thin” (ma-ya) d. wa-eledi → weledi “professionals” (sg. mu-eledi → mweledi) e. wa-ehu → wehu “insane people” (sg. mu-ehu → mwehu) vs. f. ma-oni → maoni “views” (ma-ya; from kuona “to see”) g. ma-endeleo → maendeleo “progress” (ma-ya; from kuendelea “to progress”) h. ma-elezo → maelezo “explanation” (ma-ya; from kueleza “explain”) i. ma-eneo → maeneo “areas” (ma-ya; sg. eneo “area”)

The contact between the “open” prefix vowel /a/ and a “closed non-rounded” stem vowel /i/ triggers the contraction of the two vowels, each adopting qualities of the other (a+i → e), as shown in (9a–d). Verb-derived noun stems and nouns that naturally begin with a vowel in the singular are an exception here, as they maintain the prefix and the stem vowel (9e–f ). On the other hand, the prefix vowel /a/ does not coalesce with the “closed rounded” vowel /u/. Instead, the two vowels are maintained in sequence (10). Prefix/stem contact rules vs. no prefix 65 (9) Prefix /a/+/i/ → /e/ vs. vowel sequence (verb-derived and nouns beginning with a vowel in the singular)

a. wa-ingi → wengi “many” (subclass [wa-wa]) b. ma-ingine → mengine “other” (subclass [ma-ya]) c. ma-ino → meno “teeth” (sg. j-ino → jino) d. ma-iko → meko “fireplaces” (sg. j-iko → jiko) vs. e. wa-imbaji → waimbaji “singers” (wa-wa; see mwimbaji “singer”; kuimba “sing”) f. ma-ini → maini “livers” (sg. ini “liver”)

(10) “open” vowel /a/ + “closed rounded” vowel /u/: vowel sequence

a. wa-ume → waume “husbands” (sg. mume) b. ma-umivu → maumivu “pain; suffering” (from kuumia “suffer”)

9.2. Adjective agreement in class [n-i/n-zi] In class [n-i/n-zi], the adjectives that begin with a “sonorous” consonant require a n- prefix, or m- before the labial consonant /b/ (see Table 9.1a below). Conversely, those beginning with a non-sonorous or a nasal consonant have no apparent prefix (see Table 9.1b–c; similar patterns with the nouns have been seen in Language note 5.5). The “sonorous” consonants are those pronounced with air pressure in the throat, which makes them resonate more than their “non-sonorous” counterparts: see aligned elements in Table 9.1a vs. 9.1b. Despite the restriction on the nasal prefix before a non-sonorous consonant, the monosyl- labic adjective -pya “new” requires the use of a prefix to give it a disyllabic structure (Table 9.1d). As before /b/ in Table 9.1a, here the prefix n- takes the form m- to harmonize with /p/. Like /f,v/, the sounds /p,b,m/ are labial consonants, as they are pronounced using the lips. Also, the agreement prefix n- appears as ny- before a vowel (Table 9.1e).

Table 9.1 The nominal prefix in class [n-i/n-zi] according to the following consonant or vowel

Prefix Stem initial Examples a. n- + Sonorous Cons. : b, d, j, g, v z – – ndogo; or m- > mb (mv) mbaya; (mvua “rain”) b. ø- + Non-sonor. Cons. : p, t, ch, k, f, s, sh, h pana, tatu, fupi c. ø- + Nasal Cons. : m, n, ny, ng/ng’ – – – – moja, nne, nane, ngapi? d. n- + CV# (nchi “country”) or m- [monosyllabic stem] > mp; (mb) (mv) mpya; (mbwa; mvi) e. ny- + Vowel nyeupe, nyeusi, nyingi

(Bold italics = labial consonants. In parentheses: cases found only among nouns; mvi =“gray hair”)

You will observe that mbwa/mbwa “dog(s)” in Table 9.1d has structurally the prefix n- in both singular and plural, which is typical of nouns in class [n-i/n-zi]. However, as an 66 Prefix/stem contact rules vs. no prefix animate noun, it triggers the agreement in class [mu-yu,a/wa-wa]. In (11), you have additional examples of different types of adjectives, and an additional illustration of sound variation in (12–13).

(11) Other variable adjectives according to their initial consonants or vowels

a. Sonorous consonant: -zuri “good”, -zito “heavy”, -zima “complete”, -zee “old”, -gumu “hard”, -geni “foreign”, -bivu “ripe”, -bichi “raw; uncooked; fresh” b. Non-sonorous consonant: -kubwa “big”, -kuu “main”, -kali “fierce”, - “dry”, -kongwe “very old” -chafu “dirty”, -tano “five”, -tamu “delicious” c. Vowel: -ekundu “red”, -emabamba “thin”, -epesi “light”, -ingine “other”

(12) Typical prefix agreement with an adjective in class [n-i/n-zi]

a. nyumba nzuri tatu “three beautiful houses” n- n- ø- b. nyumba chafu mbovu “dirty, dilapidated houses” n- ø- n- c. nyumba nyeupe mpya “a new white house” n- n- n-

(13) Special prefix/stem contacts in class [n-i/n-zi]

a. n-r → nd: e.g.: njia ndefu “a long pathway” (n-jia n-refu vs. mti mrefu “a long tree”) b. n-l → nd: n- limi → ndimi “tongues” (vs. u-limi → ulimi “tongue”: class [mu-u/n-zi]) c. n-w → mb: e.g.: njia mbili “two roads” (n-jia n-wili vs. miti miwili “two trees”) d. -ema vs. n-jema (e.g. mtu mwema “a kind person” vs. safari njema “a nice trip”)

9.3. Origin of special prefix/stem contacts in class [n-i/n-zi] (advanced analysis) The glide /w/ derives from *b historically, and the liquids /r,l/ derive from *d. The con- tacts n-w → mb, n-r → nd, and n-l → nd listed in (13) may seem quite odd in a syn- chronic perspective, but they are a direct reflection of older rules, that is *n-b → mb and *n-d → nd. Similarly, the exceptional form -jema in (13d) is an archaic stem that has been exceptionally preserved in the presence of the nasal prefix n-. Other stems with a vowel in initial position also had an initial *j, which explains the /ny/ form instead of /n/ in class [n-i/n-zi] before a stem vowel, as seen in (12) (from original *n-jVowel contact; e.g. nyumba nyingi “many houses”, from *n-jumba n-jingi; see Table 9.1 for more examples). Prefix/stem contact rules vs. no prefix 67 On the other hand, the neutralization of the nasal prefix before a non-sonorous consonant flows from a long historical process, which originates from the aspiration of Nasal + Non- Sonorous Consonant sequences (e.g. n-k: nk > nkh > k h > k). Some speakers pronounce word-initial non-sonorous stops/affricates as aspirates in class [n-i/n-zi], that is, as [ph,th,kh,chh] (e.g. phaka “cat” vs. paka “smear/paint” [most names for animals originally had a prefix n-]; nyama thamu “delicious meat” vs. tunda tamu “delicious fruit”; sumu khali “violent poison” vs. jino kali “a sharp tooth”; chhaka “hot season” vs. chaka/machaka “clump of trees, thicket”). For a detailed representation of consonant aspiration in Swahili, you may consult BAKIZA (2010).

9.4. Noun and adjective prefixes in the subclass [ø-li] For adjectives, the agreement prefix for the subclass [ø-li] is j- before a vowel (14), ji- before a monosyllabic stem or -CV (15), ø- in other contexts (see -dogo in (14); zuri in (15)) (a general presentation of these types of variation is given in Appendix B).

(14) daftari dogo jeusi [ø-daftari ø-dogo j-eusi] “a small black notebook” (pl. madaftari madogo meusi “small black notebooks”)

(15) gari zuri jipya jeupe [ø-gari ø-zuri ji-pya j-eupe] “a nice new white car” (pl. magari mazuri mapya meupe “nice new white cars”)

A few original nouns (i.e. that are not verb-derived) also follow the rule of ji- and j- prefixes before monosyllabic stems and stems beginning with a vowel respectively. Those nouns are: ji-cho (ma-cho) “eye(s)”; ji-we (ma-we) “stone(s)”; j-ino (ma-ino → meno) “tooth/teeth”; and j-ambo (ma-ambo → mambo) “issue(s); affair(s)”. Conversely, most polysyllabic noun stems in the subclass [ø-li] that begin with a vowel appear without a prefix. A few examples of such nouns are: ua/maua “flower(s)”; embe/ maembe “mango(es)”; onyo/maonyo “warning(s)” (from kuonya “warn”); ombi/maombi “request; prayer” (from kuomba “request; pray; beg”); eneo/maeneo “region(s); area(s)”; ajabu/maajabu “marvel(s)” (foreign word).

9.5. Invariable adjectives and pronouns While most adjectives and pronouns vary in accordance with the nouns they are related to in a given sentence, some of them do not vary. The following sections give a description of those invariable elements.

9.5.1 Foreign adjectives and indefinite pronouns Adjectives of foreign origin are generally invariable. This is the case for: sita “six”; saba “seven”; tisa “nine”; bora “better; very good”; safi “clean”; muhimu “important”; kamili “complete; exact”; ghali “expensive”; rahisi “easy; cheap”; wazi “open; obvious”, etc. Indefinite pronouns kila “each; every”, mbalimbali “various”, and kadhaa “several” are also invariable. Examples are given in (16). 68 Prefix/stem contact rules vs. no prefix (16) Use of invariable adjectives and pronouns

a. Maji safi ni muhimu kwa afya “Clean water is important for health” b. Wanafunzi kadhaa/mbalimbali “Some/various students have wana kompyuta a computer” c. Kila mwanafunzi ana kompyuta “Every student has a computer” d. Kila nyumba kumi zina kiongozi “Every ten houses have a leader”

Additionally, the stems for tens, hundreds, and beyond are nouns (like “dozen(s)” or “hundred(s)” in English) and, therefore, do not agree with the noun that they qualify (see kumi “ten”, ishirini “twenty”, mia “a hundred”, etc.).

9.5.2 Invariable interrogative pronouns Aside from the interrogative pronoun -pi “which?” seen in Language note 5.2, Swahili uses the invariable interrogative pronoun gani “what (+noun)?” as shown in (17) (see also (-a) aina gani “what kind of?; what sort of?” (lit. “of what kind”)). The interrogative pronouns nani “who?” and nini “what?” are also used for questions that imply a specific object or person (18a–b). These two pronouns do not refer to a specific noun and are only used in the absence of a noun. Contrary to nini “what?”, nani “who?” may imply an answer in the singular or in the plural. It is optionally pluralized with the particle akina (18a).

(17) Use of the invariable interrogative pronoun “gani?”

a. Umesoma kitabu gani?/Mmesoma vitabu gani? “What book(s) did you (you all) read?” b. Nitanunua matunda ya aina gani?/ . . . aina gani ya matunda? “What kind of fruit will I buy?”

(18) Use of interrogative adverb “nani?/nini?”

a. Nani anataka kusoma?/(Akina) nani wanataka kusoma? “Who want(s) to read?” b. Unataka nini? “What do you want?”

9.6. Application exercises (19) Translate the adjectives in column A into English. Fill in the blanks in columns B and C with the Swahili adjectives from column A.

A B C Adjectives shuka “bed sheet” / mashuka “bed sheets” meza “table(s)” a. -baya shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______b. -chafu shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______c. -dogo shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______d. -embamba shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______e. -eupe shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______Prefix/stem contact rules vs. no prefix 69 A B C Adjectives shuka “bed sheet” / mashuka “bed sheets” meza “table(s)” f. -fupi shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______g. -gumu shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______h. -ingi ***** / mashuka ______meza ______i. -ingine shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______j. -kubwa shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______k. -moja shuka ______/ ***** meza ______l. -nane ***** / mashuka ______meza ______m. -ngapi? ***** / mashuka ______meza ______n. -pana shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______o. -pya shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______p. -refu shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______q. -tatu ***** / mashuka ______meza ______r. -wili ***** / mashuka ______meza ______s. -zuri shuka ______/ mashuka ______meza ______

(20) Translate into Swahili.

a. I like this exercise. The other exercises are difficult. b. My father’s car is small and black. I don’t like black cars. I like white cars. c. Lela has long hair, but her sister’s hair is short and black. (word for “hair”: plural) d. I have lived in Nairobi for many years.

9.7. Cumulative exercises (21) Translate into Swahili.

a. Many people do not like to read. Other people like to watch TV. b. How many (pieces of) fruit do you want? We want two oranges and six mangoes. c. Which language do you like? I like many languages. d. Who brought these books here? They’re my books. Mariam brought them. e. We learned Swahili at school. We didn’t learn English. f. Many classes begin at 9am. Other lessons begin at 1:30pm. g. This year, we will go to Mombasa. We want to visit our friend Abdalla. Won’t you go to Malindi as well? No, we won’t go to Malindi. Tomorrow, we will return to Nairobi. h. I cannot pay today. I have not yet gotten my salary for this month (lit. “of this month”). i. I don’t play soccer. On weekends, I visit my family and my friends. I have a big family and many friends. 10 Relative clauses and the use of reference pronouns

10.1. Relative clauses and the role of reference pronouns A relative clause is a subordinate clause that qualifies a noun (i.e. subordinate clauses intro­ duced by “who”, “whom”, “which”, “where, in/on which”, or “that” in English). Subordinate clauses that qualify the subject of the verb are called “subject relatives”. Those which qualify the object of the verb are called “object relatives” (see “whom” vs. “who” in English). In Swahili, the relative construction is formed by adding a relative marker to the verb or to the relative conjunction amba-, which appears before the verb. The relative marker corresponds to a “reference pronoun”, which is a reduced form of the contrastive pronoun that attaches to different types of words. Accordingly, the contrastive pronoun yeye “him; her” corresponds to the reference pronoun/relative marker -, while the contrastive pronoun wao “them” corresponds to the reference pronoun/relative marker -o. The examples in (1b–2b) show the correspondence between the contrastive pronoun yeye/wao and the reference pronouns -ye/-o in relative clauses. The use of the reference pronouns in other contexts will be seen in 10.10.

(1) Contrastive pronoun “yeye” vs. relative marker/reference pronoun “-ye”

a. Mwalimu anatufundisha Kiswahili. “The teacher teaches us Swahili. Yeye anatoka Tanga. He comes from Tanga”. b. Mwalimu anayetufundisha “The teacher who teaches us Swahili Kiswahili anatoka Tanga. comes from Tanga”.

(2) Contrastive pronoun “wao” vs. relative marker/reference pronoun “-o”

a. Walimu wanatufundisha Kiswahili. “The teachers teach us Swahili. Wao wanatoka Tanga. They come from Tanga”. b. Walimu wanaotufundisha Kiswahili “The teachers who teach us Swahili wanatoka Tanga. come from Tanga”.

Table 10.1 shows the form of reference pronouns/relative markers in different classes.

Table 10.1 Reference pronouns/relative markers in different classes

Subclass mu­yu,a wa­wa mu­u mi­i ma­ya n­i ø­li ki­ki vi­vi n­zi ku­ku pa­pa mu­mu Base form yeye wa­o u­o i­o ya­o i­o li­o ki­o vi­o zi­o ku­o pa­o mu­o

Ref. PRon./Rel. -ye -o -yo -lo -cho -vyo -zo -ko -po -mo

(See 7.2 for the meaning of the locative pronouns -ko, -po, -mo; more details are given in 16.1) Relative clauses and reference pronouns 71 As seen in Table 10.1, the reference pronouns generally have the form [pronominal prefix + -o]. However, the singular marker in the animate class has the form-ye , which derives directly from yeye “him/her” and constitutes a substantial difference with the demonstrative pronoun for “near you” seen in Table 5.3. Additionally, in the subclasses [wa-wa] and [mu-u] the pronominal prefix is not apparent, that is, the reference pronoun is reduced to the form-o . This is due to phonetic simplification that results from a restriction on sequences involving a rounded semi­vowel and a rounded vowel, especially in word non­initial position (see -wa-o → /o/ and -u-o → /o/, not *wo). A similar phenomenon is observed with equivalent demonstrative pronouns (see ha-wa-o → hao “those”, not *hawo; hu-u-o → huo “that”, not *huwo). Importantly, all animates, including the first and second persons in singular and plural (“me/you”; “we/you all”), trigger the use of the reference pronoun of the third person, that is, -ye, which derives from yeye “him/her”, and -o, which derives from wao “them”.

10.2. Three forms of relative constructions in Swahili Swahili has three types of relative constructions regarding the position of the relative marker. Specifically, the relative marker may attach to the conjunction amba-, which is used before the verb, but it can also be prefixed or suffixed to the verb. The different forms ofthe relative construction have fundamentally the same meaning but not the same frequency. This is because all three types of relative constructions have some restrictions, which we will discover progressively.

10.2.1 Relative clauses with the conjunction amba- The amba- relative is most frequently used by Swahili speakers. Furthermore, it has the widest distribution, as it appears with any verb in the indicative or conditional mood, and in all tenses, which makes it easier to handle for non­native speakers. The following examples illustrate the use of the subject relative as well as the object relative with the conjunction amba- (3–4). The relative marker in subject relative clauses refers to the subject (3), while the marker of object relative clauses refers to the object (4). Object relative clauses also prompt the use of an “object marker” that refers to the object of the verb (see the segments highlighted with a box).

(3) Subject relative with amba-: amba-Rel. + VeRb

a. Subclass [ki-ki] (-cho) Kitabu ambacho kinafundisha kusoma ni hiki “The book which teaches reading is this one” b. Subclass [mu-yu,a] (-ye) Mtoto ambaye anapenda kusoma ni huyu “The child who likes to read is this one”

(4) Object relative with amba-: amba-Rel. + VeRb/Object Marker

a. Subclass [ki-ki] (-cho) “The book that I am reading is this one” Kitabu ambacho nina ki soma ni hiki b. Subclass [mu-yu,a] (-ye) “The child whom I like is this one” Mtoto ambaye nina m penda ni huyu 72 Relative clauses and reference pronouns In this text, the term “object marker” refers to an object pronoun that serves to highlight a verb object with which it co­occurs. With this pattern, the verb object is contrasted with other possible objects or assumed as specific. In informal speech, “object markers” entailed by object relative clauses are optionally omitted. The markers for the general form of the relative are: amba-ye (cl. [mu-yu,a]); amba-o (cl. [wa-wa], [mu-u]); amba-yo (cl. [mi-i], [ma-ya], [n-i]); amba-lo (cl. [ø-li]); amba-cho (cl. [ki-ki]); amba-vyo (cl. [vi-vi]); amba-zo (cl. [n-zi]); amba-ko (cl. [ku-ku]); amba-po (cl. [pa-pa]); amba-mo (cl. [mu-mu]). Importantly, the conjunction amba- is only used in the presence of the noun it refers to or a pronoun that stands for it, as in (5a–b). In the absence of the referred noun, the demonstrative -le is typically used by default (5c–d).

(5) a. Watoto ambao wanapenda kusoma watafaulu “The children who like to read will succeed” b. Wote ambao wanapenda kusoma watafaulu “All who like to read will succeed” c. Wale ambao wanapenda kusoma watafaulu “Those who like to read will succeed” d. Yule ambaye anapenda kusoma atafaulu “The one who likes to read will succeed”

In addition, the English conjunction “whose” always corresponds to a construction involving a possessive pronoun in Swahili. In the relative clauses, it corresponds to the pattern [of whom/which + noun + PossessiVe], as shown in (6).

(6) a. Nyumba ambayo paa lake limeharibika . . . “The house whose roof is ruined . . .” b. Ninajua nchi ambayo mshiriki wake ameshinda “I know the country whose candidate has won” c. Wazazi ambao mtoto wao amefaulu wamefurahi “The parents whose child has succeeded are happy”

10.2.2 Prefixed relative form The relative construction that uses a prefixed relative marker appears only in the indicative mood, in present, past, and future tenses. Accordingly, it is not used in the perfect tense, nor in the conditional mood (seen respectively in 6.1 and 17.1). With the prefixed relative, the verb has the form [Subject­ Tense ­ Relative MaRkeR ­ stem], as shown in (7–8). Similar to the construction with amba-, here the object relative uses an “object marker” that is prefixed before the stem (8).

(7) Prefixed subject relative: Subject ­ Tense ­ Relative MaRkeR ­ stem

a. Subclass [ki-ki] (-cho-) : Kitabu kinachofundisha kusoma ni hiki b. Subclass [mu-yu,a] (-ye-) : Mtoto anayependa kusoma ni huyu Relative clauses and reference pronouns 73

(8) Prefixed object relative: Subject ­ Tense ­ Relative MaRkeR ­ Object Marker ­ stem

a. Subclass [ki-ki] (-cho-) : Kitabu ninacho ki soma ni hiki b. Subclass [mu-yu,a] (-ye-) : Mtoto ninaye m penda ni huyu (Same translation as in 10.2.1.)

In addition, the prefixed relative uses the marker -taka- in the future tense instead of -ta-, as shown in the following examples (9–10).

(9) Kitabu ni takacho ki soma ni hiki “The book which I will read is this one”

(10) Mtoto atakayependa kusoma atafaulu “The child who will like reading will succeed”

10.2.3 Suffixed relative form The relative construction with a suffixed marker is quite rare, as it is restricted to the present tense of the indicative mood, in the affirmative form. As shown in (11), the verb of the suffixed relative does not use a tense marker but has the form [Subject ­ stem ­ RelatiVe maRkeR]. Here also, the object relative uses an “object marker” prefixed before the stem (12).

(11) Suffixed subject relative: Subject ­ stem ­ RelatiVe maRkeR

a. Subclass [ki-ki] (-cho) : Kitabu kifundishacho kusoma ni hiki b. Subclass [mu-yu,a] (-ye) : Mtoto apendaye kusoma ni huyu

(12) Suffixed object relative: Subject ­ Object Marker ­ stem ­ RelatiVe maRkeR

a. Subclass [ki-ki] (-cho-) : Kitabu niki somacho ni hiki b. Subclass [mu-yu,a] (ye-) : Mtoto nim pendaye ni huyu (Same translation as in 10.2.1.)

10.3. Relative construction in the negative form In the negative form of the amba- relative clause, the main verb follows the regular rules of negation, with the addition of a marker ha-, h- (before animate prefixes u- and a-) or si- (first person singular) (13–14). In the negative form, the object relative clauses require an “object marker” similar to their affirmative counterparts (14).

(13) Kitabu ambacho hakikufika mtakipata kesho lit. “The book which did not arrive you will get it tomorrow”

(14) Kitabu ambacho ham ki somi hamtakielewa lit. “The book which you don’t read you will not understand it”

As shown in (15–16), prefixed relative clauses use the special negation marker -si-. In addition, the negation is restricted here to the present tense, which does not use a specific 74 Relative clauses and reference pronouns tense marker. In other words, the negation of past and future clauses requires the use of the amba- form.

(15) Mtoto asiyependa kusoma ni huyu “The child who does not like reading is this one” (16) Kitabu tusicho ki soma ni hiki “The book that we don’t read is this one”

Clauses with a suffixed relative marker do not have specific negation. The amba- form or the prefixed form must be used to negate this type of clauses.Table 10.2 summarizes different relative clause patterns and their contextual restrictions.

Table 10.2 Form and contextual restrictions on different relative clause patterns

Pattern Affirmative Negative Restriction a. amba- amba­Rel. + Verb amba­Rel. + Neg. Verb Only with referred (Obj. Marker) (Obj. Marker) noun or pronoun b. Prefixed Subj­Tense­Rel.­(Obj.)­Stem Subj­si­Rel.­Stem Past, Pres., Fut. (no Perfect) (no tense marker) Neg.: Present only c. Suffixed Subj­(Obj)­Stem­Rel. –– Present only; no Negation

10.4. Review exercise (17) Translate into Swahili, using amba- (keep previous sections covered)

a. the chair which i. the table which b. the tables on which j. the room in which c. the country where k. the car which d. the chairs which l. the tables which e. the boys who m. the wall which f. the boy who n. the arrival which g. the walls which o. the water which h. the friends who p. the trees which

10.5. Relative constructions with a locative/temporal connotation The locative marker -po, -ko, or -mo seen in 7.2 (Figure 7.1) are also used in relative constructions to express the connotations of location at a “specific point”, in a “general area”, or “inside”. Examples are given in (18–20).

(18) a. Ninapenda meza ambapo umeweka maua “I like the table on which you have put flowers” b. Ninapenda meza ulipoweka maua “I like the table on which you put flowers” (past)

(19) Nchi ambako ninatoka inatumia Kiingereza./ “The country where I come Nchi ninakotoka . . . / nitokako . . . from uses English”

(20) Nyumba ambamo wanaishi ni kongwe./ “The house in which they Nyumba wanamoishi . . . / Nyumba waishimo . . . live is very old” Relative clauses and reference pronouns 75 The locative marker po- may also express the notion of location in time (21–22). Following the general pattern of the relative verb formation, temporal clauses with ­po- use the markers -taka- in the future tense (21c, 22c), and -si- in the negative form, which is also limited to the present tense (21d, 22d).

(21) a. tulipokaa “when/where we stayed” b. tunapokaa/tukaapo “when/where we stay” c. tutakapokaa “when/where we will stay” d. tusipokaa “when/where we don’t stay”

(22) a. nilipomwona “when/where we saw him” b. ninapomwona/nimwonapo “when/where we see him” c. nitakapomwona “when/where we will see him” d. nisipomwona “when/where don’t see him”

10.6. Use of the suffixed relative form in proverbs and elliptical constructions As we have seen, the suffixed relative form is quite rare. However, it is commonly used in formal constructions such as proverbs (23–24). The example in (25) shows the use of the prefixed relative form in a proverb.

(23) Atakaye hachoki “Who wants [something] is never tired”

(24) Wapiganapo tembo, nyasi huumia “When elephants fight, it is the grass that suffers”

(25) Asiyekubali kushindwa si mshindani “He who does not accept losing is not a competitor”

In addition, prefixed and suffixed relative forms are commonly used in elliptical constructions, that is, that omit the referred noun, especially those that implicitly refer to the nouns mtu/watu “person/people” (26); kitu/vitu “thing (what)/things” (27); jambo/mambo “something/things; what” (28).

(26) a. Nimtakaye hanipendi “The one I want doesn’t love me” b. Tuliowafikiria sio “The ones we thought of are not the (real) ones”

(27) a. Unadhani wanawajua wanachokifanya? “Do you think they know what they are doing?” b. Sijui anachokitaka “I don’t know what he wants” c. Sikiliza kwanza ninachokuambia “Listen first to what I am telling you” d. Alivyotuambia ni uongo mtupu. “The things he told us are an empty lie” 76 Relative clauses and reference pronouns (28) a. Usilolijua ni kama usiku wa giza “Something you don’t know is like a dark night” b. Asemayo ni upuuzi kabisa! “What he is saying is complete nonsense”

The prefixed and suffixed relative forms are also used in various practical expressions. A few examples are listed in (29).

(29) a. Wanaoondoka “Departures, e.g. in an airport” (lit. “those who depart”) b. Wanaowasili “Arrivals, e.g. in an airport” (lit. “those who arrive”) c. Siku ya wapendanao “Lovers’ day” (lit. “the day of those who love each other”) d. Maneno yafuatayo “The following words” (lit. “the words which follow”) e. Wiki ijayo/siku zijazo/mwaka ujao “Next week/days/year” (lit. “the coming week/days/year”) f. Mwaka uliopita “Last year” (lit. “the year which passed”)

10.7. The verbs “be” and “have” in suffixed relative forms Suffixed relative clauses for the verbs “be” and “have” in the affirmative form are based on the stem -li- followed by the relative marker, also by the conjunction na for the verb “have”, as shown with the a. series in (30–32). On the other hand, their negative counterparts place the relative marker next to the segment si-, as seen with the b. series in (30–32). The two constructions correspond to the relative clauses based on the conjunction amba- followed by the verb “be”/“have” in the simple form of the present tense (seen in Language notes 2.6 and 7.1). There is no prefixed relative form with the verbs “be”/ “have” in the present tense.

(30) a. aliye/walio; kilicho/vilivyo, ulio/iliyo, lilio/yaliyo “who, which is/are” b. asiye/wasio; kisicho/visivyo, usio/isiyo, lisio/yasiyo “who, which is/are not”

(31) a. aliye/walio, kilicho/visivyo, ulio/iliyo, lilio/yaliyo + na “who, which has/have” b. asiye/wasio, kisicho/visivyo, usio/isiyo, lisilo/yasiyo + na “who, which has/have not”

(32) a. Aliye mwanafunzi asome “He who is a student may read” b. Asiye mwanafunzi asisome “He who is not a student may not read”

As shown in (33a–d), the locative pronouns -po, -ko, -mo are suffixed to the locative form -li- “be” in the relative clause (-si- in the negative), similar to other forms of the verb “be” shown in (33e) with the past and the future tense. Relative clauses and reference pronouns 77 (33) a. Pres.: Kilichopo, kilichoko, kilichomo/ “Which is here/there/in there”/ Pres. Neg.: Kisichopo, kisichoko, kisichomo “Which is not here/there/in there” b. Pres.: Vilivyomo humu ni vyangu/ “Those which are in here are mine”/ Pres. Neg.: Visivyomo humu si vyangu “Those which are not in here are not mine” c. Pres.: Je unajua wazazi wako walipo? “Do you know where your parents are?” d. Pres.: Popote vilipo nitavipata “Anywhere they (the things) are, I will get them” e. Fut.: Vitakavyokuwamo humu ni vyangu/ “Those which will be in here are mine”/ Past: Vilivyokuwamo humu ni vyangu “Those which were in here are mine”

In object relative constructions with the verb kuwa na/kutokuwa na “have/not have”, the reference pronoun is suffixed both to the verb base and the particle na-. This double suffixation is found with the relative stem -li- in the present tense, but also with the form kuwa, which is used in the past tense and the future tense (34–36) (cases of suffixation of the reference pronoun to non­relative forms are described in 10.10).

(34) Present: niliye naye/nilio nao, nilicho nacho “who/which I have” nisiye naye/nisio nao, nisicho nacho “who/which I don’t have” (35) Past: mliyekuwa naye/mlichokuwa nacho “who/which you (all) had” (36) Future: watakayekuwa naye/watakachokuwa nacho “who/which they will have”

10.8. Relative clauses vs. indirect clauses or interrogative adverbs Relative clauses should not be confused with indirect clauses, which also use the conjunction “that” in English. Indirect clauses typically serve to quote a statement or report an opinion. They use the indicative or conditional mood, as shown in (37) (the prefix-nge- “would” in (37d) marks the conditional; a complete description is given in Language note 17). In addition, they are introduced by the conjunction kwamba/kuwa “that”, which is optional after statement verbs, as in (37a) (a general presentation of clause connectors is given in Appendix C).

(37) Use of indicative/conditional verbs in indirect clauses

a. Alisema (kwamba/kuwa) anakupenda “He said (that) he loves you” b. Ninapenda kwamba/kuwa ameondoka “I like (that) he has left” c. Tumefurahi kwamba/kuwa umeshinda “We are happy (that) you have succeeded” d. Alikiri kwamba/kuwa angependa kuondoka “He admitted (that) he would like to leave”

In addition, it is important to keep in mind that the interrogative pronoun -pi? “which” and interrogative adverbs such as nini? “what?”, nani? “who?”, gani? “which/what?”, or wapi? “where?” (seen in 5.3. and 9.5.2) are only interrogatives and should not be confused 78 Relative clauses and reference pronouns with relative conjunctions. On the other hand, they may be used as interrogative conjunctions, that is, in subordinate clauses referring to a question (38). The noun wakati “time” also may be used to express the non­interrogative conjunction “when/while”, as in (39).

(38) a. Kwa kweli, sijui anataka nini “I truly don’t know what he wants” b. Alikataa kuniambia ni nani alikichukua “He refused to tell me who took it” c. Sijui ana shida gani yule “I don’t what problem that person has” d. Hatujui kitabu gani/kipi ni bora “We don’t know which book is better” e. Nitakuonyesha wapi ninakaa “I will show you where I live”

(39) a. Wakati nina furaha, ninaimba “When I am happy, I sing” b. Wakati alifika, tuliondoka “When he arrived, we left” c. Anapenda kunywa chai wakati anasoma “He likes drinking tea when he reads/while reading” d. Ninataka kusafiri wakati ninaweza “I want to travel while I can”

10.9. Review exercise (40) Change into plural and translate your own sentences into English (keep previous sections covered).

a. Kitabu kifundishacho kusoma ni hiki b. Mtoto asiyependa kusoma ni huyu c. Aliye mwanafunzi asome d. Kitabu tusichokisoma ni hiki e. Mtoto apendaye kusoma ni huyu f. Kitabu nitakachokisoma ni hiki g. Mtoto atakayependa kusoma atafaulu h. Asiye mwanafunzi asisome i. Mtoto nimpendaye ni huyu j. Nimtakaye hanipendi

10.10. The reference pronouns with na “and; with; also”, ndi-/si- “be/not be”, and others As mentioned before, the reference pronouns are used with different types of words, in addition to the verb in the relative form. This is the case with the conjunction na “and; with; also”, which gives for instance na + yeye → naye “with him/her; him/her also”. Examples of use are shown in (41–43). Relative clauses and reference pronouns 79 (41) a. Aligombana na Mariam “He argued with Mariam” b. Aligombana na yeye “He argued with her” c. Aligombana naye “He argued with her”

(42) a. Tulizungumza na wao “We talked with them” b. Tulizungumza nao “We talked with them”

(43) a. Je, ulikuja na shilingi elfu kumi? “Did you come with ten thousand shillings?” b. Ndiyo, nilikuja nazo “Yes I did” (lit. “Yes, I came with them”)

When used with the noun they refer to, the expressions of the form “na + reference pronoun” may imply a contrastive connotation, that is, “even”, instead of simply “also”, as shown in the a. series in (44 – 46). In this specific use, the reference pronoun -ye does not alternate with the contrastive pronoun yeye “him/her”.

(44) a. Mwalimu naye ameondoka “Even the teacher has left” (lit. “The teacher him/her too has left”) b. Na mwalimu ameondoka “The teacher also has left”

(45) a. Shule za serikali nazo zimefungwa? “Even government schools have been closed?” (lit. “Government schools, they too have been closed?”) b. Na shule za serikali zimefungwa? “Government schools also have been closed?”

(46) a. Kula nako ni kazi? “Even eating is work?” b. Kula pia ni kazi? “Eating also is work?”

Similar to the reference pronouns, the contrastive pronouns of the first and second persons also may be combined with the conjunction na “and; with; also”. When attached to another element, contrastive pronouns made of two identical syllables are reduced to one syllable, that is, mimi → -mi; wewe → -we; sisi → -si; nyinyi → -nyi. Accordingly, their combination with na “and/with” gives the forms nami, nawe, nasi, nanyi (“and/with/too/also” + “me, you, us, you all”), as shown in Table 10.3.

Table 10.3 The conjunction na “and/with” with the contrastive pronouns of first and second persons

Person Examples Meaning a. mimi Je, utapenda kuenda sinema nami? Will you (you all) like going to sisi Je, mtapenda kuenda sinema nasi? the cinema with me?/with us? b. wewe Jirani anakusaidia, nawe humshukuru? The neighbor(s) help(s) you (all), ninyi Jirani wanawasaidieni, nanyi hamuwashukuru? and you don’t thank him?/them? 80 Relative clauses and reference pronouns To refer to the object, the verb kuwa na/kutokuwa na “have/not have” also uses a refer­ ence pronoun that is suffixed to the particle na “with/also; have”, instead of a prefixed object pronoun (47–49).

(47) a. ninaye/ninao/ninacho/ninavyo “I have one/some/it/those” b. sinaye/sinao/sinacho/sinavyo “I don’t have one/some/it/those”

(48) a. mlikuwa naye, nacho, nao “You all had one/some/it/those” b. hamkuwa naye, nacho, nao “You all did not have one/some/it/those”

(49) a. atakuwa naye, nacho, nao “He will have one/some/it/those” b. hatakuwa naye, nacho, nao “He will not have one/some/it/those”

The reference pronouns are also suffixed to the contrastive/evocative verb “be”, that is, the particle ndi- that literally means “the one(s) who/which + be; the one(s) that + be”, or “be + aforementioned”, as shown in the a. series in (50–53). The negative counterpart of this verb is formed by suffixing a reference pronoun to the marker si-, as in the b. series in (50–53). You will observe that the terms ndiyo “yes” and siyo “no” are based on this structure in the subclass [n-i] and literally mean “that is it” and “that is not”. In other contexts, the contrastive/evocative verb ndi-/si- “be/not be” requires the presence of a subject, which may be a noun or a contrastive pronoun (additional uses of the particles na- and ndi-/si- with a reference pronoun are provided in Language note 16.2).

(50) a. Hiki ndicho kitabu changu “My book is this one” b. Hiki sicho kitabu changu “My book is not this one” (lit. “This is not the one that is my book”)

(51) a. Wewe ndiye jirani yake? lit. “Is that you, his neighbor? (aforementioned)” b. Mimi siye jirani yake lit. “That is not me, his neighbor”

(52) a. Hii ndiyo sababu nimekuita “This is the reason ( for which) I have called you” b. Hii siyo sababu nimekuita “This is not the reason ( for which) I have called you”

(53) a. Kazi yake ndiyo nzuri “His work is the one that is good” b. Kazi yake siyo nzuri “His work is not good (at all)”

The reference pronoun based on the stem -o also may be suffixed to the pronoun -ingine “other”. This process generally adds an emphatic connotation to the latter (e.g. “. . . other different”), as shown in (54). Though rare in the singular animate class, this construction uses the pronominal base -o, instead of -ye that is generally used in this subclass (54a).

(54) a. [mu-yu,a/wa-wa]: mtu mwingineo/watu wengineo “somebody else/other different people” b. [ki-ki/vi-vi]: kinginecho/vinginevyo “something else/other different things” Relative clauses and reference pronouns 81 Finally, the notion of “any” is expressed by a combination of the pronouns yeye “him; her” and ­ote “all” in the animate class singular (55a), while the other classes use a combination of the reference pronoun -o and the pronoun ­ote (see -o-ote), with an agreement prefix for each of them (55b–c). Depending on the speaker, the latter combination also may be used for the animate class in the singular, that is, using the prefix w-, as shown in (55a).

(54) a. Umemwona mchezaji yeyote/wowote? “Did you see any player?” b. Umewawona wachezaji wowote? “Did you see any players?” c. Umeona kitabu chochote? “Did you see any book?”

10.11. Application exercises (56) Translate into Swahili.

a. I have two brothers who live in Pemba. b. I also have a younger sister whom we will visit next week. c. She has a fiancé whose parents live in the US (lit. “whom his parents live in the US”). d. The suitcase that she brought is heavy. e. The house (that) we bought has three rooms. Does it have a kitchen? Yes, it has one. f. The work that you did is very good. The students who will work a lot will succeed. g. Do you have my notebook? Yes, I have it. h. Is this the bag you are looking for? i. My child is this one. j. Have you bought any oranges (at all)?

10.12. Cumulative exercises (57) Fill in the blanks, using once each of these forms of the verb “be”: ni, ndilo, liko, lipo, liko, limo. Rewrite your sentences in the negative form and translate into English.

a. Daftari ______safi. b. Daftari ______kwenye chumba kile. c. Daftari ______langu. d. Daftari hili ______langu. e. Daftari ______nje. f. Daftari ______mezani.

(58) Translate into Swahili and convert your sentence into plural or singular whenever possible (two answers per question).

a. The teacher who teaches English is late. Who is the teacher that will teach Swahili? b. The book that Juma is reading annoys him. The book that he doesn’t read, I will read it. c. The teacher who doesn’t teach English will teach Swahili tomorrow. d. The clothes which are in the cupboard belong to Juma (lit. “are of Juma”). 82 Relative clauses and reference pronouns e. Those who don’t like milk may drink water. f. Where is the food that he cooked? g. The bus that I will take arrives at 11:30am. h. Those who will not arrive early will not see her. i. I like a lot the poem that you have written. j. The young people who will arrive tomorrow come from Zanzibar. k. Those who do not work a lot cannot succeed. l. The students who study Swahili will go to Zanzibar next year. m. I who does not know French will speak Swahili. n. The road which goes to Nairobi has a lot of cars. o. Who knows does not say, who says does not know. p. The people who live here are Americans. q. I talked with her yesterday. 11 Imperative and subjunctive moods

Unlike the indicative mood, which typically declare facts, the imperative and subjunctive moods are generally non-declarative. In Swahili, the expresses strong requests in the affirmative form, while the expresses negative requests, as well as weak and indirect requests. The subjunctive is also used in subordinate clauses to imply the connotation of “possibility”, as opposed to “factual statements” that use verbs in the infinitive form or in the indicative mood.

11.1. Imperative mood When addressing one person, the imperative is formed by removing the infinitive marker of the verb. This simple form of the imperative is used without an object pronoun or any other prefix, as shown in (1). When the verb has an object pronoun, the singular imperative uses the marker -e, as in (2).

(1) a. kuona “to see” → Ona! “See!” b. kusoma “to read” → Soma! “Read!”

(2) a. kuona “to see” → lione! /li-on-e/ “See it!” (subclass [ø-li]) b. kusoma “to read” → Kisome! /ki-som-e/ “Read it!” (subclass [ki-ki])

However, the presence of an object pronoun does not the final vowel of foreign verbs ending in /i/, /e/, or /u/, as seen below in (3). The /i e u/ endings are part of the root of the verb and, therefore, are not affected by conjugation, contrary to the regular stem final -a.

(3) a. kujaribu “to try” → Kijaribu! /ki-jaribu/ “Try it!” (subclass [ki-ki]) b. kusubiri “to wait (for)” → Nisubiri! /ni-subiri/ “Wait for me!” c. kusamehe “to forgive” → Tusamehe! /tu-samehe/ “Forgive us!”

In the plural, the imperative is expressed with the final marker -eni for regular verbs, and -ni for irregular verb stems that end with the vowels /i/, /e/, or /u/, as shown respec- tively in (4) and (5).

(4) a. kuona “to see” → Oneni /on-eni/ “See! (you all)” b. kuona “to see” → Waoneni /wa-on-eni/ “See them! (you all)” (subclass [wa-wa]) 84 Imperative and subjunctive moods (5) a. kusafiri “to travel” → Safirini! /safiri-ni/ “Travel! (you all)” b. kujaribu “to try” → Jaribuni /jaribu-ni/ “Try! (you all)” c. kusamehe “to forgive” → Sameheni /samehe-ni/ “Forgive! (you all)”

In both singular and plural, there exists an emphatic form of the imperative which uses the marker ka- (6). With regular verbs, this type of imperative requires the use of the final -e instead of the final -a in the singular (6a), similar to the imperative with an object pronoun seen in (2).

(6) a. Kafungue mlango! “(Go) open the door!” b. Kafungueni mlango! “(Go) open the door (you all)!” c. Kajibu/Kajibuni maswali yoye! “(Go) answer all the questions/you all”

The imperative mood has no specific negative form and, therefore, strong negative requests use the negative subjunctive form seen below in 11.3.

11.2. Possible origin of the marker -eni/-ni for “you all” (advanced analysis) The imperative plural marker -eni described in the previous section 11.1 appears to cor- respond to the marker -eni used in the presence of an object pronoun ku- or wa- in the indicative mood (see tutawasaidieni [tu-ta-wa-saidi-eni]/tutakusaidieni [tu-ta-ku-saidi-eni] “we will help you all” in 3.1). They seem to result from a combination of the final vowel -a in indicative mood, or the marker -e in the imperative/subjunctive mood, and an archaic suffix -ini that corresponds to current contrastive pronoun ninyi ~ nyinyi “you all”, which gives a + i > /e/ and e + e > /e/. The marker -ni used with verbs of foreign origin ending in /e,i,u/ seems to follow from the deletion of suffix initial vowel (*-ini > -ni), as root vowels are generally resistant to phonetic change. In other words, the suffix initial vowel /i/ was deleted in this context because it could not combine with the preceding root vowel /i,e,u/. You will observe that the use of the marker -ni for “you all” has been extended beyond the verb. In particular, it is seen in the greetings shikamoo/shikamooni “respectful greetings/ to many people”, which are generally believed to derive from the expression shika mguu “I hold your feet” (lit. “hold foot”), and karibu(ni) “welcome (you all)”, which literally means “come nearer (you all)” (from Arabic karibun “near”). Colloquially, this extension tends to apply even beyond single words. Accordingly, the phrase ndugu zangu “my fel- lows” (lit. “my siblings”) may become ndugu zanguni when directly addressed to a group of people.

11.3. Subjunctive mood

11.3.1 Basic markers of the subjunctive mood As mentioned before, the subjunctive in Swahili expresses functions such as “requests” in the negative form, and “weak requests” that imply the notion of a delayed response. In the affirmative form, the subjunctive is rendered with the verb-final vowel-e (except for foreign verbs ending in -i, -e, or -u, which remain unchanged), and the absence of a tense marker. In the negative form, the same element is used, along with the negation marker -si-, as shown in Table 11.1 (compare with ha- in the indicative mood). Imperative and subjunctive moods 85 Table 11.1 Basic markers of the subjunctive

Affirmative: -e Negative: -si- . . . -e a. 2nd.sg. uone (u-on-e) “so you may see” usione (u-si-on-e) “so you may not see” b. 2nd.pl. mwone (mu-on-e) “so you (all) msione (mu-si-on-e) “so you (all) may may see” not see”

As noted before, the imperative uses the marker -e in some contexts, instead of the final vowel -a. This creates some similarity with the subjunctive, as shown in Table 11.2.

Table 11.2 Imperative vs. subjunctive markers

Singular Sg. with obj. pron. Plural Pl. with obj. pron. a. Imperative soma! kisome! someni! kisomeni! “read” “read it” “read (you all)” “read it (you all)” b. Subjunct. usome ukisome msome mkisome “read [later]” “read it [later]” “read (you all) “read it (you all) [later]” [later]” c. Negative usisome usikisome msisome msikisome Subjunct. “don’t read” “don’t read it” “don’t read” “don’t read it”

11.3.2 The subjunctive mood in main clauses and the expression of weak/indirect requests In the main clause, the subjunctive generally expresses weak requests addressed to the second person (“you/you all”), that is, polite requests that imply the notion of a delayed response (7). You will observe that the prefix kw-, which may appear in some conjugated forms of verbs such as kuenda/kwenda “go” or kuisha/kwisha “finish (intransitive), cease” is incompatible with verb tenses with a suffixed marker, such as the subjunctive mood with the marker -e shown in (7) (similar cases are seen in Language note 12.5).

(7) a. Uende dukani kununua chakula u-end-e: “you - go - subjunctive” “Please go to the store to buy some food (later)” b. Mwende dukani kununua chakula mu-end-e: “you all - go - subjunctive” “Please go to the store to buy some food (later)”

Requests addressed to the first person plural (“us”) and indirect requests directed to the third person are in the subjunctive mood by default and generally do not make a distinction between immediate and delayed response, as shown in (8a, c) and (9–11). However, depending on the speaker, requests addressed to “us” may optionally use the imperative marker -eni in the affirmative form to imply immediate response, as in (8b).

(8) a. Twende dukani kununua chakula tu-end-e “we - go - subjunctive” “Let’s go to the store to buy some food” 86 Imperative and subjunctive moods b. Twendeni dukani kununua chakula tu-end-eni “we - go - imperative” “Let’s go right away to the store to buy some food” c. Tusiende dukani kununua chakula tu-si-end-e: “we - neg. - go - subjunctive” “Let’s not go to the store to buy some food”

(9) a. Liz aende sokoni leo “Liz should go to the market today” b. Liz asiende sokoni leo “Liz should not go to the market today”

(10) a. Waende dukani kununua chakula “They should go to the store to buy food” b. Wasiende dukani kununua chakula “They should not go to the store to buy food”

(11) a. Kitabu hiki kirudishwe dukani “This book should be returned to the store” b. Kitabu hiki kisirudishwe dukani “This book should not be returned to the store”

When used in exclamation clauses, indirect requests may involve a connotation of “wish”, as shown with the term “may” in the English glosses in (12).

(12) a. Mungu akubariki/akusaidie! “(May) God bless you!/(May) God help you!” b. Mungu amlaani! “(May) God damn him!”

When used in interrogative clauses, the subjunctive mood may also imply a request for an opinion, with all categories of grammatical persons serving as the subject of the verb, as in (13). In addition, the subjunctive form is used in rhetorical questions to express “implicit requests”, as shown in (14).

(13) a. Je, nianze/nisianze sasa? “Should I (not) begin now?” b. Tufanye nini sasa? “What should we do now?” c. Waondoke au wasiondoke? “Should they leave or not?”

(14) a. Kwa nini usiniache hapa? “Why (should you) not leave me here?” b. Kama mnapendana, kwa nini msioane? “If you love each other, why (should you) not marry?” c. Kwa nini uchukue pesa za watu? “Why (should you) take other people’s money?” d. Kwa nini tuondoke mapema namna hii? “Why (should we) leave this early?”

(15) Review exercise: imperative vs. subjunctive in the main clause: Fill in the column “verb mood” with the name of the appropriate form; translate the sentences (“target glosses”) into Swahili and give their negative form in Swahili. Imperative and subjunctive moods 87

Function of the Verb Target glosses ( “it”, Swahili Negative main clause mood e.g. -ki-: tunakiona) in Swahili a. Strong request i. Let’s write i. i. b. Weak request ii. Should we write? ii. ii. c. Indirect request iii. They should write iii. iii. iv. Write (you all) iv. iv. v. Write! v. v. vi. Write it (you all) vi. vi. [later] vii. Write it [later] vii. vii. viii. Write [later] viii. viii. ix. Write it! ix. ix. x. Write it! (you x. x. all)

11.3.3 The subjunctive mood in subordinate clauses and the connotation of “possibility” The use of the subjunctive mood in subordinate clauses is often associated with the expres- sion of functions such as “purpose”, “request”, “obligation”, or “necessity”. However, it is essential to note that the subjunctive as such does not express those functions, as it often alternates with the infinitive form in this context. As shown with the example in (16a), the subjunctive mood in subordinate clauses implies a connotation of “possibility”, the action of the subordinate clause being viewed as “pos- sible”, but not “certain”. In contrast, subordinate clauses with an indicative mood verb or an infinitive verb constitute “factual statements”. As shown in (16b), the subject ofan indicative mood verb is necessarily specified, while the subject of an infinitive verb is by definition unspecified (16c). Accordingly, the example in (16a) suggests that there is a chance that the action of the subordinate verb will be performed, while (16b) suggests that it actually is being performed (see alternation between “help” and “helps” in the English glosses). In addition, the example in (16c) states the action of the subordinate verb as a fact, with no particular connotation (see notion of “factual statement”). You will observe that the subordinate conjunction kwamba/kuwa “that” is obligatory with “indirect clauses” in the indicative mood, as in (16b).

(16) a. Ni muhimu mtu fulani asaidie watoto “It is important that someone help the children” b. Ni muhimu kwamba mtu fulani anasaidia watoto “It is important that someone helps the children” c. Ni muhimu kusaidia watoto “It is important to help children” 88 Imperative and subjunctive moods As shown in (17), subjunctive mood verbs may be used after main clause verbs in dif- ferent tenses, while subordinate clause verbs in the present tense of the indicative mood are only used after a verb in similar tense/mood, as seen in (16b). You will observe that English generally makes a similar use of the subjunctive mood in this context, as shown by the absence of an “s” of the third person in the glosses (17a–b).

(17) a. Ilikuwa muhimu aamue mapema “It was important that he decide early.” b. Itakuwa muhimu avichukue “It will be important that he take them”

While the alternation between the subjunctive and the indicative mood in subordinate clauses is relatively limited in Swahili, the alternation between the subjunctive and the infinitive verb is quite common, especially when the subject of the main clause is the same as the subject of the subordinate clause or the implicit subject of the infinitive verb. The examples in (18–20) illustrate the alternation between the subjunctive verb and the infinitive form in subordinate clauses involving the notion of “purpose”, while thosein (21–22) show the exclusive use of the subjunctive form in the subordinate clauses involv- ing a subject that is different from the subject of the main clause. To express the notion of “purpose”, the conjunction ili “in order to; so” is optional with subjunctive verbs, whereas it generally is obligatory before an infinitive verb, as shown respectively in (18a, 19a, 20a; 21–22) and (19b–20b). However, it is also optional before an infinitive verb following a main verb meaning “go to/come to”, as in (18b–c).

(18) a. Ninaenda mjini (ili) nimwone kaka yake “I am going to town so I may see his brother” b. Ninaenda mjini (ili) kumwona kaka yake “I am going to town (in order to) to see his brother” c. Nimekuja mjini (ili) kumwona kaka yake “I have come to town (in order to) to see his brother”

(19) a. Mariam alifanya haraka (ili) afike mapema “Mariam hurried up so she might arrive early” b. Mariam alifanya haraka ili kufika mapema “Mariam hurried up in order to arrive early”

(20) a. Fanya haraka (ili) usichelewe darasani “Hurry up, so you may not be late to class” b. Fanya haraka ili kutochelewa darasani “Hurry up, in order not be late to class” vs.

(21) Nitakupa karatasi (ili) uandike barua “I will give you a paper so you may write a letter”

(22) Chemsha maji (ili) tupike ugali “Boil some water so we may cook stiff porridge”

The subjunctive also alternates with the infinitive in subordinate clauses/phrases of “request” that typically follow main verbs such as -penda “like”, -taka “want/wish”, -omba Imperative and subjunctive moods 89 “ask (for)”, -amuru “order”, -pendekeza “recommend”, -ambia “tell”, -shauri “advise”, or -sisitiza “insist”. In this context also, the subjunctive implies a connotation of “possibility”, as in the a.–b. series in (23–25), while the infinitive constitutes a “factual statement”, which just states facts, as shown with the c. series in (23–25).

(23) a. Ninataka usome hapa “I want you to read here” (lit. “I want that you read here”) b. Ninataka nisome hapa “I wish that I may read here” c. Ninataka kusoma hapa “I want to read here”

(24) a. Ungependa tusome au tusisome? “Would you like us to read or not?” (lit. “Would you like that we read or not?”) b. Ungependa usome au usisome? “Would you like a chance to read or not?” c. Ungependa kusoma au kutosoma? “Would you like to read or not?”

(25) a. Aliamuru niondoke/nisiondoke “He ordered that I would (not) leave” b. Aliniamuru niondoke/nisiondoke “He ordered me that I would (not) leave” c. Aliniamuru kuondoka/kutoondoka “He ordered me to (not) leave”

As observed with the glosses in (23a, 24a), after a verb expressing “desire”, the implicit subject of the subordinate clause appears as the object of the main clause in English. Accordingly, clauses such as “I want you to read” correspond to a literal translation of “I want that you read”. The prefix -nge- in (24) corresponds to the expression “would” (the conditional mood is described in Language note 17). The subjunctive/infinitive alternation is also observed after impersonal main clauses that express the notions of “necessity/obligation” and “preference”. This is typically the case with impersonal clauses that use nouns like lazima ~ sharti “(it is) a necessity/an obligation (that)” or “(it is) necessary/obligatory (that)”; adjectives like muhimu “(it is) important (that)”, afadhali ~ heri “(it is) preferable (that)”, and bora “(it is) better (that)”; and adverbs like vizuri “(it is) good (that)”. These impersonal clauses also may use verbs like kubidi ~ kupasa ~ kulazimu “to be obligatory/must”, and kufaa “to be beneficial”, which gives inabidi ~ yabidi “it is obligatory/necessary (that), must”, and inafaa ~ yafaa “it is beneficial (that)” (from i-na-bidi vs. i-a-bidi; i-na-faa vs. i-a-faa; with i-: impersonal “it”; contracted forms that use -a- instead of -na- in the present tense are informal). As shown in (26–30), the infinitive verb in the subordinate clause of impersonal con- structions states facts with no particular connotation (see series in a.), while the verb in the subjunctive mood expresses the connotation of “possibility” (see series in b.).

(26) a. (Ni) bora kutomsumbua kijana huyu “It is better not to bother this young person” b. (Ni) bora usimsumbue kijana huyu “You had better not bother this young person”

(27) a. (Ni) lazima kusoma kitabu hiki “It is necessary to read this book” b. (Ni) lazima kila mtu asome kitabu hiki “It is necessary that everyone read this book/Everyone must read this book” 90 Imperative and subjunctive moods (28) a. Inabidi/yabidi kuanza kazi mapema “It is necessary to start working early” b. Inabidi/yabidi tuanze kazi mapema “It is necessary that we start working early/we must . . .”

(29) a. Inafaa/yafaa kusoma kila siku “It is beneficial to read every day” b. Inafaa/yafaa msome kila siku “It is beneficial that you read every day”

(30) a. Itabidi/itapasa/italazimu kuondoka “It will be necessary to leave” b. Itabidi/itapasa/italazimu tuondoke “It will be necessary that we leave”

In this context, the (implicit) subject of the infinitive or subjunctive verb may optionally be used as the “object” of the verbs of “obligation”, that is, kubidi ~ kupasa ~ kulazimu “to be necessary; must” and kufaa “to be beneficial”. The two options are shown in (31a, 32a) and (31b, 32b) respectively. In addition, the verb kupasa may appear in passive form (kupaswa “be compelled”), as shown in (33).

(31) a. Inatubidi/inatupasa/inatulazimu kuondoka “It is necessary for us to leave” b. Inatubidi/inatupasa/inatulazimu tuondoke “It is necessary (for us) that we leave”

(32) a. Inanipasa/Imenipasa kuondoka “It is/has been necessary for me to leave” b. Inanipasa/Imenipasa niondoke “It is/has been necessary (for me) that I leave”

(33) a. Ninapaswa/Nimepaswa kuondoka “I am/I have been compelled to leave” b. Ninapaswa/Nimepaswa niondoke lit. “I am/I have been compelled that I leave”

Depending on the meaning of the main verb, a subjunctive verb in the subordinate clause may also alternate with a verb in the indicative mood, the latter being a “factual statement” that just expresses facts. In addition to the example seen in (16), other cases of alternation between the subjunctive with the infinitive and/or the indicative are given (34–35).

(34) a. Ni bora tuondoke sasa “It is better that we leave now” b. Ni bora kwamba tunaondoka sasa “It is better that we are leaving now” c. Ni bora kuondoka sasa “It is better to leave now”

(35) a. Alisema nikusaidie “He said that I should help you” b. Alisema kwamba ninakusaidia “He said that I (actually) help you”

As noted before, the conjunction kwamba/kuwa “that” is generally optional in the pre- sence of a verb in the subjunctive mood expressing an “indirect request”. On the other hand, the conjunction is omitted in other subordinate clauses involving a subjunctive verb, as seen in (26–33). It is also important to note that subjunctive verbs are not used alone to express polite requests implying an immediate response (see imperative form in English). Imperative and subjunctive moods 91 In such contexts, modal verbs such as kutaka “to want”, kupenda “to like/wish” may be used to introduce the verb in the subjunctive mood, as seen in (23–24).

(36) Review exercise: subjunctive vs. infinitive or indicative in subordinate clauses: fill in the column “verb form” with the name of the appropriate form; translate the follow- ing sentences into Swahili.

Function of the Verb Target glosses Swahili subordinate form (“in order to, so” = ili) a. Factual statement, i. He wants me to write i. with unspecified ii. It is necessary to write ii. subject iii. It is important that he writes iii. b. Connotation of “possibility” iv. It is important that he write iv. c. Factual statement, v. It is necessary to not write v. with specified vi. It is necessary that you don’t vi. subject write vii. We wish that we may write vii. viii. It is necessary that you write viii. ix. We came in order to write ix. x. We came in order to not write x. xi. We are leaving so we may xi. write xii. He wants to write xii. xiii. We wish that we may not write xiii.

11.4. Verbs with “polite” vs. “direct” use of the imperative mood Three verbs have polite forms of the imperative, the regular form of the imperative being considered as directive and almost rude (see Table 11.3). Additional uses of the subjunctive will be given in Language note 24.

Table 11.3 “Polite” vs. “direct” imperative

Infinitive form “Polite” imperative vs. “Direct” imperative a. kuleta “to bring” lete! “please bring!” vs. leta “bring!” leteni! “please bring! (you all)” –– b. kuja “to come” njoo! “please come!” vs. kuja “come!” njooni! “please come! (you all)” kujeni “come! (you all)” c. kuenda “to go” nenda! “please go!” vs. kwenda “go!” nendeni! “please go! (you all)” kwendeni “go! (you all)” 92 Imperative and subjunctive moods 11.5. Review exercise: around the topic of “exclamatory” commands (37) Match the sentences or words and read aloud.

a. Open the door! i. Simama! b. Bring some water! ii. Toka nje! c. Call a doctor! iii. Mwite daktari! d. Please, help me! iv. Fungua mlango! e. Get out! v. Tafadhali, nisaidie! f. Stop!/Stand up! vi. Lete maji!

(38) Translate into Swahili (keep previous section covered).

a. Get out! b. Please, help me! c. Open the door! d. Stop!/Stand up! e. Bring some water! f. Call a doctor!

11.6. Application exercises (39) Fill in the blanks, using the verb in parentheses. For each sequence of three (a–c; d–f), use once the infinitive, the subjunctive, and the present indicative form. Translate into English.

a. Ni vizuri ______sasa. (“they”; -pumzika) b. Ni bora ______sasa. (-pumzika) c. Ni muhimu kwamba ______sasa. (“they”; -pumzika)

d. Alisema kwamba ni vizuri ______mapema. (-ondoka) e. Alisema kwamba ______mapema. (“I”; -ondoka) f. Aliomba kwamba ______mapema. (“I”; -ondoka)

(40) Translate into Swahili.

a. Salima, please, I ask you to pardon me. b. Keep walking. Don’t stop. c. Do you want me to go out? d. It is important that he sees his friends every weekend. e. Where should we go? f. The play is beginning. Let’s enter. g. Please don’t (you all) close this door. h. I want them to leave. i. It is important that she see a doctor. j. Sleep well! (later). (Hint: salama.) Imperative and subjunctive moods 93 11.7. Cumulative exercises (41) Translate into Swahili.

a. Don’t trust Hamisi. He is a big hypocrite. b. Tell him to write me a letter. (Hint: kuandikia.) c. Lela, would you like us to go to the cinema? d. I advised her not to take that bus, but she did not listen. e. What should I write here? Write your name and your address. f. Professor, what work do you want us to do? Write (you all) a summary. g. You had better study a lot if you want to succeed. h. If you want to see lions, you should go to the game reserve. i. My friend is sick. I must take him to the hospital. j. I am learning Swahili so that I may speak with . k. Ask the boys not to make noise. l. The person who took my computer should bring it back. m. Please put the remaining milk in the fridge (lit. “Please put the milk that will remain in the fridge”). 12 Monosyllabic verb stems and the stem augment ku-

12.1. Monosyllabic verb stems and the retention of the prefix ku- Swahili verb stems generally have two syllables or more. There are only nine verb stems that have one syllable, which are listed in (1).

(1) Swahili monosyllabic verb stems

a. kuja d. kuwa g. kunya “to come” “to be; to become” “to defecate; to drop (rain)” b. kula e. kupa h. kucha “to eat” “to give to” “to dawn” c. kunywa f. kufa i. kucha “to drink” “to die” “to fear” (obsolete)

Contrary to verb stems that have more than one syllable, monosyllabic verb stems retain the infinitive prefix ku- when conjugated in most tenses, as in (2a, 2c). However, when an object pronoun is prefixed to a monosyllabic stem, the prefix ku- is omitted, as shown in (2b, 2d).

(2) Absence of the prefix ku- in the presence of an object pronoun

a. Tu-ta-kunywa chai (retention of prefix ku-) “We will drink tea” b. Tu-ta-i-nywa (-i-: object pronoun “it”) “We will drink it” c. Wa-na-o-kula ndizi (retention of prefix ku-) “Those who eat bananas” d. Wa-na-o-zi-la (-zi-: object pronoun “them”) “Those who eat them”

In addition, the segment ku- is retained in the simple imperative form of monosyllabic verbs, as in (3a, 4a), but omitted in the presence of a prefixed object pronoun, as in (3b, 4b) (see Table 11.3 for a special form of imperative used for kuja “to come”).

(3) a. Kula chungwa lako! “Eat your orange!” b. Lile! (li-: object pronoun “it”) “Eat it!”

(4) a. Kunywa chai! “Drink the tea” b. Inywe! (i-: object pronoun “it”) “Drink it”

The alternation between the two elements suggests that, like the prefixed “object pronoun”, the prefix ku- discussed here is an extension of the monosyllabic stem. Monosyllabic verbs and stem augment ku- 95 Therefore, it is considered a “stem augment” that gives a disyllabic structure to the stem. An “augment” is a particle added to a given word or part of the word without adding any additional meaning. Outside the imperative form and verb forms involving a prefixed object pronoun, the use of the stem augment ku- depends on the form of the tense/mood marker, rather than grammatical or semantic categories, as it appears in the following sections.

12.2. Stem augment ku- in monosyllabic verbs with a regular tense/mood marker In the absence of a prefixed object pronoun, the stem augment ku- proper to monosyllabic verb stems is found in all tenses with a regular tense/mood marker, that is, a prefix that comprises at least a consonant and a vowel, with the exception of /k/ and /u/. The examples in (5–7) illustrate the use of the stem augment ku- in different tenses/moods. The “condi- tional” mood mentioned in (6) is described in Language note 17.

(5) Indicative mood: -li-, me-, na-, ta- (affirmative); -me-sha-/-ja- (“already”/“not yet”)

a. nilikula “I ate”; nimekula “I have eaten”; ninakula “I eat (~ I am eating)”; nitakula “I will eat” b. nimeshakula “I have already eaten”; sijakula “I have not yet eaten” (optionally: sijala)

(6) Conditional (-nge- “would”)

a. a-nge-kula/a-si-nge-kula “He would eat/He would not eat” b. tu-nge-kula/tu-si-nge-kula “We would eat/We would not eat”

(7) Infinitive negative form (infinitive negation marker -to- + stem augment ku-)

a. ku-to-kuja “To not come/not coming” b. ku-to-kula “To not eat/not eating” c. ku-to-kupa “To not give/not giving” d. ku-to-kuwa “To not be/not being”

The examples in (8–9) illustrate further the use of the prefix ku- in different tenses of the indicative mood.

(8) Use of the stem augment ku- in the indicative mood (affirmative form).

a. Abdalla alikunywa pombe jana “Abdalla drank alcohol yesterday” b. Watoto wanakula nje “The children are eating outside” c. Rafiki zetu watakuja “Our friends will come visit us kututembelea kesho tomorrow” d. Juma, amka, kumekucha “Juma, wake up, it has dawned” (first ku- in ku-me-kucha: impersonal spatial/temporal subject pronoun; lit. “there has dawned”) 96 Monosyllabic verbs and stem augment ku- (9) Use of the stem augment ku- in prefixed relative constructions

a. a-na-ye-kula/a-si-ye-kula “Who eats/Who does not eat” b. wa-na-o-kula/wa-si-o-kula “Those who eat/Those who don’t eat” c. a-taka-ye-kula/wa-taka-o-kula “(The one) who will eat/(Those) who will eat” d. a-li-ye-kula/wa-li-o-kula “(The one) who has eaten/(Those) who have eaten”

As noted in (5b), the marker -ja- of the perfect negative is optionally used without the stem augment ku-, depending on the speaker.

12.3. Tenses that do not use the stem augment ku- with monosyllabic verb stems The tenses that do not use the stem augment ku- with monosyllabic verb stems are characterized by some morphologic peculiarities. First, there are those lacking a regular tense/mood prefix, that is, with a suffixed marker or a tense prefix reduced to a bare vowel, as shown respectively in Table 12.1, 1(a–c) and 12.1, 1(d). Second, there are those with a tense marker that is identical or partially similar to the stem augment ku-, that is, a tense/mood marker that comprises the consonant /k/ and/or the vowel /u/, as shown in Table 12.1, 2(a–d).

Table 12.1 Form of the tense/mood marker and absence of the stem augment ku-

1. Tenses with suffixed verb marker or reduced tense marker a. Present negative: -i e.g. ha-tu-l-i; h-a-l-i “we don’t eat; he does not eat” b. Subjunctive: -e e.g. tu-l-e; tu-si-l-e “let’s eat; let’s not eat” c. Suffixed relative: -ye/-o e.g. a-la-ye; wa-la-o “who eats; who eat” d. Present reduced marker: -a- e.g. n-a-la; tw-a-la “I am eating; we are eating” 2. Tenses with a marker identical or similar to the stem augment ku- a. Past negative: -ku- e.g. ha-tu-ku-la “we didn’t eat” b. Habitual tense: hu- e.g. hu-la “I (~you, . . . they) usually eat” c. Consecutive tense: -ka- e.g. tu-ka-la “(then) we ate” d. Conditional/“While”: -ki- e.g. tu-ki-la “if we eat/while (we) eating”

(The marker -ki- for “while” and “conditional” in d. is presented in Language notes 13.1. and 17.1. respectively.)

As seen before in (2b, d; 3b; 4b), the stem augment ku- is omitted in the presence of a prefixed object pronoun. Accordingly, the stem-pa “give to” does not use the stem augment ku- in conjugated forms, as they always use a prefixed object pronoun referring to the beneficiary of the action (10) (the infinitive form in negation uses the augment ku-, as seen in (7d)). As we will see further, monosyllabic verb stems that are extended with verb also do not retain the prefix ku- in their conjugation.

(10) a. A-li-ni-pa shilingi kumi “He gave me ten shillings” b. Tu-ta-m-pa Juma salamu zako “We will give your greetings to Juma” Monosyllabic verbs and stem augment ku- 97 12.4. Verb “be” in imperative and subjunctive forms: -wa vs. -kuwa This section illustrates the use of the stem augment with the verb kuwa “be”. The stem augment is present in the singular and the plural imperative forms, but absent in the subjunctive form (11–12). Like other verbs, the imperative for the verb “be” does not have a specific negative construction but uses the same form as the subjunctive, as shownin (12). The examples provided in (12b) show that the vowel /u/ of prefix mu- is dropped before the consonant /s/, following a general contact rule. However, it is preserved before -we, which prevents the realization of a monosyllabic word.

(11) Imperative form of the verb “be”

a. Singular: Kuwa tayari! “Be ready!” b. Plural: Kuweni tayari! “Be ready (you all)!”

(12) Subjunctive form of the verb “be”

a. Singular: Uwe (u-w-e) / Usiwe (u-si-w-e) “Please be/Please don’t be” b. Plural: Muwe (mu-w-e) / Msiwe (mu-si-w-e) “Please be/Please don’t be (you all)”

(13) Review exercise: Translate into Swahili (keep previous sections covered).

a. I don’t drink e. Let’s drink i. I drink it (the water) b. Drink! f. We will drink j. Don’t drink! c. We have drunk g. I will not drink it k. Should I drink? (the water) d. We drank h. We didn’t drink l. We are drinking

12.5. Restrictions on the retention of the prefix kw- with the verbs kwenda/kwisha The restriction on the retention of the infinitive prefix in the presence of a suffixed marker with monosyllabic verbs seen in 12.3 is also observed with verbs that optionally retain the prefix kw- in some conjugated forms, that is, kuenda/kwenda “go” or kuisha/kwisha “finish (be finished); end; cease” mentioned in 11.3.2(7). Examples of optional retention are given in (14), while the absence of retention in the presence of a suffixed marker (i.e. the sub- junctive -e, suffixed relative -ye/-o and the present negative -i) are given in (15).

(14) a. Tunakwenda/Tunaenda mjini “We are going to the city” b. Tutakwenda/Tutaenda mjini “We will go to the city” c. Hatutakwenda/Hatutaenda mjini “We will not go to the city” d. Sala imekwisha/Sala imeisha “The prayer has ended” e. Sala haijakwisha/Sala haijaisha “The prayer has not ended”

(15) a. Tusiende leo “We should not go today” b. Aendaye kwao haogopi giza “He who is going home does not fear the dark” c. Mambo yaishayo “Things that end” d. Siku hizi hawaishi kugombana “They don’t cease quarreling these days” 98 Monosyllabic verbs and stem augment ku- Interestingly, the subject pronoun tu- is optionally realized as tw- when used alone before the verbs kuenda/kwenda and kuisha/kwisha, as in (16), while other contexts and other verbs require exclusively the use of the form tu-, as in (17–18).

(16) a. Twende kesho/Tuende kesho “Let’s go tomorrow” b. Twishie hapa/Tuishie hapa “Let’s end here”

(17) a. Hatuendi “We do not go” b. Hatuishi kugombana “They don’t cease quarreling”

(18) a. Tuombe “Let’s pray” b. Tueleze “Let’s explain”

The verbs kuenda/kwenda “go” or kuisha/kwisha “finish (be finished); end; cease” also apply restrictions of the segment kw- after a tense/aspect marker involving similar sounds (i.e. ku-, hu-, ka-, ki-), similar to the use of the stem augment among monosyllabic stems. Examples are given in (19).

(19) a. Havikuenda/Havikuisha (no -kw-) “They did not go/They did not end” b. Wao huenda/Hilo huisha (no -kw-) “They usually go/That ends” c. Mwishoni tukaenda/kikaisha (no -kw-) “Finally, we went/it ended” d. Tukienda/Kikiisha (no -kw-) “If we go/If it finishes”

12.6. Syllabic interpretation of the stem augment ku- (advanced analysis) As mentioned in 3.3, Swahili words are accented on the second-to-last syllable and, there- fore, are generally comprised of two syllables or more. It is generally understood that the retention of the infinitive prefix ku- in the imperative form of monosyllabic verb stems is motivated by word “disyllabic minimality” (e.g. [kú la] “eat!”, instead of *[lá]). It also seems possible to interpret the retention of the infinitive prefix ku- in other tenses with monosyllabic stems in terms of stem “disyllabic minimality”. Specifically, the subject pronoun and the tense/mood marker seem rhythmically autonomous from the stem, which means that the two segments tend to obey the principle of “disyllabic minimality” (see [σ σ | σ σ]; with the slash marking the boundary between the tense/mood markers and the stem). Accordingly, the retention of the infinitive marker ku- in the presence of a monosyl- labic stem creates a “macro-stem” with a disyllabic structure. This new “macro-stem” can, therefore, bear the accent of the word, as in [tu na | kú la] “we are eating”. Similarly, when an object is attached to the stem, this creates a “macro-stem” able to bear the word accent, which makes the retention of the infinitive prefix ku- unnecessary, as in [tu na | kí la] “we are eating it” (object in class [ki-ki/vi-vi]). Verb-initial segments that do not comprise a tense/mood prefix and those which are monosyllabic do not appear rhythmically autonomous from the stem. With verb forms lacking a tense/mood prefix or with a tense prefix reduced to a bare vowel -a- as seen in Table 12.1, 1(d), the stem augment ku- is not needed because the stem is not subject to “disyllabic minimality”, as the verb is not rhythmically in two parts (see [σ́σ], as in [tú le] “let’s eat” and [twá la] “we are eating”, or [σ σ́ σ], as in [ha tú li] “we don’t eat”). The absence of the stem augment after tense markers that have certain phonetic similarities with the prefix ku- of the stem augment seems justified by a form of sound reduction within Monosyllabic verbs and stem augment ku- 99 sequences of identical or similar units, a rule that also applies with the verbs kuenda/kwenda and kuisha/kwisha as seen in (19) (see notion of “haplology”). The alternative interpretation would be to treat the presence of the stem augment after certain categories of tense markers as historical residue, that is, the tense markers that are currently prefixed to the stem were once autonomous auxiliaries and the infinitive prefix ku- was required with monosyllabic verbs in order to achieve word disyllabic minimality (Park 1997). While the notion of “autonomy” seems sensible, the use of the infinitive prefix in this context did not apply only to monosyllabic stems (as shown by theold Swahili sentence quoted by Park 1997: farasi zilikupita “horses passed by”), contrary to what is currently observed with the stem augment. In other words, the retention of the prefix ku- with monosyllabic stems appears essentially related to stem disyllabic minimality. Regarding the use of the prefix of the form tw- instead of tu- in (16), it appears that the former is incorporated in the rhythmic domain of the stem, as the semi-vowel is not syllabic in Swahili (see [twe nde] vs. [ha tu | e ndi] in (16, 17)). The interpretation in terms of rhythmic incorporation in the stem domain seems to apply to the cases in (15), which involve a suffixed marker. Contrastively, it appears that the retention of the prefix kw-, like in (14), enforces the frontier between the verb markers’ domain and the stem domain, by preventing vowel contact in that area (see [tu na | kwe nda], [i me | kwi sha]).

12.7. Application exercises (20) Convert affirmative sentences into negative and vice versa; translate the sentences you’ve written into English.

a. Abdalla na Mariam watakunywa pombe leo. b. Rafiki yetu anakuja kututembelea. c. Kunywa maziwa haya! d. Kwa kawaida ninakula mkate asubuhi. e. Baada ya masomo, mimi sitakuwa daktari. f. Mgonjwa hajakunywa dawa? g. Mnyama mmoja alikufa. h. Vijana hawa wanakula vizuri; wana afya nzuri. i. Tumeshakuwa walimu.

12.8. Cumulative exercises (21) Translate into Swahili. Convert plural elements you’ve written into singular and vice versa, whenever possible (e.g. I ↔ we; one ↔ two).

a. Are your siblings coming today? No, they are not coming today. They will come on Tuesday. b. Give me that book. I will give you two dollars tomorrow. c. Has she eaten? No, she has not yet eaten. She will eat later. d. May we come today? No, don’t come today. I want the teacher to come first. e. If you feel thirsty, it is better that you drink water. (kama “if”) f. She does not drink milk. She drinks beer. g. Two birds did not eat today. h. When did you come? We came yesterday. 100 Monosyllabic verbs and stem augment ku- i. Where were you? I was on vacation. j. Don’t be stupid. Eat this good food! k. Did your teacher give you homework? l. You will not eat before you have finished (lit. “before you have not finished”). m. The book you gave me yesterday is very good. n. My luggage is that one (lit. “My luggage is that”). o. You are our guests today. p. My sibling is little. q. Her parents have a very small house but two big cars. r. The little boy is trying to read. 13 Auxiliary verbs and the expression of complex tenses

In addition to the prefixed tense markers seen in Language note 6.1–3, some categories of verbs may be used in support of a main verb in order to put the occurrence of a given action or state in perspective. These types of verbs are generally referred to as auxiliaries.

13.1. Auxiliary “be” and the notions of “anteriority” or “simultaneity” The auxiliary verb kuwa “be” may be used before main verbs in various tenses to express the notion of “anteriority” or “simultaneity” between two actions or states, in the past or in the future. These types of constructions imply notions such as “by then”, “then/at that time”, or “in that time period”. In particular, the auxiliary kuwa “be” followed by a perfect tense verb (see marker -me-/ -ja- or -me-sha-/-ja- . . . bado) expresses an action or a state that was completed in the past or will have been completed in the future, in reference to another action or state, as shown in (1– 4). In the following examples (1– 4), you will observe that the negation of these types of clauses is generally marked on the main verb. Placing the marker on the auxiliary verb emphasizes the negation, denying any affirmative presupposition, as shown by the double negation in the English glosses in (1d, 2e, 3c).

(1) a. Nilikuwa nime(sha)ondoka “I had (already) left” b. Nilikuwa sijaondoka (bado) “I had not left (yet)” c. Alikuwa hakuja darasani “He had not come to class” d. Hakuwa ame(sha)ondoka “(No), he had not left (yet)”

(2) a. Nilikuwa nimechelewa, “I was late, so I took a taxi” basi nikachukua teksi b. Watoto walikuwa wamelala “The children were sleeping” c. Ulikuwa hujachelewa (bado) “You were not late (yet)” d. Watoto walikuwa hawajalala “The children were not sleeping” e. Watoto hawakuwa wamelala “(No), the children were not sleeping”

(3) a. Nitakuwa nime(sha)ondoka “I will have (already) left” b. Nitakuwa sijaondoka “I will not have left” c. Sitakuwa nime(sha)ondoka “(No), I will not have left (yet)”

(4) a. Utakuwa umechelewa; “You will be late (by then); njoo mapema zaidi come earlier” b. Nitakuwa sijachelewa “I will not be late (by then)” c. Sitakuwa nimechelewa “(No), I will not be late (by then)” 102 Auxiliary verbs and complex tenses In addition, the auxiliary kuwa “be” followed by a present tense verb with the marker -na-/-ki- expresses an action that was ongoing in the past/recent past or that will be ongoing in the future, in reference to another action or state, as shown in (5–7).

(5) a. Nilikuwa ninasoma/nikisoma “I was reading” b. Nilipofika, alikuwa anakula/akila “When I arrived, she was eating” c. Tulikuwa tunacheza/tukicheza “We were playing and he fell” akaanguka d. Nilikuwa sina kazi wakati huo “I did not have a job at that time” e. Sikuwa nina kazi wakati huo “(No), I did not have a job at that time” f. Hatukuwa tukicheza alipoanguka “(No), we were not playing when he fell”

(6) a. Nitakuwa ninasoma/nikisoma “I will be reading” b. Nitakuwa sisomi wakati huo “I will not be reading at that time” c. Sitakuwa ninasoma/nikisoma “(No) I will not be reading at that time” wakati huo

(7) a. Amekuwa anasoma/akisoma “He has been reading” b. Amekuwa hasomi “He has not been reading” c. Hajakuwa anasoma/akisoma “(No) He has not been reading”

In this context, the compound tense with -ki- may refer to a repetitive action that used to take place, has been taking place, or will be taking place in the future (8).

(8) a. Nilikuwa nikimtembelea “I used to visit him” b. Nitakuwa nikimtembelea “I will be visiting him regularly” c. Nimekuwa nikimwita “I have been calling him without success” bila mafanikio

(9) a. Nilikuwa sisomi “I used to not read/I was not reading” b. Nitakuwa sisomi “I will not be reading/not be reading regularly” c. Amekuwa haniiti kwa “He has been not calling me for miezi miwili two months”

In addition, the verb “be” in past or future tense may be associated with a main verb in subjunctive mood to express an action/state that was or will be expected to take place, as in (10–11).

(10) a. Nilikuwa niondoke “I was expected to leave” b. Tulikuwa tuoane ndani ya “We were expected to marry within miezi miwili two months” c. Nilikuwa nisiondoke “I was expected not to leave” d. Sikuwa niondoke siku hiyo “I was not expected leave to that day” e. Hatukuwa tuoane ndani ya “We were not expected to marry miezi miwili within two months” Auxiliary verbs and complex tenses 103 (11) a. Nitakuwa niondoke “I will be expected to leave” b. Tutakuwa tuoane mwakani “We will be expected to marry within the year” c. Nitakuwa nisiondoke “I will be expected to not leave” d. Sitakuwa niondoke “I will not be expected to leave” e. Hatutakuwa tuoane mwakani “We will not be expected to marry within the year”

13.2. Auxiliary verb -ngali “still be” and the notions of “still/anymore” and “still/yet” The notion of “still” is expressed in the present tense by placing the auxiliary verb -ngali “still be” before the main verb, in both the affirmative and the negative forms, as shown respectively in (12a) and (12b). The negative counterpart of “still”, that is, “anymore”, is expressed by placing the particle tena after a verb in the negative form, as in (13). On the other hand, the particle tena expresses the notion of “again” in the affirmative form, as shown in (14).

(12) a. Ningali ninamwona/Tungali tunamwona “I am/we are still seeing him; I/we still see him” b. Ningali simwoni/Tungali hatumwoni “I/we still don’t see him”

(13) a. Simwoni tena/Hatumwoni tena “I/we don’t see him anymore” b. Sitamwona tena/Hatutamwona tena “I/we will not see him anymore”

(14) a. Nilimwona tena/Tulimwona tena “I/we saw him again” b. Nitamwona tena/Tutamwona tena “I/we will see him again”

In addition to the present tense, the auxiliary verb -ngali “still be” may be used with a verb that has the negative perfect marker -ja- to mean “still (has/have) not”, as in (15).

(15) a. Ningali sijaona/Tungali hatujaona “I/we still have not seen” b. Angali hajalala/Wangali hawajalala “He still is not sleeping/They still are not sleeping”

The stem -ngali “still be” may also be used as the main verb in the affirmative form, for instance with an adjective or a noun, as in (16a–b). Conversely, the negative counterpart of this construction uses the contrastive/evocative verb siyo “is not” (seen in 10.10) and the particle tena placed in the final position of the clause (17).

(16) a. Jua lingali kali “The sun is still strong” b. Mama yako angali/yungali mwalimu? “Is your mother is still a teacher?”

(17) a. Jua siyo kali tena “The sun is not strong anymore” b. Mama yako siyo mwalimu tena? “Is your mother not a teacher anymore?” 104 Auxiliary verbs and complex tenses Alternatively, the notion of “still” may be expressed with the particle bado placed before a verb in the affirmative form (18a), whereas bado expresses the notion “not yet” when used with a verb in the negative form (18b).

(18) a. Bado ninasona/tunasoma magazeti “I am/we are still reading newspapers; I/we still read newspapers” b. Bado sisomi/hatusomi magazeti “I am/we are not reading newspapers yet; I/we don’t read newspapers yet”

As shown in (19–20), bado “still/not yet” may be used with the verb “be” in both the affirmative and the negative forms. However, this particle is generally placed in the final position of the clause after the contrastive/evocative verb siyo “is not” (20), while it may be placed before the verb or in the final position of the clause in the other contexts (18–19).

(19) a. Jua bado ni kali “The sun is still strong” b. Mama yako bado ni mwalimu? “Is your mother still a teacher?”

(20) a. Jua siyo kali bado “The sun is not yet strong” b. Mama yako siyo mwalimu bado? “Is your mother not yet a teacher?”

13.3. Auxiliary verbs expressing the notion of “possibility” or “eventuality” In addition to kuwa “be”, other verbs are occasionally used to introduce another verb in the infinitive form, or colloquially reduced to a simple stem, in order to convey the notion of “possibility” or “eventuality” of the action. The most common of these verbs are: -wahi “arrive/handle in a timely manner → have a chance to”, -pata “get → have a chance to”, -ja “come → (do/be) eventually”, as shown in (21–23).

(21) a. Umewahi/umepata (ku)fanya kazi kama hii? “Have you had a chance to do work like this?” b. Rudi nyuma, tupate (ku)ongea “Come back, so we get a chance to talk”

(22) a. Soma, au/ama utakuja (ku)shindwa mtihani “Study, otherwise you will fail your exam eventually” b. Ikiendelea kunyesha, nguo zitakuja (ku)lowana “If it keeps raining, the clothes will be soaked eventually”

(23) a. Umeme ukija (ku)katika, tutaondoka “If the electricity cuts off eventually, we will leave” b. Ukija (ku)waona, uwape pesa hizi “If you see them eventually, give them this money”

These types of verbs also may express additional connotations depending on the context. Accordingly, -wahi “have a chance to” conveys the notion of “ever/never”, respectively, in interrogative and negative forms (24). The auxiliary -ja “(do/be) eventually” also expresses the notion of “eventual consequence”, when used in the negative subjunctive form. The main verb appears then with the marker -ka- of the consecutive form (25). Auxiliary verbs and complex tenses 105 (24) a. Umewahi kuwa na mchumba? “Have you ever had a fiancé?” b. Sijawahi kuwa na mchumba “I have never had a fiancé” c. Hatujawahi (ku)ona kitu kama hiki “We have never seen something like this”

(25) a. Ninafanya mazoezi nisije nikashindwa mtihani “I am doing exercises so that I won’t fail my exam” b. Tuligoma ili wasije wakasahauliwa “We went on strike so that they would not be forgotten”

In addition, the modal verb -weza “be able to” may express the notion of “have a chance to”, as shown in (26).

(26) a. Umeweza kumwona? “Have you been able/had a chance to see him?” b. Ingia uweze kuvisoma “Enter, so you have a chance to read them”

Finally, other verbs are occasionally used as auxiliaries to express notions such as “occurrence”, “frequency”, “imminence”, or “recentness” of the action. This is shown in (27–32) with -tokea “occur, happen → happen to do”, -penda “like → occur often”, -taka “want → be about to”, -elekea “be heading to → be about; nearly + verb”, -karibia “approach → be almost; nearly + verb”, and -toka “come from → have just done”.

(27) Bila kujua, nimetokea kumpenda “Without expecting it, I happened to like him” (lit. “Without knowing”)

(28) Sehemu hizi, mvua inapenda kunyesha mchana “In this area, it rains often in the afternoon”

(29) Gari lilitataka kumgonga akanusurika “A car was about to hit him, but he escaped”

(30) a. Nyumba yake inaelekea kuanguka “His house is about to collapse” b. Swali hili lilielekea kunishinda “This question nearly failed me”

(31) a. Kazi ya ujenzi inakaribia kumalizika “The construction work is almost finished” b. Maelezo haya yalikaribia kunipoteza “These explanations nearly got me lost”

(32) a. Inaonekana umetoka kuamka “It appears that you have just woken up” b. Mwanangu ametoka kupona malaria “My child has just recovered from malaria” 106 Auxiliary verbs and complex tenses 13.4. Application exercises (33) Use the verbs in parentheses to fill in the blanks, expressing the connotations indicated in italics. For each sequence of four (a–d; w–z), the tense/mood markers must be different. Translate into English.

a. Nilikuwa ______(-soma, “accomplished”) b. Nilikuwa ______(-soma, “ongoing”) c. Nilikuwa ______(-soma, “to occur”) d. Nilikuwa ______(-soma, “regularly occurring”)

e. Atakuwa ______(-la, “ongoing”) f. Atakuwa ______(-la, “to occur”) g. Atakuwa ______(-la, “accomplished”) h. Atakuwa ______(-la, “regularly occurring”)

(34) Translate into Swahili.

a. She has been (regularly) talking with our guests for three years. b. We have never had problems like these. c. Have you ever had a chance to visit New York? d. I have never seen dolphins. e. We will be waiting for you. f. If we happen to travel to East Africa, we will learn to sing taarab. g. So, you still have not bought the tickets? h. My computer is still bothering me. i. He is not my friend anymore. j. At that time I will have already left. k. The game will have already begun. l. The government has just refused their requests. m. I was traveling in Europe at that time.

13.5. Cumulative exercises (35) Translate into Swahili.

a. That year, I was studying a lot. b. My sister was still living with our parents. c. If you don’t close the door [use “if” + future tense], our luggage will end up falling. d. I don’t eat in restaurants anymore. e. When I arrived, she had already eaten. f. Can you still trust him? g. I have been doing my homework. h. She had worn red pants. i. He used to give him a lot of money. j. I had lived with him for four years. k. I will have finished my studies. l. For all that time, she was stealing the company’s money. m. When we arrived, he was angry. 14 Expressing comparison

Swahili expresses comparison in terms of “equality”, “superiority”, and “superiority to all”, in reference to an adjective or an adverb, which corresponds roughly to the formulas: “as [adjective/adverb] as”, “[adjective/adverb] more than” and “[adjective/adverb] more than all”.

14.1. Comparison in terms of “equality” Comparison in terms of “equality” uses the conjunction kama “as, like” or sawa na “similar to”, as shown in the examples that follow in (1).

(1) Sample sentences expressing comparison in terms of “equality”

kama ~ sawa na a. Kaka yangu ni mrefu mama My brother is as tall as my mother b. Mji wenu ni mkubwa wetu Your city is as big as ours c. Salima anakimbia haraka mimi Salima runs as fast as me

14.2. Comparison in terms of “superiority” Comparisons which express superiority use the conjunctions zaidi ya “more than” and kuliko “rather than” (or zaidi kuliko “more; compared to”), and infinitive forms such as kupita “surpassing”, kuzidi “exceeding”, kushinda “beating (defeating)”, as shown in (2).

(2) Sample sentences expressing “superiority”

kupita ~ kushinda ~ kuliko ~ kuzidi ~ zaidi ya a. Kenya ni ndogo Tanzania Kenya is smaller than Tanzania b. Ndizi ni tamu machungwa Bananas are sweeter than oranges c. Ninajua mambo mengi wewe I know more things than you d. Gari hili ni zuri lile This car is nicer than that one e. Vifaru ni wazito viboko Rhinos are heavier than hippos f. Dada yangu ni mwembamba shangazi My sister is thinner than our (paternal) aunt g. Leila anakimbia haraka Salima Leila runs faster than Salima h. Marekani ni mbali Ulaya America is farther than Europe 108 Expressing comparison The conjunction zaidi may also be used alone, following an adjective or an adverb, to express an “implicit” comparison in terms of superiority, as in (3–4).

(3) a. Nani mrembo zaidi, Fatuma au Mariam? “Who is the prettier one, Fatuma or Mariam?” b. Kati ya wao wawili, Abdalla ni mnene zaidi “Between the two, Abdalla is the fatter one”

(4) Kati ya Juma na Hamisi, Juma ni mrefu zaidi “Between Juma and Hamisi, Juma is the taller one”

14.3. Comparison in terms of “superiority to all” or “superlative” comparison The “superlative” comparison uses the same comparators as the “superiority” comparison, with -ote “all” as the second term of comparison. In this context, -ote “all” adopts the class of the first term of comparison in the plural, which suggests an underlying structure of the form “X . . . [adjective/adverb] more than all Xs”.

(5) Sample sentences expressing “superlative” comparison using -ote “all”

kupita ~ kushinda ~ kuliko ~ kuzidi ~ zaidi ya a. Chakula chako ni kitamu vyote (ki-ki/vi-vi) Your food is the most delicious b. Jengo hili ni refu yote (ø-li/ma-ya) This building is the tallest c. Lugha yetu ni nzuri zote (n-i/n-zi) Our language is the best d. Leila ni mrembo wote (mu-yu,a/wa-wa) Leila is the prettiest e. Hadija anakimbia haraka wote (mu-yu,a/wa-wa) Hadija runs the fastest f. mpango huu ni mbaya yote (mu-u/mi-i) This plan is the worst

In addition to expressing explicit comparison, the conjunction zaidi may be used alone, in exclamatory or locative phrases, to express implicit superiority to all (“the most/the best”). The two situations are respectively illustrated in (6a) and (6b).

(6) a. Kazi hii ni ngumu zaidi! “This work is the most difficult!” b. Hoteli nzuri zaidi mjini Kampala ni ipi? “What is the best hotel in (the city of ) Kampala?”

Here, zaidi is comparable to other adverbs that express high intensity, such as kabisa “absolutely”, kweli kweli “truly”, sana “very much”, hasa “especially”, or mno “extremely; excessively”, or infinitive forms like kupita kiasi, literally “beyond measure, extremely”.

14.4. Application exercises (7) Translate into Swahili.

a. My house is smaller than yours. b. Lela is the tallest, but Salima is the cleverest (see mwerevu). c. I like writing more than reading. d. This book is better than that one. Expressing comparison 109 e. Pemba is closer than Nairobi. f. My brother is taller than me, but you are shorter than your sister. g. This house is as tall as that one. h. Dar es Salaam is bigger than Arusha. i. Kilimanjaro is the tallest mountain in Africa. j. My room is bigger than yours, but my bed is smaller. k. Our city is the same as this one. l. This wall is thinner than that one.

14.5. Cumulative exercises (8) Translate into Swahili.

a. He had not yet finished. b. Have you ever visited Europe? c. Sorry, I must leave. Should I close the door? d. I returned home so that I should meet my maternal uncle. e. My mother likes white flowers but red clothes. f. These stores are clean but they don’t sell many things. g. Last year, I visited Europe with my fiancée. We saw many cities, like Rome and Paris, but we did not go to London. Maybe we will go next year. h. His house has wooden walls (lit. “walls of boards”), and a long stone fence (lit. “of stones”). 15 The passive form of the verb

15.1. Two types of passive markers: -w- in general vs. -iw-/-ew- in some contexts In Swahili, passive verbs are formed using the suffix -w- for most regular verb stems, and the suffix -iw-/-ew- for verb stems with certain peculiarities, such as monosyllabic stems, and stems ending in /l,w,y/ or with a vowel /i,e,u/. The form -ew- in particular is used depending on “vowel harmony”. Due to “vowel harmony”, a mid-vowel [e,o] in the initial syllable of the verb base triggers the use of a mid-vowel [e] in a neighboring verb extension, instead of the closed vowel /i/ (see vowel features in Figure 9.1). The example in (1b) illustrates the use of the regular passive marker -w-, while (2b) shows the use of the irregular marker -iw- with a verb stem ending in l-.

(1) a. Juma anasoma hadithi “Juma is reading a story” b. Hadithi inasomwa na Juma “The story is being read by Juma”

(2) a. Zamani Wajerumani waliitawala Tanganyika “Long ago, the Germans governed Tanganyika” b. Zamani Tanganyika ilitawaliwa na Wajerumani “Long ago, Tanganyika was governed by the Germans”

As in English, passive clauses are formed in Swahili by switching the subject with the object of the active clause, as seen in (1–2). In addition, the of the passive clause is introduced by the conjunction na “by”, which is omitted if the agent is not explicitly mentioned (3b). That said, the passive form supposes the existence of an agent of the action, at least implicit (a similar construction that implies the absence of a specific agent will be seen in Language note 19.2).

(3) a. Kujenga nyumba “To build a house” b. Nyumba hii ilijengwa zamani “This house was built long ago”

Depending on the context, the passive suffix -iw-/-ew- is preceded by an additional consonant -l-. The following sections classify different types of verb stems according to their use of passive markers. The passive form of the verb 111 15.2. Regular verb stems: suffix -w- vs. -iw- for stems ending in /l,w,y/

Regular stems, that is, polysyllabic verbs ending in Consonant + a, generally use the passive suffix -w-, as shown in (4). However, those ending with /l,w,y/ are an exception, as they prompt the use of the irregular passive suffix-iw- (5). This is justified by a general restriction on */lw/, */ww/, */yw/ sequences in Swahili.

(4) Use of the passive marker -w- with regular verb stems (except /l,w,y/ endings)

a. -soma “read” → -somwa “be read” b. -funga “close” → -fungwa “be closed” c. -beba “carry” → -bebwa “be carried” d. -piga “beat” → -pigwa “be beaten” e. -zingira “surround” → -zingirwa “be surrounded” f. -pora “rob; snatch” → -porwa “be robbed/snatched” g. -safisha “clean” → -safishwa “be cleaned”

(5) Use of the irregular passive suffix -iw- with verb stems ending in /l,w,y/

a. -tawala “govern” → -tawaliwa “be governed” b. -kulula “sweep away” → -kululiwa “be swept away” c. -gawa “distribute” → -gawiwa “be distributed” d. -pwaya “pound” → -pwayiwa “be pounded”

15.3. Verbs ending in ia/ea or in i/e: -iw- vs. -l-iw-/-l-ew- for original disyllabic bases in ia/ea Polysyllabic verb bases ending in ia/ea and verbs of foreign origin ending in i/e generally use the passive marker -iw-. As shown in (6 –7), the vowel /i/ of the passive suffix -iw- merges with the preceding vowel /i,e/ in stem-final position, a process that seems justified by the phonetic identity/similarity between the two vowels (i-i → i; e-i → e; see the notion of “front vowel” in 9.1).

(6) Polysyllabic verbs ending in ia/ea: passive suffix -iw-

a. -zuia “restrain” → -zuiwa “be restrained” b. -zingatia “consider” → -zingatiwa “be considered” c. -tegemea “rely on” → -tegemewa “be relied upon” d. -zomea “mock” → -zomewa “be mocked” e. -hudumia “take care of” → -hudumiwa “be taken care of” (huduma “service”) f. -somea “read to” (-soma “read”) → -somewa “be read to” 112 The passive form of the verb (7) Foreign verbs ending in i/e: passive suffix -iw-

a. -kubali “accept” → -kubaliwa “be accepted” b. -hitaji “need” → -hitajiwa “be needed” c. -samehe “pardon” → -samehewa “be pardoned” d. -kebehi “ridicule” → -kebehiwa “be ridiculed” e. -kodi “rent” → -kodiwa “be rented” f. -tii “obey” → -tiiwa “be obeyed”

Due to vowel merger, the passive suffix generally appears as /w/ with stems ending in ia/ea. It would be possible to interpret the original suffix as just -w-. However, this would make it more difficult to understand the form /liw/ or /lew/ observed with some stems ending in ia/ea. As shown in (8), original disyllabic stems ending in ia/ea use the passive suffix -iw-/-ew- preceded by a “furtive” consonant -l-. Some polysyllabic stems that naturally end in ia/ea also use the passive suffix -iw-/-ew- that is optionally preceded by a “furtive” consonant -l-, as shown in (9) (compare with general cases in (6c–d)).

(8) Original disyllabic bases ending in ia/ea: passive suffix-iw- with a furtive “consonant” -l-

a. -tia “put” → -tiliwa (-til-iw-a) “be put” b. -zia “abstain from” → -ziliwa (-zil-iw-a) “be abstained from” c. -lea “raise (child); rear” → -lelewa (-lel-ew-a) “be raised (child)”

(9) Original polysyllabic bases ending in /ea/: passive suffix-ew- with a furtive -l- (exceptional)

a. -pokea “receive” → -pokewa/ “be received” -pokelewa (-pokel-ew-a) b. -zoea “get/be → -zoewa/ “become customary” accustomed” -zoelewa (-zoel-ew-a)

The consonant -l- mentioned above is called “furtive” because it appears in some contexts, while absent in others. It is analyzed as a “historical residue” because verb stems ending in ia/ea once had a consonant /l/ in second-to-last position. This consonant has disappeared in most contexts but reappears in some contexts, when the verb base is extended with a suffix (other cases are given in 18.3.2). An alternative interpretation is that the “furtive” consonant -l- is a liaison consonant between the stem and the suffix vowels. However, it remains unclear why a liaison consonant would apply selectively with some verb stems ending in ia/ea but not others.

15.4. Verbs ending in two vowels except i,e (aa, ua, oa, uu, au): -l-iw-/-l-ew- (liaison consonant -l-) Verb stems with a vowel /a,o,u/ in second-to-last position, that is, native verbs ending in /aa/, /ua/, and /oa/ or foreign verbs ending in /uu/ and /au/, require the use of the suffix -iw- preceded by a consonant -l- (10–11). Since the use of this consonant after the vowels /u,o,a/ is systematic, applying even to verbs of foreign origin that originally had no consonant /l/ in their final syllable (11), it appears as a liaison consonant. The passive form of the verb 113 (10) Liaison consonant -l- with the passive suffix -iw- for verbs ending in /aa/, /ua/, and /oa/

a. -chagua “choose” → -chaguliwa “be chosen” b. -fungua “open” → -funguliwa “be opened” c. -chukua “take” → -chukuliwa “be taken” d. -kataa “refuse” → -kataliwa “be refused” e. -vaa “wear” → -valiwa “be worn” f. -zaa “give birth” → -zaliwa “be born” g. -toa “give” → -tolewa “be given” h. -jua “know” → -juliwa “be known” i. -ua “kill” → -uliwa “be killed” (also: -uawa) j. -oa “marry (men)” → -olewa “be married (women)”

(11) Liaison consonant -l- with the passive form -iw- for foreign verbs ending in /uu/ or /au/

a. -sahau “forget” → -sahauliwa “be forgotten” b. -dharau “disdain” → -dharauliwa “be disdained” c. -nukuu “quote; transcribe” → -nukuliwa “be quoted, transcribed”

15.5. Foreign verbs ending with a single vowel /u/: -iw- Foreign verbs with a single final vowel /u/ use the passive suffix -iw-, with the deletion of the original stem-final vowel /u/, as shown in (12).

(12) Passive form for foreign verbs with a single final vowel -u: -iw-

a. -jaribu “try, attempt” → -jaribiwa “be tried; be attempted” b. -jibu “answer” → -jibiwa “be answered” c. -laumu “blame” → -laumiwa “be blamed” d. -hukumu “condemn” → -hukumiwa “be condemned”

15.6. Monosyllabic verb stems: -iw- vs. -ew- depending on verbs In passive form, the monosyllabic verb stems use the suffix -iw-, which appears as -ew- depending on the verb (13–17). You will observe that monosyllabic verb stems that are extended with a suffix, such as the passive suffix, follow the same rules as longer verb stems, that is, do not retain the prefix ku- in their conjugation.

(13) -la “eat” → -liwa (-l-iw-a) “be eaten” (14) -cha “fear” → -chiwa (-ch-iw-a) “be feared” vs. (15) -pa “give” → -pewa (-p-ew-a) “be given” (16) -nywa “drink” → -nywewa (-nyw-ew-a) “be drunk (beverage)” (17) -nya “defecate; drop (rain)” → -nyewa (-ny-ew-a) “be dropped” 114 The passive form of the verb 15.7. Origin of the suffix -ew- with monosyllabic stems (advanced analysis) A comparison with other Bantu languages suggests that the verb bases for “give” and “drink” in Swahili were originally *-pá- and *-nyó- respectively (Guthrie 1967–1971). The use of the vowel /e/ in the passive suffix of these two verbs is explained by the contraction between the archaic verb base vowels *a, *o, and *e with the suffix vowel /i/, that is, *a + i → e, *o + i → we, and *e + i → e (see *-pa-iw-a → -pewa “be given”; *-nyo-iw-a → -nywewa “be drunk [beverage]”; *-nye-iw-a → -nyewa “be dropped”). On the other hand, the bases for “eat” and “fear” originally had a vowel /i/, which merged with the identical vowel of the passive suffix-iw- (see *-li-iw- → -liwa “be eaten”; *-ci-iw- → -ciwa “be feared”).

15.8. Summary and review exercise: passive markers according to the form of the base verb (18) Based on indications from column A, fill in column B using all the verbs listed here, along with their passive forms: kupokea “receive”; kukubali “accept”; kusafisha “clean”; kutawala “administer”; kusomea “read to”; kufungua “open”; kubeba “carry”; kugawa “distribute”; kung’oa “uproot”; kula “eat”; kuzingatia “consider”; kutia “put”; kunywa “drink”; kudharau “disdain”; kusamehe “pardon”; and kulaumu “blame” (keep previous sections covered).

A B Passive markers suffixes depending on the Base verb → Passive verb form of the base verb

a. Polysyllabic verbs ending in Consonant + a: -w- (except verbs ending /l,w,y/) b. Verb stems ending in /l,w,y/: -iw- c. Polysyllabic verbs ending in /ia,ea/ or /i,e/: -iw- (i-i → i; e-i → e) d. Original disyllabic stems ending in ia/ea: -l-iw-/-l-ew- e. Verbs ending in two vowels, except i/e (aa, ua, oa, uu, au): -l-iw-/-l-ew- f. Verbs ending with a single vowel /u/: -iw- (u-i → i)

g. Monosyllabic stem: -iw- or -ew- , depending on verbs The passive form of the verb 115 15.9. Application exercises (19) Fill in the blanks using the passive form of the verb in parentheses conjugated in the perfect tense and translate into English.

a. Barabara zote ______maji (kuharibu). b. Choo hiki ______wageni (kutumia). c. Kiongozi wetu ______watu wengi (kuteua). d. Maombi yetu yote ______(kukataa). e. Nyumba yetu ______serikali (kubomoa). f. Tiketi ______hapa (kuuza). g. Vitabu ______maktabani (kurudisha “return”). h. Watoto ______dawa asubuhi (kupa). i. ______nini leo? (kusumbua, “you”).

15.10. Cumulative exercises (20) Translate into Swahili.

a. All the food has been eaten by the children. b. My money has been taken by my brother. c. Our president will not be forgotten. d. Swahili is spoken in many countries. e. That country was liberated by a few patriots. f. This food has been cooked by my parents. g. We have not been forgiven. h. Had you started your work already? i. That year, I was living with my parents. j. My purse has been stolen by a pickpocket. k. Hadija has been given a gift by her fiancé. l. The eggs have been eaten by our guests. m. My younger sister is not married. n. The classroom has been prepared by the students. o. We have been told about this incident by our neighbor. p. We have been raised by our (paternal) aunt. q. We are paid five hundred and sixty dollars per month. 16 Locative agreement and coordinated noun agreement

16.1. Locative agreement prefixes vs. noun prefixes As seen in 7.2, the suffix -ni added to a non-animate noun produces a locative connotation (e.g. darasa “classroom” vs. darasani “in/into/from the classroom”, depending on the associated verb). In the presence of a suffix -ni, the regular class of the noun does not apply. Instead, nouns with a suffix -ni prompt the use of the locative agreement prefixes pa-, ku-, or mu- with adjectives, pronouns, and verbs. As we will see below (16.3), these types of agreement patterns can be triggered by some locative prepositions as well. There- fore, they are not considered as regular noun classes. As shown in Table 16.1, the locative agreement prefixpa- involves the notion of location to a “specific point” (“right here; right there; right over there”), ku- refers to the notion of “general area” (“around here; around there; around over there”), while mu- refers to the notion of location “inside something” (“in here; in there; inside, over there”), similar to the locative reference pronouns -po, -ko, -mo seen in 7.2.

Table 16.1 Use of locative agreement patterns

Locative prefix Suffix -ni and locative agreement with adjectives, pronouns, and verbs a. pa- i. Kitini hapa pana mito miwili. Ninapapenda sana (Specific point) “On this chair there are two pillows. I like it here very much” ii. Mjini hapa pana majengo mengi ya mawe. Panapendeza “Here in town, there are many stone buildings. It is nice here” b. ku- i. Mlimani kule kuna nyoka; ninakuogopa (General area) “On that mountain over there, there is a snake; I am afraid of that place” ii. Nchini kwetu kuna magari mengi makubwa “In our country, there are many big cars” c. mu- i. Shimoni mle mna nyoka. Ninamuogopa (Inside) “In that hole over there is a snake. I am afraid of that place” ii. Chumbani humu mna taa tatu “In this room there are three lamps”

As seen in Table 16.1 and in (1c), the particle -na of the verb “have” conveys the notion of “presence” when used with a locative prefix, rather than “” (see “be right there”, “be there”, or “be in there”). Such expressions follow the structure “X place has Y thing”. Similar to the locative reference pronouns -po, -ko, -mo seen in 7.2, the “general location” prefix ku- may replace the “punctual location” prefix pa- and the “location inside” prefix Locative and coordinated noun agreement 117 mu-, except in cases of locative agreement involving an adjective or a pronoun (seen in Table 16.1 and in (4) below). Examples of these types of alternations are given in (1–2).

(1) a. Mezani pana/kuna vyombo “On the table there are dishes” Mezani hapana/hakuna vyombo “On the table there are no dishes” b. Mfukoni mna/kuna viazi “In the bag there are potatoes” Mfukoni hamna/hakuna viazi “In the bag there are no potatoes”

(2) a. Fut.: Mezani patakuwa/kutakuwa na vyombo; “There will be dishes on the table” Mezani hapatakuwa/hakutakuwa na vyombo “There will be no dishes on the table” b. past: Mfukoni mlikuwa/kulikuwa na viazi “There were potatoes in the bag” Mfukoni hamkuwa/hakukuwa na viazi “There were no potatoes in the bag”

With the verb “have”, the locative agreement prefix ku- may be used in impersonal constructions, that is, without a referent noun or a pronoun serving as the subject of the sentence. It then expresses the general notion of “existence” or “being there”, as shown in (3).

(3) a. Kuna chai leo? “Is there any tea today?” b. Hakuna chai leo “There is no tea today”

In noun/adjective and noun/pronoun agreement, the locative prefix ku- is restricted to the notion of “general area”, that is, “around here, around there, over there around”, while pa- refers to the location at a “specific point”, and mu- refers to the location “inside something”. The examples in (4) illustrate the use of locative agreement prefixes ku-, mu-, and pa- triggered by the suffix -ni among pronouns and adjectives. You will observe that the locative agreement is used with descriptive adjectives only after the verb “be”, as shown with kuzuri, kubaya, and mbaya in (4a–c). With the conjunction -a also, the locative agreement is used only when the former has a “possessive” meaning, as in (4a, d, f ). The conjunction -a with a descriptive implication (i.e. expressing more than the simple notion of possession; e.g. -a “for” vs. “of”) requires the use of regular agreement, as shown (4g–h).

(4) Examples of locative agreement with the prefixes ku-, mu-, and pa-

a. Nyumbani kwangu/kwa Juma ni kuzuri, lakini kuna mbu “At my home/At Juma’s home it is nice, but there are mosquitoes” b. Mlimani kote ni kubaya “It is ugly everywhere on the mountain” c. Garini mwake ni mzuri; mna redio na televisheni “In his car it is nice; there is a radio and a TV” d. Sebuleni mwa Lela mna picha za familia kutani “In Lela’s living room, there are family pictures on the walls” 118 Locative and coordinated noun agreement e. Nyumbani mote mna moshi mzito “In the entire house there is a heavy smoke” f. Kitini pa Juma pana mto “On Juma’s chair there is a pillow” vs. g. Katika nyumba ya kijani/ya kwanza . . . ya kulia “In the green/the first house . . . on the right” h. Ndani ya gari la bluu/la pili . . . la kushoto “In the blue/the second car . . . on the left”

Expressions such as nyumbani kwa seen in (4a) or nchini kwetu “in our country” seen in Table 16.1(b) may be used without the locative noun, as shown in (5).

(5) Elliptical use of the pronoun kwa and ku- + possessive

a. Jana nililala kwa mzee Juma “Yesterday I slept at elder Juma’s home” b. Ninatoka kwa shangazi Leila “I am coming from Aunt Leila’s place” c. Kwetu kuna miti ya matunda “At our place/in our country, there are fruit trees” (lit. “At ours”) d. Kwao hawana umeme “In their home/country they have no electricity” (lit. “At theirs”)

In addition, the locative possessives like those seen above in (5c–d) may be used in association with the possessive conjunction -a “of” to emphasize the notion of possession, as shown in (6b–c).

(6) a. Watu hawa ni wa kwetu “These people are from back home/our country” b. Kitabu hiki ni cha kwako? “Is this book from your place?/ yours?” c. Kompyuta hii ya kwangu haifai kabisa “This computer of mine is completely worthless”

The word mahali “place; location” is the only noun that inherently prompts the use of a locative agreement, without the presence of the suffix -ni. In general, it is used with the agreement prefixes [pa-pa] as shown in (7), but [mu-mu] and [ku-ku] may also be used, depending on the implied meaning (location “inside” or in a “general area”).

(7) Locative agreement triggered by the term mahali “place; location”

a. Mahali hapa ni pazuri, lakini pamejaa watu “This place is nice, but it is full of people” b. Mahali hapa ni pazuri; pananipendeza sana “This place is nice; it pleases me a lot” c. Mahali pale pana nyoka; ninapaogopa. “In that place there is a snake; I am afraid of that place” Locative and coordinated noun agreement 119 (8) Review exercise: Fill in the blanks, using a different class for each line, and translate into English (keep previous sections covered).

a. mezani ___le ___na maua nina___penda b. mahali ___le ___na nyoka nina___ogopa c. chumbani ___le ___na maua nina___penda

16.2. Locative demonstrative pronouns vs. locative reference pronouns Like other demonstratives, locative demonstratives are distinguished in terms of proximity to the first and second speaker as shown inTable 16.2 (“near me”, “near you”, vs. “away from you and me”). As seen in Table 16.2, the vowel of the initial segment (hV-) of the locative demonstra- tives meaning “near me” and “near you” depends on the vowel of the following class prefix, similar to the demonstrative pronouns of the regular classes previously seenin Tables 5.3 and 5.4 (see hapa (ha-pa), huku (hu-ku); hapo (ha-pa-o); huko (hu-ku-o) vs. pale (pa-le), kule (ku-le), mle (mu-le)).

Table 16.2 The locative demonstrative pronoun in terms of proximity

Stem→ – (near me) -o (near you) -le (away from you and me) Prefix a. pa-: specific point hapa “here” hapo “there” pale “over there” b. ku-: general area huku “around here” huko “around there” kule “over there (around)” c. mu-: inside humu “inside here” humo “inside there” mle “inside, over there”

It should be noted that the terms mji “city” and nchi “country” are sometimes referred to as closed spaces, which justifies the use of the locative prefix mu- (see phrases such nchini humu/nchini huku “in this country”, mjini humo/hapo mjini “in that city, there in town”). Contrary to the locative demonstratives, the locative reference pronouns -po, -ko, -mo previously seen in 7.2 are only used in combination with another segment. In particular, they may combine with the conjunction na- “and; with” or the contrastive/evocative verb ndi/si- “be/be not”. Table 16.3 shows the combination involving the conjunction na, while the examples in (9–11) show the combination with ndi-/si- (see ndipo/sipo “[right] here is [not] the place . . .”, ndiko/siko “this is [not] the place . . .”, ndimo/simo “in here is [not] the place . . .”). Additionally, the examples in (9–11) show the use of locative object markers entailed by the object relative construction (the term “object marker” is defined in 10.2).

Table 16.3 Conjunction na with locative reference pronouns

na + Pron. Examples Meaning a. napo Hapa napo wanauza vinywaji. Here also they sell drinks b. nako Kusafiri kwenda Ulaya kunahitaji viza. Traveling to Europe requires a visa. Marekani nako, bei ni kubwa. As for America, the price is high c. namo Siwezi kulala sebuleni. I can’t sleep in the living room. Chumbani namo ni joto mno. As for the bedroom, it is too hot 120 Locative and coordinated noun agreement (9) a. Hapa ndipo wanapokaa. “Here is where they live” b. Hapa sipo wanapokaa. “Here is not where they live”

(10) a. Humu ndimo anamokaa “In here is where he lives” b. Humu simo anamokaaa “In here is not where he lives”

(11) a. Marekani ndiko tunakotoka. “America is where we come from” b. Marekani siko tunakotoka. “America is not where we come from”

Following the pattern observed with locative classes in 10.10, the locative reference pronouns -po, -ko, -mo may also be suffixed to the pronoun -ingine “other” used in locative classes, which gives penginepo/kwingineko “somewhere else (specific/general area)” and mwinginemo “inside somewhere else” (with pa-, ku-, mu- becoming pe-, kw-, mw- due to the contact with the initial vowel of the stem /i/). In addition, the locative agreement prefixes may be used with the stem -o-ote “any”, which gives popote, kokokote, momote (rare) “anywhere (specific/general area/inside)”.

16.3. Locative prepositions Similar to the suffix -ni, locative prepositions may refer to the location at a specific point, in a large area, or inside something. Accordingly, they trigger the use of the agreement prefixes pa-, ku-, or mu- based on their inherent meanings, as shown in (12). The most common locative prepositions are: juu ya “over; on; on top of”, chini ya “under; beneath”, kwenye “on; at; to; in (physical space)”, mbele ya “in front of”, nyuma ya “behind”, karibu na “close to”, mbali na “far from”, kando ya “beside; aside; along”, baina ya “between (x and y)”, ndani ya “inside”, or katika “in”.

(12) a. Mbele ya nyumba yake panapendeza sana lit. “In front of his house, it is very nice” b. Ndani ya/Kwenye chumba hiki mnanuka lit. “Inside this room, it stinks” c. Katika/Kwenye misitu mikubwa kunatisha lit. “In large forests, it is scary” d. Karibu na nyumba kunavutia lit. “Near the house, it is pleasant”

Contrary to the suffix -ni seen in (4) and in Table 16.1, the locative prepositions do not prompt the use of the locative agreement pattern within a given noun group. Here, the pronouns directly agree with their head-noun, as seen with chako, yangu, yote, and yetu in the a. series of the examples in (13–16). In addition, noun groups comprising a locative preposition may be associated with a locative phrase expressing “existence”, as seen with kuna, mna, and pana (13–16). Similar to other phrases that do not involve a locative agreement with an adjective or a pronoun, in these types of constructions the “general” location prefix ku- may be substituted to its “inside”/“punctual” counterparts mu- and pa-. This is shown with the a. series in (13–15).

(13) a. Juu ya kiti chako pana/kuna nzi “On your chair, there is a fly” b. Kitini pako pana nzi “On your chair, there is a fly” Locative and coordinated noun agreement 121 (14) a. Katika nyumba yangu mna/kuna vyoo viwili “In my house, there are two bathrooms” b. Nyumbani mwangu mna vyoo viwili “In my house, there are two bathrooms”

(15) a. Katika nyumba yote mna/kuna karatasi lit. “In the whole house, there are papers” b. Nyumbani mote mna karatasi lit. “In the whole house, there are papers”

(16) a. Katika nchi yetu kuna miji mingi mizuri “In our country, there are many nice cities” b. Nchini kwetu kuna miji mingi mizuri “In our country, there are many nice cities”

The locative prepositions involving the conjunction ya may also be used without the noun to which they refer. In this situation, the base -a of the conjunction is replaced with different possessive pronouns when referring to an animate noun (-angu, -ako, -ake . . . -ao), while the possessive -ake is used in both singular and plural for non-animate nouns, as in (17b) (e.g. mbele yetu “in front of us; ahead of us”; chini yangu “beneath me”; ndani yake “inside it/them [non-animate]”; juu yake “on top of it/them [non-animate]”). A similar use of -ake with non-animate nouns was observed with regular class agreement in 5.2.

(17) a. Mbele yangu/yao, watoto wamesimama “In front of me/them, children are standing” b. Juu yake pana/kuna vitabu “On top of it/them, there are books” (e.g. of the table[s])

With distance/proximity prepositions, such as mbali na/karibu na, the conjunction na may be used with a suffixed reference pronoun in all classes (e.g. mbali naye/na yeye, ~ nao/na wao; ~ nacho, ~ navyo “away from him/her, them; it, them” for a [ki-ki/vi-vi] noun), or a reduced contrastive pronoun for the first and the second person (e.g. karibu nami/na mimi, ~ nasi/na sisi, ~ nawe/na wewe, ~ nanyi/na nyinyi “near me, us, you, you all”). These two types of constructions trigger locative agreement patterns similar to their counterparts with a noun seen previously in (12).

16.4. Restrictions in the use of locative prepositions and the locative suffix -ni In general the locative suffix -ni is preferred to the locative prepositions in expressions meaning more than the simple notion of location, as in (18a, 19a).

(18) a. Tunaenda nyumbani “We are going home” b. Tunaenda katika nyumba lit. “We are going in a house”

(19) a. Ninakaa mjini “I live in town” b. Ninakaa katika mji “Literally: I live in a town” 122 Locative and coordinated noun agreement Importantly, the locative agreement is excluded when the noun group comprises a descriptive adjective, a numeral adjective, or a possessive conjunction -a with descriptive implication, as previously seen in (4g–h). In order to prevent the use of the locative agreement in such a context, a locative preposition is used rather than the locative suffix -ni as shown in (20–22).

(20) Kwenye meza ndogo kuna vitabu. “On the small table(s) there are books”

(21) Katika/Kwenye vyumba vitatu vile mna/kuna meza na vitanda. “In those small rooms there are tables and beds”

(22) Nilinunua kofia hii katika duka la nguo. “I bought this hat in a clothing store (lit. “in a store for clothes”)

As mentioned before (7.2), the suffix -ni is not used with proper nouns for places. Locative prepositions are also generally omitted in this context, as shown in (23). In addi- tion, locative markers are disallowed with common nouns used as adverbs, as shown in (24).

(23) a. Nimezaliwa Ulaya. Sasa ninaishi Mombasa. Nimefika Zanzibar jana. “I was born in Europe. Now I live in Mombasa. I arrived in Zanzibar yesterday” b. Mimi ninatoka Mtaa wa N’krumah, mjini Dar es Salaam. Sasa ninaenda Pemba. “I come from N’krumah Street, in the city of Dar es Salaam. Now, I am going to Pemba”

(24) Walifika asubuhi/mchana/jioni/usiku. “They arrived in the morning/afternoon/evening/night”

The locative suffix -ni is optionally omitted when referring to familiar places that imply the notion of “service” (rather than simple location), while the use of a preposition is excluded (25). The same situation is observed with nouns referring to a certain “activity” when used with a verb of movement, as shown in (26). In addition, the locative suffix -ni is omitted with some recent terms of foreign origin, such as sinema “movie; movie theater”, posta “post office”, or stendi “bus stand” (27).

(25) a. Leila ni mgonjwa; lazima tumpeleke hospitali/hospitalini. “Leila is sick; we must take her to the hospital” b. Nilienda shule/shuleni (kwa) miaka kumi “I went to school for ten years”

(26) a. Leo nitaenda mazoezi/mazoezini “Today, I will go to the gym” (lit. “to the exercises”) b. Yeye hurudi kazi/kazini saa nane “He usually returns to work at two o’clock” c. Nchi iliingia vita/vitani mwaka huo “The country entered into war that year” Locative and coordinated noun agreement 123 (27) a. Ninataka upeleke barua hii posta “I want you to take this letter to the post office” b. Nilimwona akitoka sinema “I saw him while he was coming from the movie” c. Tutafika stendi saa tatu u nusu “We will arrive at the bus stand at 9 o’clock”

The locative suffix -ni also appears incompatible with locative constructions that imply a part/whole relationship (28).

(28) a. Usiweke sukari kwenye chai “Don’t put sugar in the tea” b. Je, umeongeza maji kwenye mchuzi? “Have you added water to the sauce?”

16.5. Directional prepositions Like the locative prepositions, directional prepositions, such as “from . . . to” or “from . . . until”, do not require a locative agreement, that is, pa-, ku-, mu- with possessives (29–30). You will observe that directional prepositions are generally correlated, though their parts may appear alone (29b, 30b).

(29) Use of kutoka/toka . . . hadi/mpaka/kufika “from . . . to (directional)”

a. Kutoka/toka kijiji chetu hadi/mpaka/kufika nyumba yake ni safari ya masaa mawili. “From our village to his house it is a two-hour trip” b. Jana nilitembea hadi/mpaka/kufika Barabara ya Saba. lit. “Yesterday, I walked until (I reached) Seventh Street”

(30) Use of tangu/kutoka . . . hadi/mpaka “from . . . until ~ to (temporal)”

a. Tangu 2005 hadi/mpaka mwaka 2008, watu wengi walitutembelea. “From 2005 to 2008, many people visited us” b. Tangu lini umekaa hapa? “Since when have you been living here?”

The directional prepositions kutoka “from” and kufika “to” mean literally “coming from” and “arriving at”, based on the meaning of the infinitive verbs, that is, “to come from” and “to arrive (at)”. Similarly, when used after a verb of movement, kuelekea (“to face, to head to”) means “heading to, in the direction of” (31).

(31) a. Tulitembea kutoka/kufika ufukwe “We walked from/to the beach” b. Tulitembea kuelekea ufukwe “We walked in the direction of the beach”

16.6. Conjoined nouns and meaning-based class agreement Nouns that are conjoined using a conjunction such as na “and” prompt the use of class agreement based on the distinction between nouns for animates, proper nouns for non-animates, and nouns for things (vitu). Accordingly, conjoined nouns for animates in 124 Locative and coordinated noun agreement the singular, that is, in subclass [mu-yu,a], prompt the use of class agreement in the plural form the animate class, that is, [wa-wa] (32a–b).

(32) a. Mvulana na mbwa wanacheza “The boy and the dog are playing” b. Mtoto na mama wamefika “The child and the mother have arrived” [mu-yu,a] + [mu-yu,a] → [wa-wa]

On the other hand, conjoined proper nouns for non-animates trigger agreement in subclass [n-zi], while equivalent single nouns belong to class [n-i], as shown respectively in (33b) and (33a). In addition, both single and conjoined proper nouns optionally prompt the use of the [wa-wa] subclass when they implicitly refer to people, as respectively shown in (34a) and (34b).

(33) a. Uingereza imeshinda/Ujerumani imeshinda “England has won/Germany has won” b. Uingereza na Ujerumani zimeshinda [n-i] + [n-i] → [n-zi] “England and Germany have won”

(34) a. Uingereza wameshinda “England has won” (lit. “they have won”) b. Uingereza na Ujerumani wameshinda [wa-wa] + [wa-wa] → [wa-wa] “England and Germany have won”

Conjoined common nouns for non-animates, even those belonging to the same class, prompt the use of class [vi-vi], which appears an implicit reference to the notion of vitu “things” (35–39).

(35) a. Mlango na mti vimeanguka “A door and a tree have fallen down” [mu-u] + [mu-u] →[vi-vi]

(36) b. Milango na miti vimeanguka “Doors and trees have fallen down” [mi-i] + [mi-i] → [vi-vi]

(37) Uma na wembe vimeanguka “A fork and a razor have fallen down” [mu-u] + [mu-u] → [vi-vi]

(38) Dirisha na dari vimeanguka “A window and the ceiling have fallen down” [ø-li] + [ø-li] → [vi-vi]

(39) Taa hii na sahani hiyo vinafanana “This lamp and that dish are similar” [n-i] + [n-i] → [vi-vi] Locative and coordinated noun agreement 125 On the other hand, conjoined identical nouns for non-animates in a given class prompt the agreement in the plural form of that class (40–41).

(40) Mlango huu na (mlango) ule inafanana “This door and that one [mu-u] + [mu-u] → [mi-i] are similar”

(41) Kalamu yangu na (kalamu) yako zinafanana “My pen and yours are similar” [n-i] + [n-i] → [n-zi]

In addition, conjoined nouns for animates and non-animates trigger the agreement in subclass [vi-vi], as shown in (42).

(42) Farasi na gari havifanani kabisa “A horse and a car are not [mu-yu,a] + [ø-li] → [vi-vi] similar at all”

Depending on the speaker, the second term of conjoined nouns may also exceptionally trigger the class agreement alone (43) (Marten 2000).

(43) Vikombe na zawadi zilitolewa kwa washindi “Cups and presents were given to [vi-vi] + [n-zi] → [n-zi] the winners”

16.7. Application exercises (44) Fill in the blanks, using each term once: mwake, hapo, kule, mpaka, zaidi, kwao, chini ya, baina ya, mbele ya, kijijini. Read aloud and translate into English.

a. ______Juma na Abdalla, unampenda nani ______? b. Juma anazungumza ______darasa. Kabla ya ______, alikuwa chumbani ______. c. Wazee wa kijiji hukutana ______mti kila Ijumaa. Kesho nitarudi ______kwetu. d. Mwaka jana nilisafiri Afrika Mashariki. Nilifika ______mwezi wa Januari. e. Leo, Mariam ametembea ______kituo cha basi. Amepata barua kutoka ______.

16.8. Cumulative exercises (45) Translate into Swahili.

a. Liz has gone walking along the river. We need to return to our home now. b. Are there any letters/Is there a letter today? (lit. Is there any letter today?) No, there is no letter today. Sorry. c. In our country, there are few farmers but very large farms. d. With whom are you, there in Kenya? e. My mother is not at our home, she has gone to visit our neighbor. f. I will stay in Pemba until the month of December. g. The bus from Mbeya has not arrived. Our brother is in his car now. h. She did not know (at that time). 126 Locative and coordinated noun agreement i. I had already lived in that house for six months. j. The boy is sitting between his father and his mother. k. Many people live in this city, other people live in the countryside. l. When did you arrive in Dar es Salaam? m. I arrived last month, but my luggage will arrive next week. I will return to my country this year. n. No one knows the gift that Fatuma has received (lit. “There is no (person) who knows”). o. The visitors who arrived yesterday are still here. They are now in their rooms. p. Are there students who like liquor? (lit. “liquors”). q. The children who are between seven and fourteen years old (lit. “who have between . . .”) must go to school. r. How many students are there who study Swahili? s. There is no child who does not like crying. t. I like very much the bread that is sold here. u. All the clothes that were brought by aunt Fatuma are lost. v. A person who writes books is called a writer. w. I am coming from our classroom. x. I will show you where I live. 17 The conditional mood

17.1. Different types of conditionals By definition, the “conditional mood” is a form of the verb that serves to state facts while implying some notion of “condition” or “probability”. In Swahili, the conditional mood involves four degrees of probability expressed with specific markers. The first degree of “probability”, or “factual conditional”, implies a virtually realized condi­ tion. It uses the conjunctions kama/ikiwa “if (it is true that)”, followed by a verb in the indicative mood in any tense, as in (1), while the other degrees of conditional use prefixes.

(1) Factual conditional: kama/ikiwa “if (it is true that)”.

a. Kama/Ikiwa unamwona, mwite “If you see him (now), call him” b. Kama/Ikiwa humwoni, mwite “If you don’t see him (now), call him” c. Kama/Ikiwa utamwona, lit. “If you will see him (if it is true ukampe kitabu hiki that . . .), please give him this book” d. Kama/Ikiwa hutamwona, lit. “If you will not see him (if it is nenda kwa basi true that . . .), go by bus” e. Kama/Ikiwa amefika, mimi ninaondoka “If he has arrived, I am leaving” f. Kama/Ikiwa hajafika, mimi siondoki “If he has not arrived, I am not leaving”

The second degree of “probability” is the “probable conditional”, which refers to a “condition” that may be fulfilled in the future. It uses the prefix -ki- “if” within the conditional clause, or conjunctions such as iwapo/endapo “if; in case” followed by a future tense verb (2). Similar to the “factual” conditional in (1), the verb of the main clause in “probable” conditional constructions may be either in the indicative or imperative/subjunctive mood. In addition, the “probable” conditional with a prefixed marker is negated using the marker -si-, similar to other forms of conditionals with a prefixed marker, while the marker -ki- is replaced with -po- (2b, d, f ).

(2) Probable conditional: -ki- “if”/-si-po- “if . . . not”

a. Ukimuona, utampenda ~ Iwapo/Endapo utamwona, utampenda “If you see him, you will like him” b. Usipomuona, hutampenda ~ Iwapo/Endapo hutamwona, hutampenda “If you don’t see him, you will not like him” 128 The conditional mood c. Ukimuona, umwambie aniite ~ Iwapo/Endapo utamwona, umwambie aniite “If you see him, tell him to call me” d. Usipomuona, usimwambie aniite ~ Iwapo/Endapo hutamwona, usimwambie aniite “If you don’t see him, don’t tell him to call me” e. Akianguka, ataumia ~ Iwapo/Endapo ataanguka, ataumia “If he falls down, he will get hurt” f. Asipoanguka, hataumia ~ Iwapo/Endapo hataanguka, hataumia “If he does not fall down, he won’t get hurt”

The third degree of “probability” is the “improbable conditional”, which refers to a condition that hypothetically could be fulfilled in the present. It is expressed by the prefix -nge- within the conditional clause and the main clause, which corresponds to “if + simple past . . . would”, as shown in (3).

(3) Improbable conditional: -nge-/-si-nge- “if + simple past . . . would”

a. Ungemwona, ungempenda “If you saw him, you would like him” b. Usingemwona, usingempenda “If you saw him, you would not like him” c. Angeanguka, angeumia “If he fell down, he would get hurt” d. Asingeanguka, asingeumia “If he did not fall down, he would not get hurt”

The fourth degree of “probability”, or “unreal conditional”, refers to an unrealistic condition that would have been fulfilled in the past. It is expressed by -ngali- in both the conditional and the main clause, which corresponds to “if + past perfect . . . would have”, as shown in (4).

(4) Unreal conditional: ngali-/-si-ngali- “if + past perfect . . . would have”

a. Ungalimwona, ungalimpenda “If you had seen him, you would have liked him” b. Usingalimwona, usingalimpenda “If you had seen him, you would not have liked him” c. Angalianguka, angaliumia “If he had fallen down, he would have been hurt”

The marker -ki- “if ” seen in (2) also may mean “when”, when referring to an event in the future or that regularly takes place. In that function, -ki- is used interchangeably with the temporal markers -po- seen in 10.5, or -taka-po- in the future tense, as shown in (5a–c). In addition, the temporal marker -ki- is replaced with -si-po- in negation, as in (5d), similar to the conditional marker -ki- that we have seen in (2).

(5) Use of -ki- or -po- with a temporal connotation

a. ­ki­/­po­ Kila tukikutana ananikaripia/Kila tunapokutana ananikaripia Each time we meet he berates me b. ­ki­/­po­ Ukimuuliza anakwambia nini?/Unapomuuliza anakwambia nini? When you ask him, what does he tell you? The conditional mood 129 c. ­ki­/­taka­po­ Nikimwona, nitamuuliza/Nitakapomwona, nitamuuliza When I see him, I will ask him d. ­si­po­ Nisipomwona sijisikii vizuri When I don’t see him, I don’t feel well

In the conditional mood, monosyllabic verb stems make the same types of distinctions as regular verbs seen before. The examples in (6) give the different forms of the verb “be” in the conditional mood, with an indication about the type of verbs they require in the main clause.

(6) Forms of the conditional verb “be” (+ main clause verb)

a. Factual: Kama wewe ni/si - Kama ninyi ni/si + IndIc./ “If you are/not” “If you all are/not” SUbjUnctIve b. Probable: ukiwa/usipokuwa - mkiwa/msipokuwa + IndIc./ “If you are/not” “If you all are/not” SUbjUnctIve c. Improbable: ungekuwa/usingekuwa - mngekuwa/msingekuwa + -nge- “If you were/not” “If you all were/not” d. Unreal: ungalikuwa/ - mngalikuwa/ + -ngalI- usingalikuwa msingalikuwa “If you had been/not” “If you all had been/not”

With kuwa “be”, the second term of improbable or unreal conditional constructions, that is, the main clause, may optionally use the regular negation marker ha- (or h-, si- depend­ ing on the context) instead of -si-. This is shown in the b­ series (7–9), while the a­ series shows the negation with -si-

(7) a. Usingekuwa mwanafunzi, usingekuwa darasani. b. Usingekuwa mwanafunzi, hungekuwa darasani. “If you were not a student, you would not be in class”

(8) a. Usingalikuwa shuleni, usingalikuwa mwerevu namna hii. b. Usingalikuwa shuleni, hungalikuwa mwerevu namna hii. “If you had not been to school, you would not be that smart”

(9) a. Nisingekuwa mwerevu, nisingekuwa na wewe. b. Nisingalikuwa mwerevu, singekuwa na wewe. “If I were not smart, I would not be with you”

As seen in the preceding examples, the conditional mood markers -nge-, ngali-, and -sipo- require the use of the stem augment ku- with monosyllabic stem verbs, contrary to the prefix ki- (a general presentation is given in 12.3). Additional examples are given in (10–11, 12a) vs. (12b).

(10) a. Ningekula “I would eat” b. Ningalikula “I would have eaten”

(11) a. Nisingekula “I would not eat” b. Nisingalikula “I would not have eaten” 130 The conditional mood (12) a. Usipokula “If you do not eat” vs. b. Ukila “If you eat”

In addition, the locative reference pronouns -po, -ko, -mo are suffixed to the verb kuwa “be” in the conditional mood, similar to the indicative mood seen before (7.2, 10.7). Examples are given in (13).

(13) a. Wakiwapo watu wengi, tutaondoka/ “If there are many people, we will leave”/ Wasipokuwapo watu wengi, tutaondoka “If there are not many people, we will leave” b. Wangekuwapo, tungeondoka/ “If they were here, we would leave”/ Wasingekuwapo, tungeondoka “If they were not here, we would leave” c. Wangalikuwako, tungaliondoka/ “If they had been there, we would have left”/ Wasingalikuwako, tungaliondoka “If they had not been there, we would have left” d. Wangalikuwamo, tungaliondoka/ “If they had been in there, we would have left”/ Wasingalikuwamo, tungaliondoka “If they had not been in there, we would have left”

Finally, the auxiliary verb “be” may be used with the marker -ki- “if/while” to express a simple condition, as in (14), or the markers -nge-/-ngali- “(if . . .) would/would have” to express a precondition, as in (15–16).

(14) Nikiwa ninasoma, hupenda kusikiliza muziki “While reading, I like listening to music”

(15) a. Ningekuwa ninasoma, ningesikiliza muziki “If I were reading, I would listen to music” b. Angekuwa anakuja, angefika mapema “If he were coming, he would arrive early” c. Angalikuwa anakuja, angalifika mapema “If he had been coming, he would have arrived early”

(16) Tungalikuwa tumeondoka “We would have left”

17.2. The main clause in conditional mood and the expression of wishes The conditional marker -nge- is used in the expression of polite requests (17–18). It also expresses “regrets” or “preference” when used with the conjunctions laiti “if only”, bora “(it would be) better if ”, or afadhali “(it would be) preferable if ” (19–20). The conditional mood 131 (17) Tungependa chai na maandazi manne “I would like tea and four beignets” (18) Tungeomba uondoke “We would request that you leave” (19) Laiti angeniletea vitabu vyangu leo! “If only he could bring me my books today!” (20) a. Bora ungemwambia “It would be better if you told him” b. Afadhali ungemwambia “It would be preferable if you told him”

In addition, different forms of the conditional may be used in a subordinate clause introduced by bora “better; should” or heri “preferable; ought/should” to express polite request or regret (21–23).

(21) (Ingekuwa) bora tukiondoka sasa or Heri tungeondoka sasa “It would be better if we left now/We ought to leave now/It would be preferable that we leave now”

(22) (Ingalikuwa) bora tungaliondoka or Heri tungaliondoka “It would have been better if we had left/We should have left”

(23) (Ingalikuwa) bora ungaliuliza or Heri ungaliuliza “You should have asked/You ought to have asked/It would be preferable if you had asked”

17.3. Temporal prefix -ki- and the notion of “simultaneity” Aside from the conditional, the prefix-ki- is also used in subordinate clauses with a temporal connotation, expressing the notion of “simultaneity” between two actions (24–25). This construction may be strengthened with the conjunction hivi/huku “while” as shown in (26b) (other sentence connectors are given in Appendix C).

(24) a. Tulimwona akisoma “We saw him/her reading” b. Hatukumwona akisoma “We didn’t see him/her reading” c. Huwa ninamwona akikimbia kila asubuhi “I see him running every morning”

(25) Aliwasikia wakingombana “He heard them arguing”

(26) a. Abdalla alipita akiimba “Abdalla passed by, singing” b. Mama anapika hivi/huku akisiliza redio “Mother is cooking while listening to the radio”

In addition, the noun wakati “time” may be used in some contexts with the connotation of “while; when”, as in (27).

(27) a. Heri msafiri wakati mko bado vijana “You should travel (you all) while you are young” b. Bora ununue vitabu wakati una pesa “You had better buy the books while you have the money” c. Wakati nilifika duka lilikuwa limefungwa “When I arrived, the store had been closed” 132 The conditional mood 17.4. Application exercises (28) Translate into Swahili and convert into negative form (two sentences per question).

a. Did you see her taking your clothes? (Negate “did you see”.) b. I have damaged my computer while trying to fix it (negate “have damaged”). c. If I get money, I will visit you. d. If she drinks milk, she will feel better. e. If we had bought tickets, we would have watched the match. f. If we had seen him, we would have liked him. g. If you go to the game reserve, you will see elephants and lions. h. If you like this book, take it. i. If you were to see him, you would like him. j. If you worked now, you would finish early.

17.5. Cumulative exercises (29) Translate into Swahili and convert into negative form (two sentences per question).

a. If they had money, they would travel a lot. b. If he had come, we would have gone to town together. c. If she comes, tell her I am in my office. d. If you try, you will succeed. e. If you drank milk, you would have good health. f. I would like you to read. g. If you have finished your exercises, can we go eat? h. The books she reads, I truly don’t like them. i. He wants a car that goes fast. j. If he arrives early, he will visit you. 18 The causative extension of the verb

The causative extension is an element that modifies the meaning of a verb, noun, or adjective to create a new verb stem that implies the notion of causation (e.g. “laugh” → “cause to laugh/make laugh”; “sad(ness)” → “sadden”; “short” → “shorten”). In Swahili, the causative extension mainly uses the suffix-ish- , which appears as -esh- after a mid-vowel /e,o/ within the verb base, due to the phenomenon of “vowel harmony” previously seen in 15.1. Additionally, some verbs may use the suffix -y-, which generally alters the ending of the original verb stem. Depending on the ending of the verb stem, the contact with the causative suffix -y- produces the sounds /z/, /sh/, /ny/, /fy/, or /vy/.

18.1. Regular use of the causative suffix -ish-/-esh- and the vowel harmony phenomenon The production of causative verbs using the suffix -ish-/-esh- applies with most verb stems, as shown in (1). Examples in (2) illustrate the use of the form -esh- due to vowel harmony after a stem mid-vowel /e/ or /o/.

(1) Causative extension of verb stems, using the suffix -ish-/-esh-

a. -pima “measure” → -pimisha “make measure” b. -rudi “return” → -rudisha “return sth. back; bring sth. back” c. -fahamu “understand” → -fahamisha “make understand” d. -hama “move (away)” → -hamisha “make move, transfer” e. -fa “die” → -fisha “destroy; cause to die” f. -la “eat” → -lisha “feed”

(2) Causative extension of verb stems, using the suffix -esh- due to vowel harmony

a. -chelewa “be late” → -chelewesha “make or cause to be late; delay” b. -nenepa “become fat” → -nenepesha “make fat; fatten” c. -sema “speak” → -semesha “cause to speak; speak to sb.” d. -weza “be able” → -wezesha “enable” e. -enda “go; move” → -endesha “make go; drive (e.g. a vehicle)” f. -soma “read; learn” → -somesha “make read, teach sb.” 134 The causative extension of the verb In addition, as shown in (3–4), the construction of causative verbs from nouns and adjectives systematically uses the suffix -ish-, with the variant -esh- after a mid-vowel /e,o/ in the initial syllable of the stem, and a vowel /a/ in the final position (3g, 4f–g).

(3) Construction of causative verbs from nouns, using the suffix -ish-/-esh-

a. hakika “certainty” → -hakikisha “assure; make sure” b. haraka “hurry” → -harakisha “do fast” c. sababu “cause” → -sababisha “to cause” d. huzuni “sadness” → -huzunisha “make sad or unhappy; sadden” e. lazima “obligation” → -lazimisha “oblige; force/compel to do sth.” f. taifa “nation” → -taifisha “nationalize” g. orodha “list; inventory” → -orodhesha “to list; compile an inventory”

(4) Construction of causative verbs from adjectives, using the suffix -ish-/-esh-

a. imara “strong” → -imarisha “strengthen” b. -fupi “short” → -fupisha “shorten” c. rahisi “easy; affordable” → -rahisisha “make easier; make affordable” d. safi “clean” → -safisha “to clean; cleanse” e. tayari “ready” → -tayarisha “prepare; make ready” f. bora “better” → -boresha “improve sth; make better” g. neema “grace; affluence” → -neemesha “make affluent”

Base forms ending with a vowel other than /a/ do not prompt vowel harmony with the following suffix. Regardless of the vowel in the initial syllable of the stem, word-final vowels /i,e/ merge with the following suffix vowel /i/, /i + i/ becoming /i/ and /e + i/ becoming /e/, as shown respectively in (5a–d) and (5e–f ). Similarly, the vowel /u/ preceded by a consonant merges with the following suffix vowel /i/, /u + i/ becoming /i/ (6a–c), while the coalescence between the final vowel /o/ with the suffix vowel /i/ changes the former into /e/ and induces the use of a liaison semi-vowel /w/ (6d).

(5) Merger of the causative suffix vowel /i/ with a stem-final vowel /i,e/

a. -furahi “be happy” → -furahisha “make happy” b. -kodi “to rent” → -kodisha “to rent out” c. -keti “to sit” → -ketisha “make sit” d. -sheheni “to load cargo” → -shehenisha “make load” vs. e. -samehe “to pardon” → -samehesha “to cause to pardon” f. -starehe “to relax” → -starehesha “to entertain”

(6) Merger of the suffix vowel /i/ with a stem-final vowel /u/ preceded by a consonant vs. o + u → /owe/

a. karibu “near; welcome” → -karibisha “to welcome; receive sb.” b. -hofu “to fear; be afraid” → -hofisha “scare; cause to be afraid” c. elimu “education” → -elimisha “educate” vs. d. -dogo “little” → -dogowesha “make appear/become little” The causative extension of the verb 135 Stems ending in two vowels /ii/ also trigger the merger of the stem-final vowel with the vowel /i/ of suffix causative suffix -ish-, as shown in (7).

(7) Suffix vowel merger with a stem-final /i/ with verb stems ending in /ii/

a. -tii “obey” → -tiisha “make obey” b. -jamii “copulate” → -jamiisha “cause to copulate”

18.2. Verbs ending with two vowels, except i,e (ua, oa, aa, au, uu): liaison consonant -l- The suffix vowel /i/ does not merge with a preceding sequence of vowels that donot involve a front vowel /i/ or /e/ (you may refer to Figure 9.1 for the difference between front vowels /i,e/ and non-front vowels /a,o,u/). Instead, verbs ending with two vowels from among /a,o,u/ prompt the use of the causative suffix -ish-/-esh- along with a liaison consonant -l-, whose role seems to be to prevent the sequence of certain types of vowels in accented position, that is, second-to-last syllable. This liaison consonant is used after original verbs ending in /aa/, /ua/, or /oa/ (8a–e), but also with verbs of foreign origin ending in /uu/ or /au/ (8f–g). As shown in (8g), verbs of foreign origin ending in two identical vowels /uu/ drop the final vowel before the addition of the liaison consonant -l-.

(8) Liaison consonant -l- with verbs ending in two vowels other than /i,e/

a. -tambua “recognize” → -tambulisha “make recognize” b. -sugua “rub; clean by rubbing” → -sugulisha “make rub; clean by rubbing” c. -ng’oa “pull out” → -ng’olesha “make pull out” d. -toboa “drill” → -tobolesha “make drill” e. -vaa “wear” → -valisha “make wear; dress” f. -dharau “disdain; disregard” → -dharaulisha “make disdain; make disregard” g. -nukuu “transcribe; quote” → -nukulisha “make transcribe; make quote”

18.3. Context-dependent use of special causative suffix -y- Instead of the causative suffix-ish-/-esh- , some verb stems use a special suffix-y- which gen- erally alters the ending of the original verb stem, producing the sounds /sh, z, ny, fy, vy/, respectively from stem-final consonants /t ~ k, l, n, p, w/. The causative suffix -y-is mostly manifested through the consonant changes that it triggers (for historical analysis of these types of consonant change in Swahili, you may refer to Mpiranya 1995). It is directly visible only in the sequences /fy/ and /vy/, as /ny/ is phonetically a single sound, rather than a sequence (similar changes are described in Language note 22.1 with the suffix -i that expresses the notion of “agent”). The use of the suffix -y- is mostly context-dependent, as we will see in the following subsections.

18.3.1 Verb bases ending in k-, except ik-/ek-: suffi -y- Verb bases ending in k- generally prompt the use of the causative suffix-y- , with the exception of those ending in ik-/ek-, that is, k- preceded by a front vowel (the vowel features are defined in Figure 9.1). This process, which gives the sound contact k-y → sh, is illustrated in (9). 136 The causative extension of the verb (9) Causative suffix -y- after stems ending in k-, except ik-/ek-

a. -amka “wake up” → -amsha “wake up sb.” b. -chemka “boil (intr.)” → -chemsha “make boil” c. -changamka “be cheerful” → -changamsha “gladden” d. -teremka “descend” → -teremsha “to lower/put down” e. -waka “shine; burn” → -washa “to light/switch on/start, e.g. a car” f. -ondoka “leave; depart” → -ondosha “make leave; remove” g. -choka “get/be tired” → -chosha “cause to be tired/tire/annoy” h. -kumbuka “remember” → -kumbusha “remind” i. -kauka “become dry” → -kausha “make dry” j. -refuka “become long” → -refusha “to lengthen” (from -refu “long”, seen in 19.2)

Conversely, stems ending in ik- or ek- generally require the use of the regular prefix -ish-/-esh-, as shown in (10).

(10) Causative suffix -ish-/-esh- after stems ending in ik-, ek-

a. -andika “write” → -andikisha “make write” b. -pika “cook” → -pikisha “make cook” c. -fika “arrive (at)” → -fikisha “make arrive (at)” d. -peleka “send; take to” → -pelekesha “make send; take to” e. -cheka “laugh” → -chekesha “make laugh” f. -weka “to put; place” → -wekesha “make put; place”

18.3.2 Polysyllabic verbs ending in ea/ia: suffix -y- , vs. -ish-/-esh- for most disyllabic verbs Polysyllabic verbs ending in /ia/ and /ea/ generally prompt the use of the causative suffix -y-, which produces the sound /z/ (11). The sound /z/ is justified by the presence of a “furtive” consonant /l/ in second-to-last position of inherited Swahili stems ending in two vowels, which produces the special sound combination: l + -y- → z.

(11) “Furtive” consonant l- with polysyllabic verbs ending in ia/ea (l + -y- → z)

a. -kimbia “run; run away” → -kimbiza “make run (away)” b. -tulia “be quiet” → -tuliza “appease” c. -umia “suffer; get hurt” → -umiza “make suffer; hurt” d. -tembea “walk” → -tembeza “take around”

The consonant /l/ which was found in the second-to-last position of the word has almost entirely disappeared in the evolution of the language. However, it is manifested directly or indirectly when the word is expanded with suffixes. The special contact /l + y → z/ is directly illustrated by one verb that has retained the consonant /l/ in second-to-last position, that is, -lala “sleep” which appears as -laza “make sleep” in the causative form (shown in (15d)). The causative extension of the verb 137 Contrary to the polysyllabic stems ending in ia/ea, disyllabic stems ending in ia/ea require the use of the causative suffix -ish-/-esh- (12–13). In the case of disyllabic stems ending in /ea/ we have the merger of the stem front vowel with the suffix vowel (12), whereas disyllabic stems ending in /ia/ use the “furtive” consonant -l- (13).

(12) Causative suffix -ish-/-esh- with disyllabic stems ending in /ea/ (with vowel merger)

a. -nywea “lose strength” → -nywesha “make lose strength” b. -mea “sprout; germinate” → -mesha “make sprout/make germinate”

(13) Causative suffix -ish- and “furtive” consonant -l- with disyllabic stems ending in /ia/

a. -tia “put” → -tilisha “make put” b. -zia “abstain from” → -zilisha “make abstain from”

In addition, one disyllabic stem ending in /ia/ exceptionally uses the irregular marker -y- as shown in (14).

(14) Exceptional use of the marker -y- with a disyllabic stem ending in /ia/

-lia “cry” → -liza “make cry”

18.4. Alternation between the suffix -ish-/-esh- and the special causative suffix -y- Some verbs use causative marker -y- in alternation with the regular suffix-ish-/-esh- , adding a special connotation or nuance to the original verb, beyond the regular causative meaning of “to cause to do some action” that is entailed by the suffix -ish-/-esh-. The most common verbs that employ this double usage are listed in (15) (with l + y- → z, n + y → ny, t + y → sh, w + y → vy).

(15) Special causative derivation with -y- vs. regular causative derivation with -ish-/-esh-

a. -kataa “refuse” → -kataza “forbid” vs. -katalisha “make refuse” b. -ona “see” → -onya “warn” vs. -onyesha “show” c. -pita “pass” → -pisha “let pass/give way” vs. -pitisha “cause to pass” d. -lala “sleep; lie down” → -laza “lay down/make sleep/put to bed” vs. -lalisha “cause to lie down/lay down” e. -lewa “be drunk” → -levya “make drunk (substance)” vs. -lewesha “cause to be drunk/inebriate” f. -pata “obtain; get” → -pasha “make sth. available/offer sth.” vs. -patisha “make obtain/get” 138 The causative extension of the verb Other verb stems exclusively use the special causative -y- with special connotations, instead of the regular causative suffix -ish-/-esh-. The most common of these verbs are listed in (16).

(16) Verbs that exclusively use the special causative -y-

a. -shangaa “be astonished” → -shangaza “astonish; surprise sb.” b. -pungua “decrease” → -punguza “diminish sth./lower the value” c. -ugua “be ill/be sick” → -uguza “to cause to be ill; to nurse ()” d. -oa “marry ( for men)” → -oza “give sb. in marriage” e. -gawana “share” → -gawanya “divide”

Finally, a few verb stems alternatively use both forms of causative suffixes, with no additional connotation. These verbs are presented in (17).

(17) Verbs that use either -ish-/-esh- or -y- without additional connotation

a. -ogopa “fear” → -ogopesha/-ogofya “scare; frighten” b. -pona “recover” → -ponya/-ponyesha “heal; cure”

The verb -geuza “change; modify” also appears as a causative verb, though it does not seem to have a direct link with -geuka “change; become”. It is possible that it derives historically from another verb that is no longer used in contemporary Swahili.

18.5. Role and origin of the liaison consonant -l- (advanced analysis)

Swahili verbs ending in Vowel + a generally had a consonant /l/ or /r/, which no longer appears in word-final syllables (i.e. after the word accent) in present-day Swahili words. The liaison consonant -l- reflects this archaic consonant, which has been analogically extended to some foreign-origin words depending on the context. As seen in (8), the liaison consonant -l- typically prevents contact between the suffix vowel /i,e/ and a dissimilar stem non-final vowel. As the suffix vowels /i,e/ do not merge with a dissimilar vowel in stem non-final position, the contact between dissimilar vowels in this context would result in an irregular vowel sequence in accented position. On the other hand, the use of a “furtive” consonant -l- after vowel /i/ in disyllabic verb stems as seen in (13) seems to reflect an exceptional preservation of the consonant /l/ in this particular context.

18.6. Marginal causative suffix -iz-/-ez- In alternation with the regular causative marker -ish-/-esh-, a few verbs use a marginal causative suffix -iz-/-ez-. This suffix is considered “marginal” because it is rare and lacks an obvious causative connotation, as seen in (18). The causative extension of the verb 139 (18) Use of the marginal causative suffix -iz/-ez- vs. regular causative suffix -ish-/-esh-

a. -penda “like; love” → -pendeza “to please/be nice” vs. -pendesha “to cause to like” b. -tata “be complicated” → -tatiza “to puzzle” vs. -tatisha “to complicate” c. -lipa “pay” → -lipiza “to make pay/avenge” vs. -lipisha “to make pay/cause to pay”

18.7. Causative clauses with a direct object Causative constructions may involve a direct object, especially in patterns of the form “cause someone to do something”, the term “something” being the direct object of the verb “do”. In the following examples, the objects of the verbs in causative forms are underlined (19).

(19) Use of causative clauses with a direct object

a. -acha → Serikali imemuachisha “The government has dismissed “leave sth.” mkurugenzi kazi the director” (lit. “has made . . . leave work”) b. -vaa → Mama anawavalisha “The mother is making the “wear” watoto kanzu children wear robes” c. -sahau → Rafiki wananisahaulisha “Friends make me forget my “forget” matatizo yangu problems” d. -kumbuka → Picha hii ilimkumbusha “This picture reminded Salima of “remember” Salima mama yake her mother” (lit. “made Salima remember”) e. -pona → Daktari ameponyesha “The doctor has cured villagers “recover” wanakijiji malaria of malaria” f. -ona → Mwalimu anawaonyesha “The teacher is showing pictures “see” watoto picha to the children/showing the children pictures”

18.8. Summary and review exercise: Causative suffixes according to the form of the base verb (20) Based on the information provided in column A, fill in column B with the stems from the following list, along with their causative forms (see example given in column B): -rudi “return”, -kataa “refuse”, -tia “put”, -penda “like”, -mea “sprout; germinate”, -pika “cook”, -starehe “to relax”, -weza “be able”, -tambua “recognize”, -kimbia “run; run away”; -cheka “laugh”, -waka “shine; burn”, lazima “obligation”, chemka “boil (e.g. of water)”. (Each row might have multiple entries; some verb stems might appear in more than one row.) Translate into English. (Keep previous sections covered.) 140 The causative extension of the verb

A. Causative suffixes depending on the B. Base → causative verb structure of the base (e.g. -pima → -pimisha) a. Stems ending in k- (except ik-/ek-): -y- → sh

b. Most stems ending in Consonant + a: -ish-/-esh-

c. Stems ending in Consonant + u,i,e or ii: -ish- (u-i → i; i-i → i; e-i → e) d. Stems ending with two vowels, except i and e: -l-ish-/-l-esh- e. Polysyllabic verbs ending in ia/ea: -y- → z vs. disyllabic verbs: -ia → -l-ish-; -ea → -esh- f. With some verbs: use of suffix -y- with special connotations (→ /sh, z, ny, fy, vy/) g. With some verbs: marginal suffix -iz-/-ez- with special connotations

18.9. Application exercises (21) Transform the word in parentheses into the causative form and conjugate the new verb into the present tense (or into the past/consecutive tense, if the context requires). Translate your sentences into English.

a. Mwaka jana Mariam (karibu) wageni kutoka Kenya. b. Wiki jana Liz (kupotea) pasipoti yake. c. Upepo (kuanguka) miti miwili. d. Juma (kufurahi + object pronoun “me”) sana. e. Mama (kulala) watoto chumbani. Mariam (kuamka, + object pronoun “them”) baadaye. (Use “habitual” tense.) f. Hamisi (kuandika + object pronoun “me”) barua zake. Hajui kuandika. (Use “habitual” tense.) g. Baba (kukataa + object pronoun “we”) kucheza nje. h. Andrea (kusoma) watoto Kiingereza. i. Unaweza (kukopa + object pronoun “her”) shilingi elfu tano? j. Baba (kuugua) mtoto wake mgonjwa. k. Mwaka jana niliumwa malaria daktari (kupona + object pronoun “me”). l. Ninataka (hakika) kwamba unaelewa.

18.10. Cumulative exercises (22) Translate into Swahili.

a. I want to return this computer to the store. It is damaged. b. We want to go to the library. Abdalla will let us in (lit. “make us enter”). Can you show us the way? The causative extension of the verb 141 c. I don’t know the name of the new Swahili teacher. Who can tell me? (lit. “make me know”) d. Mariam made me understand that she loves Juma. e. I too like Juma because he makes me laugh. f. Laura made me like America. g. Reading makes me happy, but writing makes me tired. h. I did not know yet how to drive a car. i. If I do not arrive early, I will not return. j. This shirt is very expensive. Please lower the price. k. His words hurt me a lot (hint: kuumia; use present tense). l. My mother made me forget my books. Why didn’t you remind me? (Hint: kumbuka.) m. Whose keys are these? The small keys are mine. The big key is Mariam’s. n. Hasn’t your mother come back yet? No, but my father has already come back. 19 Reciprocal, stative, and applicative verb extensions

19.1. The reciprocal suffix -an- and the notion of reciprocity

19.1.1 General use of the reciprocal suffix -an- The verb suffix -an- evokes the notion of “reciprocity”, which generally corresponds to the expression “each other” (1). Depending on the verb, the may also correspond to the conjunction “with”, “from”, or “to” in English, as in (1b–d).

(1) Suffix -an- and the notion of “reciprocity”

a. -penda “to love” → -pendana “to love each other” b. -piga “to hit” → -pigana “to hit each other; to fight (with sb.)” c. -acha “leave sb.” → -achana “to leave each other; to part (from)” d. -karibia “approach, come near” → -karibiana “come near to each other” e. -ahidi “to promise” → -ahidiana “to promise each other” f. -tii “to obey” → -tiiana “to obey each other” g. -chafua “to upset” → -chafuana “to upset each other”

The reciprocal suffix -an- requires using the conjunction na when the second term of the reciprocal relation or an equivalent pronoun is placed after the verb (2–4). To refer to the noun introduced by the conjunction na, these types of verbs also use a reference pronoun suffixed to the latter (e.g. -ye, in subclass [mu-yu,a]), rather than an object pronoun prefixed to the verb (2b, 4).

(2) Use of the conjunction “na” after the suffix -an-

a. Juma anapigana na Musa “Juma is fighting with Musa” b. Juma anapigana naye (na + yeye) “Juma is fighting with him” vs. c. Juma na Musa wanapigana “Juma and Musa are fighting”

(3) a. -kuta “run across sb.” → -kutana (na) “to meet (with)” b. -fana “be good” → -fanana (na) “be similar (to); correspond (with/to), resemble” Reciprocal, stative, and applicative verbs 143 (4) a. Mjomba wangu, nilikutana naye jana “My uncle, I met with him yesterday” b. Ninafanana naye sana “I resemble him very much”

With a few verbs, the extension -an- entails a connotation of “contact/proximity”, rather than “reciprocity”, as shown in (5).

(5) Suffix -an- with a contact/proximity connotation

a. -fuata “to follow” → -fuatana (na) “to follow each other (with)” b. -ambata “to stick” → -ambatana (na) “to stick to each other/to” c. mpaka/mipaka “border(s)” → -pakana (na) “to border each other; be adjacent to”

19.1.2 Liaison vowel -i- after round final vowel /u/ and monosyllables The final vowel -u proper to some foreign verbs prompts the use of a liaison vowel -i- in the presence of the reciprocal suffix -an-. A single verb final /u/ is dropped before the vowel -i-, while a final /u/ preceded by another vowel prompts the use of liaison consonant -l-, as shown respectively in (6) and (7) (similar cases have been described in 18.1 and 18.2). In addition, the sequence /uu/ in verb-final position is reduced to /u/ in case ofverb extension (7a).

(6) Deletion of single verb-final vowels -u before -i-

a. -busu “to kiss” → -busiana “to kiss each other” b. -tibu “to heal” → -tibiana “to heal each other” c. -jaribu “to try” → -jaribiana “to try each other” d. -jibu “to answer” → -jibiana “to answer each other” e. -fahamu “to know” → -fahamiana “to know each other”

(7) Use of liaison consonant -l- before the sequence -i-an-

a. -nukuu “to quote” → -nukuliana “to quote each other” b. -sahau “to forget” → -sahauliana “to forget each other” c. -dharau “to disdain” → -dharauliana “to disdain each other”

As shown in (8a–b), some monosyllabic stems also prompt the use of the liaison vowel -i- in the presence of the suffix -an-. You will observe that that the mid-vowel /e/ in (8a) comes from a combination of the open vowel /a/ of the verb base and the closed vowel /i/.

(8) Use of the liaison vowel -i- with monosyllabic stems and the suffix -an-

a. kupa “to give” → kupeana (pa-i-an-a) “to give each other; exchange” b. kucha “to fear” → kuchiana (ch-i-an-a) “to fear each other” vs. c. kula “to eat” → kulana (l-an-a) “to eat each other” 144 Reciprocal, stative, and applicative verbs 19.2. Stative suffix -ik-/-ek- and the notions of “state of being” or “feasibility” The “stative” suffix -ik- (or -ek- due to harmony with a vowel e/o in the initial syllable of the stem; see 15.1) transforms a “verb of action” into a “verb of state” that expresses the “state of being” or the “feasibility” of the action (see “do” → “get done/be doable”). The original object of the verb then becomes the subject of the new verb, which, therefore, cannot be followed by another object, as shown in (9–11).

(9) a. Kuvunja kikombe “to break a cup” b. Kikombe kilivunjika “The cup got broken” c. Kikombe hakikuvunjika “The cup did not get broken” d. Kikombe hiki kinavunjika “This cup is breakable” e. Kikombe hiki hakivunjiki “This cup is unbreakable”

(10) a. Kufanya kazi “To do some work” b. Kazi hii inafanyika kwa masaa mawili “This work is doable in two hours”

(11) a. Kusoma kitabu “To read a book” b. Kitabu hiki hakisomeki “This book is unreadable”

Contrary to the passive transformation, the verb of state excludes the use of a grammatical agent (i.e. noun introduced with na “by” in the passive transformation). In other words, for verbs with a stative suffix, the agent of the action is by definition unspecified. In addition, verbs of state like those with the suffix -ik- are incompatible with the passive transformation. Additional examples of verbs of state using the suffix -ik-/-ek- are given in (12). As shown in (12f–g), stems ending in a vowel other than /a/ do not trigger the vowel harmony, but prompt the merger of their final vowel with the suffix vowel /i/.

(12) Verbs of state using the suffix -ik-/-ek-

a. -sikia “hear” → -sikika “be audible; get heard” b. -maliza “finish sth.” → -malizika “get finished” c. -tumia “use” → -tumika “be in use” d. -elewa “understand” → -eleweka “get/be understood” e. -neema “grace; affluence” → -neemeka “get/be affluent” f. -samehe “forgive” → -sameheka “get/be forgiven” g. -kebehi “to ridicule” → -kebehika “get/be ridiculed”

In addition, a single final /u/ is dropped before-ik- (13), while the sequence of two non-front vowels /a,o,u/ prompts the use of a liaison consonant -l- (14). Different stems ending in ia/ea also use a furtive -l- before the suffix -ik-, as they do with other suffixes beginning with the vowel /i/ (15).

(13) Deletion of a single final -u and the suffix vowel /i/

a. -haribu “to spoil” → -haribika “get/be spoiled” b. -adhibu “punish” → -adhibika “get punished” c. -fahamu “know” → -fahamika “get/be known” Reciprocal, stative, and applicative verbs 145 (14) Liaison consonant -l- with two non-front final vowels and the suffix vowel /i/

a. -kaa “sit; stay” → -kalika “be inhabitable” b. -sahau “forget” → -sahaulika “get/be forgotten” c. -dharau “disdain” → -dharaulika “get/be disdained” d. -shaua “praise” → -shaulika “get praised”

(15) Furtive consonant -l- with stems ending in -ia/-ea and the suffix vowel /i/

a. -lea “raise a child” → -leleka “get raised” b. -pokea “receive” → -pokeleka “get received” c -zoea “get accustomed to” → -zoeleka “become customary” d. -zuia “prevent” → -zuilika “get prevented”

In addition, with a few stems, the stative suffix appears as -ikan-/-ekan- rather than -ik-/ -ek-, as shown in (16).

(16) Verb stems that use the suffix -ikan-/-ekan- in stative form

a. -pata “get; obtain” → -patikana “be obtainable; be available” b. -taka “need; want” → -takikana “be needed; be wanted” c. -jua “know” → -julikana “be well-known” d. -shinda “win; defeat” → -shindikana “fail (action); be unsuccessful” (vs. -shindika “get overcome”) e. -weza “be able to” → -wezekana “be possible” f. -ona “see” → -onekana “be visible” g. -kosa “miss” → -kosekana “be missing; be lacking” h. -sema “say; speak” → -semekana “be purported; be claimed” (vs. -semeka “be utterable; speakable”)

The stative suffix has the form -uk-/-ok- when applied to a verb base that involves the suffix -u-/-o- in the second-to-last syllable or to an adjective ending in /u/ (17–19). In some cases, the suffix -u-/-o- has the connotation of reverse action, while the corresponding suffix -uk-/-ok- generally expresses the notions of “state of being” or “feasibility” in reference to a reverse action (17).

(17) a. -funga “close” → -fungua “open” → -funguka “get open” b. -pinda “fold; bend” → -pindua → -pinduka “get overturned; “overturn sth.” overturn (self )” c. -funika “cover” → -funua “uncover” → -funuka “get uncovered”

(18) a. -pasua “tear” → -pasuka “get torn; burst” b. -fafanua “explain” → -fafanuka “get explained; become clear” c. -komboa “liberate” → -komboka “get liberated”

(19) a. -erevu “intelligent” → -erevuka “become intelligent” b. -refu “long/tall” → -refuka “become long/tall” 146 Reciprocal, stative, and applicative verbs You will observe that the segment -ik- in -funika (17c) is a special suffix used with a limited number of bases to produce verbs of action, contrary to the stative suffix -ik- that we have seen in previous paragraphs.

19.3. Applicative suffix -i-/-e- and the use of additional objects Most verb stems may be extended with the suffix -i-/-e-, called “applicative” because it allows the use of an additional object to which the action of the verb indirectly applies, as opposed to the “direct object” on which the action of the verb bears directly. The applicative suffix -i-/-e- is associated with the expression of notions such as “benefit/detriment”, “direction”, “location”, “instrument of the action”, or “topic/purpose”. It is translated in English with various prepositions, such as “to/toward (someone/place)”, “for (someone)”, “with (an instrument)”, “on”, “from”, “about (a topic)” (20–25). In particular, the notion of “detriment” is involved when a negative action applies to someone’s possession (20f–g). In addition, applicative verbs used in a double object construction generally include an “object marker” that highlights the “beneficiary/affected”. Different such cases are shown in (21) (you may refer to Language note 10.2 for a definition of the “object marker”; additional discussion is offered in 25.1). You also will observe that the object corresponding to the “beneficiary/affected” tends to come immediately after the verb, except in idiomatic con- structions, or in complex constructions like those involving a causative extension (21c–d). As seen in various examples below, the suffix -e- is used instead of -i- due to harmony with a mid-vowel /e,o/ in the verb base (20b–d, 22a–b). In addition, verb stems ending with two vowels /u,o,a/ or in ia/ea prompt the use of a liaison or furtive consonant -l- before the applicative suffix -i-/-e-, as shown in (20e, g, h) and (22a, d).

(20) Applicative constructions expressing “benefit/detriment”

a. -taka “wish” → -takia mtu kitu “wish sth. for sb.” b. -leta “bring” → -letea mtu kitu “bring sth. to/for sb.” c. -sema “speak” → -semea mtu “speak for sb.” d. -teta “argue” → -tetea mtu/kitu “argue for/defend sb./sth.” e. -kataa “refuse; deny” → -katalia mtu kitu “deny sth. to sb.” f. -iba “steal” → -ibia mtu kitu “steal sth. from sb.” g. -chukua “take” → -chukulia mtu kitu “take sth. at the expense of sb.” h. -fungua “open” → -fungulia mtu “open for sb.”

(21) Using applicative constructions of “benefit/detriment”

a. chukua → Salima alimchukulia “Salima took her sister’s “take” dada yake pesa money” b. -andika → Nitamwandikia mama “I will write a letter to “write” yangu barua my mother” c. -vunja heshima → Jirani alimvunjia “The neighbor broke “break the honor (of )” heshima mchumba the honor of my fiancé wangu (= has disrespected . . .)” d. -punguza bei → Mwenyeduka “The store manager has “lower the price” amempunguzia bei lowered the price for the mteja customer” (base: -pungua “decrease”, lit. “become low”) Reciprocal, stative, and applicative verbs 147 (22) Applicative constructions expressing “direction”

a. -kimbia “run/flee ( from)” → -kimbilia mtu/ “run to sb./ -kimbilia mahali flee to a given place” b. -hama “move from” → -hamia mahali “move to a given place” c. -fika “arrive” → -fikia mtu “reach sb.” d. -tembea “walk” → -tembelea “to visit” (lit. “walk to”)

(23) Applicative constructions expressing “location”

a. -soma “read” → kusomea chumbani/ “to read in a room” chumba cha kusomea “a reading room” b. -cheza “play” → kuchezea mpira uwanjani/ “play football on a field” uwanja wa kuchezea mpira “a field for playing football” c. -lala “sleep” → kulalia kitanda “to sleep on a bed”

(24) Applicative constructions expressing “instrument” (with the conjunction -a: “for”)

a. -chapisha “print” → karatasi za kuchapishia “printing paper (paper for printing)” b. -pika “cook” → sufuria ya kupikia wali “rice cooker (pot for cooking rice)” c. -kata nyama “cut meat” → ubao wa kukatia nyama “a board for cutting meat” d. -nywa chai “drink tea” → vikombe vya kunywea chai “tea drinking cups”

(25) Applicative constructions expressing “topic/purpose”

a. -furahi “be happy” → -furahia “be happy about/enjoy” b. -kasirika “be angry” → -kasirikia “be angry about/with” c. -fikiri “think” → -fikiria “think about (subject)” d. -soma “study” → -somea “study (for) + profession” (ualimu, uuguzi) (education, nursing) e. -ongea “chat” → -ongelea “chat about (subject)”

For the three cases listed in (26), the suffix -i- is unrelated to the notion of applicative object but involves a specific notion of “intensity” or “contrast”.

(26) a. -maliza → -malizia “finish (sth.) completely, finalize” “finish (sth.)” (also “finish (sth.) for/at . . .”) b. -vuta “pull” → -vutia “attract; be attractive” c. -nuka “stink” → -nukia “smell good”

19.4. Suffix combination Different suffixes seen in this section, as well as the passive and causative suffixes seen in Language notes 15 and 18, may combine with each other. Table 19.1 illustrates the most common suffix combinations. The order of suffixes is generally variable, depending on the intended meaning (see Table 19.1c–d, e–f), though the passive suffix always comes after 148 Reciprocal, stative, and applicative verbs the other suffixes, as shown in (27). In addition, the stative suffix-ik-/-ek- seldom combines with other suffixes.

Table 19.1 Typical suffix combinations a. Causative + Reciprocal -kumbuka “remember” -kumbusha “remind” -kumbushana “remind each other” b. Causative + Applicative -kumbushia “remind for” c. Reciprocal + Applicative -piga “hit” -pigana “hit each other; fight” -pigania “fight for” d. Applicative + Reciprocal -leta “bring” -letea “bring to/for” -leteana “bring ( for) each other” e. Causative + Reciprocal -pigisha “cause to be hit” -pigishana “cause each other to be hit” f. Reciprocal + Causative -pigana “hit each other; fight” -piganisha “cause to fight” g. Causative + Passive -kumbushwa “be reminded (of )” h. Applicative + Passive -letea “bring for/to” -letewa “have sth. brought to oneself”

(27) Using the passive suffix combined with another suffix

a. Liz ametukumbusha kisa hiki “Liz reminded us of this incident” → Τumekumbushwa kisa hiki na Liz “We have been reminded of this incident by Liz” b. Mariam aliniletea kitabu “Mariam brought me a book” → Nililetewa kitabu na Mariam “I was brought a book by Mariam” c. Pesa zangu zimeisha “My money is finished” → Pesa zimeniishia “My money is finished” (lit. “Money is finished for me”) → Nimeishiwa (na pesa) “I am broke” (lit. “I am out of money”)

You will observe that the idea of possession in (27c) is shown by the object pronoun -ni- “(to/for) me” (see zimeniishia). Reciprocal, stative, and applicative verbs 149 19.5. Review exercise (28) Add to the following verb stems an extension referring to the meaning indicated in the top row. Translate your answers into English. (Keep previous sections covered.)

extension → each other get/be for/to/at/from kuelewa kuele...... “understand each other” kufahamu kujua kukata kumaliza kusahau kusamehe kuudhi “to inconvenience”

19.6. Application exercises (29) Transform the verb base in parentheses following the indications provided. Fill in the blanks, while conjugating the new verb in the perfect tense (or use the infinitive form, depending on the context). Translate the sentences into English.

a. Nyumba yangu ______matengenezo. (-fanya + applicative, passive) b. Hamisi ______nyumba yake na serikali. (-vunja + applicative, passive) c. Abdalla ______pesa zake nyumbani. (-leta + applicative, passive) d. Samahani, kaka: unaweza ______dirisha? (-fungua + applicative, + “me”) e. Aliomba chumba cha ______wageni. (-pokea + applicative) f. Mkate ______leo. (-pata + stative, negative) [present tense] g. (Sisi) ______mashairi. (-soma + applicative, reciprocal) h. Jirani ______gari lake. (-rudi + causative, applicative, passive)

(30) Translate into Swahili.

a. A thief has robbed a child of his book. b. Fatuma will read the newspaper to her mother. c. I try to understand him, but he is not understandable. (Hint: kuelewa.) d. I want to talk about our journey. [Do not use a preposition.] e. My friend has bought me very nice flowers. f. We write to each other every day. 150 Reciprocal, stative, and applicative verbs g. Your message has reached your parents. [Do not use a preposition.] (Hint: kufika.) h. You can sit on a chair. [Do not use a preposition/locative suffix.] i. It is obvious that he does not understand. (Hint: kuona.) j. His voice can be heard from here. k. I had my passport stolen by a pickpocket. l. I need paper for writing letters (i.e. appropriate for writing letters on). m. Father cooks dinner for the university workers. n. Salima fell down and had her arm broken (broke her arm). o. I feel sorry for Liz. (See huruma.)

19.7. Cumulative exercises (31) Translate into Swahili.

a. I like to compete with other people, not to fight with them. (Base verb: “hit”.) b. It is not possible to travel without a passport. c. It is important to respect each other. d. Lower the price for me, please. (Hint: kupungua.) e. Some young people have moved to the city. f. The father is preparing dinner for his children. (Hint: kuandaa.) g. They followed each other to the bus station. (lit. “until the bus station”.) h. They were friends long ago, but now they have forgotten each other. i. This game is well-known in America, but many Tanzanians don’t know it. j. We know each other, but we are not friends. We met in Europe. k. The phone is still in use/busy. (Hint: kutumia.) l. Do not be fooled. That brother is a big liar. (Hint: kudanganya.) m. It is well-known that he loves you. 20 Adverbs in a broad sense

20.1. Inherent vs. derived adverbs In Swahili, there are relatively few inherent adverbs, that is, words whose primary role is to qualify adjectives and verbs. This is the case for terms such as sana “very”, polepole “slowly”, mapema “early”, barabara “very well” (with the accent on the second syllable), or zamani “long ago”. There are also the interrogative adverbs -je? “how?”, vipi? “how?”, namna gani? “how (in what manner)”, which are illustrated in (1).

(1) Use of interrogative adverbs

a. Unasemaje “television” katika Kiswahili? “How do you say ‘television’ in Swahili?” b. Ningesemaje “mama” kwa wingi? (u-ingi) “How would I say ‘mama’ in the plural?” c. Sijui nifanyeje! “I don’t know what to do!” (lit. “how I should do!”) d. Tutakwenda vipi mjini? “How will we go to the city?” e. Kofia hii umeipata namna gani? “How did you get this hat?”

As seen in (1a–c), the adverb -je “how?” is suffixed to a verb in indicative, conditional, or subjunctive mood. In addition, vipi “how?” in (1d) derives from the interrogative pronoun -pi? “which”, while namna gani “how?” in (1e) comprises a noun meaning “manner”, and an interrogative adverb meaning “what”. The examples in (2) illustrate the use of these different words in non-adverbial contexts.

(2) a. Hiki ni chakula namna gani? “What sort of food is this?” b. Kufika Arusha unapitia njia gani? “To reach Arusha by which way do you pass?” c. Ni miji ipi inakaribiana na Arusha? “Which cities are close to Arusha?”

Besides inherent adverbs, there are also numerous cases of adverbs that are derived from adjectives, nouns, or other adverbs, and we will examine these in the following sections. In addition, different nouns are used in constructions that allow them to function like adverbs, that is, to qualify adjectives or verbs. 152 Adverbs in a broad sense 20.2. Derivation of adverbs from nouns using the prefix ki- Nouns that express human qualities or refer to cultural background may be transformed into adverbs using the prefix ki-, as shown in (3–4). Given the type of nouns that are involved, this process is virtually unlimited.

(3) Noun-derived adverbs using the prefix ki-

a. m-shenzi “an imbecile” → kishenzi “like an imbecile” b. m-jinga “an idiot” → kijinga “like an idiot” c. m-toto “a child” → kitoto “like a child; childishly” d. Afrika “Africa” → kiafrika “(like an) African” e. mzungu “a white person” → kizungu “(like a) European”

(4) Use of noun-derived adverbs with the prefix ki-

a. Mariam huvaa kizungu lakini hula kiafrika “Mariam dresses like a European but eats like an African” (referring to food/cuisine) b. Sipendi jinsi analalamika kitoto “I don’t like how he complains like a child” c. Anapolewa, Juma huongea ki(u)jinga “When he is drunk, Juma talks like an idiot” d. Mariam anapenda kusoma kiukweli “Mariam truly likes reading” e. Kiukweli, baba yako alinisaidia sana “In truth, your father helped me a lot”

As seen in (4c), the abstract class prefix u- referring to human qualities is optionally preserved in the presence of the adverbial prefix ki-. However, it is obligatorily preserved when the adverbial form is used as a sentence , as in (4d–e). The adverbial prefix ki- also may be attached to other types of nouns or to nominal groups to convey the notion of “in terms of” or “in relation to” (5). In such cases, the noun keeps its original prefix, as it appears in (5b–c).

(5) a. Kibiashara, huwezi kufanya hivyo “Commercially speaking, you cannot act like that” b. Tunahusiana kikazi, siyo kimapenzi “We relate to each other as colleagues, not as lovers” c. Ameharibika kimwili na kitabia “He is damaged physically and in his character” d. Anaishi kisiku hizi (see siku hizi “nowadays”) “He lives in accordance with today’s trends” e. Tuliongea kikawaida (see kawaida “habit”) “We talked casually (ordinarily)” Adverbs in a broad sense 153 In addition, the adverbial prefix ki- is used with some locative prepositions to produce adverbs of manner, through a process that doubles the original stem. Examples are given in (6).

(6) Adverbs of manner derived from locative adverbs

a. juu “up” kusoma kijuujuu “to read superficially” b. chini “down” kuendelea kichinichini “to advance stealthily” c. mbele “in front” kujipeleka kimbelembele “to put oneself forward” d. nyuma “behind” kuenda kinyumanyuma “to go backward”

20.3. Derivation of adverbs from adjectives using the prefix vi- Using the prefix vi-, most adjectives may be transformed into “adverbs of manner” that qualify verbs. Examples of adjective-derived adverbs are listed in (7), while the examples in (8–9) illustrate their use in different sentences. In (9), we see in particular the use of adverbs of manner with the prefix vi- in impersonal constructions (ni/si “it is/it is not”).

(7) Adjective-derived adverbs using the prefix vi-

a. -zuri “good” → vizuri “well; (it is/it is not) good” b. -baya “bad” → vibaya “badly; (it is/it is not) bad” c. -ema “nice (of character)” → vyema/vema “nicely; (it is/it is not) nice” d. -kali “fierce; ruthless” → vikali “fiercely; ruthlessly” e. -gumu “difficult; hard” → vigumu “with difficulty; (it is/it is not) hard” f. -kubwa “big; great” → vikubwa “greatly, extremely”

(8) Use of adverbs with the prefix vi-

a. Ninakukumbuka vizuri “I remember you (very) well” b. Kwa nini unaniangalia vibaya? “Why do you look at me with hostility?” (lit. “badly”) c. Juma amempiga mtoto wake vibaya/vikali “Juma has badly/ruthlessly beaten his child” d. Siku hiyo alifurahi vikubwa “That day he was extremely happy”

(9) Use of adverbs of manner with the prefix vi- in impersonal constructions

a. Ni vibaya kupiga watoto “It is bad to beat children” b. Kuendesha baisikeli si vigumu sana; “Riding a bike is not very difficult; kuendesha gari ni vigumu zaidi driving a car is more difficult”

As shown in (10), the adjective stem -dogo instead uses the prefix ki- to produce the adverb. In addition to the adverbial use, kidogo is used as a quantity adjective meaning “some” (10d). 154 Adverbs in a broad sense (10) Adjective-derived adverb exceptionally using the prefix ki-

a. -dogo “little” → kidogo “a little bit; some” b. Kazi hii ni ngumu kidogo “This work is a little difficult” c. Samahani, leo ninaumwa kidogo “Sorry, I am a little sick today” d. Ningependa maziwa kidogo “I would like some milk”

20.4. Adverbial phrases using the prefixes vi- or -vyo- The adverbial prefix vi- seen in the previous section is also used with interrogative and demonstrative pronouns to express the idea of “manner” (11a–c), or to express the conjunction “as well”, in the case of the demonstrative -le “that” (11d).

(11) a. vipi? “how?” → Utasafiri vipi? “How will you travel?” b. hivi/hivyo “like this/that” → Ukiendelea hivi/hivyo utafaulu “If you continue like this/like that you will succeed” c. vile “like that → Ukiendelea vile utafaulu (past)” “If you continue like that, you will succeed” d. vilevile “as well” → Liz vilevile ni mwalimu “Liz is a teacher as well”

The adverbial prefix vi- is also prefixed to the relative marker -o- to give the segment -vyo- used in relative clauses that express the idea of “manner”. Examples are given in (12–14).

(12) a. ninavyoona “as I see; in my view”; nilivyoona; tutakavyoona “as I saw; as we will see” b. nisivyoona “as I don’t see” (negative form limited to present tense)

(13) nionavyo “as I see; in my view” (suffixed form, in present affirmative only)

(14) a. (Kama) nilivyosema “as I have said” b. (Kama) mnavyojua “as you know” c. Nilivyosikia “as I have heard”

The segment -vyo is also used with the particle ndi- of the emphatic verb “be” to produce the adverb ndivyo, literally “this is how/that is how”. Examples in (15) show the use of ndivyo in ordinary speech, while those in (16) show its use in proverbs.

(15) a. Kaka, hivi ndivyo umekuwa? “Brother, is this how you have become?” b. Hivi ndivyo alivyo/anavyokuwa “This is how he is/how he becomes” c. Ndivyo unavyofanya kazi? “Is this how you do (your) work?” Adverbs in a broad sense 155 (16) a. Mtoto umleavyo, ndivyo akuavyo “As you raise a child, so he becomes (so he grows)” b. Kama ilivyo kwa kuku, ndivyo ilivyo kwa kanga “As it is for the chicken, so it is for the guinea fowl” c. Jamvi ulitandikavyo, ndivyo utakavyoketi “As you set the mat, so you will sit”

20.5. Adverbial nouns and adjectives Different types of nouns may be used as adverbs to qualify verbs. This is the case for some nouns referring to the notion of “speed”, as shown in (17). Here, the adverbial nouns seem to follow from “adverbial groups” with the conjunction kwa “with (manner)”, the latter being skipped through ellipsis (see the use of kwa in 20.6).

(17) Adverbial groups vs. adverbial nouns based on the notion of “speed”

a. haraka Abdalla anakwenda kwa haraka “haste” lit. “Abdalla is walking with haste” → Abdalla anakwenda haraka “Abdalla is walking fast” b. kasi Abdalla anakwenda kwa kasi “speed” lit. “Abdalla is walking with speed” → Abdalla anakwenda kasi “Abdalla is walking fast” c. mbio Nchi yetu inaendelea kwa mbio “speed” lit. “Our country is progressing with speed” → Nchi yetu inaendelea mbio “Our country is progressing fast”

The noun kiasi “amount/quantity” in (18a) also functions as an adverbial noun meaning “(in) average amount/quantity, moderately”, optionally using the conjunction kwa (18b–c). The same pattern is observed with for makusudi “intention” in (19c), while the conjunction kwa is obligatory when the qualifying noun is used with an adjective (19b). On the other hand, the conjunction kwa “with (manner)” is excluded with the noun kimya “silence” when used alone as an adverbial (20c).

(18) a. Shamba lake lina kiasi kikubwa cha miti “His field has a big quantity of trees” b. Shamba lake lina mti (kwa) kiasi “His field has an average quantity of trees” c. Kila mwaka anasafiri (kwa) kiasi “Every year he travels moderately”

(19) a. Ulikuwa na makusudi gani ulipokuja hapa? “What was your intention com ing here?” b. Alimgonga kwa makusudi mazima “He hit him (clearly) on purpose” c. Alimgonga (kwa) makusudi “He hit him on purpose” 156 Adverbs in a broad sense (20) a. Kimya kilitanda chumbani “Silence spread in the room” b. Walimsikiliza kwa kimya kizito “They listened to him in a heavy silence” c. Walimsikiliza kimya “They listened to him in silence/silently”

As shown in (21b–d), the noun mara “time (occurrence)” and the numeral moja “one” also are used in constructions that have the value of an adverb (see “from time to time”; “immediately”; “directly”).

(21) a. Nimekutana naye mara moja/tano “I meet with him one/five time(s)” b. Hukutana na wanafunzi mara kwa mara “I meet with students from time to time” c. Mariam! Njoo hapa mara moja! “Mariam! Come here immediately!” d. Aliingia chumbani moja kwa moja “He immediately entered the room”

In addition, some adjectives of foreign origin may be used as adverbs. The most common of them are shown in (22).

(22) Use of adverbial adjectives

Adjective Adverbial use Meaning a. wazi Alisema wazi/waziwazi He said openly that he does “open” kuwa hakupendi not like you b. bure Alinipa kalamu hii bure He gave me this pen for free “worthless; free” c. tayari “ready” Tayari nimelipa I have paid already

Some nouns that are used as adjectives after the verb “be” to express a state of being optionally allow omitting the verb “be” when used after another verb (see subject-ki-wa “while being”), which makes them function like adverbs. This is shown in (23) with the nouns uchi [mu-u] “nudity” and kimya [ki-ki] “silence” (see also (20)).

(23) Adverbial use of a state of being noun in idiomatic constructions

Adjective use with “be” Adverbial use after a verb Gloss a. Mtoto yuko uchi → Mtoto anatembea The child is walking in “The child is naked” uchi the nude (lit. naked ) → Watoto wanalala The children sleep in uchi the nude b. Msichana yuko kimya → Wasichana wamekaa The girls have sat “The girl is silent” kimya silent/silently → Wasichana walibaki The girls stayed silent kimya

The examples in (24) illustrate idiomatic expressions involving an adjective or a noun group used as an adverb while omitting the use of the verb “be” or “have/be with” (see “while”; “having/with”). Adverbs in a broad sense 157 (24) Idiomatic expressions with an adverbial group omitting the use of the verb “be/have”

Adj./noun gr. Adverbial use in idiomatic Gloss expression a. sare → -enda sare play to a tie “similar” Timu zetu zilikwenda sare Our teams played to a tie b. wazi → -wa/-tembea/-kaa . . . Be/walk/sit . . . with a bare “open; bare” tumbo/kifua . . . wazi belly/chest Anapenda kutembea He likes walking with a bare kifua wazi chest c. mdomo wazi → -wa/-acha/-baki . . . Be/leave sb./remain . . . stunned “open mouth” mdomo wazi (lit. with an open mouth) Wimbo wake ulituacha His song left us stunned midomo wazi d. macho (wazi) → -wa macho be/stay alert (lit. with open eyes) “(open) eyes” Nilijaribu kuwa macho I tried to stay alert all the time wakati wote e. mikono mitupu → -fika, -ja, -ondoka arrive, come, leave . . . “empty hands” mikono mitupu empty-handed Hamtaondoka mikono You will not leave mitupu empty-handed f. makini → -wa makini be attentive “attention; Niko makini unalosema I am attentive to what you are attentiveness” saying g. njaa → -lala (na) njaa sleep hungry “hunger” (lit. sleep with hunger) Kwa sababu ya ukame, Due to the drought, people watu hulala njaa sleep hungry

In addition, various other constructions involving the notions of “cause/consequence” or “purpose” lack a conjunction (see implement/manner conjunction kwa “with; by”). These types of patterns appear fully idiomatic, as they apply to a single verb or a limited set of verbs within a given semantic category (25).

(25) Cause/consequence constructions without a conjunction

a. -fa “die”: kufa maji/moto/ → Nipe chakula, Give me some food, njaa/kiu “die from water ninakufa njaa I am starving (drown)/fire/hunger (be → Abiria wawili Two passengers starving, be very hungry)/ wamekufa maji drowned thirst (be very thirsty)” b. -shiba (“be satisfied/full”) → Nimeshiba ugali, I am satisfied with stiff + “food” ningependa kujaribu porridge, I would like wali to try rice c. -lewa (“be drunk/ → Amelewa bangi He is intoxicated with intoxicated”) + “intoxicant” hashish 158 Adverbs in a broad sense Nouns that are usually used in locative constructions without a locative marker (i.e. familiar places that imply the notion of “service”, mentioned in 16.4) may also appear in idiomatic expressions that involve a direct object, as shown in (26).

(26) Idiomatic expressions with a direct object and a locative phrase without a locative marker

a. -fukuza mtu kazi/shule . . . → Mkurugenzi The director has “dismiss sb. from work/ amewafukuza shule dismissed four students school” (lit. “chase”) wanafunzi wanne from school b. -futa mtu kazi/shule . . . → Serikali imemfuta The administration has “dismiss; fire” (lit. “erase kazi mfanyakazi fired the negligent sb. from work/school”) mzembe employee c. -tia mtu jela “put sb. in → Watamtia mshukiwa They will put the suspect jail” jela/Mshukiwa in jail/The suspect will be atatiwa jela put in jail

The verb -chelewa “be late (at/to)” may also be followed by a noun referring to a given action, without a locative marker, as shown in (27a). In contrast, it may also be followed by an infinitive form to express a delayed action (27b).

(27) Verb -chelewa “be late at/to” followed by a locative object without a locative marker vs. infinitive form

a. Nilichelewa kazi/shule/mtihani/mchezo “I was late to work/to school/to the exam/to the game” b. Kwa nini umechelewa kuja, kusoma, kulala . . . ? “Why have you been late coming, studying, sleeping . . . ?”

20.6. Adverbial groups with the conjunctions kwa/bila (manner/cause) Some nouns are used with the conjunctions kwa “with; by; out of ” (manner/cause) or its opposite bila “without” in adverbial constructions that serve to qualify verbs (28–30).

(28) Adverbial groups using the conjunction kwa “with/by” and a noun (manner/cause)

a. huruma “compassion” kwa huruma “with/out of compassion” b. hasira “anger” kwa hasira “with anger; angrily” c. ukali “severity” kwa ukali “severely” d. heshima “respect; honor” kwa heshima “with respect, respectfully; politely, honorably” e. sauti “voice” kwa sauti “aloud” f. sauti kubwa “big voice” kwa sauti kubwa “loudly; with a big voice” g. kelele “noise” kwa kelele “with noise” h. furaha “happiness” kwa furaha “happily” i. makini “attention; kwa makini “attentively” concentration” Adverbs in a broad sense 159 j. ujinga “stupidity” kwa ujinga “stupidly” k. woga “fear” kwa woga “out of fear; fearfully” l. (ma)shaka “hesitation” kwa (ma)shaka “with hesitation” m. bahati “luck” kwa bahati “by luck” n. upole “gentleness” kwa upole “gently” o. unafiki “hypocrisy” kwa unafiki “hypocritically” p. uongo “lie; deceit” kwa uongo “deceptively” q. hiari “choice” kwa hiari “by choice” r. masikitiko “sadness” kwa masikitiko “with sadness; sadly”

(29) Adverbial groups using the conjunction bila “without” and a noun (manner)

a. shaka “doubt” bila shaka “without doubt” b. huruma “compassion” bila huruma “without compassion” c. woga “fear” bila woga “without fear; fearlessly” d. hasira “anger” bila hasira “without anger”

(30) Using adverbial groups with kwa/bila and a noun

a. Ninadhani aliniangusha kwa maksudi “I think he knocked me down on purpose” b. Alitupokea kwa huruma “He received us out of/with compassion” c. Alitupokea bila huruma “He received us without compassion” d. Aliniangalia kwa woga “He watched me out of fear/fearfully (with fear)” e. Aliniangalia bila woga “He watched me fearlessly (without fear)”

Other adverbial groups include the conjunction kwa/bila followed by an infinitive form. A few examples are shown in (31).

(31) Adverbial groups with kwa/bila and an infinitive form

a. Alimuuliza kwa/bila kubembeleza “He asked him (un)soothingly” b. Amekichukua kwa/bila kujua “He has taken it (un)knowingly” c. Alinijibu kwa/bila kusita “He answered me with(out) hesitation”

Finally, ukweli “truth” is used with the conjunction kwa to qualify a whole sentence in terms of “truthfulness”, in alternation with kweli (32). Additional forms are given in Appendix C.

(32) Hamisi kwa (u)kweli ni mwongo “Hamisi in truth is a liar”

20.7. Various uses of the conjunction kwa In addition to its use in locative phrases and adverbial groups of manner/cause as seen in 20.5 and 20.6, the conjunction kwa is used to express various other functions, as shown in (33–38) (other examples are found in various parts of this text). 160 Adverbs in a broad sense (33) Expression of duration/occurrence with kwa “for”

a. Nimesoma kwa masaa mawili/muda mfupi “I have read for two hours/a short while” b. Umekuwa Mombasa kwa muda gani? “How long have you been in Mombasa?” c. Nilifanya kazi Kanada kwa mwaka mmoja “I worked in Canada for a year” ( for one year) d. Kwa mara ya kwanza, amesema Kiswahili! “For the first time, she has spoken Swahili!” e. Kwa mara ya mwisho, naomba uondoke “For the last time, I request you to leave”

(34) Expression of means/instrument with kwa “by/with”

a. Nitafika kesho kwa meli “I will arrive tomorrow by boat” b. Mizigo utasafiri kwa reli/bahari “The loads will travel by rail/sea” c. Mariam anakata karatasi kwa mkasi “Mariam is cutting paper with scissors”

(35) Expression of manner with kwa “in”

a. Tafadhali, sema kwa Kiswahili “Please, speak in Swahili” b. Alieleza kwa kina/undani “He explained in depth/fully” (kina “depth”; undani “core”)

(36) Expression of point of view/comparison with kwa “for/in/out of”

a. Kwa watu wengi, mazoezi ni muhimu (kwangu, kwako . . .) “For many people, sport is important” (“For me, you . . .”) b. Dada zake wanalingana kwa urembo/urefu “His sisters are similar in beauty/height” c. Tunajitegemea kwa vifaa vya shule “We rely on ourselves for school supplies” d. Alinisaidia kwa hali na mali “He supported me morally and financially” e. Wanafunzi watatu kwa kumi wamekuja “Three students out of ten have come”

(37) Expression of utility/target with kwa “for”

a. Pesa zote zinatumiwa kwa kukodi nyumba/kwa kutengeneza nyumba “All the money is used for renting the house/for repairing the house” b. Mama ananipa pesa kwa karo ya shule “Mother gives me money for school fees” c. Wimbo huu umelengwa kwa vijana “This song is intended for the youth” Adverbs in a broad sense 161 (38) Expression of correlation with kwa “along with”

a. Wake kwa waume waligoma “Men, alongside women, went on strike” b. Tumekula ugali kwa nyama “We have eaten stiff porridge along with meat” (idiomatic; see pamoja na for general use)

20.8. “Ideophones” as intensive adverbs In addition to regular adverbs that are used in various contexts, there also exist “ideophones”, which apply to a single adjective or verb and serve to convey the notion of intensity (see “completely”). As shown in (39–40), ideophones generally use repetitive sounds, sometimes based on the last syllable of the verb or the adjective they refer to. Similar to the color adjectives in (39), the noun for “darkness” also may be used with an intensive adjective (41).

(39) a. -eusi ti!/-eusi tititi “completely black” b. -eupe pe!/-eupe pepepe “completely white” c. -ekundu ndu!/-ekundu ndundundu “completely red”

(40) a. -kataa kata kata “refuse completely” b. -jaa tele (see also adj. -ingi tele “extremely abundant”) “be chock-full” c. -choka tiki (see also adj. tiki tiki “squashy”) “be completely tired; be exhausted” d. -fa fofofo “be absolutely dead” also -lala fofofo “be sound asleep” e. -funika gubi gubi (see -gubika “cover completely”) “cover from head to toe” f. -lowa chapa chapa “be completely soaked” g. -lewa chapa chapa “be completely drunk” h. -tulia tuli “be completely calm” i. -nyamaza jii (colloquial) “keep completely silent”

(41) giza tororo [ø-li/ma-ya] “complete darkness”

Finally, some verbs may be emphasized with a particle that imitates the sound of the action of the verb. The most common of those particles, often called onomatopoeia, are given in (42).

(42) a. -anguka pu! “fall down with a bang” b. -ondoka vu! “depart swiftly” c. -cheka kwe kwe kwe “laugh loudly” d. -lia kwi kwi kwi “cry loudly” 162 Adverbs in a broad sense 20.9. Application exercises (43) Translate into Swahili.

a. How do you know my father? b. I live well (get along) with everyone (lit. “every person”). c. It is good to wake up early. d. It is nice to visit your friends. e. He did not ask me politely. f. The children are playing happily. g. As I understand, you are Kenyan? h. I have lived in town for a long time. i. This is how I came to East Africa.

20.10. Cumulative exercises (44) Translate into Swahili.

a. Can you clean this coat for me? b. Did you see her cry? c. Do not worry. I can look after myself. d. Her parents are well-known here in town. e. I did not close the door because it doesn’t close well. f. I will bring you a gift tomorrow. g. If you watch attentively, you will see him. h. It is not good driving while using the phone. i. This is the new student whom I met (with) in the city. j. Do not take the boat. Come by plane. k. Is Zanzibar visible from the continent? l. Do you want me to read aloud? m. My brother is a little taller than me. 21 Adjectives in a broad sense

As seen previously in 5.1, Swahili has a limited number of simple adjectives, that is, single terms whose primary role is to qualify a noun. However, this is compensated for by various phrases used in the same position as simple adjectives and which serve to qualify nouns. Many of these constructions, often called “adjectival phrases”, are based on the conjunction -a “of; for” or the pronoun -enye “with; that has/have; characterized by”. The following paragraphs describe various forms of adjectival phrases, as well as adjectives that derive from verbs.

21.1. Adjectival phrases with the conjunction -a

21.1.1 Conjunction -a + infinitive form With adjectival phrases based on the conjunction -a and an infinitive form, the qualified noun generally corresponds to the implicit subject of the verb, as in (1a). Accordingly, cha kutisha “scary” corresponds to ambacho kinatisha “which scares”. However, with a few verbs, the qualified noun corresponds to a direct object of the verb, the conjunction-a having a “purpose” connotation (see “for” in 1b). It may also correspond to an applicative object introduced by the applicative suffix-i-/-e- with a “topic/purpose” connotation (see -i-/-e- “for/about” in (1c–d)).

(1) Adjective groups based on the conjunction -a and an infinitive form

Source verb Adjective group a. kutisha “to scare” -a kutisha “scary” kupendeza “to please” -a kupendeza “nice; pleasant” kutosha “to suffice” -a kutosha “enough; sufficient” kusikitisha “sadden” -a kusikitisha “saddening” kufurahisha “to please/ -a kufurahisha “enjoyable/ make happy” pleasant/pleasurable” kusisimua “to thrill/excite” -a kusisimua “thrilling/exciting” kupindukia “be excessive” -a kupindukia “excessive” kudumu “to last/be permanent” -a kudumu “durable/permanent” b. kukaanga “to fry” -a kukaanga “for frying/fried” kuchemsha “to boil sth.” -a kuchemsha “for boiling/boiled” c. kupika “to cook” -a kupikia “(for) cooking” kuchapisha “to print” -a kuchapishia “(for) printing” kuandika “to write” -a kuandikia “(for) writing” (-i- “for”) d. kufurahi “be happy” -a kufurahia “delightful” (lit. “to be happy about”/-i- “about”) You will observe that adjectival phrases of the form “conjunction -a + infinitive form” generally serve to qualify actions, states, or objects (2). However, some of them may apply 164 Adjectives in a broad sense to animates, as shown in (3). In addition, the construction -a kutosha “enough” can be used as an adverb, with the prefix vi-, as shown in (4). (2) Use of adjectival phrases with the possessive -a and an infinitive form a. viazi vya kukaanga “fried potatoes” b. habari ya kufurahisha “enjoyable news” c. nguo za kupendeza “pleasant clothes” d. umasikini wa kupindukia “excessive poverty” e. mafuta ya kupikia “cooking oil” (3) Use of adjectival phrases with the possessive -a and a verb applied to humans a. Leo tuna wateja wa kutosha “Today we have enough customers” b. Mimi ni mkazi wa kudumu nchini Kenya “I am a permanent resident in Kenya” c. Msituni mle mna nyoka wa kutisha “In that forest, there are scary snakes” (4) Asante. Nadhani naelewa vya kutosha “Thanks. I think I understand enough” Importantly, not all verbs may be used in the “-a + infinitive form” adjectival formation, even though verbs that indicate a change in state, a persisting state, or the notion of manipulation seem predominant in this category. Ultimately, for expressions like those in (1–4), the speaker must learn them with use. Here, one has to think of verb-derived adjectives in English such as those that use the gerund suffix -ing (e.g. “amaze” → “amazing”).

21.1.2 Conjunction -a + noun As shown in (5), various categories of nouns may be used in adjectival phrases based on the conjunction -a. Some of those nouns refer to a given quality or state (5a–b) or to the kind of material an object is made of (5c). The examples in (6) illustrate the use of these types of phrases.

(5) Adjective groups based on the conjunction -a and a noun

Source noun Adjective group a. huruma “compassion” -a huruma “compassionate” upendo “love” -a upendo “loving” uongo “deceit” -a uongo “deceptive” ukweli “truth” -a ukweli/-a kweli “truthful/true” haki “right” -a haki “rightful; fair” binafsi “individuality” -a binafsi “private” ujinga “stupidity” -a ujinga “stupid” upuuzi “idiocy” -a upuuzi “idiotic” b. raha “bliss; comfort” -a raha “fancy; blissful” anasa “luxury” -a anasa “luxurious” amani “peace” -a amani “peaceful” siri “a secret” -a siri “secret”, haraka “haste” -a haraka “hasty” lazima “obligation” -a lazima “obligatory” maana “meaning; importance” -a maana “meaningful; important” joto “heat” -a joto “hot (geographic)” ajabu “wonder; amazement” -a ajabu “amazing; incredible” Adjectives in a broad sense 165 Source noun Adjective group c. ubao/mbao “board(s)” -a mbao “made of boards; wooden” chuma “metal” -a chuma “metallic” jiwe/mawe “stone(s)” -a mawe “stony; made of stones” ngozi “skin; hide; leather” -a ngozi “made of leather”

(6) Use of adjectival phrases with the possessive -a and a noun

a. maneno ya haraka “hasty words” b. maneno ya uongo “deceptive words” c. maneno ya ukweli “truthful words” d. kiongozi wa kweli “a true leader” e. mpenzi wa siri “a secret lover” f. viatu vya ngozi “leather shoes” g. meza ya mbao “wooden table”

As seen in (6c–d), the adjectival phrase ukweli has the connotation of “truthfulness”, while the form without the class prefix, that is, kweli, means “true”. The form kweli “true” is also used as a single adjective in impersonal constructions (7a), or as an intensity adverb that qualifies a whole sentence (7b–c).

(7) a. Ni kweli, Hamisi ni mwongo “It is true, Hamisi is a liar” b. Kweli Hamisi ni mwongo “Truly, Hamisi is a liar” c. Hamisi kweli ni mwongo “Hamisi truly is a liar”

In addition to single color adjectives like those seen in 5.1 and 9.2, color qualification may also use the pattern “conjunction -a + noun”. The most common color terms using this pattern are listed in Table 21.1 (see TUKI 2001, BAKIZA 2010, or Mdee et al. 2011 for additional terms).

Table 21.1 Color terms using the pattern “conjunction -a + noun”

Source word Adjectival phrase a. kahawa “coffee” -a kahawia “dark brown” b. maji ya kunde “pea sauce” -a maji ya kunde “brown” c. hudhurungi “kind of brown cloth” -a hudhurungi “light brown” majani makavu “dry leaves” -a majani makavu “light brown” d. damu ya mzee “old man’s blood” -a damu ya mzee “maroon” e. kaki “khaki color” -a kaki “khaki” f. jani/majani “leaf(ves)”; -bichi “raw; fresh” -a kijani (kibichi) “green” g. majivu “ashes” -a kijivu “gray” h. doa/madoa “spot; freckle” -a madoadoa “spotted” i. manjano [ma-ya] “” -a manjano/-a njano “yellow” j. mtindi “sour milk” -a mtindi “cream” rangi ya maziwa “color of milk” -a (rangi ya) maziwa “cream” k. rangi “color; paint” -a rangi “colored” l. waridi “rose” -a waridi “pink” m. zambarau “jambolan plum (sort of fruit)” -a zambarau “purple” n. samawati “sky” (in poetry) -a samawati “sky blue; light blue” o. nili “dark blue color” -a nili “dark blue; indigo; navy blue” p. English word “blue” -a bluu, -a buluu “blue” 166 Adjectives in a broad sense With the adjectival phrases in (8), the conjunction -a is optionally omitted, which makes the qualifying noun appears as a single adjective (9). As shown in (10), the three terms listed in (8) may also be used in impersonal constructions as single adjectives, that is, without the conjunction -a.

(8) Optional use of the conjunction -a in some adjectival phrases with a noun

Source noun Adjectival phrase a. moto “fire” (-a) moto/(-a) moto moto “hot”/“very hot” b. baridi “the cold” (-a) baridi “cold” c. hatari “danger” (-a) hatari “dangerous”

(9) Examples of adjectival phrases optionally using the conjunction -a

a. Wangependa bia mbili (za) baridi “They would like two cold beers” b. Mimi nitakunywa chai (ya) moto “I will drink hot tea” c. Hamisi anakaa katika eneo (la) hatari “Hamisi lives in a dangerous area”

(10) Use of nouns as single adjectives in impersonal constructions

a. Chumbani mle ni baridi/moto sana “It is very cold/hot in that room” b. Ni hatari kutembea usiku “Walking at night is dangerous”

21.1.3 Conjunction -a + numeral, locative, or temporal term vs. -a ki- pattern Constructions based on the conjunction -a followed by an ordinal number, or a locative/ temporal adverb or phrase, produce an important set of adjectival phrases. Some of them are listed in (11), with examples of use in (12).

(11) Adjectival phrases with -a + ordinal number, or locative/temporal adverb or phrase

a. -a kwanza “first”, -a pili “second”, -a tatu “third” . . . b. -a mwanzo “initial”, -a kati (katikati) “central; medial”, -a mwisho “final” c. -a mbali “distant”, -a karibu “close (proximity)” d. -a sasa “current” (lit. “of now”); -a zamani “former/past” (lit. “of long ago”) -a kila siku “quotidian; everyday + noun” e. -a nje “external”, -a ndani “internal (interior); private (related to privacy)”, -a kulia “right”, -a kushoto “left”, -a juu “high; upper”, -a chini “low; lower”, -a chinichini “very low; also: secret”, -a juujuu “superficial”, -a nyumbani “domestic; home [staying]” (lit. “of in the house”), -a porini “wild” (lit. “of in the bush”)

(12) Using adjectival phrases with -a + ordinal number or locative adverb/phrase

a. ndugu zangu wa karibu “my close relatives” b. mama wa nyumbani “a stay-at-home mom” c. mnyama wa porini “wild animal”

Some nouns that inherently express quality are also transformed into adjectives using the conjunction -a followed by the adverbial prefix ki-, which replaces the original prefix of the noun (13a–c). The -a ki- pattern may also be added to an inherent adverb to imply Adjectives in a broad sense 167 additional connotation, as in (13d) (compare with (11e)). Examples of use are given in (14). Importantly, the particle -a of the -a ki- pattern is a conjunction and, therefore, must be used in reference to a noun, and not in impersonal constructions. However, generic nouns such as kitu (cha)/jambo (la) “something (of )” added before the adverb allow the use of impersonal constructions, as in (14d). (13) Examples of adjectival phrases with -a + adverbial prefix ki- Source noun/adverb Adjectival phrase a. mke “woman” -a kike “female” mume “man” -a kiume “male” b. mtoto “child” -a kitoto “childish” mjinga “fool” -a kijinga “foolish” katili “brute” -a kikatili “brutal” mwenyeji “local person” -a kienyeji “local, informal” jadi “tradition” -a kijadi “traditional” mtaalamu “specialist” -a kitaalamu “specialized” mshenzi “uncivilized person” -a kishenzi “uncivilized” rafiki “friend” -a kirafiki “friendly (e.g. of a match, relationship)” c. Afrika “Africa” -a kiafrika “African” Uchina “China” -a kichina “Chinese” Marekani “America” -a kimarekani “American” d. sasa “now” -a kisasa “modern; up-to-date” zamani “ago” -a kizamani “outdated” pekee “alone” -a kipekee “unique/exceptional” (14) Using adjectival phrases with -a + adverbial prefix ki- a. Mimi sipendi sana pombe za kienyeji, “I don’t like local beer very much, ninapenda zaidi pombe za kisasa I like modern beer better” b. Nina watoto wawili wa kike, “I have two female children, na mmoja wa kiume and one male child” c. Ulikuwa mchezo wa kirafiki “This was a friendly match” d. Ni jambo la kijinga kuendesha gari “It is (something) foolish to drive bila leseni without a license” The examples in (15) illustrate the optional preservation of the abstract class prefix u- in the presence of the adverbial prefix ki- previously mentioned in 20.2. (15) Optional use of the adverb prefix ki- along with the abstract noun prefix u- a. ujanja “slyness” maneno ya kiujanja/kijanja “sly words” b. upweke “loneliness; maisha ya kiupweke/kipweke “solitary life” solitude” c. unyama “inhumanity; kitendo cha kiunyama/ “savage act” savagery” (mnyama kinyama “animal”) d. ujinga “foolishness” vitendo vya kiujinga/kijinga “foolish actions” e. ukatili “brutality” uongozi wa kiukatili/kikatili “brutal governance” f. ukoloni “” tabia za kiukoloni/kikoloni “colonial attitudes” 168 Adjectives in a broad sense g. upuuzi “absurdity” swali la kiupuuzi/kipuuzi “absurd question” h. utamaduni “culture” sherehe za kiutamaduni/ “cultural kitamaduni celebrations” Similar to the adverbial pattern seen in 20.2(5), the adjectival -a ki- structure is frequently used with simple nouns that keep their original prefix. This particular construction conveys the notion of “pertaining to”, as shown in (16).

(16) The pattern -a ki- applied to a simple noun with its original prefix

Base Adjectival group Example Gloss a. mapenzi -a kimapenzi uhusiano wa kimapenzi a love relationship “love” “romantic” b. jamii -a kijamii mitandao ya kijamii social networks “society” “social” c. raia -a kiraia mapinduzi ya kiraia civil revolution “citizen” “civil” d. siasa -a kisiasa vitendo vya kisiasa political actions “politics” “political” e. mkoa -a kimkoa tawi la kimkoa regional branch “region” “regional” f. taifa -a kitaifa habari za kitaifa national news “nation” “national” report g. mataifa -a kimataifa shirika la kimataifa international “nations” “international” company

21.2. Adjectival phrases based on -enye “with” vs. bila “without” The construction based on the pronoun -enye “with; that has/that have”, or the conjunction bila “without” followed by a noun, produces a virtually unlimited number of adjectival phrases. Instead of bila, the negative relative form of the verb “have” may also be used, which gives asiye na/wasio na “that has/have not” in animate classes, and the pattern [class-si-class-o na] in non-animate classes. The examples in (17) and (18) illustrate these patterns with animate and non-animate nouns, respectively.

(17) Adjectival phrases with “-enye” vs. “bila, asiye/wasio na” in the animate class

a. ujuzi msichana mwenye ujuzi a knowledgeable girl “knowledge” msichana bila ujuzi a non-knowledgeable girl b. furaha watoto wenye furaha joyful children gloomy children “joy” watoto bila furaha (lit. without joy) c. huruma watu wenye huruma compassionate people “compassion” watu wasio na huruma non-compassionate people d. maringo kijana mwenye maringo a youngster that has attitudes “attitudes” kijana asiye na maringo a youngster without attitudes e. kelele mbwa mwenye makelele a noisy dog “noise” mbwa asiye na makelele a non-noisy dog f. kipara mwanamume mwenye kipara a bald man “baldness” mwanamume asiye na kipara a non-bald man Adjectives in a broad sense 169 (18) Adjectival phrases with “-enye + noun” vs. “bila” in non-animate classes

a. amani nchi yenye amani a peaceful country (lit. with peace) “peace” nchi bila amani a troubled country (lit. without peace) b. mwanga nyumba yenye mwanga a bright house (lit. with light) “light” nyumba bila mwanga a dark house (lit. without light) c. maana maneno yenye maana meaningful words “meaning” maneno yasiyo na maana meaningless words d. sukari mkate wenye sukari bread with sugar/sugary bread “sugar” mkate usio na sukari bread without sugar e. mafuta nyama yenye mafuta fatty meat “oil; fat nyama isiyo na mafuta meager/lean meat [noun]” f. chumvi chakula chenye chumvi salty food “” chakula kisicho na chumvi unsalted food

Instead of a noun, the infinitive form of some verbs also may be used after the pronoun -enye to qualify a noun (19).

(19) Possessive -enye + infinitive form vs. relative negative

a. Watu wenye kupenda amani “peace-loving people” b. Maswali yenye kusumbua “annoying questions”

21.3. Verb-derived adjectives using the suffix -vu/-fu Besides inherent adjectives, different verb stems are transformed into noun or adjective stems by adjoining the suffix -vu or -fu to them. Non-sonorant consonants /p,k/ in a verb stem’s last syllable are generally replaced by the suffix with a non-sonorant consonant -fu, as shown in (20a–h, 24a–c). Similarly, sonorant consonants /v,z/ are replaced by the suffix with a sonorant consonant -vu, as shown in (21e–g). In general, verb stems ending with the vowel /a/ preceded by another vowel also use the suffix -vu, as in (21a–d, 25). Con- versely, those ending with a nasal consonant /n,ny/ and foreign verbs ending in /i,e,u/ use a suffix of the form -ifu by default (20i–l, 24d–h). As shown in (22–25), verb-derived adjectives ending in -vu/-fu generally agree with their head-noun, similar to inherited adjectives. However, many of them only agree with a noun in the animate class, while they remain invariable in the presence of a non-animate head- noun (23) (see also cases listed with a slash mark in (20–21)). The lists in (20–25) are not exhaustive but give the most common stems.

(20) Verb-derived adjectives using the suffix -fu/-ifu

a. -kunjuka “be relaxed” -kunjufu “relaxed; cheerful” b. -tukuka “be exalted/revered” -tukufu “exalted; glorious” c. -badilika “change (self )” -badilifu/badilifu “changeable; inconstant” d. -timilika (-timia) “be completed” -timilifu “complete; perfect” e. -nyooka “be straight/honest” -nyoofu “straight; honest” 170 Adjectives in a broad sense f. -potoka “be misguided” -potofu “misleading; pervert” g. -takatika “be pure” -takatifu “holy; sacred; saint” (-takata “be clean”) h. -ogopa “fear” -ogofu/ogofu “fearful/cowardly person” i. -danganya “lie; deceive” -danganyifu/danganyifu “false; deceitful” j. -lingana “be equal/similar; -linganifu/linganifu “matching; match” symmetrical” k. -buni “build; create; imagine” -bunifu/bunifu “creative; imaginative” l. -haribu “spoil” -haribifu/haribifu “destructive”

(Note the merger between the verb-final vowel and the suffix vowel: i-i > i; u-i > i.)

(21) Verb-derived adjectives using the suffix -vu

a. -legea “loosen; be slack” -legevu/legevu “slack; loose” b. -kakamaa “become hard/stiff ” -kakamavu/kakamavu “hard; stiff; firm; tough; tenacious” c. -tulia “calm down, be calm/quiet” -tulivu/tulivu “calm; quiet” d. -pea “to mature; be ripe” -pevu “mature; fully grown; ripe” e. -angaza “illuminate; shine” -angavu/angavu “transparent; bright; clever” f. -oza “rot” -bovu “defective; rotten; evil” g. -iva “ripen, be ripe; be cooked” -bivu “ripe”

(Note that the adjective stems in (21f–g) begin with a consonant /b/ that is absent in the verb bases; see 21.4.)

(22) Examples using verb-derived adjectives with the suffix -fu/-vu

a. -kunjuka “be relax” → uso/moyo mkunjufu “a cheerful heart/face” b. -nyooka “be straight/honest” → njia/tabia nyoofu “straight path/character” c. -pea “to mature; be ripe” → matunda mapevu “ripe fruits” d. -oza “to rot” → magari mabovu “defective cars”

(23) Use of verb-derived adjectives with the suffix -fu/-vu that are invariable in the non-animate class

a. uongozi legevu “loose leadership/ vs. kiongozi mlegevu loose leader” b. kioo angavu “transparent glass/ vs. mwanafunzi mwangavu a bright student” c. mkono kakamavu “a firm hand/ vs. mshindani mkakamavu a tough competitor” d. viungo timilifu “complete organs/ vs. mtu mtimilifu a perfect individual” e. mitandao badilifu “changeable networks/ vs. viongozi wabadilifu inconstant leaders” Adjectives in a broad sense 171 Due to the meaning of their base verbs, many of the verb-derived adjectives ending in -vu/-fu also are limited to nouns in the animate class, as shown in (24–25). However, like most nouns or adjectives, they may be derived in class [mu-u] to express “abstraction”, by replacing their prefixes with u- (the “abstract” derivation is presented in Language note 8.1).

(24) Verb-derived adjectives using the suffix -fu/-ifu exclusively in the animate class

a. -aminika “be trustworthy” mwaminifu “trustworthy” b. -changamka “be cheerful” mchangamfu “cheerful; good-humored” c. -choka “get/be tired” mchofu “weary” d. -tamani “to desire” mtamanifu “ambitious/desirous” e. -zini “commit adultery” mzinifu “adulterous” f. -tii “obey; conform; mtiifu “obedient; be submissive” submissive” g. -samehe “forgive” msamehefu “forgiving; merciful” h. -sahau “forget” msahaulifu “forgetful”

(Note final/suffix vowel merger /e-i → e/ in (24g); liaison consonant -l- in (24h), also seen in 18.2.)

(25) Verb-derived adjectives using the suffix -vu exclusively in the animate class

a. -lemaa “be crippled/disabled” mlemavu “disabled person” b. -pumbaa “be foolish/dazed” mpumbavu “fool; idiot” c. -nyamaa “shut up; be silent” mnyamavu “quiet/taciturn person” d. -sikia “hear; pay attention; obey” msikivu “attentive/obedient person” e. -angalia “pay attention” mwangalivu “attentive person” f. -onea “oppress” mwonevu “tyrannous/oppressive person” g. -nyenyekea “be humble/ mnyenyekevu “humble/deferential respectful (toward)” person”

As shown in (26), adjective stems restricted to the animate class may still be used in other classes, through the -a ki- transformation seen before (21.1.3).

(26) a. mwonevu: vitendo vya kionevu “oppressive acts” b. mpumbavu: majibu ya kipumbavu “foolish answers” c. mnyenyekevu: lugha ya kinyenyekevu “deferential language” d. mzinifu tabia za kizinifu “adulterous behavior”

21.4. Origin of the noun/adjective suffix -fu/-vu (advanced analysis) As mentioned before, verbs stems ending with a sonorant consonant produce nouns and adjective stems with the suffix -vu, while those ending with a non-sonorant consonant produce stems with the suffix -fu. This reflects a spirantization process that historically transformed the original sonorant stops (*b,*d,*j,*g) into the sonorant spirant /v/, and the original non-sonorant stops/affricate (*p,*t,*ʧ,*k) into the non-sonorant spirant /f/ in contact with closed vowel *u (refer to Mpiranya 1998 for details). 172 Adjectives in a broad sense The use of the suffix -vu in the presence of verb stems ending in /aa, ia, ea, oa, ua/ reflects the contact between the vowel *-u with sonorant consonants such as /l/ or /w/ that generally have disappeared in the word-final syllable. As the spirantization process generally did not affect nasal consonants (m,n,ɲ), the suffix -fu is used after a stem nasal consonant by default, along with a liaison vowel /i/. In addition, the use of the sequence -ifu as the default suffix has been extended to verbs of foreign origin ending in /i,e,u/. Regarding the phonetic aspect of verb-derived adjectives, there exist different cases of -vu/-fu variation depending on the speaker. This is the case for mwangalivu/mwangalifu “attentive person”; mchofu/mchovu “weary”; msamehefu/msamehevu “forgiving, merciful”; mzoevu/mzoefu “experienced/accustomed person” (from kuzoea “become used to, get accustomed to”). We also have -potofu/-potovu “misguided; also pervert, perverse, immoral” (from -potoka “be misguided” or -potoa “to pervert”; e.g. imani potofu/potovu “misguided belief ”, mwenendo mpotovu “immoral conduct”). In addition, the verb -sumbua “bother, annoy” gives -sumbufu “bothersome, annoying”, though other verbs ending in Vowel + a produce adjectives in -vu (but see also -sumbuka “get/be bothered, annoyed”, which may have given the noun usumbufu “bother, annoyance; nuisance”). On the other hand, adjectives such as -kuu “big; great” or -gumu “hard” do not derive from current verbs kukua “to grow up” and kuguma “become hard”. They reflect an archaic derivation that used the non-closed suffix vowel *-ʊ, as non-closed vowels did not prompt spirantization (see Common Bantu *-kúd- “grow up”/*-kúdú “big; adult”, which become -kula/-kulu, then -kua/-kuu in contemporary Swahili; see also *-gʊm- “become hard”/ *-gʊmʊ “hard”, which became -guma/-gumu). In addition, the alternations of -oza/-bovu “to rot/rotten” and -iva/-bivu “ripen/ripe” seen in (21f–g) reflect a stem-initial consonant /b/ that has historically disappeared inmost contexts (see Common Bantu *-bɔd- “rot”, *-bɪ́dʊ- “be ripe/cooked”). It is unclear if -ovu “evil; vile” derives historically from the same root *-bɔd-, but through a different path (e.g. mwovu/waovu “evil person/people”; maovu “evil acts”).

21.5. Application exercises (27) Translate into Swahili.

a. Juma has a modern house. His living room is very pleasant. b. He wrote a very pleasurable story. c. Your students are very creative! (Hint: kubuni “create”.) d. Many people like doing dangerous things these days. e. Truly, this is sad (saddening) news. f. We do not have enough chairs today. g. Which American game do you know? h. This food is rotten. i. I think the tea is hot now. j. Mariam has scored an exciting goal. Adjectives in a broad sense 173 21.6. Cumulative exercises (28) Translate into Swahili.

a. I think your friend envies you (lit. sees envy for you). b. If I go to the market, I will bring you a hat. c. Each time I drink milk, I think of my grandmother. d. We will not eat at home today. We eat in a restaurant every Sunday. e. Our car overturned and had its windows broken. f. I heard them arguing very loudly. g. If you had money, where would you like to travel? h. My mother sends me money from home. i. Beer is not allowed in this park/garden. j. These beignets truly smell good. k. The director is happy about the new workers. 22 Noun formation and augmentative/ diminutive processes

This section addresses various processes used to create new nouns from other nouns or types of words. These processes use suffixes, prefixes, and the combination of two different words.

22.1. Noun creation from verbs using suffixes In addition to the adjective formation, the suffix -vu/-fu seen in 21.3 is also used to produce nouns from verbs. However, this process is relatively rare as far as noun creation is concerned. Examples of nouns derived from verbs using the suffix -vu/-fu are given in (1). As shown in (1c), the variant -ifu is used after a nasal consonant, similar to what we have seen with adjectives (21.3). In the following lists, plural forms or noun classes that do not follow common patterns are systematically noted.

(1) Verb-derived nouns using the suffix -vu/-fu

a. -umia “suffer” → maumivu “pain; ache” b. -okoa “to rescue” → wokovu [mu-u] “rescue; salvation” c. -fana “be good; → ufanifu “success (of an action)” be successful (action)” d. -punguka → upungufu/ma- “deficiency(ies); flaw(s); shortage” “be incomplete” (adj. -pungufu “deficient”) e. -kosa “err; offend; → mkosefu “guilty person; offender” transgress (intr.)” (adj. kosefu “incorrect”) f. -kosa “lack; miss” → ukosefu “lack of; deficiency” (adj. kosefu “deficient”) → mkosefu wa “lacking + sth.; + noun that lack(s) + sth.” g. -chelewa “be late” → uchelevu “lateness” (adj. chelevu “often late; retrograde”)

The other suffixes commonly found in the formation of nouns from verbs are -aji, -i, -o, and -e. In particular, the suffix -aji, which expresses the notion of “agent” of the action, applies to all kinds of verbs of action (2). When used with the abstract prefix u-, the suffix -aji expresses the notion of “action/fact of doing”. This appears to be a virtually unlimited process in terms of developing new nouns. The suffix -aji is especially used to refer to new professionals or professional operations (3). Noun formation vs. class variation 175 (2) Suffix aji - referring to the agent of an action (cl. [mu-yu,a/wa-wa]) and the fact of doing (cl. [mu-u])

a. -winda “hunt” → mwindaji/wawindaji; “hunter(s); + uwindaji + hunting” b. -tenda “do” → mtendaji; + utendaji “doer; + action” c. -soma “read” → msomaji; + usomaji “reader; + reading” d. -pigana “fight” → mpiganaji; + upiganaji “fighter; + fighting” e. -fuga “rear (animals)” → mfugaji; + ufugaji “breeder; + husbandry” f. -chonga “carve” → mchongaji; + uchongaji “carver; + carving”

(3) Suffix -aji used for professional terms in class [mu-yu,a/wa-wa] and [mu-u]

a. -sema “say; speak” → msemaji; + usemaji “speaker; + speaking” b. -cheza “play” → mchezaji; + uchezaji “player; + playing” c. -tangaza “announce; → mtangazaji; “announcer; broadcast” + utangazaji + broadcasting” d. -uza “sell” → muuzaji; + uuzaji “seller; + sale” e. -beba “transport” → mbebaji; + ubebaji “porter; transportation” f. -pasua “operate → mpasuaji; + upasuaji “surgeon; surgery” (surgery)” g. -taifisha “nationalize” → utaifishaji “nationalization” (taifa “nation”) h -andika “write; → uandikaji “registration” register”

The suffix-i also indicates the agent of action, though it may express different connotations in some cases. Though relatively common, the suffix -i is restricted to certain verb stems. As shown in the following examples in (4), the suffix -i generally alters the final consonant of the stem (e.g. k-i → shi; t-i > si; p-i > fi; w-i > vi; b-i → vi or zi; d,l,g-i → zi). In addition, verbs ending in Vowel + a give nominal stems ending in /zi/, which reflects a furtive consonant -l- that has generally disappeared in the word-final syllable (similar changes are observed with the causative suffix -y- in 18.3). Finally, nasal consonants and some instances of the complex consonant /nd/ and /mb/ are also not affected by the suffix vowel -i, as shown in (5a–b) and (5c–d) respectively.

(4) Suffix -i expressing the agent of an action and other connotations

a. -andika “write” → mwandishi; “writer; + maandishi + writings” b. -fuata “follow” → mfuasi “follower” c. -lapa “eat ravenously” → mlafi “glutton” d. -lewa “become drunk” → mlevi; + ulevi “drunkard; + alcoholism” e. -gombana “quarrel” → ugomvi/magomvi “quarrel(s)” f. -iba “steal” → mwizi; + wizi [mu-u] “thief; + theft” g. -loga “bewitch” → mlozi; + ulozi [mu-u] “witch; wizard; sorcerer; witchcraft” h. -lala “sleep; lie down” → malazi “bedding; boarding” 176 Noun formation vs. class variation i. -penda “like; + love” → mpenzi; + mapenzi “fan; lover; + love” j. -lea “bring up” → mlezi; + malezi “custodian; + upbringing” k. -kaa “reside” → mkazi; + makazi “resident; + residence” l. -pokea “receive” → mapokezi “reception” (rare: upokezi) m. -nyoa “cut hair” → kinyozi/vi- “barber” [mu-yu,a/wa-wa] n. -ongoza “lead” → kiongozi/vi- “leader” [mu-yu,a/wa-wa]

(5) Nasal consonants and cases of consonant /nd/ and /mb/ not affected by the suffix -i

a. -shindana “compete” → mshindani “competitor; rival” b. -soma “study; learn” → msomi “learned person; intellectual” c. -shinda “win” → mshindi; + ushindi “winner; victor; + victory” d. -omba “request; pray” → ombi/maombi “request(s); prayer(s)”

Like the suffix -i, the suffix -o is relatively common, though restricted to certain verb stems. In most cases, it indicates the implement of the action or the implementation/result of the action (6).

(6) Suffix -o expressing the implement or implement/result of the action

a. -sikia “hear” → sikio/masikio “ear(s)” b. -funika “to cover” → mfuniko; + kifuniko “a cover; + lid” c. -fungua “open” → ufunguo/funguo “key(s)” d. -kumbusha “remind” → ukumbusho; “reminder; + makumbusho + museum” e. -onyesho “to show” → onyesho/maonyesho “a show; act [drama]” f. -vuna “to harvest” → mavuno “harvest” g. -zungumza “converse” → mazungumzo “conversation” h. -pambana “to fight” → mapambano “fight” i. -endelea “to progress” → maendeleo “progress” j. -lipa “pay” → malipo “payment” k. -isha “to end” → mwisho “end” l. -la “eat” → mlo “meal” m. -lia “cry; roar” → mlio “cry; shout; bang sound” n. -pata “get” → kipato “income” o. -kaa “sit” → kikao “session; meeting” p. -andika “write” → mwandiko “writing; handwriting” q. -chora “draw” → mchoro “drawing” r -umba “create; shape” → umbo/maumbo “shape(s); structure(s)” Noun formation vs. class variation 177 Finally the suffix -e, which is relatively rare, indicates in most cases the target or the result of the action. The most common examples are listed in (7).

(7) Suffix -e expressing the target or the result of the action

a. -tuma “send on an errand” → mtume “messenger; prophet” b. -umba “create” → kiumbe/vi- “creature; being” [mu-yu,a/wa-wa] c. -teua “choose; select” → mteule; + teule “elect; appointed; chosen” (non-anim.) d. -lisha “feed” (-la “eat”) → lishe [n-i] “nutrition; nutrient” e. -kama “dry out; become arid” → ukame; + kame “drought; + dry; arid” f. -shinda “win; vanquish” → mshinde; “loser; vanquished; + ushinde + defeat” g. -vimba “swell” → kivimbe “swelling; circumference” h. -pamba “decorate” → mpambe lit. “decorated person, bridesmaid; best man; aide-de-camp” i -pinda “bend” → upinde/pinde “bow(s)”

22.2. Noun creation from other nouns or from adjectives/locatives In addition to the suffixes seen above, nouns are also formed by changing the class prefix of a noun or by adding a noun class prefix to a stem with which it is usually not associated. The most commonly used prefix for this process is the abstract class prefix u-, which produces a virtually unlimited number of nouns from other nouns, from adjectives and, exceptionally, from locative prepositions (8–11). As shown in (8a–c), (9a–c), and (10a–b), some derived nouns in u- involve additional connotations, beside the simple notion of abstractness (other cases are seen in 8.1).

(8) Production of nouns from other nouns using the prefix u-

a. mnyama “animal” unyama “inhumanity; savagery” b. balozi/ma- (anim.) “ambassador” ubalozi “embassy; ambassadorship” c. binafsi “individuality” ubinafsi “individualism; egotism” d. gaidi/ma- (anim.) “terrorist” ugaidi “terrorism” e. mtoto “child” utoto “childhood” f. fundi/ma- (anim.) “craftsman” ufundi “craftsmanship” g. bingwa/ma- “expert; ubingwa “championship (title); (anim.) champion” expertise” h. mhandisi “engineer” uhandisi “engineering” 178 Noun formation vs. class variation (9) Production of nouns from adjectives using the prefix u-

a. -chafu “dirty” uchafu “dirt; filth” b. -baya “bad” ubaya “evil; badness” c. hai “alive” uhai “life” d. -aminifu “honest; reliable” uaminifu “honesty; reliability” e. -bichi “raw (uncooked); ubichi “rawness (food); fresh (green)” fresh (green)” f. -fupi “short” ufupi “brevity; shortness” g. -gumu “hard; difficult” ugumu “hardness; difficulty” h. -zito “heavy” uzito “weight” i. jasiri “brave” ujasiri “bravery” j. -kali “fierce; severe; ukali “fierceness; severity; intense” intensity” k. maskini “poor” umaskini “poverty”

(10) Production of nouns from locative prepositions using the prefix u-

a. mbali “far” umbali “distance” b. ndani “inside” undani “core/heart of the matter” c. karibu “close; near” ukaribu “proximity”

(11) Using locative-derived nouns

a. Nyumba yako iko umbali gani kutoka hapa? “At what distance is your house from here?” b. Iko umbali wa maili tatu kutoka hapa “It is at a three-mile distance from here” c. Alifafanua swala hili kwa undani “He explained this issue fully”

Another process creates new animate nouns by assigning an animate class prefix to a non-animate stem. This process, which is quite rare, involves a change in meaning, as shown in (12).

(12) Noun formation from other nouns using the prefix mu-/wa-

a. shamba/ma- mshamba/wa- “field; rural area” “rustic person(s); lout(s)” b. ushirika mshirika/wa- “union; co-operative” “partner(s); associate(s)”

In addition to the use of prefixes, a great number of technical terms or terms referring to new occupations and entities are produced by compounding two different nouns, or a noun with an adjective or numeral. The list in (13) shows compound nouns based on mwana/ wana, which means “specialist”, “member”, or “actor”, depending on the context, instead of “child/children; offspring(s)” originally (the plural for all nouns in (13) follows the model seen in (13a)). Noun formation vs. class variation 179 (13) Compound nouns based on mwana/wana

a. chama “party; mwanachama/ “member (party/association) association” wanachama members (party/association)” b. nchi “country” mwananchi “citizen” c. siasa “politics” mwanasiasa “politician” d. maji “water” mwanamaji “sailor” e. hewa “air” mwanahewa “aviator” f. jeshi/ma- “army” mwanajeshi “soldier” g. anga “sky” mwanaanga “astronaut” h. sheria “law” mwanasheria “lawyer” i. chuo “college” mwanachuo “college/university student” j. habari “news” mwanahabari “journalist” k. mitindo “style; fashion” mwanamitindo “model (artist)” l. muziki “music mwanamuziki “musician” m. riadha “athletics mwanariadha “athlete (track and field)” (track and field)” n. michezo “sports” mwanamichezo “sportsman/woman” o. isimu “linguistics” mwanaisimu “linguist” p. familia “family” mwanafamilia “family member”

In (14) are listed modern compound nouns based on elimu “knowledge; education”, as well as nouns created by combining nouns and adjectives or numerals (additional terms may be found in TUKI 2000, 2001, Mohamed 2011).

(14) Compound nouns based on elimu “knowledge, education” and various other nouns

a. jamii “society” elimu jamii “sociology” b. msitu “forest” elimu misitu “forestry” c. lishe (-la “eat”) “nutrient” elimu lishe “dietetics” d. mdudu “insect” elimu wadudu “entomology” e. pembe; mraba “corner; square” pembemraba “right angle” f. pembe; tatu “corner; three” pembetatu “triangle” g. pembe; nne “corner; four” pembenne “rectangle” h. pembe; tano “corner; five” pembetano “pentagon” i. mali; ghafi “wealth; raw” mali ghafi “raw material” j. mali; asili “wealth; origin” mali asili “natural resources” k. asili; mia “source; hundred” asilimia “percentage; percent” l. maili; mraba “mile; square” maili mraba “square mile” m. kilomita; mraba “kilometer; square” kilomita mraba “square kilometer”

22.3. Noun formation from verbs and verb phrases using prefixes Many nouns referring to different functions and social statuses are formed by replacing the prefix ku- of the infinitive with an animate class prefix mu-/wa-. This process applies to infinitive verbs in both active and passive forms (15a–d, 15e–k). As shown in (16), some of the nouns formed in this manner may be used as adjectives. 180 Noun formation vs. class variation (15) Infinitive-derived nouns in the animate class

a. kugombea “fight for” mgombea “candidate; contestant” b. kuumba “create” muumba “creator” c. kushtaki “accuse” mshtaki “accuser; plaintiff” d. kutawala “administer; govern” mtawala “administrator” e. kushtakiwa “be accused” mshtakiwa “defendant; accused” f. kutawaliwa “be governed” mtawaliwa “constituent” g. kufiwa “lose someone mfiwa “bereaved person” (f-i-iw-a) (by death)” h. kulipwa “be paid” mlipwa “payee” i. kutuhumiwa “be suspected” mtuhumiwa “suspect” j. kuzaliwa “be born” mzaliwa “native” k. kudaiwa “be indebted” mdaiwa “debtor”

(16) Infinitive-derived nouns used as adjectives

a. kualikwa “be invited” → mwalimu mwalikwa “a guest teacher” b. kupendwa “be loved” → mtoto wake mpendwa “his beloved child” c. tarajiwa “be expected” → kiongozi mtarajiwa “future leader” (lit. “expected leader”)

The process described in the previous paragraph also applies to some verb phrases involving an infinitive verb and a noun. Even though compound nouns produced by this process refer predominantly to human beings (17), there exist some compound nouns derived from an infinitive phrase in non-animate classes (18). In addition, a few compound nouns derived from an infinitive phrase are used to qualify a noun, that is, as adjectives (19) (additional examples may be found in Appendix D).

(17) Compound nouns in the animate class derived from an infinitive phrase

a. kusema kweli “say the truth” msemakweli “honest person (truth-speaker)” b. kugombea kiti “run for office” mgombeakiti “candidate (office contender)” c. kutema kuni “cut wood” mtemakuni “wood cutter” d. kuweka hazina “keep treasure” mwekahazina “treasurer” e. kuendesha “conduct charges” mwendeshamashtaka prosecutor” mashtaka f. kufanya biashara “do business” mfanyabiashara “business person” g. kufanya kazi “do work” mfanyakazi “worker; employee” h. kuuza samaki “sell fish” muuzasamaki “fish seller” i. kuuza mikate “sell bread” muuzamikate “bread seller” j. kushona viatu “sew shoes” mshonaviatu “cobbler” k. kula riba lit. “eat interest” mlariba “usurer; interest-taker” Noun formation vs. class variation 181 l. kula rushwa lit. “eat corruption” mlarushwa “corrupt; corruption-taker” m. kumcha Mungu “fear God” mchamungu “pious person” n. kupita; njia “pass; pathway” mpitanjia “passerby” o. kupiga mbizi “dive mpigambizi “diver” (make plunges)” p. kupiga zumari “play clarinet” mpigazumari “clarinetist” q. kupiga picha “take photographs” mpigapicha “photographer” r. kufungua mimba “open pregnancy” kifunguamimba “first-born child” s. kifunga mimba “close pregnancy” kifungamimba “last-born child”

(18) Nouns in non-animate classes derived from an infinitive phrase

a. kufungua kinywa “open the mouth” kifunguakinywa “breakfast” b. kuamsha kinywa “warm up the mouth” chamshakinywa “breakfast” c. kupima joto “measure; heat” pimajoto “thermometer” d. kupima; maji “measure; water” pimamaji “spirit level” e. kupaza sauti “increase sound” kipazasauti “loudspeaker” f. kunasa sauti “catch sound” kinasasauti “voice recorder” g. kufyonza vumbi “suck up dust” kifyonzavumbi “vacuum cleaner”

(19) Compound nouns derived from an infinitive phrase used as adjectives

Infinitive phrases Derived compound nouns used as adjectives a. kupenda raha kijana mpenda raha “to like pleasure” “a pleasure-loving youngster” b. kupenda watu mvulana mpenda watu “to like people” lit. “a people-loving boy” c. kuchapa kazi wasichana wachapa kazi “work hard” (lit. “hit work”) “hardworking girls” d. kuenda (na) wazimu kiongozi mwendawazimu “walk (with) ghosts (in the head)” “a mentally ill leader” (dismissive)

22.4. Augmentative/diminutive processes By changing the original prefix of a given noun, it possible to add to that noun the con- notation of “big” or “little”. Depending on the context of speech or the intonation, the “augmentative” and “diminutive” processes may imply secondary connotations of “little and lovely”, vs. “big and ugly” or “big and bothersome”. The augmentative process shifts nouns into class [ø-li/ma-ya], while the diminutive process transfers them into class [ki-ki/vi-vi]. Importantly, the prefix change implies a real class shift, as even nouns for animates formed in this manner prompt the class agreement based on their new prefix, that is, in a non-animate class. In addition, when anoun in augmentative/diminutive class is used as the object of a verb, without any particular adjective or pronoun, it may still be qualified with descriptive adjectives, such as “big” or “small”, based on its new class prefix (i.e. kubwa/makubwa; kidogo/vidogo). The examples in (20) illustrate the augmentative shift of nouns into class [ø-li/ma-ya]. Following the general rule seen in 9.4, monosyllabic stems use the prefix ji- (20c–d), while 182 Noun formation vs. class variation stems beginning with a vowel use the prefix j- (20e–h). In addition, derivation prefixes j- and ji- are maintained in the plural form, contrary to inherited prefixes (20c–g). As shown in (20f–g), the second term of the compound words also undergoes an augmentative class shift, with mume becoming dume and mke becoming jike. The term dume alone means “big/strong man” or “male”, while jike means “big/strong woman” or “female”. Examples of use in sentences are given in (21).

(20) Augmentative shift in class [ø-li/ma-ya]

a. kitambaa/vi- “fabric(s)” → tambaa/ma- “big/ugly fabric(s)” b. kikombe/vi- “cup(s)” → kombe/ma- “big/ugly cup(s)” c. mtu/wa- “person/people” → jitu/majitu “big/ugly person/ people; giant(s)” d. mti/mi- “tree(s)” → jiti/majiti “big/ugly tree(s)” e. nyoka/nyoka “snake(s)” → joka/majoka “big/ugly snake(s)” f. mwanamume/wanaume → janadume/majanadume “big/ugly man/men” “man/men” g. mwanamke/wanawake → janajike/majanajike “big/ugly woman/ “woman/women” women”

(21) Use of augmentative shift in class [ø-li/ma-ya]

a. Walipita kwenye sehemu zenye majoka “They crossed areas with huge snakes” b. Timu yetu imenyakua kombe la dunia “Our team has snatched the World Cup” c. Jihadhari na janadume lile, ni hatari sana! “Beware of that ugly man, he is very dangerous”

Examples of diminutive shift into class [ki-ki/vi-vi] are given in (22). As shown in (22c–f ), monosyllabic stems keep or receive an additional prefix ji-, while stems beginning with a vowel keep or receive an additional prefix j- (22g–i). Illustrative examples are given in (23). As suggested by the example in (23a), the use of adjectives such as “big” and “small” is generally required after a noun in augmentative/diminutive form, in the absence of any other qualifier (23).

(22) Diminutive shift into class [ki-ki/vi-vi]

a. gari/ma- “car(s)” → kigari/vigari “little car(s)” b. karatasi “paper(s)” → kikaratasi/vikaratasi “little paper(s)/sheet(s)” c. jiwe/mawe “stone(s)” → kijiwe/vijiwe “little stone(s)” d. mto/mi- “river(s)” → kijito/vijito “little river(s)” e. mti/m- “tree(s)” → kijiti/vijiti “little tree(s); stick(s); twig(s)” f. mtu/wa- “person/people” → kijitu/vijitu “little person/people” g. jicho/macho “eye(s)” → kijicho/vijicho “little eye(s)” h. nyumba “house(s)” → kijumba/vijumba “little house(s)” i. nyoka “snake(s)” → kijoka/vijoka “little snake(s)” Noun formation vs. class variation 183 (23) Use of diminutive shift into class [ki-ki/vi-vi]

a. Alinunua kigari kidogo, ingawa ni janadume kubwa “He bought a very little car, though he is a huge man” b. Alikusanya vikaratasi vyake akaondoka “He collected his little papers and left”

Nouns that are already in class [ø-li/ma-ya] generally do not use the augmentative pro- cess, similar to the nouns with a prefix ki-/vi- in class [ki-ki/vi-vi] regarding the diminutive process. However, some speakers tend to bypass this restriction, using an additional prefix li- or an infixed segment ji- in class [ø-li/ma-ya], or by infixing the segment ji- in class [ki-ki/vi-vi]. This process generally has an expressive or a dismissive connotation, depending on the use (e.g. “very big/huge vs. awful”; “very small; minuscule”), as shown in (24) and (25).

(24) Expressive use of the augmentative process with nouns in class [ø-li/ma-ya]

a. duka/ma- “store(s)” → liduka/majiduka “huge/awful store(s)” b. gari/magari “car(s)” → ligari/majigari “huge/awful car(s)” c. jicho/ma- “eye(s)” → lijicho/majicho “huge/awful eye(s)”

(25) Expressive use of the diminutive process with nouns in class [ki-ki/vi-vi]

a. kitabu/vi- “books(s)” → kijitabu/vijitabu “very small books(s)” b. kikombe/vi- “cup(s)” → kijikombe/vijikombe “minuscule cup(s)”

On the other hand, nouns with a prefix ch-/vy- in class [ki-ki/vi-vi] freely use the diminutive process by adding a prefix ki-/vi- before the regular noun prefix. This allows the formation of expressive diminutives, by inserting the expressive segment ji-, as shown in (26).

(26) Regular vs. expressive use of the diminutive with ji- prefix in class [ki-ki/vi-vi]

a. chumba/vy- → kichumba/vichumba “little room(s)” → kijichumba/vijichumba “minuscule room(s)” b. chama/vy- → kichama/vichama “little (political) party(ies)” → kijichama/vijichama “insignificant (political) party(ies)”

The use of the expressive diminutive marker ji- is occasionally found in classes other than [ki-ki/vi-vi], as shown in (27). In such cases, the expressive prefix ji- generally replaces the original prefix of the noun, as in (27a–b). However, the nouns ofclass [ø-li/ma-ya] with a ji- or j- prefix keep their original prefixes in both the singular and the plural, which are then preceded by the expressive prefix ji- and the diminutive prefix ki-/vi- (27c–d). 184 Noun formation vs. class variation (27) Alternative use of infixed segment ji- for expressive purposes a. mtoto/wa- → kitoto/vitoto “little “child(ren)” “child(ren)” → kijitoto/vijitoto “minuscule child(ren)” b. duka/ma- → kiduka/viduka “little store(s)” “store(s)” → kijiduka/vijiduka “minuscule store(s)” c. jambo/mambo → kijambo/vijambo “little matter(s)” “matter(s)” → kijijambo/vijimambo “insignificant matter(s)” d. jiwe/mawe → kijiwe/vijiwe “little stone(s)” “stone(s)” → kijijiwe/vijimawe “very little stone(s); kidney stone” Finally, some nouns in the expressive diminutive/augmentative category have historically acquired particular meanings that are not directly related to the original base nouns. The most common cases are given in (28) (additional examples may be found in TUKI 2001).

(28) Nouns in expressive diminutive/augmentative with particular meanings a. mwiko/mi- “wooden spoon” → kijiko/vijiko “spoon” b. jicho/macho “eye(s)” → kijicho/vijicho “little eye(s); malignant glance(s); envy” c. mbwa “dog” → kijibwa/vijibwa “minuscule dog/ political puppet” d. mwana/wa- “child(ren)” → kijana/vijana “young (person)” [mu-yu,a/wa-wa] e. mji/mi- “city; town” → kijiji/vijiji “village(s)” → jiji/majiji “megacity(ies)”

22.5. Application exercises (29) Give equivalent nouns that correspond to the translation provided, e.g. kusoma “study” → somo “lesson”. a. kuimba b. kubwa c. kupika _____ “singer” _____ “size” _____ “a cook” d. kucheza e. kufungwa f. kuandika _____ “a play” _____ “prisoner” _____ “writer” g. kuimba h. kuzalisha i. -refu _____ “song” _____ “production” _____ “length” j. kulinda k. kijiji l. kuchapisha _____ “guardian” _____ “villager” _____ “publisher”

(30) Translate into Swahili. a. He has a big nose but minuscule eyes. b. Hamisi has a huge house, but it has no electricity. c. His work has many flaws. (Base verb: kupunguka.) d. Who was the winner and who was the loser? e. My father and my mother are members of the lawyers’ association. f. Are you the first-born child in your family? g. Our soldiers have shown great bravery. h. Many citizens like this leader. Noun formation vs. class variation 185 22.6. Cumulative exercises (31) Translate into Swahili.

a. Is Mariam envious of her sister? (Lit. sees envy for.) b. Mariam has brought tea for one of the guests. c. My eyeglasses are broken. b. If she writes me a letter, I will be very happy. e. I parted from my fiancé. (See leave each other.) f. It is good to visit friends. g. Don’t sit on this mat, it is damaged. (Hint: kuharibu.) h. Mariam and I like each other like siblings. i. We will wait until he arrives. j. My sister sewed this shirt for me. 23 Reduced forms and special uses of various pronouns

23.1. Reduced contrastive pronouns with the contrastive/evocative verb ndi-/si- “be/not be” Following the pattern previously described with the reference pronouns in 10.10, the contrastive pronouns of the first and second persons (i.e. mimi/sisi “I/we”, wewe/ninyi “you/you all”) may be combined with the contrastive/evocative verb ndi-/si- “be/not be”. The combination with the contrastive/evocative verb ndi- gives the forms ndimi, ndiwe, ndisi, and ndinyi, which corresponds to “this is me/you/us/you all” or “I am/we/you are/the one(s) who”. The combination with its negative counterpart si- gives simi, siwe, sinyi, meaning “this is not me/you/you all”, or “I am/you are not the one(s) who”. As a note, sisi “us” does not combine with si-, as the result would be identical to the simple form sisi.

(1) a. Ndisi (= sisi ndio) watalaam “We are the specialists on this topic” wa swala hili b. Sisi sio watalaam wa swali “We are not the specialists on this topic”

(2) a. Ndinyi (= ninyi ndio) mtasifiri. “You are the ones who will travel” b. Sinyi (= ninyi sio) mtasifiri “You are the ones who will travel”

Contrastive pronouns in the plural are also used in compound words with the quantity pronoun -ote “all”, as shown in (3).

(3) a. sisi + wote → sote: Sote ni wanafunzi “All of us are students” b. nyinyi + wote → nyote: Nyote mnatoka Kenya? “Are you all from Kenya?”

23.2. Combination of the kinship terms ending in -a with a possessive pronoun In some instances, different kinship terms ending in -a may be contracted with possessive pronouns in both singular and plural. Kinship terms that allow this process are baba “father”, mama “mother”, mwana/wana “child(ren) of (obsol.)”, and mwenza/wenza “companion; colleague”, as shown in Table 23.1(a–d). Other kinship terms ending in -a, that is, kaka “brother” and dada “sister” and nyanya “grandmother”, may be contracted only with singular possessive pronouns -angu “my”, -ako “your”, and -ake “his/her”, as shown in Table 23.1(e–g). Pronoun reduction and other special uses 187 Table 23.1 Contraction between possessive pronouns and personal relationship nouns

+ wangu + wako + wake + wetu + wenu + wao “my” “your” “his/her” “our” “your “their” (you all)” a. mama “mother” mamangu mamako mamake mamaetu mamaenu mamao b. baba “father” babangu babako babake babaetu babaenu babao c. mwana/wana mwanangu/ mwanako/ mwanake/ mwanetu/ mwanenu/ mwanao/ “child(ren) of” wanagu wanako — wanetu wanenu wanao d. mwenza/wenza mwenzagu/ mwenzako/ mwenzake/ mwenzetu/ mwenzenu/ mwenzao/ “colleague” wenzagu wenzako wenzake wenzetu wenzenu wenzao e. kaka “brother” kakangu kakako kakake — — — f. dada “sister” dadangu dadako dadake — — — g. nyanya nyanyangu nyanyako nyanyake — — — “grandmother”

Typically, the contraction process deletes the prefix of the pronoun and the final vowel of the noun. However, in the case of baba and mama, which have a repeated syllable, the final vowel is maintained before a dissimilar vowel. This leads to a sequence of vowels, as shown in bold in Table 23.1(a–b). Interestingly, contracted forms based on mwana are very common (Table 23.1(c)), even though the base form is rare and mostly used in poetic/formal language. In addition, the contraction between wana “children” and -ake “his/her” does not exist, as wanake is used as a contraction for wanawake “women” (see instead (7) below).

23.3. The possessives -ako/-ake reduced to -o/-e in relationship terms and other expressions In addition to full possessive pronouns, the possessives -ako “your[s] (you, singular)” and -ake “his/her[s]” may be reduced to -o and -e respectively, when attached to personal relationship terms. The reduced possessive pronouns may be suffixed to the different kinship terms seen above, but also to close relationship terms such as: mume “husband”; mke “wife”; ndugu “sibling(s); relative(s)”; mpenzi “lover(s); fan(s)”; rafiki “friend”; and mwenzi “companion, lover (obsol.)”. Contrary to the regular possessive pronouns, the reduced possessives generally keep their class prefixes, as shown in (4a–b, 5b). You will observe that there are some differences between mwenzi mentioned here and the term mwenza seen previously in Table 23.1(d), as the latter may be used as an adjective (e.g. mwalimu mwenza “colleague teacher”, mke mwanza “co-wife”).

(4) Reduced possessive pronouns suffixed to close relationship terms in class [n-i/n-zi]

a. ndugu i-o/ → nduguyo “your sibling” ndugu zi-o → nduguzo “your siblings” b. ndugu i-e/ → nduguye “his/her sibling” ndugu zi-e → nduguze “his/her siblings” 188 Pronoun reduction and other special uses (5) Reduced possessive pronouns suffixed to close relationship terms in subclass [mu-yu,a]

a. mwenzi + -o/ → mwenzio “your companion” wenzi + -o → wenzio “your companions” b. mwenzi + (w-) -e/ → mwenziwe or mwenzie “his/her companion” wenzi + (wa-) -e → wenziwe or wenzie “his/her companions”

As seen by contrasting (5a) and (5b), the agreement prefixes w- and wa- of the animate class [mu-yu,a/wa-wa] are neutralized before the rounded stem vowel -o. This neutralization is also visible in (6a, 8a, 9a). It is justified by a relative restriction on the co-occurrence between the vowels /u,o/ and the semi-vowel /w/, both of which are pronounced with rounded lips (you may refer to Figure 9.1 for the notion of rounded vowels). In addition, the agreement prefixes w- and wa- are optional between the reduced possessive -e and a non-identical vowel within the noun stem, as in (6b, 7), while they are obligatory between -e and an identical vowel, as in (8b, 9b).

(6) a. mpenzi + -o/ → mpenzio “your fan” wapenzi + -o → wapenzio “your fans” b. mpenzi + (w-) e/ → mpenziwe or mpenzie “his/her fan” wapenzi + (wa-) e → wapenziwe or wapenzie “his/her fans”

(7) mwana + (w-) e/ → mwanawe or mwanae “his/her child” wana + (wa-) e → wanawe or wanae “his/her children” (See also mtoto(w)e/watoto(w)e “his/her child(ren)”; -o “your” is not used with mtoto/mwana.)

(8) a. mke + -o/ → mkeo “your wife” wake + o → wakeo “your wives” b. mke + w- e/ → mkewe “his wife” wake + wa- e → wakewe “his wives”

(9) a. mume + -o → mumeo “your husband” b. mume + w- e → mumewe “her husband”

Depending on the speaker, a liaison segment /y/ also may be inserted between a non- round vowel /i,e/ and another vowel more open or more closed in the word-final syllable (see sequences i-o, i-e, and a-e). This gives rise to alternations of the form io/iyo, ie/iye, ae/aye in word-final position (e.g.mwenzio/mwenziyo “your companion”; mwenzie/mwenziye “his companion”; mwanae/mwanaye “his child”). Similar to ndugu “sibling” seen in (4), the other invariable kinship terms use the agreement prefixes i-/zi- with the suffixed possessives -e and -o. This is the case for: babuyo/babuzo, babuye/babuze “your, her/his grandfathers(s)”; bibiyo/bibizo, bibiye/bibize “your, her/his grandmother(s)”; bintiyo/bintizo, bintiye/bintize “your, her/his daughter(s)”; mamayo, mamaye “your, her/his mother”, babayo, babaye “your, her/his father”; and shangaziyo/ shangazizo, shangaziye/shangazize “your, her/his aunt(s)”. In addition to personal relationship terms, the reduced possessive -e “his/her” is spo- radically found in formal expressions such as proverbs. In the following examples (10–11), suffixed possessives and their English equivalents are in bold (additional examples may be found in Appendix D). Pronoun reduction and other special uses 189 (10) Reduced possessive -e with non-animate “possessed” in proverbs

a. Mpiga ngumi ukutani huumiza “He who hits a wall with his fist mkonowe (mu-kono u-e) hurts his own arm” b. Mwomba chumvi huombea “He who asks for salt does so for chunguche (ki-ungu ki-e) his own pot” c. Nyani haoni kundule, huliona la “The monkey does not see its ugly mwenziwe (ø-kundu li-e) (mwenzi wa-e) backside, it sees its companion’s” (mkundu + augmentative)

(11) Reduced possessive -e with non-animate “possessed” in various expressions

a. Hatuoni aonayo, machoye yaona “We don’t see what he sees, his eyes mbali (ma-cho ya-e; Ghassani 2007) see far ahead” b. mwishowe/mwishoe (mu-isho u-e) “at the end, finally” (lit. “[at] its end”) c. mwanzowe/mwanzoe (mu-anzo u-e) “at the beginning/initially” (lit. “[at] its beginning”)

23.4. Idiomatic uses of the possessive pronouns The possessive pronouns in class [n-i/n-zi] are used with the verb kwenda “to go”, which produces expressions of the form “kwenda za + possessive” that entail the notion of “going away”. This pattern appears as an elliptical use “kuenda njia/sehemu za + possessive”, which literally means “to go his own ways/places”. Examples are given in (12).

(12) Use of the expression “kwenda za + possessive”

a. Ninakwenda zangu “I am going away” b. Nenda zako! “Go away!” c. Amekwenda zake “He/she has gone away” d. Twendeni zetu “Let’s go away” e. Nendeni zenu! “Go away (you all)!” f. Wamekwenda zao “They have gone away”

This construction is also used with kuja/njoo “to come/come”, though rarely. As shown in (13), this produces the connotation of “right away” (see also kukaa za + possessive “to stay in a corner”).

(13) a. Alikimbia akaja zake nyumbani “He fled and came home right away” b. Walihama kijijini wakaja zao mjini “They left the village and came to the city right away” c. Njoo zako tuongee “Come here right away so we can talk”

In addition, the invariable adverb pekee “alone/only” may be used with possessive pronouns, which gives expressions of the form “peke ya + possessive” (14).

(14) a. Je, nije pekee/peke yangu? “Should I come alone?” b. Je, kazi hii umeifanya pekee/peke yako? “Have you done this work alone?” c. Leo, wanawake watacheza “Today, the women will play alone” pekee/peke yao d. Liz pekee/peke yake anajua lugha tatu “Only Liz knows three languages” 190 Pronoun reduction and other special uses 23.5. Application exercises (15) Fill in the blanks, using the contracted word pattern; convert elements of your sentences into plural or singular whenever possible (two answers per question).

a. Baba ______(“their”) anafanya kazi gani? b. Mwan ______(“my”) ni mkubwa sasa. c. Mwenz ______(“you; you all”) amekwenda wapi? d. Mwenzi ______(“his”) atafika kesho. e. Na ______(“you” sg.) ni mmarekani?

(16) Translate into Swahili.

a. I will talk with him next week. b. She is the doctor; I am her assistant. c. This is not the bus to Morogoro; the bus to Morogoro is that one. d. Why is he sitting alone? e. Your guest has gone away.

23.6. Cumulative exercises (17) Translate into Swahili.

a. Can you return this book to me next month? b. Do you have enough experience? (Base verb: be accustomed to.) c. He closed the door and went away. d. I am going to the market. Would you like to come (lit. to go) with me? e. My mother is the one who cooks for us. f. The pen that I have does not write well. g. Don’t forget to buy fish for us. h. Hamisi and his fiancée have written each other letters. i. He passed by here singing. I think he was drunk. j. His work was not good enough. k. If you happen to see him, tell him to give me a call. l. In this hospital, female doctors outnumber male doctors. (Lit. are more numerous.) m. Is this the video you are talking about? n. Pay attention, otherwise you will end up getting hurt. o. Please stop. My trip ends here. p. The elders are relaxing playing a board game. q. We saw a dhow leaving the port. r. When I arrived, he had already left. s. Why did you not come to class today? 24 Subjunctive vs. infinitive/indicative in coordinated and subordinate clauses

This section illustrates various uses of the subjunctive mood and the infinitive form in coordinated and subordinate clauses. It also addresses the alternation between the subjunctive mood, the infinitive form, and the indicative mood in complement clauses.

24.1. Infinitive vs. subjunctive in coordinated declarative clauses Coordinated clauses in indicative/conditional mood that refer to the same grammatical categories (person, tense, affirmative/negative) use the infinitive form for the verb in second position. The verb in second position is then introduced by the conjunction na “and” in the affirmative form, while its negative counterpart uses wala “nor”, as shown respectively in (1) and (2).

(1) Use of the infinitive in declarative coordinated clauses in the affirmative form

a. Aliimba na kupiga densi “He sang and danced (na kunywa pombe) (and drank alcohol)” b. Tutatembea na kuenda sinema “We will walk and go to a movie” c. Huwa tunatembea na kuenda sinema “We usually walk and go to a movie” d. Wangemfuata wala kumpata “They would follow him and get him”

(2) Use of the infinitive in declarative coordinated clauses in the negative form

a. Hakuimba wala kupiga densi (wala kunywa pombe) “He did not sing, nor dance (nor drink alcohol)” b. Hatutatembea wala kuenda sinema “We will not walk nor go to a movie” c. Huwa hatutembei wala kuenda sinema “We usually don’t walk nor go to a movie” d. Wasingemfuata na kumpata “They would not follow him nor get him” 192 The verb in coordinated/subordinate clauses You will observe that, in the context of coordinated clauses, the affirmative form in the past tense may optionally use the “consecutive” marker -ka- instead of the conjunction na, as in (3c).

(3) Indicative mood vs. consecutive marker -ka- in coordinated clauses (affirmative form)

a. Watamfuata na kumpata “They will follow him and get him” b. Walimfuata na kumpata “They followed him and got him” c. Walimfuata wakampata “They followed him and got him”

In addition, the subjunctive is used as the default mood for coordinated clauses that are not introduced by a conjunction. This is particularly the case for coordinated negative verbs following a verb in the affirmative form, as shown in (4).

(4) Subjunctive mood in a negative clause coordinated with an affirmative clause

a. Huwa wanamfuata wasimpate “They usually follow him but don’t get him” b. Walimfuata wasimpate “They followed him but did not get him” c. Ataanguka asiumie “He will fall down but will not get hurt” d. Angeanguka asiumie “He would fall down without getting hurt”

The conjunction baadaye “afterwards/and then” is also used, along with the consecutive marker -ka-, to express an interval between two successive actions (5a). You will note that, contrary to baadaye “afterwards”, baada ya “after” cannot be followed by a conjugated verb, as the conjunction ya “of ” is generally followed by a noun, a pronoun, or an infinitive (6).

(5) a. Walipumzika, baadaye wakaondoka “They rested and then left” b. Waliondoka baadaye “They left afterwards” c. Baadaye waliondoka “Afterwards, they left”

(6) a. Waliondoka baada ya mjomba wangu “They left after my uncle” b. Baada ya mimi kupumzika, waliondoka “After I rested, they left” c. Waliondoka baada ya kupumzika “They left after resting”

The conjunction kabla (ya) “after” may also be followed by a verb in the indicative mood, which must be in the negative form of the perfect tense (the English counterpart uses the affirmative form). In this case, the conjunction ya “of ” is omitted (7), while it is retained in the presence of a noun, a pronoun, or an infinitive (8).

(7) a. Waliondoka kabla hawajapumzika “They left before they rested/ before resting” b. Kabla hujaondoka, ninataka tuzungumze “Before you leave, I want us to converse” c. Huwezi kuondoka kable hatujazungumza “You cannot leave before we talk”

(8) a. Waliondoka kabla ya mjomba wangu “They left before my uncle” b. Waliondoka kabla yake “They left before him/her” c. Waliondoka kabla ya kupumzika “They left before resting” The verb in coordinated/subordinate clauses 193 24.2. Subjunctive vs. infinitive in coordinated non-declarative clauses The subjunctive is generally used in coordinated clauses following a non-declarative clause, that is, a verb in imperative or subjunctive form, as shown in (9–11). In such cases, the conjunction na “and” is omitted, as the use of the subjunctive in the second verb suffices to show that the two clauses are coordinated. However, the in second position is introduced by the conjunction wala “and . . . not; nor” (10–11). If both of the coordinated verbs are in the negative form, the verb in second position may optionally appear in infinitive form, as shown in (11b, d). As seen before, the term “later” in the glosses refers to the notion of “delayed response”, in relation to the expression of command in the subjunctive mood (9b, 10b).

(9) Subjunctive mood in a coordinated clause, after an imperative/subjunctive verb

a. Shika kalamu uandike “Take a pen and write” b. Ushike kalamu uandike “Take a pen and write (later)” c. Shikeni kalamu muandike “Take a pen and write (you all)”

(10) Subjunctive mood in a coordinated clause in negative form, after an imperative/ subjunctive verb

a. Andika wala usiniulize maswali “Write, and do not ask me questions” b. Uandike wala usiniulize maswali “Write, and do not ask me questions (later)” c. Fungeni mlango wala msitoke nje “Close the door, and do not go out (you all)”

(11) Subjunctive or infinitive in coordinated clauses, after a negative subjunctive verb

a. Msimuulize maswali wala msimsumbue “Do not ask him questions nor bother him (you all)” b. Msimuulize maswali wala kumsumbua “Do not ask him questions nor bother him (you all)” c. Usiombe wala usipokee pesa kutoka wageni “Neither request nor receive money from the guests” d. Usiombe wala kupokea pesa kutoka wageni “Neither request nor receive money from the guests”

24.3. The subjunctive as the default mood of subordinate clauses of “possibility” As discussed previously (11.3.3), the subjunctive mood is generally used in subordinate clauses to imply the notion of “possibility”, while verbs in the infinitive form or the indicative mood are used to express “factual statements”. The notion of “possibility” in subordinate clauses, and the ensuing use of the subjunctive mood, are generally triggered by main clauses expressing notions such as “request/wish”, “permission”, “wish”, “preference”, “indirect cause”, or “intent”. They are also associated with subordinate clauses that imply the idea of “purpose”, except for cases of simple purpose complements following a verb of movement (“go to do”; “come to do”). 194 The verb in coordinated/subordinate clauses The examples in (12) illustrate the use of the subjunctive after a main clause expressing a “request” via the use of a verb in the imperative or the subjunctive mood. As seen in (12a–b), constructions involving a sequence of actions/states optionally use the “consecu- tive” prefix -ka- in the verb in second position (-ka- is only used in the affirmative form). The examples in (13) illustrate the use of the subjunctive after a main clause verb that inherently implies the notion of request.

(12) Subjunctive in a clause implying “possibility”, after a main verb in imperative/ subjunctive

a. Ingia tuongee/tukaongee “Enter, so we may talk” b. Ufungue waondoke/wakaondoke “Open, so they may leave (later)” c. Mwambie awe na subira/awe mvumilivu “Tell him to be patient” d. Umwambie asiwe na mashaka; nitamlipa “Tell him not to worry (later); I will pay him” e. Usimuache mtu yeyote afungue mlango huu “Don’t let anyone open this door” f. Mwache(ni) avichukue “(You all) Let him take them (in class [vi-vi])” g. Umuache avichukue “Let him take them (later)”

(13) Subjunctive in a clause implying “possibility”, after a verb implying a request

a. Tuliomba tu(si)anze mara moja lit. “We requested that we could (not) start immediately” b. Tuliwaambia waanze mara moja “We told them to start immediately” c. Ninakuomba uwe na subira “I ask you to be patient” d. Nitamwomba aondoke/asiondoke “I will ask him to leave/not to leave” e. Aliwaamuru watoto waondoke/wasipige kelele “He ordered the kids to leave/not make a noise” lit. “that they should leave/not make a noise”

The examples in (14–15) also show the use of the subjunctive form to imply the notion of “possibility” after a main clause or an auxiliary verb expressing the notion of “permission”.

(14) Subjunctive mood implying “possibility”, after a main clause expressing “permission”

a. Tutawaacha waingie “We will let them enter” b. Mkubwa wetu ametuacha “Our supervisor has let us tuondoke mapema leave early” c. Aliwaruhusu wajibu “He allowed them to answer” The verb in coordinated/subordinate clauses 195 (15) Subjunctive mood implying “possibility”, after an auxiliary verb of “permission”

a. Mwache alalamike/ “(You all) Let him/them complain!” Waacheni walalamike! b. Acha nimuulize “Let me ask him” (lit. “Let so I ask him”.) c. Ngoja nimuulize “Let me ask him” (lit. “Wait so I ask him”)

Additionally, the examples in (16–17) use of the subjunctive mood to express the notion of “possibility” after a main clause implying the notion of “wish/preference” (shown by the use of the conditional -nge- in (16a–b) and (17)). A similar situation is shown in (18) with main clauses expressing the notion of “indirect cause”.

(16) Subjunctive mood expressing “possibility” after a main clause expressing “wish/ preference”

a. Ningependa uimbe/usiimbe “I would like you to sing/not to sing” b. Ningependa amsaidie/asimsaide “I would like her to help/not to help him” c. Ninapendelea tuonane/tusionane leo “I prefer that we meet/we don’t meet today” d. Ninataka muondoke/msiondoke “I want you (all) to leave/lit. that you should not leave” e. Ninataka niondoke/nisiondoke “I want to (not) leave” (lit. “that I could (not) leave”)

(17) Subjunctive expressing “possibility” after a verb of “wish/preference” with an identical subject

a. Ningependa ni(si)imbe lit. “I would like that I could (not) sing” b. Ninapendelea ni(si)kutane na wewe leo lit. “I prefer that I could (not) meet with you today”

(18) Subjunctive mood expressing “possibility” after a main clause expressing “indirect cause”

a. Kukaa kijijini kulifanya nipende kuwinda “Living in the countryside made me like hunting” b. Sababu inayofanya apende kusafiri ni kuona watu tofauti “What makes him like to travel is seeing different people” c. Hii ndiyo sababu inayofanya tusipende kusafiri “This is the reason that makes us not like traveling”

As shown in (19–20), the subjunctive mood is generally used to express the notion of “possibility” in relation to the idea of “purpose” in subordinate clauses with an identical subject as the main clause. In this context, the subjunctive verb may be used with the consecutive marker -ka- (19). When the subject of the main clause is in the third person, the marker -ka- tends to be more systematically used, in alternation with the conjunction ili “so (that)” (20). 196 The verb in coordinated/subordinate clauses (19) Subjunctive expressing “possibility” in a subordinate clause implying “purpose” a. Utaenda mjini dadako a(ka)kusaidie “You will go into town so your sister can help you” b. Nitakaa chini ni(ka)pumzike “I will sit down so I can have some rest” c. Shika kalamu u(ka)andike “Take a pen so you can write” d. Nilimtumia nyaraka a(ka)zisome “I sent documents for him to read” (lit. “so he reads them”) e. Nitakutumia nyaraka u(ka)zisome “I will send you documents for you to read” (it. “so you read them”) (20) Subjunctive expressing “possibility” in a subordinate implying “purpose” after a third person subject a. Alipita nyumbani tukaende pamoja “He passed by (my) home so we could go together” b. Alipita nyumbani ili tuende pamoja “He passed by (my) home so that we could go together” c. Alienda mjini dada yake akamsaidie “He went into town so his sister could help him” d. Alienda mjini ili dada yake amsaidie “He went into town so that his sister could help him” After a main clause involving the same subject, the subordinate clause may use the infinitive to express a “factual statement”, and the subjunctive to imply the notion of “possibility”. This is illustrated in (21–24) with constructions expressing the notion of “purpose”, with the series in a. constituting “factual statements”, and the series in b. implying the connotation of “possibility”. (21) a. Nilienda chumbani kupumzika kidogo “I went to the room to get some rest” b. Nilienda chumbani ni(ka)pumzike kidogo “I went to the room so I could get some rest” (22) a. Nenda mjini kumwomba dada yako msaada “Go into town to ask your sister for help” b. Nenda mjini u(ka)mwombe dada yako msaada “Go into town so you can ask your sister for help” (23) a. Nendeni sokoni kununua chakula “Go (you all) to the market to buy some food” b. Nendeni sokoni m(ka)nunue chakula “Go (you all) to the market so you can buy some food” (24) a. Alikuja nyumbani (ili) kuchukua mzigo wake “He came home to pick up his package (lit. take)” b. Alikuja nyumbani akachukue mzigo wake “He came home so he could pick up his package (lit. take)” c. Alikuja nyumbani ili achukue mzigo wake “He came home so that he could pick up his package (lit. take)” The verb in coordinated/subordinate clauses 197 The examples in (25) also show a similar use of the infinitive form after a main clause expressing the notion of “request”, “wish”, or “preference”. In these cases, the phrases with an infinitive verb constitute direct objects of the main verb, in contrast with their counterparts in the subjunctive mood that convey the connotation of “possibility”, as previously seen in (13a) and (17). With a main clause expressing a “request”, “wish”, or “preference”, complement clauses with an infinitive verb also lack the connotation of “politeness” that is generally conveyed by their counterparts with a sub- junctive verb.

(25) Infinitive form, after a verb of “request/wish” with the same subject

a. Tuliomba ku(to)anza mara moja “We requested to (not) start immediately” b. Ningependa ku(to)imba “I would like to sing/not to sing” c. Ninapendelea ku(to)kutana na “I prefer (not) to meet with you today” wewe leo

Alternations between the infinitive form and the subjunctive mood may also be found in constructions with different subjects, especially in the presence of main verbs expressing the notion of “permission/prohibition”, “request”, or “assistance”, as shown in (26–31). The subordinate with the infinitive form appears as a factual complement to the main verb, while the subordinate with the subjunctive expresses the notion of “possibility”. In both cases, the main verb is used with an object pronoun that corresponds to the subject of the verb in second position.

(26) a. Niruhusu kukujibu “Allow me to answer you” b. Niruhusu ni(ka)kujibu lit. “Allow me so that I might answer you”

(27) a. Nitawaruhusu watoto kusoma “I will allow the children to read” b. Nitawaruhusu watoto wa(ka)some lit. “I will allow the children so that they might read”

(28) a. Angekuzuia kuenda kazini “He would prevent you from going to work” b. Angekuzuia usiende kazini lit. “He would prevent you so that you might not go to work”

(29) a. Walitukataza kuuliza swali lolote “They forbade us from asking any questions (lit. any question)” b. Walitukataza tusiulize swali lolote lit. “They forbade us so we might not ask any questions (lit. any question)”

(30) a. Aliwaomba wavulana wote kutorandaranda “He asked all the boys to not wander” b. Aliwaomba wavulana wote wasirandarande lit. “He asked all the boys that they might not wander” 198 The verb in coordinated/subordinate clauses (31) a. Nitakusaidia kununua nguo “I will help you buy some clothes” b. Nitakusaidia u(ka)nunue nguo lit. “I will help you so you buy some clothes”

Factual complement clauses with a specified subject use a verb in the indicative mood and are generally introduced by a subordinate conjunction. The most common conjunctions used in this context are kwamba/kuwa “that” and kama/iwapo “if ”, as shown in (32–34). You will observe that other languages may use the subjunctive mood in subordinate clauses after a main verb expressing “uncertainty”, such as “think”, “believe”, or “be certain” in the negative form like those in (32a–b) and (33a, 34a). In such languages, the use of the subjunctive mood is motivated by the notion of “uncertainty”, rather than the notion of “possibility” that we have seen with Swahili.

(32) a. Sidhani kwamba/kuwa atakuja “I don’t think that he will come” b. Hatuamini kwamba/kuwa wameondoka “We don’t believe that they have left” c. Anajua kwamba/kuwa unampenda? “Does he know that you love him?” d. Walieleza kwamba/kuwa wamechoka? “Did they explain that they are tired?”

(33) a. Sijui kama/iwapo anaweza kazi hii “I don’t know if he can handle this job” b. Nijulishe kama/iwapo utakuja “Tell me if you will come”

(34) a. Nina mashaka kwamba/iwapo jeshi limehusika “I doubt that/if the army was involved” b. Hatuna uhakika kama/iwapo wanafahamiana “We are not certain that/if they know each other”

The conjunctions kwamba/kuwa “that” seen in (32–34) are also used to introduce circumstantial clauses, such as those expressing the notion of “cause”, as in (35). They are also used to introduce a subordinate clause following a verb in impersonal form, as in (36).

(35) a. Alisikitika kwamba/kuwa hakufaulu “He was saddened that he did not succeed” b. Nimefurahi kwamba/kuwa tumeonana “I am happy that we met”

(36) a. Inawezekana kwamba/kuwa ameondoka “It is possible that he has left” b. Ni muhimu kwamba/kuwa umemtembelea “It is important that you visited him” The verb in coordinated/subordinate clauses 199 After a main verb expressing a “direct cause”, the subjunctive form serves to emphasize the notion of “consequence”, while the counterpart with an infinitive verb conveys a “factual statement”. Examples are given respectively with the a. series and the b. series in (37–38).

(37) a. Mshahara mdogo ulinisabisha niache kazi lit. “The low wage caused that I should quit the job” b. Mshahara mdogo ulinisabisha kuacha kazi “The low wage caused me to quit the job”

(38) a. Kelele zilimsabisha paka akimbie lit. “The noise caused that the cat should run away” b. Kelele zilimsabisha paka kukimbia “The noise caused the cat to run away”

24.4. Subjunctive expressing “initial cause/ultimate consequence” or “imminent possibility” The subjunctive mood is also used in subordinate clauses expressing: the “initial cause” with tangu “from/since” (39); the “ultimate state/ultimate consequence” with mpaka “until” (40–41); and “imminent possibility” with karibu “nearly; all but; close to” (42) (more generally, karibu means “near, close to”).

(39) a. Tangu afike alifundisha chuoni “Since he arrived, he has taught at college” b. Nimeumwa tangu waanze kunisumbua “Since they began bothering me, I have been ill” c. Amesema Kiswahili tangu azaliwe “He has spoken Swahili since he was born”

(40) a. Sitaondoka mpaka amalize “I will not leave until he finishes” b. Hatutakuja mpaka waondoke “We will not come until they leave”

(41) a. Nitamsumbua mpaka aondoke “I will annoy him until he leaves” b. Atawafundisha mpaka waelewe “He will teach them until they understand”

(42) a. Walimpiga karibu afe “They beat him until he nearly died” b. Niliteleza karibu nianguke “I slid and came close to falling” c. Gari lilikuwa karibu litugonge “A car all but hit us” d. Karibu litugonge! “It all but hit us!” 200 The verb in coordinated/subordinate clauses These types of prepositions may also be followed by an infinitive verb used as a simple noun to convey a temporal meaning, as in (43). In addition, the preposition mpaka “until” used in the past tense is followed by a verb in the indicative mood with the consecutive marker -ka-, as shown in (44).

(43) a. Atampenda mpaka kufa “She will love him until death” (lit. “until dying”) b. Amesema Kiswahili tangu kuzaliwa “He has spoken Swahili since birth” c. Amesema Kiswahili tangu kuzaliwa kwa mtoto wake “He has spoken Swahili since the birth of his child” d. Nyumba yake iko karibu kuanguka “His house is about to collapse”

(44) a. Nilimsumbua mpaka akaondoka “I annoyed him until he left” b. Aliwafundisha mpaka wakaelewa “He taught them until they understood”

24.5. Rhetorical use of the subjunctive mood As shown in (45), the subjunctive mood is used in subordinate clauses expressing alternative rhetorical conditions. It is also used in constructions introduced by the conjunction na “and” that express a form of “exclamatory command”, as in (46).

(45) Subjunctive mood in alternative rhetorical conditions

a. Upende, usipende, utasoma “You may like it or not, you will read” b. Aje, asije, mkutano utaanza “He may or may not come, the meeting will begin”

(46) Subjunctive mood expressing an exclamatory command after na “and”

a. Kama anataka kuenda, “If he wants to go, let him go!” na aende! (lit. “fine, he may go!”) b. Na ukome! “And you shut up!”

24.6. Application exercise (47) Transform the sentences, putting the underlined verb in the negative and in the appropriate mood/form. Translate into English.

a. Tuliingia wakatupokea. b. Walitaka kujibu. c. Watamtafuta na kumwona. d. Naomba umsaidie. e. Karibu anione! The verb in coordinated/subordinate clauses 201 (48) Translate into Swahili.

a. Read and explain to me. b. Go to the market (later) and buy some clothes. c. Close the door and open the window. d. He will fall down and get hurt. e. He read and understood. f. They allowed me to leave. g. He forbade him to visit his mother. h. Please don’t let him leave. i. I ask you to think about our plan. j. They would leave and get lost. k. Enter and have a seat. (Lit. enter and sit.)

24.7. Cumulative exercises (49) Translate into Swahili.

a. Come and meet our neighbor. b. If they had listened, they would have not been lost. c. Open and eat. d. I would like you to read. e. Let’s wait for him here. f. When he arrived at my place (my home), he was already late. g. Hamisi has cooked fish for his children. h. He insulted him and their meeting ended there. i. After getting married, Liz moved to Lamu. j. This shirt needs to be altered. k. We were about to leave when he arrived. l. We will have to hurry in order to arrive early. m. I sent him documents and he read them. n. I am about to finish my studies. o. We have been allowed to take pictures. p. Why should he take my book? q. Let’s go in the garden and relax. 25 Double object constructions and the use of “object markers”

Contrary to what may be observed in other languages, Swahili does not use a preposition to introduce a secondary object to which the action of the verb bears indirectly. In an expression such as “give something to someone”, “something” is the direct object, while “someone” is called an “indirect object” or “beneficiary/affected”, while “to” is a preposition. On the other hand, objects relating to the circumstances of the action may use a conjunction, such as the instrumental kwa “with; by”. The present section addresses constructions in which the verb is followed by two objects, or an object to which the action of the verb relates indirectly, without the use of a conjunction or a preposition. In addition, it describes the use of the “object marker” in different types of clauses.

25.1. Prominent objects and the use of “object markers” As discussed in 10.2, the term “object marker” is used in this text to refer to an object pronoun that serves to highlight a given object of the verb, which is, therefore, contrasted with other possible objects or assumed as specific. In other words, the object marker is used to draw attention to certain objects of the verb that are considered prominent within a given sentence. In direct object constructions, the object marker is used to refer to a specified object, as in (1), while unspecified direct objects are used without an object marker, as in (2).In particular, the object marker is used when the object of the verb is known by both the speaker and the listener, is a proper noun, or is a noun used with a possessive/demonstrative pronoun. Importantly, some expressions that use the determinate “the” in English may still constitute unspecified objects, which justifies the absence of an “object marker” in the example (2d) (from Seidl and Dimitriadis 1997).

(1) Object markers referring to a specified object in direct object constructions

a. Nimemwona kijana yule “I have seen the youth you talked about” uliyemzungumzia b. Je, umemsalimu mwalimu leo? “Have you greeted the teacher today?” c. Je, umekisoma kitabu hiki? “Have you read this book?” d. Je, utawaleta watoto wako? “Will you bring your children?” e. Liz hamfahamu Selma “Liz does not know Selma” f. Mariam aliifurahia zawadi yako “Mariam was happy about/enjoyed your gift” g. Ninaupenda mji wa Mombasa “I like the city of Mombasa” h. Ninaipenda Zanzibar “I like Zanzibar” Double object clauses and “object markers” 203 (2) No object marker referring to an unspecified object in direct object constructions

a. Leo nimeona mdudu darasani “Today I have seen a bug in the classroom” b. Wasichana hupenda watoto “Girls like children” c. Umesoma kitabu au gazeti? “Have you read a book or a newspaper?” d. Mbuzi alikata kamba na kukimbia “The goat broke the rope and ran free”

As discussed in 19.3, applicative verbs used in a double object construction generally include an “object marker” that highlights the “beneficiary/affected”. As shown in (3–4), the “object marker” is used when the double object construction involves either an applicative object or a direct object that is specific. In addition, the applicative object generally appears immediately after the verb, especially when it is not followed by a dependent pronoun, as in (3a–c).

(3) Object markers in double object constructions involving a specific applicative object

a. Juma amewaletea watoto maji “Juma has brought water to the children” b. Baba atawapikia watoto wali “Father will cook rice for the children” c. Ninamwandikia Mariam barua “I am writing a letter to Mariam” d. Ninaifanyia matengenezo “I am making repairs on my house” nyumba yangu e. Ninalifanyia kazi shirika hili “I am doing some work for this company”

(4) Object markers in applicative constructions involving a specific direct object

a. Wahuni wamemwibia mtu fulani saa yake “Hooligans have robbed someone of his watch” b. Ana tabia ya kuwakatalia watu haki zao “He has the habit of denying people their rights” c. Polisi wamemchukulia msafiri mzigo wake “The have seized a piece of luggage from a traveler” d. Fundi anawarekebishia watu saa zao “The craftsman adjusts people’s watches”

Conversely, constructions involving unspecified direct and applicative objects do not use an “object marker”. As shown in the examples in (5) the idea of non-specificity is reinforced by the pronouns fulani “a given” and mbalimbali “various”, while the direct object tends to immediately follow the verb.

(5) No “object marker” in applicative verbs with unspecified objects

a. Juma ameletea maji watoto fulani “Juma has brought water to some children” b. Mama atapikia wali wageni mbalimbali “Mother will cook rice for various guests” c. Ninaandikia watu barua “I write letters for people” d. Ninafanyia nyumba matengenezo “I do repairs on houses” e. Ninafanyia kazi shirika la binafsi “I work for a private company” 204 Double object clauses and “object markers” You will also observe that some applicative verbs may optionally be used with the “benefit/detriment” object alone, that is, without the direct object. The examples in(6) are based on the following noun or verb stems: zawadi “gift; award” → -zawadia “to offer (a gift)/award”; -iba “to steal” → -ibia “to steal from”.

(6) Optional use of a direct object after an indirect object introduced by an applicative suffix

a. Watamzawadia mshindi (pesa nyingi) “They will award the winner (a lot of money)” b. Amemzawadia mchumba wake (gari) “He has made a gift (of a car) to his fiancée” c. Huwa wanawaibia majirani zao (mifugo) “They generally steal (livestock) from their neighbors”

25.2. Use of object markers in double object constructions involving “exchange/implement” As mentioned, Swahili generally does not use a preposition to introduce a secondary object on which the action of the verb bears indirectly. In particular, “exchange” verbs, such as -pa “give sth. to sb.”, -patia “hand sth. to sb.”; -nyima “deny sth. to sb.”; -kabidhi “hand over sth. to sb.”; -hadithia “recount sth. to sb.”; -tunukia “offer/confer sth. to sb.”; or -ambia “tell/report sth. to sb.”, are obligatorily used with a “beneficiary/affected” object immediately followed by the object of the exchange (7).

(7) “Exchange” verbs with an object of exchange and a “beneficiary/affected” object

a. Baba alimpa kaka yangu shilingi elfu tano “Father gave five thousand shillings to my brother/ Father gave my brother five thousand shillings” b. Wameipa nchi yao kiongozi mzuri “They have given a good leader to their country” c. Mtumishi amewanyima watoto chakula “The worker has denied food to the children/ The worker has denied the children food” d. Mwalimu amewasimulia wanafunzi hadithi hii “The teacher has told this story to the students/ The teacher has told the students this story” e. Chuo kimemtunukia baba yangu shahada “The college has given a degree to my father/ The college has given my father a degree” f. Je, umemwambia mtu yeyote kisa hiki? “Did you report this incident to anyone?”

As seen in the examples in (7), “beneficiary/affected” objects appear just after the “exchange” verb in Swahili, something that is only optionally allowed in English for some verbs (see the glosses of the examples in (7a–e)). In such constructions, the verb also is used with an object marker that highlights the “beneficiary/affected” object. Though the “beneficiary/affected” object in these types of constructions is generally an animate for semantic reasons, non-animate objects may still appear in that function, as in (7b). Double object clauses and “object markers” 205 Some verbs referring to the broad notion of “exchange” also use a “beneficiary/affected” object that is optionally followed by the object of exchange. This is the case for verbs such as -toza “fine”, -honga “bribe sb. with sth.; give a bribe”, and -saidia “help” shown in (8). In addition, verbs of “request” such as -uliza “ask (a question)”, -omba “request sth. from sb., ask sb. for sth.” may optionally omit the second object expressing the “target” of the action, as in (9). In both cases, the word order and the use of the “object marker” are similar to those previously seen in (7).

(8) “Exchange” verbs with a “beneficiary/affected” object, and an optional object of exchange

a. Polisi walimtoza dereva (shilingi mia tatu) “The police fined the driver (300 shillings)” b. Amemhonga kiongozi (dola hamsini)” (+ Amehonga dola hamsini) “He bribed the chief (with fifty dollars)” (“He gave a fifty-dollar bribe”) c. Shirika letu liliwasaidia wananchi chakula “Our organization helped the citizens with food” d. Unaweza kunisadia (shilingi mia)? + Nikusaidie nini? “Can you help me (with a hundred shillings)?” “What may I help you with?”

(9) Verbs of “request” with the object of “request” and an optional target of the action

a. Salima amemuuliza mwalimu maswali mawili (Salima ameuliza maswali mawili) “Salima has asked two questions (to the teacher) or Salima has asked (the teacher) two questions” b. Nitamwomba mama yangu pesa (Nitaomba pesa) “I will request money (from my mother) or I will ask (my mother) for money” c. Unaweza kumuazima kaka yako nguo? (Unaweza kuazima nguo?) “Can you borrow clothes (from your brother?)”

Verbs meaning “impact”, such as -piga “hit; beat”, -choma “stab”, may function in a similar fashion, using an optional “implement” object after a direct object, as in (10). As shown in (11), this construction alternates with the use of the conjunction kwa “with/ using”, which emphasizes the fact that the second object of the verb is an implement (see “using + implement”).

(10) Optional “implement” object without a conjunction, after an “impact” verb

a. Wanakijiji walimpiga/walimchapa mhuni viboko vitano “The villagers hit the thug with five lashes” b. Mteja amempiga mwenyeduka kofi/ngumi “A customer has slapped/punched the storeowner” (lit. “hit with the hand/fist”) c. Jambazi amempiga/amemchoma mwenyenyumba kisu “A robber has stabbed the homeowner”; lit. “A robber has hit the homeowner with a knife” 206 Double object clauses and “object markers”

(11) Optional use of the conjunction kwa “with, using + implement”, after an “impact” verb

a. Wanakiji walimpiga mhuni bakora/Wanakiji walimpiga mhuni kwa bakora “The villagers hit the thug with a cane”/ “The villagers hit the thug using a cane” b. Jirani amechoma nguruwe mkuki/Jirani amechoma nguruwe kwa mkuki “The neighbor has stabbed a pig with a spear”/ “The neighbor has stabbed a pig using a spear”

Other double object constructions are based on a verb with an open-ended meaning that is specified by an obligatory “implement” object. This is the case for verbs like-piga “hit; strike” and -paka “spread an oily/powdery substance on a surface” shown in (12), with illustrative examples in (13).

(12) Examples of double object constructions with obligatory “implement” object

a. -paka (nyumba) rangi “paint (a house)” b. -paka (mtu) marashi “spray sb. with perfume” c. -paka (mtu/kitu) mafuta “rub sb./sth. with oil” d. -piga (mtu) sindano “give (sb.) an injection” e. -piga (nguo) pasi “iron (clothes)” f. -piga (mtu/kitu) picha “take a picture (of sb./sth.)” g. -piga mtu/kitu risasi “shoot (sb./sth.)” (lit. “hit with a bullet”) h. -piga mtu/kitu vita “wage a war against sb./sth.” i. -piga mtu/kitu marufuku “ban” (lit. “hit with an interdiction”) j. -piga mtu/kitu teke “give (sb./sth.) a kick; dismiss sb./sth. (concr./idiom.) with disrespect” k. -piga mtu/kitu kalamu (colloq.) “fire from work” (lit. “hit with a pen”) l. -piga mtu/kitu chenga “dodge; evade sb./sth.” (lit. “dribble (concr./idiom.) past sb./sth.”) m. -piga mtu kumbo (concr./idiom.) “give sb. a push (to knock down)” n. -piga moyo konde (idiom.) “give oneself courage” (lit. “hit one’s heart with the fist”)

(13) Using double object constructions with obligatory “implement” object

a. Adui amempiga askari mmoja risasi “The enemy has shot one soldier (lit. “has hit one soldier with a bullet”) b. Maaskari wameipiga nyumba yake bomu “Soldiers have hit his house with a bomb” c. Ninahitaji kukipaka rangi chumba changu “I need to paint my room”

There also exist “exchange” constructions with two objects, in which the “beneficiary/ affected” may be used individually as a direct object. In these cases, the “beneficiary/ affected” appears as the direct object and generally comes just after the verb, while the second object appears as an optional “implement”, as shown in (14). Double object clauses and “object markers” 207 (14) Constructions with a “beneficiary/affected” and a direct object used as an optional “implement”

a. Mwalimu atawafundisha “The teacher will teach grammar to the children/ watoto (sarufi) The teacher will teach the children grammar” b. Wazazi wangu “My parents paid the money to the craftsman/ wamemlipa fundi (pesa) My parents paid the craftsman the money” c. Hakimu amemsamehe “The judge has forgiven the youth his mistakes” kijana (makosa yake) d. Anamdai mwajiri wake “He is claiming a thousand shillings (shilingi elfu) from his employer” e. Mradi umewagharimu “The project has cost the villagers a lot of money/ wanakijiji (pesa nyingi) The project has cost a lot of money to the villagers”

In contrast with the examples seen in (13–14), different constructions involving an unspecified “beneficiary/affected” object and an object referring to the implement or the circumstance of action are used without an object marker, as shown in (15).

(15) No object marker for unspecified “beneficiary/affected” object in circumstantial constructions

a. Mhuni amepiga kijana fulani jiwe/fimbo “A hooligan has hit a young man with a stone/stick” b. Mimi hupaka nyumba rangi “I paint houses” c. Daktari ameponya wanakijiji malaria “The doctor has cured villagers of malaria”

With some verbs expressing the notion of “manipulation”, either the “beneficiary/affected” object or the “manipulated” object may be used alone, as the direct object of the verb. Such verbs also may use the two objects together, treating the “beneficiary/affected” as the direct object, while the “manipulated” object appears as the “implement” without a conjunction (16–17). As seen in (16a–b, 17c), these types of constructions are obligatorily used with an object marker referring to the “beneficiary/affected” when they imply the notion of possession. In other contexts, the use of the object marker depends on the distinction between specified and unspecified objects, as shown respectively in (17a) and (17b).

(16) “Manipulative” verbs with a “beneficiary/affected” and an “implement” object

a. kushika shati → kumshika mtu lit. “seize sb. “take/hold a shirt” (shati) (by the shirt)” b. kuvuta kanzu → kumvuta mtu lit. “pull sb. “pull a robe” (kanzu) (by the robe)” c. kufunga kamba “tie → kumfunga mbuzi/mtu “attach/tie up a goat/ a rope/attach a rope” (kamba) sb. (with a rope)” d. kumwagilia maji/dawa → kumwagilia mimea “irrigate/water plants; “irrigate; sprinkle (maji/dawa) sprinkle plants water/a product” (with water/chemical)” 208 Double object clauses and “object markers” (17) “Manipulative” verbs and “object marker” referring to a specified “beneficiary/ affected” or a possessor

a Mkulima amemfunga mbuzi wake kamba “The farmer has tethered his goat with a rope” b. Si vizuri kufunga mbuzi kamba “It is not good to tether a goat with a rope” c. Si vizuri kumshika mtu shati “It is not good to seize sb. by the shirt”

In addition to constructions involving the notion of “beneficiary/affected”, other exchange verbs are obligatorily followed by the object of exchange and, optionally, by a “circum- stantial” object referring to the condition of exchange. This is the case for -nunua “buy”, -uza “sell”, -lipa “pay” shown in (18). In such constructions, the “circumstantial” object is used without a conjunction, though the conjunction kwa “for” may optionally be used to emphasize the condition of exchange.

(18) a. Nimelinunua shati hili (kwa) shilingi mia tano “I have bought this shirt for five hundred shillings” b. Anaiuza nyumba yake (kwa) laki sita “He is selling his house for six hundred thousand” c. Alilipa nyumba milioni tatu “He paid three million for a house”

As shown in (19), the conjunction kwa may also be used, with the meaning of “to/for”, to introduce a “beneficiary/affected” object after verbs implying the notion of “giving” that are otherwise used without this category of objects.

(19) a. -toa “give; provide”: → Kituo hiki kinatoa umeme kwa wanakijiji “This station provides electricity to/for the villagers” b. -gawa “divide up; distribute”: → Alizigawa mali zake zote kwa masikini “He distributed all of his belongings to the poor”

25.3. Double object constructions based on the possessor/possessed reversal Some double object constructions are made possible by treating a given possessor as the object of an action that actually bears on the possessed. This is particularly the case with entities in a whole/part relationship, which may be explained by the fact that an action affecting a part has a certain effect on the whole. In constructions involving a body part and its “possessor”, specified “possessors” prompt the use of an object marker, contrary to unspecified “possessors”. Illustrative examples are shown, respectively, in (20) and (21). Double object clauses and “object markers” 209 (20) Double object constructions with a specified possessor treated as the direct object (body part)

a. -vuta nywele → Askari wamemvuta nywele “The officers pulled one “pull the hair” mwandamanaji mmoja demonstrator’s hair” b. -shika shingo/sikio → Mhuni alimshika “A gangster grasped “grasp the neck/ear” jirani shingo the neighbor’s neck” c. -osha mikono → Baba anawaosha “The father is washing “wash hands” watoto mikono the children’s hands” d. -kata nywele → Mama atawakata “Mother will cut the “cut hair” watoto nywele children’s hair” e. -chukua damu → Mwuguzi anamchukua “The nurse is drawing “draw blood” mgonjwa damu the patient’s blood”

(21) Double object constructions with unspecified possessor treated as the direct object (body part)

a. Mama hukata watoto nywele “Mother cuts children’s hair (for a living)” b. Wauguzi huchukua wagonjwa damu “Nurses draw patients’ blood”

Double object constructions are also possible with possessions that are not part of the body, when the “possessor” is directly affected by the action of the verb. This is particularly the case with some verbs implying the notion of “take sth. away”. In this context, the affected possessor is also treated as the direct object of the verb, as shown in (22). The two types of double object constructions based on possession relation are also found in idiomatic expressions, as in (23). In (23c), the expression -kata jina refers to the act of addressing a superior by name, while omitting his/her title, such as: Bwana “Mister”, Bibi “Mrs.”, Mzee “Elder”, Mwalimu “Professor”, Shangazi “Aunt” etc.

(22) Double object constructions with a possessor treated as the direct object (other than body parts)

a. -vua nguo → Mama anawavua “The mother is undressing “remove clothes; watoto nguo the children” undress” b. -toa viatu → Muuguzi amemtoa “The nurse has removed “remove shoes” mgonjwa viatu the patient’s shoes” c. -ondoa mashaka → Kiongozi atawaondoa “The leader will remove “remove doubts” wananchi mashaka the citizens’ doubts” 210 Double object clauses and “object markers” (23) Double object constructions with a possessor treated as the direct object (idiomatic expressions)

a. -vunja moyo → Hali hii itawavunja “This situation will break “break sb.’s heart/ wazazi moyo the parents’ hearts/ dishearten” dishearten the parents” b. -kata usemi/kauli → Salima amemkata “Salima has interrupted “interrupt (sb.)”; mwalimu usemi/kauli the teacher” lit. “cut (sb.’s) expression/statement” c. -kata jina → Mvulana amemkata “The boy has shortened lit. “cut (sb.’s) name” mzee jina the elder’s name.”

Most cases of double object constructions involving a body part correspond to state verb constructions. In such cases, the possessor appears as the subject of a verb of state, shown by the -ik- or -uk-, while the possessed appears as the circumstantial object, as in the b. series in (24–27).

(24) a. Dawa zimembadili mwanamke sura “Medications have changed the woman’s face” b. Mwanamke amebadilika sura “The woman has had her face changed”

(25) a. Pombe zimemharibu sura/akili mzee yule “Alcohol has damaged that elder’s face/intellect” b. Mzee yule ameharibika sura/akili “That elder has had face/intellect damage”

(26) a. Ajali ilimvunja msafiri mguu “The accident broke the traveler’s leg” b. Msafiri alivunjika mguu (see also -vunjika moyo) “The traveler had his leg broken” (“be heartbroken/disheartened”)

(27) a. Hali hii imewafungua watu macho “This situation has opened people’s eyes” b. Watu wamefunguka macho “People are open-eyed”

Verbs of state referring to a body part or the component of a given entity also allow the “possessor” to become the subject of the clause instead of the body part or the component itself, as shown with the b. series in (28–29).

(28) a. Macho ya dada yangu yameharibika “My sister’s eyes are spoiled” b. Dada yangu ameharibika macho lit. “My sister has her eyes spoiled”

(29) a. Vioo vya gari vimevunjika “The car’s windows are broken” b. Gari limevunjika vioo lit. “The car has its windows broken” Double object clauses and “object markers” 211 In some idiomatic expressions implying the notion of “take sth. away/lose”, the possessed may also appear as the subject of a state verb, while the possessed appears as the direct object. In (30–32), the a. series shows double object constructions, while the b. and c. series illustrate the use of the possessor and the possessed as the subject.

(30) a. -toa mtu jasho/damu/machozi → Kazi inamtoa “The work is making “make sb. sweat/ jirani jasho/ the neighbor sweat/ bleed/shed tears” damu/machozi bleed/shed tears” (make sweat: fig. give a hard time) b. -toka jasho/damu/ → Jirani anatoka “The neighbor is machozi, . . . jasho sweating” “sweat/bleed/shed tears” c. jasho/damu/machozi . . . → Jirani jasho “The neighbor is kumtoka mtu linamtoka sweating” (idiom.)

(31) a. kumtoa mtu roho → Askari amewatoa “The soldier took “take sb.’s life” (lit. “soul”) roho maadui wengi many enemies’ lives” b. -toka roho → Alianguka akatoka “He fell and lost roho his life” c. roho kumtoka mtu → Roho imemtoka leo lit. “Life (soul) has left him today”

(32) a. -ng’oa mtu jino → Daktari anamng’oa “The doctor is removing “to remove sb.’s tooth” mtoto jino the child’s tooth” b. -ng’oka jino → Mtoto ameng’oka “The child has lost jino one tooth” c. jino kumng’oka mtu → Jino limemng’oka “One of his teeth has been lost”

Other cases of possessor/possessed reversal that allow the possessor to appear as the subject of a verb of state instead of the possessed are given in (33–35).

(33) a. -vimba “swell” → -vimba → Mgonjwa amevimba “The patient has kichwa/miguu/ulimi . . . ulimi a swollen tongue” “get/have swollen head/ legs/tongue” b. -fa “die” → -fa macho → Mjomba amekufa “Uncle has lost “lose one’s eyes, lose macho his eyesight” one’s eyesight” (+ -fa moyo “be heartbroken/disheartened”)

(34) a. Bei ya mafuta imepanda “The price of oil has increased” b. Mafuta yamepanda bei “Gas has increased (in) price”

(35) a. Kasi ya gari imepungua “The speed of the car has decreased” b. Gari limepungua kasi “The car has decreased its speed” (lit. “has decreased in speed”) 212 Double object clauses and “object markers” In addition to the possessed/possessor reversal, double object constructions may also result from clauses involving a circumstantial object used with a verb in the causative form. As shown in the following examples, this pattern applies to objects in possessor/possessed relationships (36–37), but also in content/container relationships (38).

(36) a. -umia kichwa/ → Mtoto ameumia “The child has had moyo/tumbo kichwa a headache” “have head/stomach/ heart pain” b. -umiza kichwa/ → Jua limemuumiza “The sun has given tumbo/moyo mtoto kichwa the child a headache” “give head/stomach/ heart pain”

(37) a. -pungua bei → Mafuta “Oil has had a price “have a price decrease” yamepungua bei decrease” b. -punguza (kitu) bei → Muuzaji amepunguza “The seller has lowered “decrease the price” mafuta bei the oil price”

(38) a. -jaa “be full; be full of ” → Gari limejaa watu “The car is full of people” b. -jaza “fill with” → Utingo anajaza “The conductor is filling gari watu the car with people”

25.4. Passive form with double object constructions As shown in (39b, 40a) and (42–43), “beneficiary/affected” objects in double object constructions generally can become the subject of a passive construction. The direct object may also be the subject of a passive verb in applicative constructions, as in (39c–d, 40b–c). However, the latter types of sentences may sound unnatural in the presence of the agent of the passive verb, as in (39d, 40c).

(39) a. Juma anasomea wavulana hadithi “Juma is reading a story to the boys” b. Wavulana wanasomewa hadithi na Juma “The boys are being read a story by Juma” c. Hadithi inasomewa wavulana “The story is being read to the boys” d. Hadithi inasomewa wavulana na Juma “The story is being read to the boys by Juma”

(40) a. Wageni waliletewa chakula na mama “The guests were brought food by mother” b. Chakula kililetewa wageni “The food was brought for/to the guests” c. Chakula kililetewa wageni na mama “The food was brought for/to the guests by mother” Double object clauses and “object markers” 213 (41) a. Hamisi aliandikiwa barua na mchumba wake lit. “Hamisi was written a letter by his fiancée” b. Barua iliandikiwa Hamisi “The letter was written to Hamisi” c. Barua iliandikiwa Hamisi na mchumba wake “The letter was written to Hamisi by his fiancée”

(42) Ombaomba alipewa pesa na Liz “A beggar was given money by Liz”

(43) Mwizi alipigwa viboko vinane na polisi “The thief was hit with eight lashes by the police”

Other types of constructions do not allow the use of the direct object as the subject of the passive verb in the presence of a “beneficiary/affected” object. This is the case with double object constructions based on body part nouns, as shown in (44) with nywele “hair” and uso “face”.

(44) a. Kinyozi hukata watoto nywele → “The barber cuts children’s hair” → Watoto hukatwa nywele na kinyozi “The children have their hair cut by the barber” lit. “The children are cut (of their) hair by the barber” b. Askari amemnyoa mahabusu ndevu → “An officer has shaved the prisoner’s beard off” → Mahabusu amenyolewa ndevu na askari “The prisoner has had his beard shaved off by an officer” lit. “The prisoner has been shaved (of his) beard by a guard” c. Baba anamwosha mototo wake uso → “The father is washing his child’s face” → Mototo anaoshwa uso na baba yake “A child is having his face washed by his father”

25.5. Application exercises (45) Give the passive form of the following sentences, using the “affected/beneficiary” as the new subject of the sentence. Translate into English, using the passive form when possible.

a. Adui amempiga askari mmoja risasi. b. Daktari anamng’oa mtoto jino. c. Hakimu amemsamehe kijana makosa yake. d. Hali hii itawavunja wazazi moyo. e. Juma amewaletea watoto maji. f. Kiongozi atawaondoa wananchi mashaka. g. Majambazi wamevunja vioo gari la wagonjwa. h. Mama anawavua watoto nguo. i. Mama atawapikia watoto wali. 214 Double object clauses and “object markers” j. Mama huyo amewanyima watoto wake chakula. k. Nitamwandikia Mariam barua. l. Polisi walimtoza dereva shilingi mia tatu. m. Salima amemuuliza mwalimu maswali mawili. n. Shirika letu liliwasaidia wananchi chakula. o. Wahuni wamemwibia mtu fulani saa yake.

(46) Translate into Swahili.

a. We gave our neighbors water. b. The policemen have hit the thug using a lash. c. Please help me with two dollars. d. I pay two thousand shillings a month for my phone bill (lit. “I pay my phone two thousand shillings per month”). e. Bad food has hurt my uncle’s stomach. f. The bottle is full of water. g. The doctor has healed my mother’s eyes. h. Mariam is braiding her sister’s hair. i. Do you like your school? j. Villagers have been cured of malaria by the doctor. k. We will ask passersby for water. l. The thief has been hit with eight lashes by the police. m. I will give food to her children. n. The teacher has denied permission to his students. o. The leader has promised progress to the people.

25.6. Cumulative exercises (47) Translate into Swahili.

a. I will ask my companion for help. b. Enter and close the door. c. He allowed me to ask one question. d. I want to fill the ball with air. e. I think he will be happy about your gift. f. She was being paid a hundred and fifty dollars a week. g. When I am back, I want you to have finished cleaning the room. h. We have been asked many questions. i. It is a taboo to deny water to someone. j. Did you ask anyone for money? (Lit. any person.) k. I will ask everyone to stand up. (Lit. all the people.) l. We must tell the teacher. m. Who told this incident to my mother? n. How do you like our new teacher? (Lit. how do you see.) Appendix A: Greetings and other polite expressions

A.1 Greetings and expressions of welcome

(1) Jambo! “Hi!” Jambo! “Hi!” (2) Hujambo! “How are you?” Sijambo! “I am fine!” (3) Hamjambo! “How are you all?” Hatujambo! “We are fine!” (4) Hujambo, Bibi/Bwana? “How are you, Madam/Sir?” Sijambo! “I am fine!” (5) Shikamoo! ( pl. Shikamooni!) “Hello, Sir/Madam!” Marahaba! “Hello!” (6) Salama? lit. “Peaceful?” Salama! lit. “Peaceful!” (7) Mambo vipi? “What’s up?” Poa!/Safi! lit. “Cool!”/lit. “neat” (8) Vipi? “What’s up?” Poa!/Safi! lit. “Cool!”/lit. “neat” (9) Mambo? “What’s up?” Poa!/Safi! lit. “Cool!”/lit. “neat” (10) Salaam aleikum “Hello” (Arabic) (lit. “peace be with you”) Aleikum salaam “Hello” (Arabic) (lit. “peace be with you too”) 216 Appendix A

(11) Sabah al kheri! “Good morning!” (Arabic) Sabah an nur! “Good morning!” (12) Masalkheri! “Good evening!” (Arabic) Masalkheri! “Good evening!” (13) Alamsiki! “Good night!” (Arabic) Alamsiki! “Good night!” (14) Hodi? “May I (we) come in?” Karibu(ni)! “Welcome! (you all)” (15) Nafurahi kukuona/kuwaona “Good to see you/you all” Asante! Nami/Nasi pia! “Thanks! You too!” (16) Nashukuru kukufahamu/kuwafahamu “Nice to meet you/you all” Asante! Nami/Nasi pia! “Thanks! You too!” (17) Karibu(ni) kiti! “Please have a seat (you all)!” Asante(ni)! “Thanks!” (18) Karibu(ni) chai (na mkate)! “Welcome (all) to tea (and bread)” Asante(ni)! “Thanks!” (19) Kwaheri(ni)! “Goodbye (you all)!” Kwaheri(ni)! “Goodbye (you all)!” (20) Asubuhi njema! “Have a good morning!” Asante! Na wewe! “Thanks! You too!” (21) Usiku mwema!/Ulale salama! “Good night/Sleep well!” Asante! Na wewe! “Thanks! You too!” (22) Jioni njema! “Have a good evening!” Asante! Na wewe! “Thanks! You too!” (23) Mchana mwema! “Have a good afternoon!” Asante! Na wewe! “Thanks! You too!” (24) Safari njema! “Have a good journey!” Asante! “Thanks!” (25) Tutaonana (kesho)! “See you (tomorrow)!” Haya! Tutaonana! “Alright. See you” Appendix A 217 A.2 Asking about news General form: Habari za (ya) . . . ? lit. “What is the news of . . . ?” Reply: Nzuri! “Good!”/Njema! “Fine!”/Salama! “Peaceful!” (Na wewe? “And you?”)

(26) Habari?/Habari gani? “What’s the news?” (27) Habari yako/zako? “How are you?” (lit. “What is your news?”) (28) Habari zenu? “How are you? (you all)” (29) Habari za leo? “How are you today?” (30) Habari za asubuhi? “How are you this morning?” (31) Habari za mchana? “How are you this afternoon?” (32) Habari za jioni? “How are you this evening?” (33) Habari za nyumbani? “How are things at home?” (34) Habari za kazi? “How is work?” (35) Habari za watoto? “How are the children?” (36) Habari za safari? “How is/was your trip?”

A.3 Asking about health/family

(37) Nyumbani hawajambo? “How is the family?” Hawajambo “They are fine” (38) (U) hali gani? “How is your health?” Mzima. (Na wewe?) “I am well. (And you?)” (39) (U) mzima? “Is your health okay?” Mzima. (Na wewe?) “I am well. (And you?)”

A.4 Expressing thanks and/or other polite expressions

(40) Asante(ni)! “Thank you (you all)!” (41) Asante(ni) kwa chai na “Thank you for tea and conversation mazungumzo (you all)” (42) Asante(ni) kwa kila kitu “Thank you for everything (you all)” (43) Asante(ni) sana! “Thank you so much (you all)!” (44) Hamna shida! “No problem!” 218 Appendix A

(45) Hapana!/Hamna!/Hakuna! “No!” (46) Hata kidogo! “Not at all!/Not even!” (47) Haya!/Sawa! “Okay!/Alright!” (48) La! (La, hasha!) “Not at all!” (49) Labda! “Maybe!” (50) Inshallah (Arabic) “God willing!” (51) Naam?/Naam! “Yes?” (In answer to a call)/“Exactly!” (52) Abee? “Yes?” (In answer to a call, for women) (53) Ala! Kumbe! “Wow! Really!” (54) Ndiyo! “Yes!” (55) Siyo!/Si(yo) kweli! “That’s not true!” (56) Nimefurahi! “I enjoyed myself!” (57) Nimestarehe! “I had a good time!” (58) Pole! “Sorry!” (sympathy) (59) Pole kwa msiba! “My sincere condolences” (60) Pole kwa safari! “Sorry for the journey!” (61) Asante, nimeshapoa! (reply to “Pole!”) “Thanks, I think I will be fine.” (62) Samahani! “Sorry!” (apology) (63) Bila samahani! “That’s okay!” (no need to apologize) (64) Tafadhali! “Please!” (65) Basi!/Yatosha! “Enough!” Appendix B: Class agreements with all types of adjectives and pronouns

Class Nominal prefix Pronominal prefix Sub-Class Noun Adjective Adjective Adjective Adjective Pron. C Pron. C Pron. C Pron. V Pron.V Subject Pron. Relative Object Pr. Object Pr. Conson.1 Conson.2 Conson.3 Vowel (Dem.1) (Dem.2) (Dem.3) (-a) ( -o) (V Stem) (C Stem) [mu-yu,a] mtoto mzuri mkubwa mpya mwingine hu yu huyo yule wangu wote anapendeza amba ye nina mw ona ninamjua [wa-wa] watoto wazuri wakubwa wapya wengine ha wa hao wale wangu wote wanapendeza ambao ninawaona ninawajua [mu-u] mfuko m zuri mkubwa mpya mwingine hu u huo ule wangu wote unapendeza ambao ninauona ninaujua ubao [mi-i] mifuko mizuri mikubwa mipya mingine hi i hiyo ile yangu yote inapendeza ambayo ninaiona ninaijua [ø-li] gari zuri kubwa jipya jingine hi li hilo lile langu lote linapendeza ambalo ninaliona ninalijua [ma-ya] magari mazuri makubwa mapya mengine ha ya hayo yale yangu yote yanapendeza ambayo ninayoona ninayajua [ki-ki] kitabu kizuri kikubwa kipya kingine hi ki hicho kile changu chote kinapendeza ambacho ninakiona ninakijua (chakula) (chepesi) [vi-vi] vitabu vizuri vikubwa vipya vingine hi vi hivyo vile vyangu vyote vinapendeza ambavyo ninaviona ninavijua (vyakula) (vyepesi) [n-i] nguo nzuri kubwa mpya nyingine hi i hiyo ile yangu yote inapendeza ambayo ninaiona ninaijua [n-zi] nguo nzuri kubwa mpya nyingine hi zi hizo zile zangu zote zinapendeza ambazo ninaziona ninazijua [ku] kusoma kuzuri kukubwa kupya kwingine hu ku huko kule kwangu kote kunapendeza ambako ninakuona ninakujua nyumbani [pa] kitini pazuri pakubwa papya pengine ha pa hapo pale pangu pote panapendeza ambapo ninapaona ninapajua [mu] chumbani mzuri mkubwa mpya mwingine hu mu humo mle mwangu mote mnapendeza ambamo ninamwona ninamjua

-dogo, -baya, . . . -kali, -pana, . . . -ingi, -eusi, -eupe, . . . -pi? -a “of” -o-ote “any” ndi- “be + emph.”; na- “have/and” + contr. pron. Similar modifierS

Reminder: Dual agreement with kinship terms: Rafiki yangu mkubwa na rafiki wa Mariam/(Ma)rafiki zetu wakubwa na (ma)rafiki wa Mariam Appendix C: Clause connectors and other transition words

C.1 Indirect clause (quotation)

(1) kwamba (ya kwamba) - Hamisi aliniambia kwamba anapenda kusoma. that Hamisi told me that he likes to read. (2) kuwa (ya kuwa) - Hamisi aliniambia kuwa anapenda kusoma. that Hamisi told me that he likes to read. (3) eti - Hamisi aliniambia eti anapenda kusoma. supposedly; verb Hamisi told me that he likes – supposedly – to read. “claim” - Fatuma aliniambia eti nisome kitabu chake ili nifaulu mtihani. Fatuma claimed me that I should read her book in order to pass the exam. (4) Kwa mujibu wa - Kwa mujibu wa Fatuma, Hamisi anapenda sana According to . . . kusoma. According to Fatuma, Hamisi likes to read very much.

C.2 Cause/consequence

(5) Kwa hiyo, - Hamisi anapenda kusoma. Kwa hiyo, atafaulu mtihani. Therefore, Hamisi likes to read. Therefore, he will pass the exam. (6) Kwa sababu hiyo, - Hamisi anapenda kusoma. Kwa sababu hiyo, For this reason, atafaulu mtihani. Hamisi likes to read. For this reason, he will pass the exam. (7) Kutokana na hayo, - Hamisi anapenda kusoma. Kutokana na hayo, As a result, atafaulu mtihani. Hamisi likes to read. As a result, he will pass the exam. (8) Hivyo, - Hamisi anapenda kusoma. Hivyo, atafaulu mtihani. Accordingly, Hamisi likes to read. Accordingly, he will pass the exam. (9) Basi, - Hamisi anapenda kusoma. Basi, atafaulu mtihani. Therefore, Hamisi likes to read. Therefore, he will pass the exam. Appendix C 221

(10) Ndiyo maana/sababu - Hamisi anapenda kusoma. Ndiyo maana/sababu This is the reason, atafaulu mtihani. Hamisi likes to read. This is the reason he will pass the exam. (11) Kutokana na kuwa - Kutokana na kuwa Hamisi anapenda kusoma, Since . . . atafaulu mtihani. Since Hamisi likes to read, he will pass the exam. (12) Kwa kuwa ~ Kwa vile - Kwa kuwa Hamisi anapenda kusoma, atafaulu Because . . . mtihani. Because Hamisi likes to read, he will pass the exam. (13) Kwani/Kwa sababu - Hamisi atafaulu mtihani kwani/kwa sababu because anapenda kusoma. Hamisi will pass the exam because he likes to read.

C.3 Purpose

(14) ili . . . + Subjunctive - Hamisi anasoma sana ili walimu wampende. so that . . . Hamisi studies a lot so that the teachers may like him.

(15) kwa ajili ya . . . + inf. - Hamisi anasoma sana kwa ajili ya kufaulu in order to . . . mtihani. Hamisi studies a lot in order to pass the exam.

C.4 Contrast/alternatives

(16) Licha ya kuwa . . . - Licha ya kuwa Hamisi anasoma sana, hataweza Though kufaulu mtihani. Though Hamisi studies a lot, he will not pass the exam. (17) Ingawa . . . - Ingawa Hamisi anasoma sana, hataweza kufaulu Although mtihani. Though Hamisi studies a lot, he will not pass the exam. (18) Ijapokuwa . . . - Hamisi anasoma sana, ijapokuwa hapendi shule Even though Hamisi studies a lot, even though he does not like school. 222 Appendix C

(19) Licha ya hayo, - Hamisi anasoma sana. Licha ya hayo, hapendi Despite that, kuenda shule. Hamisi studies a lot. Despite that, he does not like going to school. (20) Mbali na hayo, - Hamisi anasoma sana. Mbali na hayo, anapenda Aside from that, sana mpira. Hamisi studies a lot. Aside from that, he likes football a lot. (21) Hata hivyo, - Hamisi anasoma sana. Hata hivyo, hataweza However, kufaulu mtihani. Hamisi studies a lot. However, he likes football a lot. (22) isipokuwa . . . - Hamisi anasoma sana, isipokuwa haelewi except . . . anavyosoma. Hamisi reads a lot, except he does not understand what he reads. (23) ila . . . - Hamisi anasoma sana, ila haelewi anavyosoma. except . . . Hamisi reads a lot, except he does not understand what he reads. (24) Angalau - Angalau Hamisi anapenda kusoma. Wanafunzi At least wengine ni wavivu sana. At least Hamisi likes to read. The other students are very lazy. (25) Walakini, - Hamisi anasoma sana. Walakini, haelewi However, anavyosoma. Hamisi reads a lot. However, he does not understand what he reads. (26) Kumbe, - Nilifikiri kwamba Hamisi anapenda mpira tu; In fact, kumbe anapenda kusoma pia! But, my goodness! I thought Hamisi just likes football; in fact he Oh? Really? likes to read too! - Hamisi aliniambia eti anapenda kusoma; kumbe ni uongo mtupu. Hamisi told me that he allegedly likes to read; in fact it is an empty lie. - Kumbe wewe ni mwanamke! But, my goodness, you are a woman! - Hamisi anapenda kusoma sana. Kumbe? Hamisi likes to read. Oh? Really? Appendix C 223

(27) Badala ya (yake) - Badala ya kusoma, Hamisi anatazama mpira Instead (of ) kwenye televisheni. Instead of reading, Hamisi watches football on TV. - Hamisi hasomi. Badala yake, anatazama mpira kwenye televisheni. Hamisi does not read. Instead, he watches football on TV. (28) Kwa upande - Hamisi anasoma sana. Kwa upande mwingine, mwingine, Fatuma anapenda kuandika. On the other hand, Hamisi reads a lot. On the other hand, Fatuma likes to write. (29) Kwa upande wake, - Hamisi anapenda kusoma. Kwa upande wake, For his/her part, Fatuma anapenda kuandika. Hamisi likes to read. On her part, Fatuma likes to write. (30) wala - Fatuma hapendi kusoma wala kuangalia mpira. nor Fatuma does not like reading nor watching football. (31) bali - Fatuma hapendi kusoma bali huandika. but rather Fatuma does not like reading but rather writes. (32) au - Kila siku Hamisi husoma au huangalia mpira. or Every day Hamisi reads or watches football. (33) ama - Hamisi anahitaji kuandika zaidi, ama atashindwa otherwise, either mtihani. (. . . or) Hamisi needs to write more, otherwise he will fail his exam. - Ama Hamisi ataandika zaidi, au atashindwa mtihani. Either Hamisi will write more, or he will fail his exam. (34) la sivyo - Hamisi anahitaji kuandika zaidi, la sivyo otherwise, if not atashindwa mtihani. Hamisi needs to write more; if not, he will fail his exam. 224 Appendix C C.5 Parallelism/gradation

(35) Pia, - Hamisi anasoma sana. Pia, anapenda sana mpira. Also, Hamisi reads a lot. Also, he likes football a lot. (36) Vile vile, - Hamisi anasoma sana. Vile vile, anapenda sana as well mpira. Hamisi reads a lot. He likes football a lot as well. (37) Pamoja na hayo, - Hamisi anasoma sana. Pamoja na hayo, anapenda Besides that, sana mpira. Hamisi reads a lot. Besides that, he likes football a lot. (38) Zaidi ya hayo, - Hamisi anasoma sana. Zaidi ya hayo, anapenda In addition, sana mpira. Hamisi reads a lot. In addition, he likes football a lot. (39) Juu ya hayo, - Hamisi anasoma sana. Juu ya hayo, anapenda On top of that, sana mpira. Hamisi reads a lot. On top of that, he likes football a lot. (40) Isitoshe, - Hamisi anasoma sana. Isitoshe, anapenda sana Moreover, mpira. Hamisi reads a lot. Moreover, he likes football a lot. (41) Huku . . . -ki- - Hamisi anasoma kitabu huku akitazama mpira. While + -ing Hamisi is reading a book while watching football. (42) Hivi/Hali . . . -na- - Hamisi anasoma kitabu hivi/hali anatazama While + -ing mpira. Hamisi is reading a book while watching football. (43) Wakati huo (huo), - Hamisi anasoma kitabu. Wakati huo huo, At the same time, anatazama mpira. Hamisi is reading a book. At the same time, he is watching football. (44) Kwa muda huo (huo), - Hamisi anasoma kitabu. Kwa muda huo, Simultaneously, anatazama mpira. Hamisi is reading a book. Simultaneously, he is watching football. (45) Siku hiyo hiyo - Ijumaa iliyopita, Hamisi alisoma sana. Siku hiyo (~ mwezi, ~ mwaka) hiyo, alitazama mpira. That same day Last Friday, Hamisi read a book. That same day, (month, year) he watched football. Appendix C 225 C.6 Sequence of events

(46) Moja kwa moja, - Ijumaa iliyopita, Hamisi alisoma sana. Moja kwa Immediately, moja, alielewa masomo yake. Last Friday, Hamisi read a lot. Immediately, he understood the lessons. (47) Mwanzoe, . . . mwishoe, - Mwanzoe, Hamisi alisoma kitabu. Mwishoe, Initially, . . . Eventually, alitazama mpira. Initially, Hamisi read a book. Eventually, he watched football.

(48) Baada ya + infinitive - Baada ya kusoma kitabu, Hamisi alitazama mpira. After X, After reading a book, Hamisi watched football. (49) Baada ya hapo, - Hamisi alisoma kitabu. Baada ya hapo, alitazama Then, mpira. Hamisi read a book. Then, he watched football. (50) Baadaye, - Hamisi alisoma kitabu. Baadaye, alitazama mpira. Afterwards, Hamisi read a book. Afterwards, he watched football. (51) Halafu, - Hamisi alisoma kitabu. Halafu, alitazama mpira. Then, Hamisi read a book. Then, he watched football. (52) Kisha, - Hamisi alisoma kitabu. Kisha akatazama mpira. Then/afterwards Hamisi read a book. Then, he watched football.

(53) Kabla ya + infinitive - Kabla ya kutazama mpira, Hamisi alisoma kitabu. ~ noun Before watching football, Hamisi read a book. Before X (54) Kabla ya hapo, - Hamisi alitazama mpira. Kabla ya hapo, alisoma Before that, kitabu. Hamisi watched football. Before that, he read a book. (55) Kuanzia hapo, - Hamisi alishindwa mtihani. Kuanzia hapo, Since then, alisoma sana akaelewa kila kitu. Hamisi failed the exam. Since then, he has studied a lot and understood everything. (56) Mpaka hapo, - Tangu Ijumaa iliyopita, Hamisi alisoma sana. Until then, Mpaka hapo, alikuwa akitazama mpira. Since last Friday, Hamisi has read a lot. Until then, he had been watching football. (57) Mpaka sasa ~ Hadi - Mpaka sasa, Hamisi alipenda sana kusoma. sasa, Until now, Hamisi has liked to read very much. Until now, 226 Appendix C

(58) Hatua kwa hatua, - Hatua kwa hatua, Hamisi akasoma vitabu vyote Little by little, maktabani. Little by little, Hamisi read all the books in the library (lit. “step by step”). (59) Polepole, - Polepole, Hamisi alishika kitabu na kuanza Slowly, kusoma. Slowly, Hamisi took a book and began reading.

C.7 Opinion/probability

(60) Kwa maoni yangu - Kwa maoni yangu, ni muhimu kusoma ili (yake, ya X) kufaulu mtihani. In my opinion, In my view, it is important to study in order to (his/her, . . .) pass an exam. (61) Kwangu (kwake, - Kwangu, ni muhimu kusoma ili kufaulu mtihani. kwake) To me, it is important to study in order to pass To me, to you (him . . .) an exam. (62) Bila shaka, - Bila shaka, ni muhimu kusoma ili kufaulu Without a doubt, mtihani. Without a doubt, it is important to study in order to pass an exam. (63) Kwa (u)hakika, - Kwa (u)hakika ni muhimu kusoma ili kufaulu Surely; certainly, mtihani. Surely, it is important to study in order to pass an exam. (64) Kwa (u)kweli, - Kwa (u)kweli ni muhimu kusoma ili kufaulu Truly, mtihani. Truly, it is important to study in order to pass an exam. (65) Kwa bahati nzuri, - Kwa bahati nzuri, Hamisi anapenda kusoma. Fortunately, Fortunately, Hamisi likes to read. (66) Kwa bahati mbaya, - Kwa bahati mbaya, Hamisi ameshindwa mtihani. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, Hamisi failed the exam. (67) Pengine/Labda, - Pengine/Labda Hamisi hakufanya kazi vizuri. Maybe Maybe Hamisi did not work properly. (68) Yaonekana - Yaonekana Hamisi hakufanya kazi vizuri. (inaonekana kwamba) It appears that Hamisi did not work properly. It appears that Appendix C 227

(69) Yaelekea - Yaelekea Hamisi ataacha masomo. (inaelekea kwamba) It is probable that Hamisi will drop out. It is probable that (70) Inawezekana - Inawezekana Hamisi ameamua kuacha masomo. It is possible (that) It is possible that Hamisi has decided to drop out. (71) Huenda - Huenda Hamisi ameamua kuacha masomo. Perhaps Perhaps Hamisi has decided to drop out. (72) yaani/maana yake - Hamisi ameacha masomo, yaani/maana yake that is hatarudi shule tena. Hamisi has dropped out, that is, he will not return to school anymore.

C.8 Occurrence

(73) Mara kwa mara, - Mara kwa mara, Hamisi anatazama mpira From time to time, kwenye televisheni. From time to time, Hamisi watches football on TV. (74) Kila mara, - Kila mara, Hamisi anatazama mpira kwenye Each time, televisheni. Each time, Hamisi watches football on TV. (75) Mara zote, - Mara zote, Hamisi anatazama mpira kwenye Every time, televisheni. Every time, Hamisi watches football on TV. (76) Kila wakati, - Kila wakati, Hamisi anatazama mpira kwenye All the time, televisheni. Hamisi watches football on TV, all the time. (77) Bila kuchelewa, - Bila kuchelewa, Hamisi akashika kitabu na Without delay, kuanza kusoma. Without delay, Hamisi took a book and began reading. (78) (Kwa) ghafla, - (Kwa) ghafla, timu ya Hamisi ikafunga goli la Suddenly, kwanza. Suddenly, Hamisi’s team scored the first goal. (79) (Kwa) haraka, - (Kwa) haraka, Hamisi akarusha mpira. Quickly, Quickly, Hamisi kicked the ball. (80) Bila kusita, - Bila kusita, Hamisi akarusha mpira. Without hesitation, Without hesitation, Hamisi kicked the ball. (81) Kwa kawaida, - Kwa kawaida, Hamisi husoma kabla ya kuenda Usually, kucheza mpira. Usually, Hamisi studies before going to play football. 228 Appendix C C.9 Enumeration

(82) Kwanza (kabisa) - Kwanza kabisa, ni muhimu kusoma ili kufaulu ~ Mosi, mtihani. First, etc. First (of all), it is important to study in order to pass an exam. (83) Pili, Tatu, . . . - Pili, mpira si lazima kwa mwanafunzi. Second(ly); Third(ly), Secondly, football is not necessary for a student. (84) Mwisho, ~ Hatimaye, - Mwisho, kama mwanafunzi amemaliza kusoma Finally, anaweza kutazama mpira. Finally, if a student finishes studying, he may watch football.

C.10 Conclusion

(85) Kwa kifupi ~ ufupi, - Kwa kifupi, ni muhimu kusoma ili kufaulu In short; in brief mtihani. In brief, it is important to study in order to pass an exam. (86) Kwa ujumla, - Kwa ujumla, ni muhimu kusoma ili kufaulu In sum; overall mtihani. In sum, it is important to study in order to pass an exam. (87) Kimsingi, - Kimsingi, kusoma kunasaidia kufaulu mtihani. Basically, Basically, studying helps to pass an exam. (88) Kwa kumaliza, - Kwa kumaliza, ni muhimu kusoma ili kufaulu In conclusion, mtihani. In conclusion, it is important to study in order to pass an exam. Appendix D: Use of verb tenses in Swahili proverbs

Swahili proverbs (or “methali”) may be introduced in conversation with expressions such as “Kama Waswahili wanavyosema . . ./Wasemavyo Waswahili . . .” or “Kama wahenga walivyosema . . ./Walivyosema wahenga . . .” (“As the Swahili say . . .”; “As the elders used to say . . .”). They make frequent use of infinitive-derived nouns (seen in Language note 22.3), and the indicative present in negative form or in habitual tense, the conditional mood (“probable” form -ki-), and the relative clause. Some proverbs also make use of comparison patterns, while others use ellipsis, especially the omission of the verb ni “be”. In addition, various proverbs are split in two parts with an equal number of syllables, sometimes end- ing in similar sounds (see rhythm and rhymes). These various features are illustrated in the samples that follow (for more details, see Parker 1974).

D.1 Proverbs with infinitive-derived nouns (1) Mpiga ngumi ukutani huumiza mkonowe. “He who hits a wall with his fist hurts his own arm.” (@ Who acts stupidly endures negative consequences.) (2) Mwenda pole hajikwai. [4/4 rhythm] “He who walks calmly does not trip himself.” (3) Simba mwenda kimya, ndiye mla nyama. [6/6 rhythm] “The lion that moves silently is the one that gets to eat meat.” (@ Who wants to succeed keeps his intentions secret.) (4) Mchimba kisima huingia mwenyewe. “He who digs a well usually falls in it himself” (lit. “enters it”). (5) Mchagua jembe si mkulima. “He who chooses a hoe is not a farmer.” (@ A doer is seldom choosy about the implements.) (6) Mpanda ngazi hushuka. “He who climbs stairs always descends.” (@ No one stays on top forever.) (7) Mtaka cha mvunguni, sharti ainame. “He who wants what is underneath must stoop.” (@ Who wants to succeed must make all necessary efforts.) 230 Appendix D D.2 Proverbs with the indicative present in negative form (8) Akiba haiozi. “Reserves do not rot.” (9) Jogoo la shamba haliwiki mjini. “A country rooster does not crow in town.” (10) Maji ya moto hayachomi nyumba. “Hot water does not burn a house.” (11) Maji hayapandi mlima. “Water does not climb a mountain.” (Said about impossible tasks.) (12) Mafahali wawili hawakai zizi moja. “Two bulls do not live in one cowshed.” (13) Fimbo ya mbali haiui nyoka. “A faraway stick cannot kill a snake.” (14) Haraka karaka haina baraka. [6/6 rhythm; rhyme in -ka] “Haste, haste, has no .” (“Haste makes waste.”) (15) Kuku havunji yai lake. “A hen does not break its own egg.”

D.3 Proverbs with the habitual tense (16) Haba na haba, hujaza kibaba. [rhyme in -ba] “Little by little, fills the basket.” (17) Siku ya kufa nyani, miti yote huteleza. “The day a monkey is destined to die, all trees get slippery.” (18) Mtumaini cha nduguye, hufa masikini. “He who relies on his relative’s property, dies poor.” (19) Mvumilivu hula mbivu. [rhyme in -vu] “He who is patient gets to eat ripe fruit.” (20) Mcheza kwao hutunzwa. “He who plays at home gets rewarded.” (21) Kamba hukatikia pabovu. “A rope breaks where it is weak.” (22) Kanzu ya Ijumaa hufuliwa Alhamisi. “The garment for Friday is (better) laundered on Thursday.”

D.4 Proverbs with the conditional mood (“probable” form -ki-) (23) Maji yakimwagika, hayazoleki. “If water spills, it cannot be gathered up.” (24) Ngoma ikivuma sana, karibu kupasuka. “If a drum sounds very well (loudly), it is near to splitting.” (@ If something works very well, it may be a sign that it is about to stall.) (25) Ukitaka kula nguruwe, chagua aliyenona. “If you resolve to eat pork, choose one fat pig.” (26) Ukimtaja nyoka, shika fimbo. “If you mention a snake, grab a stick.” Appendix D 231 (27) Mwenzako akinyolewa wewe tia maji. “If your companion is being shaved, put some water (in your hair).” (This softens hair and alleviates the razor pain.) (28) Mjinga akierevuka, mwerevu yupo mashakani. “If the fool gets clever, the clever one is in trouble” (29) Usipoziba ufa, utajenga ukuta. [rhythm 7/7; rhyme in -a] “If you do not mend a crack, you will have to build a wall.”

D.5 Proverbs with a relative clause (30) Ajuaye mengi, hasemi mengi. [final repetition: mengi] “He who knows more speaks less.” (31) Hapana maji yasiyo na mawimbi. “There is no water without waves.” (32) Kitanda usichokilala, hujui kunguni wake. “A bed that you do not sleep on, you cannot know its bugs.” (33) Pilipili usizozila zakuwashaje? “Chilis you don’t eat, how can they burn you?” (34) Asiyesikia la mkuu huvunjika mguu. [rhyme in -uu] “He who does not listen to an elder’s advice breaks his own leg.” (35) Asiyefunzwa na wazazi hufundishwa na dunia. “He who is not taught by parents gets taught by the world.” (36) Kikulacho ki nguoni mwako. [rhyme in -o] “That which eats you up is in your clothing.” (About being betrayed by someone close.) (37) Asiyekujua hakuthamini. “He/she who does not know you, does not value you”. (38) Akufukuzaye hakwambii “toka.” “He who wants you out of her/his place does not (need to) tell you, ‘Get out.’” (39) Akupigaye kumbo hakuambii sumile. “He who wants to knock you down does not tell you ‘attention!’”

D.6 Proverbs with an imperative/subjunctive verb (40) Mtoto akililia wembe, mpe. “If a child cries for a razor blade, give him.” (About letting people who do not listen learn through unfortunate experiences.) (41) Ukiona vyaelea, vimeundwa. “If you see them afloat (the boats), someone has built them.” (42) Penye kuku wengi usimwage mtama. “Where there are many hens, do not spill sorghum (millet).” (43) Usitukane wagema na ulevi ungalipo. “Don’t insult the brewers (lit. the palm wine tappers) while alcohol drinking (lit. alcoholism) still exists” (Usitukane wakunga na uzazi ungalipo. “Don’t insult midwives while parenting still exists.”) 232 Appendix D D.7 Proverbs with an infinitive verb (44) Kuishi kwingi ni kuona mengi. [rhyme in -ngi] “To live long is to see much.” (45) Kujikwaa si kuanguka, bali ni kwenda mbele. “Tripping is not falling but going forward.” (46) Kula kutamu, kulima mavune. “Eating is sweet, cultivating is tiredness.” (47) Kupotea njia ndiyo kujua njia. “Getting lost is learning the way indeed.” (48) Kulea mimba si kazi, kazi kulea mwana. “Nursing a pregnancy is not hard, what is hard is raising a child.” (49) Kuzima koleo si mwisho wa uhunzi. “The cooling down of the tongs is not the end of forging.” (50) Kwenda mbio si kufika. “Going fast is not necessarily arriving.”

D.8 Proverbs with a comparison term (51) Afadhali akutembeleaye kuliko akutumiaye salamu. “Better than the one who sends you greetings is the one who visits you.” (52) Afadhali utu kuliko kitu. [rhyme in -tu] “Better humanity than possessions (things).” (53) Bora kujikwaa kidole kuliko kujikwaa ulimi. “Better to stumble with the toe than with the tongue.” (54) Ulimi unauma kuliko meno. “The tongue bites more than the teeth.”

D.9 Ellipsis (verb ni “be” omitted) (55) Kukopa harusi kulipa matanga. [7/7 rhythm] “Borrowing is like a wedding, repaying is like mourning.” (56) Nazi mbovu harabu ya nzima. “One rotten coconut, ruin for good ones.” (57) Hasira za mkizi, furaha kwa mvuvi. [7/7 rhythm; rhyme in -i] “Mullet fish’s anger, joy for the fisherman.” (When disturbed e.g. by light, mullet fish jump in the air and may get caught by fishermen.) Vocabulary list

1 Nouns without a prefix that are in class [ø-li/ma-ya] are systematically listed with the plural prefix ma-. 2 Plural forms that do not follow general phonetic patterns are given in full. 3 Nouns with a prefix u- are in class [mu-u/n-zi] by default, while non-animate nouns without a prefix are in class [n-i/n-zi] by default. 4 Noun classes that do not follow common patterns are indicated with hints in brackets (e.g. [u-]), while optional prefixes or conjunctions are given in parentheses. 5 In both the Swahili–English and the English–Swahili sections, verbs are given in the infinitive form in the target language, in order to prevent confusion with nouns or adjectives.

Swahili–English bado yet (not yet); still baina (ya) between -acha to leave sb./sth. baisikeli bike adui (ma-) enemy -baki to remain afadhali preferable bandari port afya health bao/ma- board game; goal (in game) -ahidi to promise bara/ma- continent aina sort of barabara road -ake his/her(s)/its baridi cold -ako your(s) barua letter (message) -alika to invite basi/ma- bus -ambia to tell to -baya bad -amini to trust/believe -beba to carry -amka to wake up bei price -amkia to greet bibi (ma-) grandmother -andaa to prepare -bivu ripe andazi/maandazi beignet -bomoa to demolish -andika to write bora better; very good -angalia to look at/pay attention; watch bustani garden; yard (house) -angu my; mine (my) bwana (ma-) gentleman; mister -anguka to fall down anwani, ~ anuani address -cha to dawn; to fear (obsolete) -anza to start -chache few -ao their(s) -chafu dirty asubuhi morning -chagua to choose chai/chai tea baadaye afterwards chakula food baba father chama association; party (political) babu (ma-) grandfather -cheka to laugh 234 Vocabulary list

-chelewa get/be late -fundisha to teach -cheza to play -funga to close sth./lock/score (game) chini (ya) beneath; under; down -fungua to open -choka get/be tired -fupi short chombo dish; tool; utensil; vessel -furahi happy (be) choo bathroom -chora to draw gani? what (+ noun)? -chukua to take gari/ma- car chumba room -gawa to distribute chungwa/ma- orange -gawana to share chuo college -gawanya to divide chuo kikuu university gazeti/ma- newspaper -geni foreign dada sister ghali expensive daftari/ma- notebook -gombana to argue/quarrel dakika minutes -gonga to hit (collision) daktari doctor -gumu hard; difficult -danganya to lie darasa/ma- class; classroom habari news dawa medicine hadi until dhahabu gold hadithi story -dharau to disdain; disregard hakika certain; certainty -dogo little; small hali condition (state) duka/ma- store -hama to move (change places) hapa here -ekundu red haraka hurry -eleza to explain -haribika damaged (be) -elezea to explain to sb. -haribu to damage elfu thousand hatari danger -ema (njema) kind; nice heri preferable -embamba thin; narrow -hitaji to need embe/maembe mango hospitali hospital -enda to go huduma service -endelea to continue (state)/progress, huruma compassion; mercy; pity; develop (state), keep (doing) sympathy -enea to spread (state)/extend over (state) -iba to steal eneo/maeneo region; area Ijumaa Friday -enu your(s) [you all] imara strong -enye with (that has) -imba to sing -enyewe self (my-; him-; it- . . .) -ingi many; a lot -epesi light (adjective) -ingia to enter -etu our(s) -ingine other -eupe white -isha to finish (state) -eusi black -ishi to live ishirini twenty -fa to die -ita to call -faa suitable (be –); beneficial (be –) -fahamu to understand/know (a person) -ja to come familia family -jaa full (become/be) -fanya to do jahazi/ma- dhow -faulu to succeed -jali to care about/worry (be -ficha to hide worried) -fika to arrive/reach (a place) jamaa relative ( family) -finyu narrow jambo/mambo matter; thing friji fridge jana yesterday -fuata to follow -jaribu to try Vocabulary list 235 jasiri brave; courageous kisha then (sequence) -jenga to build kisiwa island jengo/ma- building kitabu book -jibu to answer kitanda bed jicho/macho eye kiti chair jiko/meko fireplace kitu thing jina/ma- name kituo station jino/meno tooth kiu thirst jioni evening kofia hat jirani neighbor -komboa to liberate -jisikia afadhali to feel better kompyuta computer jiwe/mawe stone -kongwe very old -jua to know -kopa to borrow jua (majua) sun koti/ma- coat Jumapili Sunday -kubali to accept juu (ya) over; up; on top -kubwa big kuku chicken -kaa to sit/stay (loc.), live (loc.) kuliko rather than kabati cupboard -kumbuka to remember kabisa absolutely kumi ten kadhaa some; several -kuta to meet/find somewhere kaka brother -kutana (na) to meet (with) kalamu pen kutoka from (directional) -kali fierce; sharp; severe; virulent -kuu main kama if; like; as kwa with (instrument); by (means, kamusi dictionary manner); per kando (ya) beside; aside; along kwamba that (quotation) kanzu robe kwanza first (sequence) karatasi paper kweli true karibu welcome kweli kweli truly karibu (na) near; almost (+ verb) kwenye on; in -kasirika angry (get/be –) -kata to cut -la to eat -kataa to refuse lakini but kati (ya) between -lala to sleep/lie down katika in -laumu to blame kawaida habit lazima obligation kazi job; work -le that/those (over there) kazi ya nyumbani homework -lea to raise (child)/rear kelele noise leo today kesho tomorrow -leta to bring -keti to sit -letea to bring to someone Kiarabu Arabic -lewa drunk (be) kiasi quantity; amount -lia to cry kiatu/viatu shoe likizo vacation kiboko hippopotamus; whip; lash lini? when? kichwa head -lipa to pay kidogo a little lugha language Kiingereza English kijana youngster maelezo explanation kila each; every maendeleo progress kileo liquor mafuta [ma-] oil; animal fat -kimbia to run/run away mahali place (location) kinywaji drink maji [ma-] water kiongozi leader maktaba/maktaba library kioo/vioo mirror -maliza to finish sth. kisa incident mama mother 236 Vocabulary list mapema early mti tree Marekani America mtihani exam mashambani countryside (in the) mto pillow; river masomo studies mtu person; human being maziwa [ma-] milk muda/mida period of time mbali (na) far muhimu important mbalimbali various muhtasari/mihtasari summary(ies) mbele (ya) in front mume/waume husband mbu/mbu mosquito Mungu God mbuga/mbuga game reserve muziki (mu-) music mbwa/mbwa dog mvulana boy mchana afternoon mwaka/miaka year mchezo game; play mwalimu teacher mchopozi pickpocket mwanafunzi student mchumba fiancé/e mwanamke/wanawake woman/women meli boat mwanamume man meza table mwananchi citizen mfanyakazi worker; employee mwarabu/waarabu Arab mfuko bag; pocket mwerevu clever mgeni guest; foreigner mwezi month mgonjwa ill; patient (sick person) mwiko/miiko taboo mguu leg mwili/miili body mia hundred mwizi/wezi robber mimi me mwongo/waongo liar miwani [mi-] eyeglasses mzalendo patriot mizigo luggage mzee elder mji city; town mjinga stupid na and; with (together) mjomba uncle (maternal) -nane eight mkate bread nani? who? mke/wake wife nchi country mkeka mat ndani (ya) inside mkoba bag (handbag; backpack) ndege plane; bird mkono arm (body part) ndiyo yes mkulima farmer ndizi banana mkurugenzi director ndugu sibling mlango door -nene thick mlima mountain -nenepa fat (become/be) mnafiki hypocrite -ngali still be mnene fat (person) ng’ambo abroad mno too much; extremely; -ngapi? how many? excessively ng’ombe cow mnyama animal nguo clothes -moja one nguruwe pig -mojawapo one of nini? what? moto/mioto fire ninyi you (plural) moyo/mioyo heart njaa hunger mpaka until nje outside mpaka [mu-] border njia way; pathway mpango plan -nne four mpira ball; soccer -nunua to buy mrembo beautiful (pers.); pretty (pers.) nusu half msaidizi assistant nyama meat mshahara salary -nyoa to cut hair mshindani competitor nyoka snake msichana girl nyuma (ya) behind mswahili Swahili person nyumba house Vocabulary list 237

-nywa to drink rais (ma-) president nywele (pl.) hair rangi color; paint redio radio -oa to marry ( for men) -refu long -oana to marry (each other) -rekebisha to rectify/adjust, alter (e.g. -ogopa to fear clothing) -olewa to marry ( for women) -rudi to return (back)/come back -omba to request/pray, beg -rudisha to bring sb./sth. back/return sth. ombaomba (ma-) beggar to (a place) ombi/ma- request; prayer ruhusa permission -ona to see -ruhusu to allow/permit -ondoka to leave (depart) runinga television -ongea to converse -onya to warn saa watch (time); clock; hour -onyesha to show saba seven onyo/maonyo warning sababu cause -ote all; whole safari trip; journey; travel safi clean -pa to give to -safiri to travel paka cat -safisha to clean -pana spacious; broad; wide -sahau to forget -panda to climb/board -saidia to help pasipoti passport salama peace; peacefully -pata to obtain/get sth. salamu greetings -patia to give to/pass to sb. -salimia to greet -peleka to send sth. to/take to samahani sorry (apology) -penda to like/love -samehe to forgive/pardon -pendekeza to recommend sana very; very much; a lot -pendeza pleasant (be); nice (be); please sanduku/ma- trunk; suitcase pesa money sasa now -pi? which? sauti voice; sound pia also; too (also) sawa similar picha picture sebule living room -piga to beat/hit sehemu area -piga picha to take picture(s) -sema to speak -pika to cook serikali government -pima to measure shairi/ma- poem -pindua to overturn sth. shamba/ma- farm; field -pinduka to overturn (self )/get -shangaa to be astonished overturned -shangaza to astonish; to surprise -pita to pass/surpass shangazi aunt (paternal) pochi purse sharti/ma- obligation; must -pokea receive shati/ma- shirt pole sorry (sympathy) -shauri to advise polepole slowly shemeji (ma-) brother-in-law; sister-in-law pombe alcohol (beverage); beer shida problem; difficulty pomboo dolphin -shika to take -pona heal (disease; patient); shilingi shilling recover shimo/ma- hole -potea lost (get/be) -shinda to win/defeat pua nose -shindana to compete -pumzika to rest -shindwa to fail/lose (be defeated) -pungua to decrease (state) -shona to sew -pya new -shughulikia to look after/attend to shujaa hero rafiki friend shule school rahisi easy; affordable; cheap -sikia to hear 238 Vocabulary list

-sikiliza to listen ubalozi embassy siku day ubao board -simama to stop (self )/stand up ufunguo key simba lion ugali stiff porridge sinema movie ugonjwa/ma- disease -sinzia to sleep/asleep ( fall/be –) -ugua ill (be); sick (be) sisi us -uguza to nurse (patient) sita six ujumbe message sitini sixty ukumbi living room; hall soksi socks ukuta wall -soma to read/learn/study Ulaya Europe somo/ma- lesson -uliza to ask (question) -subiri to wait ( for) umeme electricity -suka to braid -umia to suffer (be in pain)/hurt sukari sugar (be/get) -sumbua to annoy/bother -umwa to suffer (sick)/sick (be) suruali pants; trousers upepo wind usiku night taa lamp uzio/nyuzio fence tafadhali please -tafuta to look for -vaa to wear taifa/ma- nation vipi? how? -taka to want vizuri well (adverb) -tamani to desire -vunjika break (state); broken (be) -tamu delicious; sweet -vutia to attract tangu since -tano five -wa to be/become tatizo/ma- problem; difficulty wali [u-] rice (cooked) -tawala to govern wao them tayari ready; already wapi? where? -tazama to watch -wasili to arrive -tegemea to rely on -weka to put/place televisheni television wewe you (singular) -tembea to walk -weza can/able (be) -tembelea to visit wifi (ma-) sister-in-law tembo elephant wikendi weekend tena again; anymore wiki week -tengeneza to fix/repair -wili two -teua to designate/select wimbo/nyimbo song thelathini thirty -winda to hunt -tia to put wivu [u-] envy; jealousy -tii to obey tiketi ticket yai/ma- egg tisa nine yeye him/her -tisha to scare/terrify -toka to come from; to go away zaidi more -tosha to be enough/be sufficient -zaliwa to be born treni train zamani long ago -tukana to insult zawadi gift -tulia calm (be); calm down (state) -zee old tumbo stomach -zidi to exceed/outnumber -tumia to use -zima healthy; entire; adult tunda/ma- fruit -zito heavy -zoea to get/be accustomed -ua to kill zoezi/ma- exercise ua/maua flower -zuia to restrain ua/nyua fence -zuri good; nice Vocabulary list 239 English–Swahili beautiful (pers.) mrembo become kuwa able (be) kuweza bed kitanda abroad ng’ambo beer pombe absolutely kabisa beg kuomba accept kukubali beggar ombaomba (ma-) address anwani, ~ anuani behind nyuma (ya) adjust kurekebisha beignet andazi/maandazi adult -zima believe kuamini advise kushauri beneath chini (ya) affordable rahisi beneficial (be –) kufaa afternoon mchana beside kando (ya) afterwards baadaye better bora again tena between baina (ya), kati (ya) alcohol (beverage) pombe big -kubwa all -ote bike baisikeli allow kuruhusu bird ndege almost (+ verb) karibu black -eusi along kando (ya) blame kulaumu already tayari board ubao also pia board kupanda alter (e.g. clothing) kurekebisha board game bao/ma- America Marekani boat meli amount kiasi body mwili/miili and na book kitabu angry (get/be) kukasirika border mpaka animal mnyama born (be –) kuzaliwa annoy kusumbua borrow kukopa answer kujibu bother kusumbua anymore tena boy mvulana Arab mwarabu/waarabu braid kusuka Arabic Kiarabu brave jasiri area eneo/maeneo, bread mkate sehemu break (state) -vunjika argue kugombana bring kuleta arm (body part) mkono bring sb./sth. back kurudisha arrive kufika, kuwasili bring to sb. kuletea as kama broad -pana aside kando (ya) broken (be –) kuvunjika ask (question) kuuliza brother kaka asleep (fall/be –) kusinzia brother-in-law shemeji (ma-) assistant msaidizi build kujenga association chama building jengo/ma- astonish kushangaza bus basi/ma- astonished (be –) kushangaa but lakini attend to kushughulikia buy kununua attract kuvutia by (means; manner) kwa aunt (paternal) shangazi (ma-) call kuita bad -baya calm (be –) kutulia bag mfuko calm down (state) kutulia bag (handbag; backpack) mkoba can (be able to) kuweza ball mpira car gari/ma- banana ndizi care about kujali bathroom choo carry kubeba be kuwa cat paka beat kupiga cause sababu 240 Vocabulary list certain; certainty hakika difficult -gumu chair kiti difficulty shida, tatizo/ma- cheap rahisi director mkurugenzi chicken kuku dirty -chafu choose kuchagua disdain kudharau citizen mwananchi disease ugonjwa/ma- city mji dish (utensil) chombo class; classroom darasa/ma- distribute kugawa clean safi divide kugawanya clean kusafisha do kufanya clever mwerevu doctor daktari climb kupanda dog mbwa/mbwa clock saa dolphin pomboo close sth. kufunga door mlango clothes nguo down chini (ya) coat koti/ma- draw kuchora cold baridi drink kunywa college chuo drink (beverage) kinywaji color rangi drunk (be –) kulewa come kuja come back kurudi each kila come from; from kutoka early mapema compassion huruma easy rahisi compete kushindana eat kula competitor mshindani egg yai/ma- computer kompyuta eight -nane condition (state) hali elder mzee continent bara/ma- electricity umeme continue (state) kuendelea elephant tembo converse kuongea embassy ubalozi cook kupika employee mfanyakazi country nchi enemy adui countryside (in the) mashambani English Kiingereza courageous (pers.) jasiri enough (be –) kutosha cow ng’ombe enter kuingia cry kulia entire -zima cupboard kabati envy wivu [u-] cut kukata Europe Ulaya cut hair kunyoa evening jioni every kila damage kuharibu exam mtihani damaged (be –) kuharibika exceed kuzidi danger hatari excessively mno dawn (verb) kucha exercise zoezi/ma- day siku expensive ghali December Disemba explain kueleza decrease (state) kupungua explain to sb. kuelezea defeat kushinda explanation maelezo defend kutetea extend over (state) kuenea delicious -tamu extremely mno demolish kubomoa eye jicho/macho designate kuteua eyeglasses miwani [mi-] desire kutamani develop (state) kuendelea fail kushindwa dhow jahazi/ma- fall down kuanguka dictionary kamusi family familia die kufa far mbali (na) Vocabulary list 241 farm shamba/ma- greetings salamu farmer mkulima guest mgeni fat (become/be –) kunenepa fat ( from animal) mafuta habit kawaida fat (pers.) mnene hair nywele (pl.) father baba half nusu fear kuogopa, kucha hall ukumbi (obsolete) happy (be –) kufurahi feel better kujisikia afadhali hard -gumu fence ua/nyua, uzio/nyuzio hat kofia few -chache head kichwa fiancé/e mchumba heal (disease; patient) kupona field shamba/ma- health afya fierce -kali healthy -zima find somewhere kukuta hear kusikia finish (state) kwisha heart moyo/mioyo finish sth. kumaliza heavy -zito fire moto/mioto help kusaidia fireplace jiko/meko here hapa first (sequence) kwanza hero shujaa five -tano hide kuficha fix kutengeneza him/her yeye flower ua/maua hippopotamus kiboko follow kufuata his/her(s)/its -ake food chakula hit kugonga (collision), foreign -geni kupiga foreigner mgeni hole shimo/ma- forget kusahau homework kazi ya nyumbani forgive kusamehe hospital hospitali four -nne hour saa Friday Ijumaa house nyumba fridge friji how? vipi? friend rafiki how many? -ngapi? from (directional) kutoka human being mtu fruit tunda/ma- hundred mia full (become/be –) kujaa hunger njaa hunt kuwinda game mchezo hurry haraka game reserve mbuga/mbuga hurt (be/get –) kuumia garden bustani husband mume/waume gentleman bwana hypocrite mnafiki get sth. kupata get/be accustomed -zoea if kama gift zawadi ill mgonjwa girl msichana ill (be) kuugua give to kupa, kupatia important muhimu go kuenda in katika, kwenye go away kutoka in front mbele (ya) goal (in game) bao/ma- incident kisa God Mungu inside ndani (ya) gold dhahabu insult kutukana good -zuri invite kualika govern kutawala island kisiwa government serikali grandfather babu jealousy wivu [u-] grandmother bibi job kazi greet kuamkia, kusalimia journey safari 242 Vocabulary list keep (doing) kuendelea me mimi key ufunguo measure kupima kill kuua meat nyama kind -ema (njema) medicine dawa know kujua meet kukuta know (a pers.) kufahamu meet (with) kukutana (na) mercy huruma lamp taa message ujumbe language lugha milk maziwa [ma-] lash kiboko mine (my) -angu late (get/be –) kuchelewa minutes dakika laugh kucheka mirror kioo/vioo leader kiongozi mister bwana learn kusoma money pesa leave (depart) kuondoka month mwezi leave sb./sth. kuacha more zaidi leg mguu morning asubuhi lesson somo/ma- mosquito mbu/mbu letter (message) barua mother mama liar mwongo/waongo mountain mlima liberate kukomboa move (change places) kuhama library maktaba/maktaba movie sinema lie kudanganya music muziki [mu-] lie down kulala must lazima, sharti light (adjective) -epesi my -angu like kama like kupenda name jina/ma- lion simba narrow -embamba, -finyu liquor kileo nation taifa/ma- listen kusikiliza near karibu (na) little -dogo necessity haja little (a –) kidogo need kuhitaji live kuishi neighbor jirani (ma-) live (loc.) kukaa new -pya living room ukumbi/kumbi, news habari sebule newspaper gazeti/ma- lock kufunga nice -zuri long -refu nice (be –) kupendeza long ago zamani nice (kind) -ema (njema) look after kushughulikia night usiku/mausiku look at kuangalia nine tisa look for kutafuta noise kelele lose (be defeated) kushindwa nose pua lost (get/be –) kupotea notebook daftari/ma- lot (a –) -ingi; sana now sasa love kupenda nurse (patient) kuuguza luggage mizigo obey kutii main -kuu obligation lazima, sharti/ma- man mwanamume obtain kupata mango embe/maembe oil mafuta [ma-] many -ingi old -zee marry (each other) kuoana on kwenye marry (for men) kuoa on top juu (ya) marry (for women) kuolewa one -moja mat mkeka one of -mojawapo matter jambo/mambo open kufungua Vocabulary list 243 orange chungwa/ma- put kuweka, kutia other -ingine quantity kiasi our(s) -etu quarrel kugombana outnumber kuzidi outside nje radio redio over juu (ya) raise (child) kulea overturn (self ), get kupinduka rather than kuliko overturned reach (a place) kufika overturn sth. kupindua read kusoma ready tayari paint rangi rear (child) kulea pants suruali receive kupokea paper karatasi recommend kupendekeza party (political) chama recover ( from disease) kupona pass to sb. kupatia rectify kurekebisha passport pasipoti red -ekundu pathway njia refuse kukataa patient (sick) mgonjwa region eneo/maeneo patriot mzalendo relative ( family) jamaa pay kulipa rely on kutegemea pay attention kuangalia remain kubaki peace; peaceful(ly) salama remember kukumbuka pen kalamu repair kutengeneza per kwa request ombi/ma- period of time muda/mida request kuomba permission ruhusa rest kupumzika permit kuruhusu restrain kuzuia person mtu return kurudi pickpocket mchopozi return sth. to (a place) kurudisha picture picha rice (cooked) wali [u-] pig nguruwe ripe -bivu pillow mto river mto pity huruma road barabara place kuweka robber mwizi/wezi place (loc.) mahali robe kanzu plan mpango room chumba plane ndege run, run away kukimbia play mchezo play kucheza salary mshahara pleasant (be –) kupendeza scare kutisha please tafadhali school shule please kupendeza score (game) kufunga pocket mfuko see kuona poem shairi/ma- select kuteua port bandari self (my-; him-; it- . . .) -enyewe pray kuomba send kupeleka prayer ombi/ma- service huduma preferable afadhali, heri seven saba prepare kuandaa several kadhaa president rais (ma-) severe -kali pretty (pers.) mrembo sew kushona price bei shame haya problem shida, tatizo/ma- share kugawana progress maendeleo sharp -kali progress kuendelea shilling shilingi promise kuahidi shine kuwaka purse pochi shirt shati/ma- 244 Vocabulary list shoe kiatu/viatu surpass kupita short -fupi surprise kushangaza show kuonyesha Swahili person mswahili sibling ndugu sweet -tamu sick (be) kuugua, kuumwa sympathy huruma similar sawa since tangu table meza sing kuimba taboo mwiko/miiko sister dada take kuchukua, kushika sister-in-law shemeji (ma-) take pictures kupiga picha sister-in-law (for women) wifi (ma-) take to kupeleka sit kukaa, kuketi tea chai/chai six sita teach kufundisha sixty sitini teacher mwalimu sleep kulala, kusinzia television runinga, televisheni slowly polepole tell to kuambia small -dogo ten kumi snake nyoka terrify kutisha soccer mpira that (quotation) kwamba socks soksi that/those (over there) -le some (several) kadhaa their(s) -ao song wimbo/nyimbo them wao sorry (apology) samahani then (sequence) kisha sorry (sympathy) pole thick -nene sort of aina thin -embamba sound sauti thing jambo/mambo, kitu spacious -pana thirst kiu speak kusema thirty thelathini spread (state) kuenea thousand elfu stand up kusimama ticket tiketi start kuanza tired (get/be –) kuchoka station kituo today leo stay (loc.) kukaa tomorrow kesho steal kuiba too (also) pia stiff porridge ugali too much mno still bado tool chombo still be -ngali tooth jino/meno stomach tumbo town mji stone jiwe/mawe train treni stop (self ) kusimama travel kusafiri store duka/ma- travel safari story hadithi tree mti strong imara trip safari student mwanafunzi true kweli studies masomo truly kweli kweli study kusoma trunk sanduku/ma- stupid mjinga trust kuamini succeed kufaulu try kujaribu suffer (be in pain) kuumia twenty ishirini suffer (sickness) kuumwa two -wili sufficient (be –) kutosha sugar sukari uncle (maternal) mjomba suitable (be –) kufaa under chini (ya) suitcase sanduku/ma- understand kufahamu summary(ies) muhtasari/mihtasari university chuo kikuu sun jua (majua) until hadi, mpaka Sunday Jumapili up juu (ya) Vocabulary list 245 us sisi what? nini? use kutumia when? lini? utensil chombo where? wapi? which? -pi? vacation likizo whip kiboko various mbalimbali white -eupe very sana who? nani? very good bora whole -ote very much sana wide -pana very old -kongwe wife mke/wake vessel chombo win kushinda virulent -kali wind upepo visit kutembelea with (instrument) kwa voice sauti with (that has) -enye with (together) na wait (for) kusubiri woman/women mwanamke/ wake up kuamka wanawake walk kutembea work kazi wall ukuta worker mfanyakazi want kutaka worry (be worried) kujali warn kuonya write kuandika warning onyo/maonyo watch kuangalia, kutazama yard (house) bustani watch (time) saa year mwaka/miaka water maji yes ndiyo way njia yesterday jana wear kuvaa yet (not yet) bado week wiki you (plural) ninyi weekend wikendi you (singular) wewe welcome karibu youngster kijana well (adverb) vizuri your(s) -ako what (+ noun)? gani? your(s) [you all] -enu References

Ali, Hassan O. and Ali M. Mazrui. 2004. Teach Yourself Swahili. www.glcom.com/hassan/ lessons/teach_yourself_swahili_cd_content.pdf Ashton, Ethel O. 1944. Swahili Grammar, Including Intonation. London: Longmans. BAKIZA (Baraza la Kiswahili la Zanzibar). 2010. Kamusi la Kiswahili Fasaha. Nairobi: Oxford University Press. Bertoncini-Zubkova, Elena. 1995. “Zwei homonyme ka-Markierer”, in Gudrun Miehe and Wilhelm J. G. Moehlig (eds.), Swahili Handbuch. Cologne: Rudiger Koppe Verlag, pp.121–123. Biersteker, Ann. 2005. Masomo ya Kisasa: Contemporary Readings in Swahili. Trenton: Africa World Press. Carr, Philip. 1999. English Phonetics and Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell. CIA. 2013. The World Factbook. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency. www.cia.gov/ library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html Contini-Morava, Ellen. 1994. Noun Classification in Swahili. Publications of the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, University of Virginia. Research Reports, Second Series. www2.iath.virginia.edu/swahili/swahili.html Corbett, Greville. 1991. . New York: Cambridge University Press. Ghassani, Mohamed. 2007. “Akili ya Mwendawazimu”. http://zanzibardaima.wordpress.com Goldman, Helle Valborg. 1996. “A comparative study of Swahili in two rural communities in Pemba, Zanzibar, Tanzania”. Ph.D. thesis, New York University. Guthrie, Malcolm. 1967–1971. Comparative Bantu. 4 vols. Farnborough: Gregg. Hinnebusch, Thomas and Sarah Mirza. 1997. Kiswahili: Msingi wa Kusema, Kusoma, na Kuandika. (2nd edn.). Washington: University Press of America. Ladefodged, Peter. 2005. A Course in Phonetics (5th edn.). Boston: Thomson Learning. www.phonetics.ucla.edu/course/chapter1/flash.html Marten, Lutz. 2000. “Agreement with conjoined noun phrases in Swahili”, in Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere 64, Swahili Forum 7, pp.75–96. McGrath, Donovan and Lutz Marten. 2012. Colloquial Swahili: The Complete Course for Beginners (2nd edn.). London/New York: Routledge. Mdee, James Salehe, Kimani Njogu, and Adam Shafi. 2011. Kamusi ya Karne ya 21. Nairobi: Longhorn. Mohamed, Mohamed A. 2001. Modern Swahili Grammar. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers Ltd. Mohamed, Mohamed A. 2011. Comprehensive Swahili–English Dictionary. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers Ltd. Mohamed, Khalfan and Abdulwahid Mazrui. 2007. Living Swahili: A Complete Course for Beginners. New York: Living Language. Moshi, Lioba. 1988a. Mazoezi ya Kiswahili: Kitabu cha Mazoezi kwa Wanafunzi wa Mwaka wa Kwanza. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. References 247

Moshi, Lioba. 1988b. Tuimarishe Kiswahili Chetu: Kitabu cha wanafunzi wa mwaka wa pili/tatu. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Mpiranya, Fidèle. 1995. Swahili Phonology Reconsidered in a Diachronical Perspective. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. Mpiranya, Fidèle. 1998. Perspective fonctionnelle en linguistique comparée des langues bantu. CEL, Lyon; distributed by Editions Klincksieck, Paris. Muaka, Leonard and Angaluki Muaka. 2006. Tusome Kiswahili. Madison, WI: NALRC Press. Mugane, John M. 1999. Tujifunze Kiswahili: Let’s Learn Swahili. Athens, OH: Aramati Digital Technologies Publications. Nurse, Derek and Thomas J. Hinnebusch. 1993. Swahili and Sabaki: A Linguistic History. Berkeley: University of California Press. Nurse, Derek and Thomas Spear. 1985. The Swahili: Reconstructing the History and Language of an African Society, 800–1500. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Omar, Alwiya S. and Leonce K. Rushubirwa. 2007. Tuwasiliane kwa Kiswahili. Madison, WI: NARLC Press. Park, Jae-Ick. 1997. “Minimal word effects with special reference to Swahili”. Ph.D. thesis, Bloomington: Indiana University. Parker, C.A. 1974. “Aspects of a theory of proverbs: Contexts and messages of proverbs in Swahili.” Ph.D. thesis, University of Washington. Polomé, Edgar C. 1967. Swahili Language Handbook. Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics. Seidl, Amanda and Alexis Dimitriadis. 1997. “The discourse function of object marking in Swahili”, in Chicago Linguistic Society, 33, pp.373–389. Senkoro, Fikeni E.M.K. 2003. Tuseme Kiswahili: A Multidimensional Approach to the Teaching and Learning of Swahili as a Foreign Language. Madison, WI: NALRC Press. Thompson, Katrina and Antonia Schleicher. 2006. Swahili Learners’ Reference Grammar (2nd edn.). Madison, WI: NALRC Press. TUKI. 2000. English–Swahili Dictionary. University of Dar es Salaam: Taasisi ya Uchunguzi wa Kiswahili. TUKI. 2001. Kamusi ya Kiswahili–Kiingereza, Swahili–English Dictionary. University of Dar-es- Salaam: Taasisi ya Uchunguzi wa Kiswahili. Whiteley, Wilfred Howell. 1969. Swahili: The Rise of a National Language. London: Methuen. Wilson, Peter M. 1970. Simplified Swahili. Nairobi: East African Literature. Index

accent 17, 31–2, 34–5, 98, 135, 138, 151 36, 117–18, 121, 147, 163–6, 168; adjectival 163–8 relative 70–2, 76–9; in subordinate clauses adjective: accent 17; agreement 19–21, 23–4, 87–8, 90, 127–31, 195, 26, 29–31, 35–6, 56, 61–8, 116, 122, 133, 198, 200 219, 233; and verb tense/mood 41, 89, 103; consecutive 44, 104, 192, 194–5, 200 comparison 107–8; derivation 57, 134, 145, contact see sound 177–82, 187; broad sense 151, 153–6, 161, Contini-Morava, E. 26, 246 163–6, 169–74 contrastive pronoun 13, 14, 17, 43, 70, 79, 80, adverb 11, 32, 44, 68, 77, 89, 122, 189; 84, 121, 186 comparison 107–8; broad sense 151–6, 161, coordinated clauses 191–3 164–7 Corbett, G. 19, 246 adverbial 151–9, 166–8 agreement: 15–17, 19–26, 29, 30, 37, derivation: adverb 151–4, adjective 163, 164, 56–8, 61, 65–8, 81; 181, 188, 219; 169, 170–2, 174, historical 66, 84; noun 26, see also conjoined nouns; locative 61–6, 177–8, 180–2, 229; pronoun 71; Ali, H.O. 48, 246 verb 45, 137–8 animacy, 22, 25 diminutive 181–4 applicative 146–7, 163, 203–4, 212 Dimitriadis, A. 202, 247 Ashton, E.O. 1, 246 disyllabic: 17, 31, 33, 65, 95, 112, 114, 136–8; aspect 40, 98, 172 minimality 10, 98–9 augment 33, 94–9, 129 double object 146, 203–4, 206, 208–13 augmentative 181–4, 189 auxiliary 32, 99, 101–5, 130, 194–5 emphasis 14, 32, 34–5, 44–5, 80, 84, 154

BAKIZA 10, 67, 165, 246 furtive consonant 112, 136–8, 146, 175 Bantu 5, 14, 26, 44, 57, 114, 172 be 12, 50, 54, 76, 97 Ghassani, M. 189, 246 Bertoncini-Zubkova, E. 44, 246 Goldman, H.V. 4, 246 Biersteker, A. 2, 246 greetings 46, 54, 84, 96, 215 Guthrie, M. 5, 57, 114, 246 Carr, P. 6, 7, 246 causative 133–7, 138, 139, 146–7, 212 habitual 43, 96, 229–30 CIA 3, 246 harmony 110, 133–4, 144, 146 class see agreement have 12, 50, 54, 76, 116–17 clause connector 77, 220 Hinnebusch, T. 2, 5, 246–7 color adjective 161, 165 comparison 57, 107–8, 114, 160, 229, 232 ideophone 161 conditional 40, 45, 72, 77, 89, 95–6, 127–31, idiomatic 59, 146, 156–8, 161, 189, 209–11 151, 191, 195, 229–30 imperative 40, 47, 83–6, 90–1, 94–5, 97–8, conjoined noun agreement 123, 125 127, 193–4, 231 conjunction: “and, with” 12, 76, 119, 122–3, indicative: 46–7, 50, 54, 71–3, 77, 83–4, 151; 142; “as, like” 107, 108; “as well” 154; main verb tenses 11, 40–5, 50, 73–5, 95; “by, with” 48, 110, 155, 157, 202, 205–8; subordinate clauses 87, 88, 90–2, 127, coordination: 191–3; “of, for” 15, 25–6, 191–3, 198, 200, 229–30 Index 249 infinitive 10, 44–7, 53–4, 83, 104, 158–9, Park, J. 99, 247 179–81; conjunction/preposition 107–8, 123; Parker, C.A. 229, 247 noun class 57–8, 62; prefix retention 94–9; passive 90, 110–15, 144, 147–8, 179, 212–13 adjectival 163–4, 169; subordinate/ phonetics, 5, 30, 35, 61, 71, 84, 98, 111, 172; coordinated clauses 87–92, 191–3, 196–7, see also pronunciation 199, 200, 225, 229, 232–3 Polomé, E.C. 1, 6, 247 interrogative 29, 32, 68, 77, 86, 104, 151, 154 polysyllabic 67, 111–12, 114, 136–7 intonation 32, 181 prefix: nominal 20, 21, 23, 29, 35, 65; invariable 16, 23, 25–6, 57, 67–9, 170, pronominal 23, 29–31, 37, 51, 57, 71 188–9 preposition 121–3, 146, 200, 202, 204 pronoun: demonstrative 19, 20, 24, 29, 33–6, kinship term 15, 16, 25–6, 186–8, 219 71, 154, 202; object 13, 14, 17, 37, 48, 58, 72, 80, 83, 84, 94–6, 142, 148, 202; Ladefodged, P. 5, 6, 35, 246 possessive 13, 15–17, 25, 26–7, 29, 31, 36, liaison 112, 135, 138, 143–4, 146, 171–2, 188 72, 117–18, 121, 122, 164–5, 186–9, 202; locative: agreement 64, 116–19, 121–3; reference 53, 70–1, 77–81, 116, 121, 142, preposition 52, 116, 120–3, 153, 177, 178; 186; reflexive 58, 59; subject 7, 8, 10, pronoun 52–4, 70, 74–6, 119–20, 130; 12–14, 17, 20, 23, 27, 42–4, 54, 95, 98 suffix17 , 52, 53, 116–18, 121–3; pronunciation 5, 6, 7, 14, 35, 61, 62, 65, 67, 188 verb “be” 50–2 proverb 75, 154, 188–9, 229

Marten, L. 2, 125, 246 reciprocal 142, 143 Mazrui, A. 2, 246 reduced form 10, 14, 42, 54, 70–1, 79, 96, 98, Mazrui, A.M. 2, 48, 246 104, 121, 143, 187–8 McGrath, D. 2, 246 relative clause 70–6, 78, 96, 97, 119, 154, 169, Mdee, J.S. 165, 246 229, 231 merger 29, 61–2, 111–12, 134–5, 137–8, Rushubirwa, L.K. 2, 247 170–1 Mirza, S. 2, 246 Schleicher, A. 1, 247 Mohamed, K. 2, 246 Seidl, A. 202, 247 Mohamed, M.A. 1, 179, 246 semi-vowel 6, 20, 24, 61–3, 71, 99, 188 monosyllabic: noun 20, 181–2; verb 50, Senkoro, F.E.M.K. 2, 247 94–110, 113–14, 129, 143; adjective 65, 67 Shafi, A. 246 mood 11, 84 sound: change 29, 35; contact 30, 37–8, 63–4, Moshi, L. 2, 246 66, 97, 99, 120, 133, 135–6, 138, 171–2 Mpiranya, F. 63, 135, 171, 247 Spear, T. 5, 247 Muaka, A. 2, 247 stative 144–6, 148 Muaka, L. 2, 247 subjunctive 40, 83–92, 97, 102, 104, 127, 151, Mugane, J.M. 2, 247 191–200, 231 subordinate clause 70, 78, 83, 87–91, 128, 131, negation: indicative 42, 43–6, 48, 50–1, 53, 191, 193, 195, 196, 198–200 229–30; infinitive58 ; relative 73–5, 81, 154–68; subjunctive 84, 86; monosyllable Thompson, K. 1, 247 95–6; complex tenses 103–4; conditional TUKI 10, 165, 179, 184, 247 128–9, 132; coordinated clause 191–3 Njogu, K. 246 verb of state 43, 144, 210, 211 noun class 15, 19, 22–3, 26, 57, 116, 177 vowel: front 61, 111, 134–5, 137; non–front numeral 122, 156, 178–9 vowel 135, 144–5; rounded vowel 14, 61, Nurse, D. 5, 247 63–5, 71, 188 object marker 14, 71–3, 119, 146, 202–5, Whiteley, W.H. 5, 247 207–8 Wilson, P.M. 1, 247 Omar, A. 2, 247 word order 35, 36, 205 eBooks Taylor& Francis from Taylor & Francis eBooks Helping you to choose the right eBooks for your Library

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