The Origins of Early Colonial Cows at San Bernabé, Guatemala: Strontium Isotope Values at an Early Spanish Mission in the Petén Lakes Region of Northern Guatemala

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Environmental Archaeology The Journal of Human Palaeoecology

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Carolyn Freiwald & Timothy Pugh

To cite this article: Carolyn Freiwald & Timothy Pugh (2018) The Origins of Early Colonial Cows at San Bernabé, Guatemala: Strontium Isotope Values at an Early Spanish Mission in the Petén Lakes Region of Northern Guatemala, Environmental Archaeology, 23:1, 80-96, DOI: 10.1080/14614103.2017.1297012 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14614103.2017.1297012

Published online: 05 May 2017.

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Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=yenv20 ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 2018 VOL. 23, NO. 1, 80–96 https://doi.org/10.1080/14614103.2017.1297012

The Origins of Early Colonial Cows at San Bernabé, Guatemala: Strontium Isotope Values at an Early Spanish Mission in the Petén Lakes Region of Northern Guatemala Carolyn Freiwalda and Timothy Pughb aDepartment of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Mississippi, Mississippi, USA; bDepartment of Anthropology, Queens College and the Graduate Center, CUNY, New York, NY, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY The earliest Spanish explorers in the 15th century brought ships stocked with European Received 15 October 2016 domesticated animals to the Americas. Yet for nearly two centuries, the Maya living in Accepted 20 January 2017 Guatemala’s Petén Lakes region continued to rely on traditional wild animal species. A small KEYWORDS number of cow, equid, and pig bones have been identified in Kowoj and Itza Maya Contact ’ ’ Maya; colonial; period contexts at Ixlú, Nixtun Ch ich , Tayasal, and Zacpetén; however, significant changes in zooarchaeology; strontium regional animal use are only visible after the Spanish began to build missions in the region during the early 1700s. We explore the introduction of European domesticates to the region at the San Bernabé mission near Tayasal using faunal, isotopic, and historic data. There were marked differences in mammal use, but a continued reliance on aquatic species such as turtles and snails. Animal acquisition strategies changed as well, with potentially significant impacts on local and regional land use and the daily lives of the Mayas.

Colonialism in the Maya region contexts, such as the modified cow mandible associated European colonialism brought great changes to indi- with an altar and incensario fragments at Zacpetén genous cultures across the Americas, spreading rapidly (Pugh 2009b, 381). in some places and taking decades or centuries to arrive It was only after Spanish missions were established in others. Northern Guatemala was the last part of the around Lake Petén Itzá during the early 1700s that Maya region to come under Spanish rule in the early European domesticates appeared in significant quan- 18th century, nearly 200 years after initial recorded tities in the zooarchaeological record. Cow and pig contact with Spanish in AD 1525 (Jones 1998). Despite remains partially replace those of large indigenous nearly four decades of research on Postclassic (AD species such as peccary and deer. We analyse these 900–1525) and Contact (AD 1525–1697) period his- changes using two methods: the first section uses tra- tory and archaeology, there is little published infor- ditional zooarchaeology to compare residential animal mation on animal use in and around the region use at the Postclassic/Contact period sites Zacpetén, during those periods (but see Emery 1990; Pugh et al. Nixtun Ch’ich’, and Tayasal with the Colonial period 2016a; Thornton 2012). Mission San Bernabé. The second section uses stron- Animal use provides particularly useful insight tium isotopic assays to identify the origins of the intro- into the impact of contact and colonialism. Despite duced species and show that animals were brought to management and/or domestication of a limited num- San Bernabé from southern Guatemala. ber of species such as dog and turkey, animal acqui- These findings are important on multiple levels. sition among the Maya revolved around hunting Animal husbandry requires significant changes in and collecting fauna, and wild animal species figured settlement layout and daily activities, as well as inte- prominently in Maya art and iconography (e.g. Miller gration into the colonial economic system. Ideological 1999;Pohl1981; Schlesinger 2001; Seler 1996). In the changes are equally important. Spanish goods held Petén Lakes region, Postclassic populations relied both exotic appeal (Helms 1992; Pugh 2009a, 378) heavily on aquatic resources such as turtles and and threatened Maya culture, because appropriating snails, along with large terrestrial ungulates deer Spanish goods to some extent meant accepting the and peccary. European domesticated species such as Spanish. Cattle were a key part of Spanish efforts to equid, cow, and pig remains are identified during establish settlements, and after nearly 200 years, served the Contact period after AD 1525. However, they are as an important tool to incorporate Petén Maya groups exceedingly rare and generally found in non-utilitarian into the colonial system.

CONTACT Carolyn Freiwald [email protected] Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi 38677, USA © Association for Environmental Archaeology 2017 ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 81

Animal use and Petén Lakes history during and Laguna de On, Belize and Mayapan, specifically the Postclassic and Contact periods with turkey and certain fish species (Emery 1990; Mas- son 2004; Masson and Peraza Lope 2008). Another During the Postclassic period, the Petén Lakes region form of specialisation is the management of dogs and was occupied by multiple ethnic groups, including deer at Mayapan, observed by demographic profiles Itza speakers who controlled territories and trade that show a focus on adolescent animals that had routes to the west and south of the lake, Kowoj reached adult size but had incomplete fusion of Mayas occupying sites to the north and east, and bones (Masson and Peraza Lope 2008). other groups such as the Mopan with whom they com- During the Contact period, remains of European peted and formed alliances (Caso Barrera 2002; Jones animals provide material evidence for sporadic contact 1998; Pugh 2003, 2009a, 2009b; Pugh et al. 2016b; between Petén Maya groups and the Spanish, including Rice and Rice 2005; Thompson 1977). Architectural, visits by representatives of the Spanish crown and caching, and ceramic patterns, along with historic accounts, allow us to associate sites such as Zacpetén church described in 16th and 17th century historic – with the Kowoj Mayas, Nojpeten, Tayasal, and Nixtun documents (Caso Barrera 2002; Jones 1998,2932). Ch’ich’ with Itza speaking groups, and use of Ixlú by Animals may have been acquired as gifts, through tri- both Maya groups at different times (Figure 1). bute or theft (Smith 1987, 122–124), or traded along Several general trends characterise faunal use during with traditional products like cloth, cacao, achiote, the Postclassic period in the Maya region. Faunal copal, and vanilla, and new ones such as metal, sugar assemblages have more small and medium-sized mam- cane, citrus, or bananas (Caso Barrera 2002). mals, and more diverse species than before (Emery The Itza Mayas had close ties, including intermar- 1990). There is a statistically significant reduction in riage, with eastern lowland sites like Tipu and long- the use of deer and other large mammals that dominate standing connections with Yucatecan populations Classic period faunal collections, especially in elite con- (Rice and Rice 2005). Perhaps more important were texts (Emery 2007). A second trend is regional variabil- the small settlements scattered across the Petén, ity, which may be explained by differences in local especially those of Mayas who fled Spanish-controlled ecosystems (Powis et al. 1999). Masson and Peraza regions and maintained connections with their former Lope (2008) described a focus on iguana and turkey villages (Caso Barrera 2002, 138; Thompson 1977). at Mayapan in Mexico, while Alexander (2005, 172) These groups often fell under Itza rule, though some, noted a focus on aquatic resources at Isla Civiltuk such as the Lacandon, remained independent (Palka during the Late Postclassic, where 30% of the faunal 2005a). These networks allowed both goods and ideas remains come from turtles, fish, snails, or crocodiles. to flow from areas under Colonial control; however, Fauna use during the Postclassic also is character- there is very limited evidence of non-indigenous ised by specialisation at some sites, including Lamanai material culture in the Petén during the Contact period.

Figure 1. Maya groups in the Petén Lakes region (modified from Jones 1998). 82 C. FREIWALD AND T. PUGH

The sites in this study offer an unusual opportunity than 50,000 bone and shell fragments associated with to compare residential faunal assemblages from con- 26 buildings and nearby plazas. Zooarchaeological temporaneous sites occupied by different Maya ethnic analysis completed to date includes nearly 83000 groups, and to compare them to a Spanish mission sub- bone and shell fragments from seven structures. This sequently established near one of the residential discussion centres on Late Postclassic–Contact period groups. The faunal samples come from residential fauna from Structure 719, a high status residential structures with associated ceremonial architecture building in a group that also contained temple and that were occupied from the Late Postclassic into the shrine structures (Pugh 2002, 359). Contact period. Most bones come from horizontal Analysis of 3746 bone and shell fragments show a excavations that include middens screened through heavy reliance on aquatic resources such as lake dwell- 1/8′′ hardware cloth, resulting in small-to-medium- ing apple snails (Pomacea flagellata) and ridged and sized faunal assemblages (see Pugh 2002, 354). It is smooth jute snails (Pachychilus ssp.) from rivers and more difficult to directly compare the status of the streams, along with turtles, crabs, and fish. Large and sites and the households within them, despite historic medium mammals make up approximately 25% of accounts of both Kowoj and Itza Mayas. Samples the sample, with a focus on deer (Figure 2). The single were selected for this study from nearly 50,000 bone European domestic species is a cow mandible, which and shell fragments that have been analysed to date, fossilised to a greater extent than any of the other one of the largest faunal collections in the Maya region bones (Figure 2). Its context near an altar and the dis- (Freiwald 2012, 2013; Pugh et al. 2016a), with the goal tinct taphonomic processes that caused the fossilisation of characterising Postclassic/Contact period animal show its uniqueness in the Postclassic/Contact period use: complete analyses will be presented elsewhere. faunal samples. No other non-native species have been identified at Zacpetén, although Pugh (2009a) has described other European material culture in cere- Zooarchaeology of the Kowoj and Itza Mayas monial contexts. Zooarchaeological methods used in this study focus on Nixtun Ch’ich’ is located on Lake Petén Itzá’s wes- species identification and quantification using the tern shores and was occupied from the Preclassic number of identified specimens (NISP). Tropical through the Contact periods. Pugh and colleagues assemblages often have small MNIs, or estimates of (2016b; Rice 2009) have identified extensive Late Post- the minimum number of individuals, and a great deal classic occupation, including on the Candelaria Penin- of species diversity that increases with the size of the sula, the location the Spanish may have used to launch collection (Emery 2004). Freiwald identified faunal an attack on Nojpeten that ushered in the Colonial specimens in the field laboratory in Flores, Petén, Gua- period in the region (Jones 1998 in Rice 2009, 403). temala and at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Fauna from two residential structures with associ- Zoological Museum using standard zooarchaeological ated middens, ZZ1/1 and QQ2/1, shows how the Cha- methods (e.g. Reitz and Wing 1999; Russell 2011; Zieg- kan Itza Mayas utilised lacustrine and terrestrial game ler 1965), supplemented by skeletal collections at the resources. Mound ZZ1 is located on the easternmost University of Mississippi, photographic references tip of the Candelaria peninsula, and may include Con- from the Chicago Field Museum and Florida Museum tact period use by both the Spanish and residents of the of Natural History, and other guides (e.g. France 2008; Mission San Jerónimo (AD 1702–1734). Excavations Gilbert 1990; Gilbert, Martin, and Savage 1996; Gómez revealed a number of ‘Spanish’ artefacts including 2009; Merck 2015; Moholy-Nagy 1978; Post 2003, Punta Rassa glass pendants, which were produced 2005; Powis 2004; Schmid 1972). from ca. AD 1650 to 1700 (Pugh et al. 2016b; Rice The faunal samples from Zacpetén, Tayasal, and 2009). Colonial period fauna from Mound ZZ comes Nixtun Ch’ich’ show a reliance on aquatic resources from the upper levels of a trench placed vertically that characterises Postclassic animal use in the region. along the structure’s axis as part of a salvage operation Ixlú remains have not been extensively analysed so are (Rice 2009), as well as excavations of a midden associ- not discussed in detail. Kowoj and Itza Maya groups ated with a residence (Structure ZZ1/1). Fauna from also relied on deer and peccary, supplemented by smal- ZZ1/1, one of two small Contact-Colonial period struc- ler animals such as armadillos, opossums, agoutis, and tures on the south side of the mound, came from 1 × pacas (Table 1). There is no evidence for reliance on 1 m units in a horizontal excavation. domesticated animals (e.g. turkey) or those that Fauna have been analysed from Structure QQ2/1 might not be acquired by hunting or collecting. and nine other structures, along with test pits and plat- Zacpetén is located on Lake Salpetén (Figure 1) and forms that were excavated by Pugh and colleagues was occupied by Kowoj Mayas during the Late Post- (2016b) in 2013, some of which had been explored preclassic–Contact period. Excavations by the Proyecto viously by Don and Prudence Rice. Structure QQ2/1 is Maya Colonial (Pugh 2001; Rice 1988; Rice and Rice a Postclassic period residence located near the lake- 2009; Rice, Rice, and Pugh 1998) resulted in more shore 2.1 km west of Structure ZZ1/1. More than half ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 83

Table 1. Species identified to date at Petén Lakes sites in this study. San Bernabé, Tayasal Tayasal Zacpetén Nixtun Ch’ ich’ Ixlú Strs. T29, T35 Group 23 Strs. Str. 719 *unless ZZ1/1 and Str. QQ 2/1 Str. *unless noted T52, T53 noted *unless noted 2023 Cow (Bos taurus) ZZ1 Pig (Sus scrofa) ZZ1 Equid (Equus sp.) T31 Jaguar (Panthera onca) ZZ1 Tapir (Tapirus bairdii) 732 Whitetail deer (Odocoileus virginianus) Brocket deer (Mazama sp.) Peccary (Tayassuidae) Dog (Canis lupus familiaris) ZZ1 Virginia Opossum, Grey Four-Eyed Opossum (Didelphis T34 virginanus, Philander opossum) Anteater (Tamandua mexicana) Monkey (Atelidae) Paca (Cuniculus paca) ZZ1 Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) ZZ1 Giant Pocket Gopher (Orthogeomys grandis) T31 Coati (Nasua narica) Southern Spotted Skunk (Spilogale angustifrons) Rabbit (Sylvilagus sp.) Yucatecan Squirrel (Sciurus yucatanensis) T31 Hispid Cotton Rat (Sigmodon hispidus) Central American River Turtle (Dermatemys mawii) N/A Pond slider (Trachemys scripta) N/A Mexican/Northern Giant Musk Turtle (Staurotypus N/A triporcatus) Mud turtle (Kinosternon sp.) 732, 765 N/A Furrowed Wood Turtle (Rhinoclemmys areolata) Narrow Bridge Musk Turtle (Claudius angustatus) Iguana (Iguana iguana) 732 Crocodile (Crocodylus sp.) Fish (not identified) Bird (not identified) Turkey (Meleagris sp.) ZZ1 Toad (Bufo sp.) Marine shell Apple snail (Pomacea flagellata) Jute (Pachychilus indiorum and P. glaphyrus) Coral Clam (Nephronaias sp.) ZZ1 Crab (Decapoda) ZZ1 Vertebrate

of the fauna in QQ2/1 come from large deposits of were not reported for ZZ1/1, but analysis of the snail Pomacea snail shells (n = 470), some in possible dedi- and marine shell is incomplete. In all, more than catory caches (see Pugh et al. 2016b, 11). Similar caches 5000 bone and shell fragments have been analysed

Figure 2. Summary of Zacpetén Structure 719 fauna (insert: cow mandible). 84 C. FREIWALD AND T. PUGH

Figure 3. Summary of Nixtun Ch’ich’ ZZ1/1, excluding snail shells. Figure 5. Summary of Tayasal Structure T52 fauna.

26,000 bone and shell fragments analysed to date. This dataset provides the most direct comparison of Precolonial and Colonial animal use because Group 23 is in close proximity to the Mission San Bernabé. Figures 5 and 6 show a marked aquatic focus. Sev- enty-five percent of the remains were snail and turtle shell fragments, with nearly all snails representing an individual animal and turtle remains portions of cara- pace or plastron. Most mammals in the sample are large species, such as deer and peccaries (Table 1). Imported species such as marine shell were uncom- mon, as were birds and iguanas, and fish, which is per- plexing given the proximity to the lakes. A single domestic animal was identified: an equid tarsal in a Figure 4. Summary of Nixtun Ch’ich’ QQ2/1 fauna, excluding Contact period context (Shiratori, Freiwald, and Pugh snail shells. 2014) that clearly was deposited after Cortés passed through the region in AD 1525 and reported leaving a horse in the care of the Itza (Jones 1998). from Nixtun Ch’ich’. Figures 3 and 4 (excluding Contact period contexts at these sites cannot be aquatic snail shells) show a focus on aquatic species clearly separated from Late Postclassic occupation, and large mammals. but the limited numbers of non-native species fit the Most turtle were large ones, including the Central general pattern of specialised use of European material American river turtle, northern or Mexican giant culture (Pugh 2009a; Pugh 2007). The Precolonial non- musk turtle, and the pond slider, but smaller turtle native animals do not suggest adoption of Spanish cul- species include the furrowed wood turtle, mud turtles, ture; instead, the Maya reinterpreted foreign objects and the narrow-bridged musk turtle (see Table 1). Deer without accepting the Spanish and maintained tra- and peccary were the most common terrestrial fauna, ditional subsistence patterns for nearly 200 years after along with a variety of smaller animals such as coati, initial contact with the Spanish. armadillo, and agouti. Unusual species are included in the ‘other’ category, including crocodile, marine shell, bird, and fish, and a small number of cow and pig remains. Similar fauna were found at QQ2/1 and Animal use during the early Colonial period ZZ1/1 but in different quantities. Analysis of more In Petén, colonialism arrived only after AD 1697, when ZZ1/1 and QQ residential fauna will show whether the Itza capital Nojpeten fell to Martin de Ursúa and this is a real difference or a product of the small sample his indigenous collaborators, and the Spanish began sizes. to establish missions in the region and ‘reduce’ settle- Tayasal is located on a peninsula across Lake Petén ments to better control indigenous populations (Caso Itzá from Nixtun Ch’ich’ as well as from the Itza capital Barrera 2002; Jones 1998). They constructed a church Nojpeten in the area occupied by the Itza Mayas at Nojpeten, Nuestra Señora de los Remedios, also (Figure 1). Yuko Shiratori investigated Late Postclas- referred to as The Presidio, and began to establish mis- sic–Contact period occupation in Group 23, which sions around the lake in the same location as many contained residential structures T52 and T53 as well modern towns. They also began to import cattle, a cru- as ceremonial structures (Shiratori 2012). The faunal cial component to establishing rule in the region (Pugh sample of 4291 specimens is drawn from more than et al. 2016a; Schwartz 1990). The “sale of livestock to ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 85

Figure 6. Summary of Tayasal Structure T53 fauna (inset: equid tarsal).

Yucatan” became the primary economic product of church with Colonial period burials and other contem- Petén from just after the conquest to 1840 (Schwartz poraneous structures built over earlier Maya settlement 1990:41). (Pugh and Sánchez Pólo 2012; Pugh et al. 2016a; Pugh, Colonial faunal use may have varied as much as Sánchez, and Shiratori 2012). Postclassic subsistence strategies did (de France and The mission likely was settled by related groups of Hanson 2008). Cows, pigs, horses, and chickens are Itza Mayas, based on material culture and Miller identified across the Maya region, but were differen- Wolf’s analysis of skeletal remains (Miller 2012; tially incorporated into Maya diet and economy. For Pugh et al. 2016a). This analysis focuses on fauna example, Gasco (2005) describes a hybrid culture in associated with two residential structures, T29 and Chiapas, with Christian-influenced burials similar to T35, located to the south of the church (Figure 7). those at San Bernabé (Pugh et al. 2016a), limited Euro- Ixkamik pottery, a locally produced hybrid ware pean goods during the Contact period, and eventual with European attributes, and Spanish reales were husbandry of chickens. Emery (1990) identified a lim- associated with both structures (Pugh et al. 2016a, ited number of cow and pig remains at Tipu and Lama- 62; Pugh and Sánchez Góngora 2014, 8; Pugh, Sán- nai in Belize, but attributed changes in animal use to chez, and Shiratori 2012). Postclassic trends rather than Colonial ones. Animal use changed, but not completely. San Ber- In Yucatan, wills and tribute requirements from AD nabé abutted the lake, and lacustrine resources 1646–1835 provide evidence that cows, and to a lesser remained important (Figures 8 and 9). The same extent horses, pigs, chickens, and turkeys, were used by types of large turtles were collected, along with jute some Maya communities (Restall 1997, 365). Cattle and apple snails, but even these resources show some were the most commonly owned property near Merida important differences. Where residents of Tayasal by the late 17th century (Patch 1993, 183). Horses were Structures T52 and T53 consumed both smooth listed as property earlier (AD 1661) in Tekanto, with (P. indiorum) and ridged (P. glaphyrus) jute (Figures 5 cattle commonly described in the late 18th century and 6), mission structures show a focus on one type of (Thompson 1999). Merida Mayas infrequently owned jute snail, either ridged or smooth. Jute species gener- birds, but archaeological evidence for husbandry of ally are collected in distinct locales (e.g. Halperin pigs and poultry were identified in Yaxcabá commu- et al. 2003; Healy, Emery, and Wright 1990), so this nities (Alexander 2004; Patch 1993). Domesticated ani- suggests use of different catchments. If residents of mals were reported as community property, but may San Bernabé came from nearby settlements, they may not have been consumed frequently (Farriss 1984). have retained rights to the same fields (Alexander Incorporation of cows, pigs, and equids into Petén 2005); however, their ability to hunt and collect in tra- economies for the first time comes from species identi- ditional areas may have been restricted. fications and analysis of butchery patterns at San Ber- The main finding for this analysis is the relative nabé residential structures. The mission was abundance of cow and pig remains. Cow remains established sometime before AD 1712 near Tayasal were associated with 12 structures at San Bernabé and the Mission San Miguel, which was formed earlier (Structures T29, T30, T30A, T30C, T31, T32/111, in AD 1702. The exact location was rediscovered in T33, T34, T35, T112, T145, and T1121), while 2010, when excavations revealed the remains of a pig remains were found in association with seven 86 C. FREIWALD AND T. PUGH

Figure 9. Summary of San Bernabé Structure T35 fauna.

as an offering in a burial). San Bernabé Structures 29 and 35 each had just one whitetail deer, brocket deer, and peccary represented as well, but a total of six cows and three pigs based on duplicate tooth elements (see next section). Very large mammals also were processed differently. Some cows and pigs appear to have been butchered on site, while wild game either was processed or bones were deposited elsewhere (e.g. Brown and Emery 2008). For example, there is little difference between Postclassic and Colonial artiodactyl remains. Postclas- sic Structure T52 (n = 263, x = 3.6 g) and Colonial Structure T29 (n = 29, x = 3.8 g) deer and peccary fragments are of similar size and consist mainly of lower Figure 7. San Bernabé map, from Pugh et al. (2016a, 54, Figure limb elements such as metapodials, tarsals, and pha- 4). langes. In contrast, Structure T29 cow remains include cranial elements, especially teeth, the most diagnostic element for cows and pigs. (T29, T30, T31, T35, T97, T112, and T1105). The Fragmentation of the large and very large animal remains consist of easily identified cranial and lower bones was similar. Limb elements of very large mam- limb elements, as well as fragments of thick cow and mals (5 to >12 mm cortical bone thickness) were com- pig-sized limb bones classified as very large mammal pared to those of large mammals (2 to 4-mm-thick remains. The proportion of identified deer and peccary cortical bone), taking into account bone size and varia- is reduced to 1% or less of the sample. bility in thickness of bone elements in the classification The MNI estimates for all species are low, but also of each fragment. Artiodactyl and large mammal bones reflect the shift from native large mammal species to in Colonial Structure T29 (n = 405, x = 1.62 g) and very large introduced ones. Tayasal Structure T52 Postclassic Structure T52 (n = 538, x = 1.23 g) were had a minimum of two peccaries, three brocket deer, similar to very large mammal bones in Structure T29, and three adult and subadult whitetail deer based on even though the fragments were larger due to the duplicate postcranial elements. The Structure T53 fau- bone size and weight (n = 122, x = 4.93 g). nal sample includes just one of each animal (with an However, Postclassic Structure T52 has significantly additional five left whitetail deer metatarsal bones left more burned bones (5.9%), ranging from browned to calcined, than Structure T29 (<1%) (Two-tailed Fish- er’s Exact Test p < 0.0001). Cut and chop marks differed for the very large mammal class as well. Structure T29 very large mammals (cows or pigs) are more likely to have cut or chop marks than large mammals (deer or peccaries) in the same structure (Struc- ture T29 Two-tailed Fisher’s Exact Test p < 0.227) and in Structure T52 (two-tailed Fisher’s Exact Test p < 0.0035). Further analysis might show that the chop marks on very large mammal bone demonstrate the use of metal tools versus the stone tools tradition- Figure 8. Summary of San Bernabé Structure T29 fauna. ally used by the Mayas (e.g. Chase 2005). ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 87

Cattle often were used as communally-owned prop- Spain and Africa, but more likely by the 18th century erty that could be sold to pay for masses or other com- would have been brought to the Petén from other colo- munity needs, and bone fragments distributed across nial centres in Yucatan and southern Guatemala. the site at San Bernabé, including in association with the mission church, support the idea that most resi- Tooth samples dents used the animals. They also were raised to trade with Yucatán, moving north at the end of the We processed tooth enamel of 14 animals found at rainy season, or to Tabasco in the form of salted three locations: San Bernabé and Tayasal, Zacpetén, meat (Caso Barrera 2002, 342; Schwartz 1990). Cattle and Ixlú (Figure 1). The isotope values come from worth 24–30 reales apiece would be useful in trade duplicate lower molars for six cows, and teeth for local items as well, and coins at the mission show from pigs of different ages. The equid teeth come that the community participated in monetary exchange from Ixlú and are ‘caps,’ or deciduous teeth, from a (Pugh et al. 2016a, 62). It is unlikely that milk or cheese young animal likely less than three years of age (Figure production was important in a population not adapted 10). Horses shed premolar deciduous teeth between 2½ to digesting lactose. Nor is there evidence that the San and 4½ years of age. However, the age represented by Bernabé Mayas used the cow or pig bones to make nee- the isotope sample is perinatal, as these teeth begin to dles or other bone tools. Awls and worked antler erupt during the first 2 weeks of life, with the enamel associated with Colonial structures were made from developing in utero (Evans, Jack, and Jones 2006). the bones of large mammals, likely indigenous species. No bit marks are visible, but William Taylor (per- The shift from hunting and collecting game to farm- sonal communication, March 2016) identified a rostral ing cattle would have been a large one. Field, forest, and hook and uneven wear, which might have resulted in fences were now needed for cattle, which along with painful malocclusion of the teeth than can cause behav- pigs, damage plants and disrupt hunting of animals ioural and eating problems. The teeth were found in that were attracted to fields. Provisioning domesticated Postclassic and Contact period lots (both in level 2) animals during the dry season also was a new task, and associated with Structure 2023. rearing young animals would require a new body of Pig remains were identified at four sites: Ixlú, Zacpe- knowledge about diseases, appropriate fodder, and tén, Nixtun Ch’ich’, and Mission San Bernabé, Tayasal. medical intervention that could only be acquired All three Sus teeth sampled are from San Bernabé lots through ongoing contact with the Spaniards. These excavated in Structure (T29) and the ruins of the mis- were only part of a suite of changes that presented sion church (T31) (Pugh et al. 2016a). We sampled additional challenges to Mayas living in the region, enamel that forms during the first 12 months in first including disruption of communities as families slowly were resettled or fled to the forests, and death and ill- ness as people were exposed to new diseases, including through livestock (Dobyns 1983; Thompson 1977). Cattle were a key part of Spanish efforts to establish settlements (Bishko 1952; Farriss 1984,321–322; Schwartz 1990,41),aswellastoprovidefoodforsoldiers in the Presidio across the lake. During the early 1700s, cattle were reported at the Presidio, and the royal estancia was located to the southeast of the lake. Structures with both fences and turnstiles are shown on a 1740s map of the region (Pugh, Sánchez, and Shiratori 2012, 5, Figure 3). It is likely that San Bernabé bovids were part of the effort to gain control over indigenous populations and incorporate them into the Colonial economy (see Schwartz 1990,41–53). The next section turns to where these animals came from and what that may tell us about changes in food procurement and trade.

Strontium isotopes and cow, pig, and equid samples The second section explores these changes in animal use by using strontium isotope assays to identify the origins of 14 of the introduced domesticated animals. European species were originally imported from Figure 10. Ixlú equid teeth. 88 C. FREIWALD AND T. PUGH and third molars. One animal (Lot 90165) died just as in tooth enamel, bone, and other body tissues to under- the roots began to form in the third molar, at ∼12 stand mobility at different stages of life. Enamel forms months. A second animal (Lot 70149) exhibited wear in utero, and bones remodel throughout life, providing on the first and second molars (age class 8; age class a snapshot of residence from birth to burial. Variability 8–9 in Lemoine et al. 2014) that suggest it died after in strontium is based on geologic differences in the 52 months of age. Animal three (Lot 73596) died ratio of two isotopes (87Sr/86Sr), where high values gen- between the age of 30 and 52 months (age class ‘7’ in erally are present in igneous and metamorphic rock Lemoine et al. 2014; also see Bivin and Mc Clure formations, and lower ones in marine limestones and 1976; Bull and Payne 1982; Grant 1982; Legge 2013; volcanic bedrock. No measureable fractionation is pre- Lemoine et al. 2014; Oroian et al. 2010; Rolett and sent in biological samples from the same catchment: Chiu 1994; Simonds 1854). fodder for cattle, forage for whitetail deer, and meat A small number of cow bones were identified at from both animals that was consumed by humans Nixtun Ch’ich’ and Zacpetén, but most remains were will have similar values (Bentley 2006; Ericson 1985; found at the Mission San Bernabé, Tayasal. Samples Price et al. 2008, 2010, 2015). come from residential structures T29 and T35 and Figure 11 shows a sample of published biogenic include six lower right second molars and three decid- strontium isotope values that demonstrate measureable uous second premolars. Enamel from the M2 forms differences among populations living in the Maya during the first 18 months, but most teeth were region (Buikstra et al. 2004; Freiwald 2011a, 2011b; found with third molars that show an age at death of Freiwald et al. 2014; Hodell et al. 2004; Hoggarth more than 3 years. Enamel of deciduous teeth begins et al. in review; Miller 2015; Mitchell 2006; Novotny forming during gestation, and these animals likely 2015; Price et al. 2008, 2010, 2014; Somerville, Fauvelle, died between 2½ and 3 years of age (Jones and Sadler and Froehle 2013; Sosa et al. 2014; Spotts 2013; Sutinen 2012a, 2012b; Simonds 1854). 2014; Thornton 2011a; Trask, Wright, and Prufer 2012; Wright 2005a, 2005b, 2007, 2012; Wright et al. 2010; Wright and Bachand 2009; Wrobel, Helmke, and Frei- Strontium isotope analysis wald 2014, 2017). Most studies focus on human mobi- Strontium is incorporated into body tissues along with lity, but a number of isotope studies focus on trade and calcium and other elements, and researchers measure it exchange of animals (Sharpe et al. 2016; Thornton

Figure 11. Strontium isotope values in biological faunal samples (including human) in and around the Maya region. ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 89

2011a, 2011b; Thornton and Emery 2016; Yaeger and triple dynamic multicollector mode with 88Sr = Freiwald 2009; also see Laffoon et al. 2014). 0.1194, which assumes exponential fractionation Each tooth was measured (Von den Driesch 1976) behaviour. Analytic uncertainty is estimated using the and photographed using a DinoLite digital microscope long term reproducibility of the NBS-987 strontium AM4013T, and then was mechanically cleaned using a standard (87Sr/86Sr = 0.710268 ± 0.000020, 2σ; n = Microlab variable speed dental drill equipped with a 134). Standard error for analyses generally exceeds diamond bur to remove surface contamination (Frei- 0.000011, 2σ. wald 2011a). Five milligrams of clean tooth enamel were processed at the UNC at Chapel Hill Geochronol- Strontium isotope results ogy and Geochemistry Laboratory using a VG Sector 54 thermal ionisation mass spectrometer (TIMS). Eleven values range from 0.70709 to 0.70795 87Sr/86Sr Strontium was isolated using Sr-Spec ion exchange (Table 2). Three additional samples did not produce resin manufactured by Eichrom Industries in micro successful results. All but one of the values are consist- columns (∼35 μL resin bed volume). Samples were ent with 87Sr/86Sr ratios found in northern Guatemala loaded in single rhenium filaments in phosphoric at sites such as Zacpetén, Muralla de Leon, Topoxte acid and tantalum chloride solution and analysed in (Table 2), and other sites in the region (Table 3). The

Table 2. Strontium isotope values and sample information. Species 87Sr/86Sr Site and provenance Tooth Sample number

Pig (Sus scrofa) 0.707694 San Bernabé RM1 UM71 Structure T29 lot 70149, level 2 Pig (Sus scrofa) 0.707583 San Bernabé RM3 UM72 Structure T31 lot 73596, level 2 Cow (Bos taurus) Pending Zacpetén RM2 UM73 Structure 719 lot 18067 Pig (Sus scrofa) 0.707607 San Bernabé RM3 UM74 Structure T29 lot 90165, level 2 Equid (Equus sp.) 0.707565 Ixlú dp2 UM75 Structure 2023 lot 20363 Equid (Equus sp.) 0.707553 Ixlú dp3? UM76 Structure 2023 lot 20185 Cow (Bos taurus) 0.707444 San Bernabé ldp2 UM80 Structure T35 lot 82592 level 2 Cow (Bos taurus) Pending San Bernabé ldp2 UM81 Structure T35 lot 83757 level 1a Cow (Bos taurus) 0.707882 San Bernabé RM2 UM82 Structure T35 lot 83765 level 1B Cow (Bos taurus) 0.707626 San Bernabé RM2 UM83 Structure T29 lot 90592 level 1 Cow (Bos taurus) 0.707444 San Bernabé RM2 UM84 Structure T35 lot 82591 level 2 Cow (Bos taurus) 0.707093 San Bernabé RM2 UM85 Structure T29 lot 90629 level 1 Cow (Bos taurus) 0.707949 San Bernabé RM2 UM87 Structure T29 lot 70261 level 2 Cow (Bos taurus) Pending San Bernabé ldp2 UM88 Structure T35 lot 82572 level 1 Terrestrial snail (Orthalicus princeps) 0.707618 Zacpetén, Shell F10014 Lake Salpetén Terrestrial snail (Euglandina cylindracea) 0.707740 Yaxha, Shell F10015 Lake Yaxha Terrestrial snail (Neocyclotus dysoni) 0.707837 Topoxté, Shell F10016 Lake Yaxha Modern snail 0.707590 Muralla de Leon, Lake Macanché Shell F10045 3 2 3? RM1: lower right first molar; RM2: lower right second molar; RM : upper right third molar; dp : deciduous upper second premolar; dp : deciduous upper third premolar?; Idp2: lower left deciduous second premolar. F numbers denote samples prepared at the UW-Madison T. Douglas Price Laboratory for Archaeological Chemistry (LARCH). UM numbers were prepared at the University of Mississippi. Bold values are statistical outliers (>2 SD from the mean). 90 C. FREIWALD AND T. PUGH single low value (0.707093 87Sr/86Sr) is a statistical out- et al. 2011); however, values of Spanish fauna and bur- lier from the dataset; this animal was not reared in ials reported by Price and colleagues (2006) are consist- northern Guatemala (Figure 12). The mean of the ently higher. remaining 10 animals (0.70763 ± 0.00017 87Sr/86Sr) is Cattle also were brought from Africa and the Canary similar to that of the 21 individuals sampled from the Islands as part of the slave trade (Ginja et al. 2010; Spel- church cemetery (0.707673 87Sr/86Sr) and to average ler et al. 2013), and may have come to the mainland values from other studies in the central Petén (Table 3). from early populations in the Caribbean. Isotope values The low value of the San Bernabé cow (0.707093 in Africa are variable; for example, low values in volca- 87Sr/86Sr) is similar to values found in the metamorphic nic geology are reported (0.7025–0.7032 87Sr/86Sr in geology in southern Guatemala (Hodell et al. 2004). Grant, Rex, and Freeth 1972) as are mid-range ones This is the closest known area with values in this (0.70889 87Sr/86Sr in Viers et al. 2000, 217). However, range, and Thornton (2011a, 211) interpreted animals values exceeding 0.712 87Sr/86Sr more commonly with similar values at Dos Pilas and Aguateca as mar- serve as markers of Africans in Campeche, West Barba- kers of long distance exchange. Isotope values in the dos, and the African burial ground in New York (in volcanic soils near Santiago de Guatemala are even Price, Tiesler, and Burton 2006), bolstered by other lower (0.704–0.705 87Sr/86Sr in Hodell et al. 2004; biological and archaeological evidence. Wright et al. 2010), but are too low to be the place of Average 87Sr/86Sr values in the Caribbean also birth for this animal. should exceed those in the central lowlands of Guate- Nor do these data show importation of Spanish, mala, although there is overlap in the range of values. African, or Caribbean cattle. The earliest breed of Fauna sampled by Freiwald in the Dominican Republic cows reported in the New World, likely criollos or Cor- average 0.70836 87Sr/86Sr (Table 3), similar to values rientes (Rouse 1977), sailed with Columbus from reported in Cuba (Laffoon et al. 2012; Laffoon and southern Spain. Most published strontium isotope Hoogland 2011; Price et al. in preparation). The royal values in Spain are higher than those found in the estancia in northern Guatemala is one likely source Maya region, with the exception of Maya Mountain for all but one cow, which has a value consistent with values (Table 3; Freiwald 2011a). Values similar to those found near Colonial centres to the south, a pat- those in the Petén (0.70757 87Sr/86Sr) are reported in tern that differed from precolonial trade and exchange La Cova limestones in northeastern Spain (in Boix routes to the north and east.

Table 3. Strontium isotope values for northern Guatemala, with a sample of values in Spain, west Africa, and the Caribbeans. Location 87Sr/86Sr range Reference Petén, Guatemala 0.70744–0.70753 Hodell et al. (2004, 596–597, Appendix A) 18 water, 2 rock, 1 plant sample 0.707483 ± 0.00005 Petén, Guatemala 0.70779–0.70794 Wright (2005a, 561, Table 2) 7 mammal bone and shell fragments 0.707857 ± 0.00006 Petén, Guatemala 0.7072–0.7079 Thornton (2011a, 232–233, Table 6.4) 23 mammal bone and shell fragments 0.707552 ± 0.00189 (outliers removed: 0.7069, 0.7069, 0.7081) Southwest Spain 070845–0.70882 Valladares et al. (2006) SW of Salamanca geologic samples Southeast Spain 0.7136–0.7158 Powell and Bell (1970) Jumilla geologic samples Southeast Spain 0.70791–0.71541 DePaolo et al. (1983) Caravaca geologic samples (x = 0.70996) Central Spain 0.71544–0.71944 Galindo et al. (1994) Sierra de Guadarrama geologic samples Central Spain >0.7091 Chiquet et al. (1999) Toledo Mountains, Galvez geologic samples Southwest Iberian Peninsula >0.727 Priem et al. (1978) deep mine samples geologic samples Northeast Spain 0.70795–0.70944 Soler et al. (2002) Lobregat River water 0.70844–0.71352 Lobregat River sediment Northeast Spain (Catalonia) 0.70940–0.70167 Canals and Cardellach (1993) coastal mountains geologic samples Northeast Spain 0.70734–0.710 Boix et al. (2011) Pyrenees Mountains geologic samples Andalucia, Spain fauna x = 0.7091 Price, Tiesler, and Burton (2006, 411) Cadiz, Spain San Juan de Dios ossuary human remains 0.70871–0.71592 Price, Tiesler, and Burton (2006, 409, Table 3) Seville, Spain fauna 0.7085–0.7138 Price, Tiesler, and Burton (2006, 411) Northeast Nigeria 0.7025–0.7129 Grant, Rex, and Freeth (1972) Nyong Basin, Cameroon 0.70889–0.71931 Viers et al. (2000, 217) El Chorro de Maíta, Cuba 0.708–0.709 Laffoon and Hoogland (2011) Burials from archaeological site Dominican Republic x = 0.708179 ± 0.0008 Price et al. (in preparation) 10 plants and non-human fauna ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 91

Figure 12. Strontium isotope values in fauna from San Bernabé.

How did the animals get there? were pressured or forced to purchase these animal species (Patch 1993). It is notable that sheep, goats, The non-local animal was probably brought from the and chickens, animal species that arrived as early as south on the Camino Real, possibly from missions Columbus did (Deagan and Cruxent 2002), were not near Dolores, the Rio Dulce, or ranches in the identified. Mopan area near Santa Ana and San Francisco Some Postclassic trends in animal use continued, (Schwartz 1990, 53). Although Ursúa brought more including the heavy reliance upon aquatic resources. than 1200 ‘head of cattle and horses’ to establish However, changes in species used during the Colonial ranches in 1699 (Villagutierre Soto-Mayor 1983, 363) period suggest a lack of access to former catchments, and the Presidio had an initial supply of 15 horses or perhaps a change in the microenvironments of the and 51 cattle (Caso Barrera 2002, 311), historic catchments themselves. Isotopic data show that accounts also show repeated requests for provisions although some domesticated species initially may by the Presidio from Santiago de Guatemala. However, have been imported from southern Guatemala, San roads were difficult to maintain and provisions along Bernabé residents raised or acquired Petén-born ani- the way were scarce, which may explain the lack of mals and the taphonomy and distribution of the imported animals (Caso Barrera 2002). bones show that residents butchered the cows and No animals in this sample had origins in northern pigs to consume or trade the meat. or eastern Spanish centres such as Merida or Tipu, However, the Maya continued to rely on wild game regions with isotope values exceeding 0.7082 species into the Historic period, and still do today 87Sr/86Sr (Freiwald 2011a, 2011b; Price et al. 2008). (Brown 2004; Freiwald 2007; Palka 2005a, 2005b; Instead, the Mayas acquired domesticated species Thornton and Ng Cackler 2014). In the end, the San from sources in the Petén during the first decades of Bernabé mission, like many settlements the Spanish Colonial control, and perhaps even earlier, as evi- created in the region, was short-lived. By AD 1766, denced by the Contact period cow mandible encoun- only 36 residents were reported in the census and the tered at Zacpetén. mission does not appear in 19th-century censuses (Pugh et al. 2016a, 52). The use of new animal species documents a particu- Conclusions larly important change. Rejection of European material The Mission San Bernabé faunal assemblage is the first culture is often interpreted as resistance to Spanish to demonstrate the use of adopted non-native animal rule, and the Itza Maya actively maintained buffer species, including cow, pig, and equid, in the Petén zones between their territory and areas controlled by Lakes region. Cattle were a critical aspect of the Spanish the Spanish (Jones 1998). Moreover, European goods Colonial system, necessary to sustain settlements and found at Contact period sites usually were manipulated forming the basis of the colonial economic system and used in Maya contexts (Oland and Masson 2005; (Bishko 1952; Farriss 1984; Jones 1998; Schwartz Pugh 2009a, 378). The San Bernabé faunal sample 1990). Cattle may have been payment for work, but shows a different perception of the Spanish, one that some communities were obliged to raise the domesti- to some extent accepted Spanish material culture and cated animals to meet tribute requirements, or even the new lifestyle it required. 92 C. FREIWALD AND T. PUGH

However, these results generate a new set of ques- Bentley, R. A. 2006. “Strontium Isotopes from the Earth to tions. DNA analyses might discern admixture of African the Archaeological Skeleton: A Review.” Journal of – cattle into Petén stock, and isotopic analyses of Postclas- Archaeological Method and Theory 13 (3): 135 187. Bishko, C. J. 1952. “The Peninsular Background of Latin sic fauna would allow for a more in-depth understand- American Cattle Ranching.” The Hispanic American ing of catchment use and animal exchange, and how it Historical Review 34: 491–515. changed under colonialism, including diet of both wild Bivin, W. S., and R. C. Mc Clure. 1976. “Deciduous Tooth and domestic game. We also need to address questions Chronology in the Mandible of the Domestic Pig.” – of plant use and look specifically for landscape changes Journal of Dental Research 55 (4): 591 597. Boix, C., G. Frijia, V. Vicedo, J. M. Bernaus, M. Di Lucia, M. such as fences, pens, or stone corrals (e.g. Alexander Parente, and E. Caus. 2011. “Larger Foraminifera 2003). Butchering practices also need more attention Distribution and Strontium Isotope Stratigraphy of the in the Maya area, as does differential use of animals by La Cova Limestones (Coniacian–Santonian, “Serra del different ethnic groups during the Postclassic and sub- Montsec”, Pyrenees, NE Spain).” Cretaceous Research 32 sequent periods. The changes at San Bernabé will be bet- (6): 806–822. “ ter understood as research continues. Brown, L. A. 2004. Dangerous Places and Wild Spaces: Creating Meaning with Materials and Space at Contemporary Maya Shrines on El Duende Mountain.” Acknowledgements Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 11 (1): 31–58. Acacia Leavitt, Shelby Hilton, and Jasmine Cross of the Uni- Brown, L. A., and K. F. Emery. 2008. “Negotiations with the versity of Mississippi Forensic Chemistry Program helped to Animate Forest: Hunting Shrines in the Guatemalan prepare the isotope samples. Thanks to Kurt Gron for an Highlands.” Journal of Archaeological Method and excess of information on cow and pig teeth, to William Tay- Theory 15 (4): 300–337. lor for his help with horse remains, and to Laura Halverson Buikstra, J. E., T. D. Price, L. E. Wright, and J. H. Burton. and the UW-Madison Zoological Museum for their ongoing 2004. “Tombs from the Copán Acropolis: A Life History collaboration. Thank you also to two anonymous reviewers Approach.” In Understanding Early Classic Copán, edited whose detailed reading of the manuscript resulted in sub- by E. E. Bell, M. A. Canuto, and R. J. Sharer, 191–212. stantial improvements to the study. We also thank Paul Full- Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of agar and Drew Coleman of the University of North Carolina Archaeology and Anthropology. at Chapel Hill Department of Geological Sciences, the Bull, G., and S. Payne. 1982. “Tooth Eruption and Epiphysial T. Douglas Price Laboratory for Archaeological Chemistry Fusion in Pigs and Wild Boar.” Ageing and Sexing Animal at UW-Madison, the Instituto de Antropología e Historia, Bones from Archaeological Sites 109: 55–71. and members of the Proyecto Arqueológico Tayasal, includ- Canals, A., and E. Cardellach. 1993. “Strontium and Sulphur ing Yuko Shiratori, Evelyn Chan Nieto, Prudence Rice, and Isotope Geochemistry of Low-Temperature Barite- Miriam Salas for their contributions to this research. Fluorite Veins of the Catalonian Coastal Ranges (NE Spain): A Fluid Mixing Model and Age Constraints.” Chemical Geology 104 (1–4): 269–280. Disclosure Statement Caso Barrera, L. 2002. 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