sign in sign up
<<
Home , Big Eddy Site, Cactus Hill, Chama (Maya site), Clovis culture, Clovis point, Folsom Site

GOD‘S PECULIAR PEOPLE • PHOTO CONTEST WINNERS • EUROPEAN DISEASES american archaeologyFALL 2001 a quarterly publication of The Archaeological Conservancy Vol. 5 No. 3

TheThe GaultGault Site:Site: AA CloClovisvis TrTreasureasuree TrTrovovee $3.95 $3.95 HELP PRESERVE A WINDOW INTO THE PAST Join The Archaeological Conservancy and become a member of the only national non-profit organization preserving the country’s endangered archaeological sites. Your support will help save America’s cultural heritage before it’s lost forever. As a Conservancy member, you’ll receive American , which will keep you up to date on the latest discoveries, news, and events in archaeology in the Americas. You’ll also learn about the Conservancy’s current preservation projects.

To join the Conservancy, simply fill out ✃ the form below and return it to us.

Sign me up! I want to become a member of The Archaeological Conservancy at the following level: ______❑ $25 Subscribing ❑ $100 Contributing Name (please print) ❑ $50 Supporting ❑ $1,000 Life ______❑ Enclosed is a check. Address ❑ Charge my gift to: ______❑ VISA ❑ MasterCard ❑ AmEx City State Zip ______/__ __ Send Payment To: Account Number Exp. The Archaeological Conservancy 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 402 ______Albuquerque, NM 87108 Signature (505) 266-1540 Conservancy membership starts at $25. Contributions are tax deductible to the full extent allowed by law.

Please make your check payable to The Archaeological Conservancy. FA00A america quarterly publication of The Archaeologicalan Conser archaeologyvancy Vol. 5 No. 3 fall 2001

COVER 22 CHALLENGING THE CLOVIS PARADIGM BY CLAIRE POOLE One of ’s premier Clovis sites may yield new information about its inhabitants.

12 AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY PHOTO CONTEST WINNERS

14 GOD’S PECULIAR PEOPLE BY BOB BROOKE An investigation of one of America’s first religious communes corrects historical accounts. 28 THE FIRST AMERICANS BY BRIAN FAGAN Making the case for the Clovis. 33 THE CONSEQUENCES OF CONTACT BY TAMAR STIEBER Did European diseases decimate Native American populations? 40 new acquisition: DEFENDING KING AND COUNTRY An 18th-century British fort is preserved. 2 Lay of the Land 41 new acquisition: 3 Letters BIG NEWS IN THE BARRIO 5 Events The Barrio de Tubac is the southern portion of Arizona’s first permanent 7 In the News European settlement. Big Eddy Is Washing Away • Trail Tragedy Uncovered • 42 point acquisition: Maya Art Shows Scribes’ A MIDDLE MISSISSIPPIAN Influence. METROPOLIS 44 Field Notes The Conservancy acquires an Arkansas mound center. 46 Expeditions 48 Reviews 43 point acquisition: SAVING MOUNDS IN MICHIGAN COVER: A found at The Sumnerville mound group may the Gault site in central . help archaeologists learn about the A remarkable number of Clovis Goodall Hopewell. artifacts have been found there. Photograph by Darren Poore american archaeology 1 Lay of the Land

Uncovering the Details of History

hen you mention the word com- ogists are working to help us under- mune today, most people think of stand that movement by combining W the 1960s collectives of pot- history, the written record of the smoking, long-haired flower children. past, with archaeology, a that Those are mostly gone now and soon until recently dealt almost exclusively to be forgotten. Lest we forget too with in the Americas. much of the important role of com- Archaeologists deal with the ma- munes in American history, American terial record of the past, the debris Archaeology covers fresh archaeo- left behind. Historical archaeologists logical work at an important religious are finding that the written record commune at Ephrata,in eastern Penn- tells only part of the story, and that it testing those communes of the sylvania, that was founded in 1732. is often distorted by its authors for 1960s and finding all kinds of things Communes of all kinds were any number of reasons. Historical ar- the written record omitted. common in pre-Civil War America— chaeology gives us the opportunity religious, economic, free-thinking, to add details as as test the ve- utopian…. They played an important racity of the sources. role in our history, but one that is lit- We can be assured that the next MARK MICHEL tle remembered. Historical archaeol- generation of archaeologists will be President

MORE THAN JUST A TOUR... THE CROW CANYON EXPERIENCE EXPERIENCE THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND CULTURES

CHIRICAHUA MOUNTAINS OF THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST AND THE WORLD ON HORSEBACK APRIL 2 - 7, 2002 WITH RENOWNED AND ENGAGING SCHOLARSINA COASTAL CALIFORNIA’S CHUMASH WAY THE CASUAL TOURIST CANNOT. & CULTURE APRIL 7 - 13, 2002

HIKING NAVAJO MOUNTAIN: SOLITARY SENTINEL OF THE RAINBOW PLATEAU APRIL 21 - 27, 2002

SHAFT TOMBS & FORGOTTEN CITIES: DISCOVERIES IN WEST APRIL 26 - MAY 5, 2002

CROW CANYON ARCHAEOLOGICAL CENTER

23390 ROAD K CORTEZ, 81321 (800) 422-8975 WWW.CROWCANYON.ORG CCAC’s programs and admission practices are open to applicants of any race, color, nationality, or ethnic origin.

2 fall • 2001 Letters

Too Little of to $35 retail west of the Little Bighorn Mississippi, a Spencer, As a member of the complete with 100 rounds of ammu- Conservancy,I enjoy all the issues of nition, could be bought for about $7 Editor’s Corner American Archaeology, but the Sum- in the same area. Two of the feature articles in this issue— mer issue was really fantastic. One of The presence of Spencer car- “The First Americans” and “Challenging the reasons I joined was because of tridges on the Indian side of the bat- the Clovis Paradigm”—touch upon one of my fascination with and concern for tle in 1875 should surprise no one, the most interesting debates in American Southwestern prehistoric sites. The and it is certainly not evidence of In- archaeology: Who were the first people article “Driving into Prehistory”was dians hoarding Spencer ammunition, to inhabit the ? In the former especially wonderful. which remained plentiful for at least article, archaeologist Brian Fagan makes However, it is Anita Stratos's article another quarter of a century. the case for the Clovis being first; in the “Archaeology Goes to War” that is the C. F. Eckhardt latter piece, archaeologist Michael subject of this request. The Little Seguin, Texas Collins expresses a contrary view. Bighorn story is another of my main in- Not so long ago, as Fagan says, terests. Stratos did a wonderful job Piecing the Puzzle Together “Clovis first” was a truism. But over the within the confines of the magazine, Seeing the rock foundation of a last few decades, a number of re- but I would love to see more and read building on page 40 of the searchers have questioned this “fact.” more from the two archaeologists in Summer issue was simply amazing. Sites that claim to offer evidence of pre- her story. Unfortunately, the map at the Archaeologists are like detectives; Clovis occupation, such as , top of page 20 is so small as to be in- they can take pieces of the puzzle , Meadowcroft, and Topper distinct.The location of artifacts shown and put them together and tell you (see the News article on page 10) fuel is vital to the story and to understand- what the ruins mean. In this case, the debate. ing who did what, where, and when. they determined it was an agricul- Some archaeologists speak of a Thank you for your dedication tural building. “Clovis police” that refuses to consider and mission. It makes life not only A tip of the proverbial hat to Del the possibility of a pre-Clovis people. more enjoyable, but more rewarding Webb for recognizing that this site Fagan, clearly,is not a member of this to know of your vital work. needs to be preserved and being gen- force. He makes his case for Clovis with (Jared) Adam Lynch erous enough to donate it. reluctance. I have spoken to several ar- Monroeville, Pennsylvania Robert Charles Mitchell II chaeologists about this debate and the Sacramento, California majority of them believe the Clovis were No Shortage of Spencers the first Americans. But, with one ex- In the article “Archaeology Goes to ception, they were anything but dog- War,” the author states that Spencer Sending Letters to matic in their reasoning or dismissive rifle/carbine ammunition hadn’t American Archaeology of the work done at pre-Clovis sites. been manufactured for at least eight American Archaeology welcomes your Let the debate continue uncon- years prior to the Red River War of letters. Write to us at 5301 Central strained by ideology and closed-mind- 1875. In fact, several companies of Avenue NE, Suite 402, Albuquerque, NM edness. Without the free exchange of the 9th and 10th cavalry were still 87108-1517, or send us e-mail at arch- ideas, there is no debate. armed with Spencers as late as 1874. [email protected]. The U.S. Army bought over 15,000 We reserve the right to edit and pub- lish letters in the magazine’s Letters Spencer rifles between 1861 and department as space permits. Please 1865 and outfitted 10 regiments of include your name, address, and telephone Michael Bawaya cavalry with Spencer carbines be- number with all correspondence, including Editor tween 1866 and 1871.While a new e-mail messages. Winchester ’66 or ’73 cost about $30 american archaeology 3 WELCOME TO ® THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 402 CONSERVANCY! Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517 • (505) 266-1540 www.americanarchaeology.org he Archaeological Conservancy is the only national non-profit Board of Directors organization that identifies, ac- Earl Gadbery, Pennsylvania, CHAIRMAN quires, and preserves the most sig- Olds Anderson, Michigan • Cecil F. Antone, Arizona • Janet Creighton, tnificant archaeological sites in the Christopher B. Donnan, California • Janet EtsHokin, Illinois • Jerry EtsHokin, Illinois . Since its beginning in W. James Judge, Colorado • Jay T. Last, California 1980, the Conservancy has preserved Rosamond Stanton, • Vincas Steponaitis, North Carolina more than 210 sites across the nation, Dee Ann Story, Texas • Stewart L. Udall, New Mexico ranging in age from the earliest habita- tion sites in North America to a 19th- Conservancy Staff century frontier army post. We are Mark Michel, President • Tione Joseph, Office Manager building a national system of archaeo- Erika Olsson, Membership Director • Shelley Smith, Membership Assistant logical preserves to ensure the survival Martha Mulvany, Special Projects Director • Yvonne Woolfolk, Administrative Assistant of our irreplaceable cultural heritage. Heather Wooddell, Administrative Assistant Why Save Archaeological Sites? The Regional Offices and Directors ancient people of North America left virtually no written records of Jim Walker, Southwest Region (505) 266-1540 their cultures. Clues that might 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 402 • Albuquerque, New Mexico 87108-1517 someday solve the mysteries of pre- Paul Gardner, Midwest Region (614) 267-1100 historic America are still missing, 295 Acton Road • Columbus, Ohio 43214-3305 and when a ruin is destroyed by looters, or leveled for a shopping Alan Gruber, Southeast Region (770) 975-4344 5997 Cedar Crest Road • Acworth, Georgia 30101 center, precious information is lost. By permanently preserving endan- Gene Hurych, Western Region (916) 399-1193 gered ruins, we make sure they will 1 Shoal Court #67 • Sacramento, California 95831 be here for future generations to study and enjoy. ® How We Raise Funds: Funds for american archaeology the Conservancy come from mem- bership dues, individual PUBLISHER: Mark Michel contributions, corporations, and EDITOR: Michael Bawaya (505) 266-9668, [email protected] foundations. Gifts and bequests of SENIOR EDITOR: Rob Crisell money, land, and securities are fully ASSISTANT EDITOR: Tamara Stewart tax deductible under section ART DIRECTOR: Vicki Marie Singer 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Planned giving provides Editorial Advisory Board donors with substantial tax deduc- James Bruseth, Texas Historical Commission • Allen , Old Archaeology Center tions and a variety of beneficiary Hester Davis, Arkansas Archeological Survey • David Dye, University of Memphis possibilities. For more information, John Foster, California State Parks • Lynne Goldstein, Michigan State University call Mark Michel at (505) 266-1540. Megg Heath, Bureau of Land Management • Susan Hector, San Diego County Parks Gwynn Henderson, Kentucky Archaeological Registry • John Henderson, Cornell University The Role of the Magazine: American Archaeology is the only popular John Kelly, Washington University • Robert Kuhn, Historic Preservation magazine devoted to presenting the William Lipe, Washington State University • Mark Lynott, rich diversity of archaeology in the Bonnie McEwan, San Luis Historic Site • Giovanna Peebles, Vermont State Archaeologist Americas. The purpose of the Peter Pilles, U.S. Forest Service • John Roney, Bureau of Land Management magazine is to help readers appre- Kenneth Sassaman, University of • Dennis Stanford, Smithsonian Institution ciate and understand the archaeo- Kathryn Toepel, Heritage Research Associates • Richard Woodbury, University of Massachusetts logical wonders available to them, and to raise their awareness of the National Advertising Office destruction of our cultural heritage. Richard Bublitz, Advertising Representative; 22247 Burbank Boulevard, By sharing new discoveries, re- Woodland Hills, California 91367; (800) 485-5029; fax (818) 716-1030 search, and activities in an enjoy- [email protected] able and informative way, we hope American Archaeology (ISSN 1093-8400) is published quarterly by The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, we can make learning about ancient Suite 402, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517. Title registered U.S. Pat. and TM Office, © 2001 by TAC. Printed in the United America as exciting as it is essential. States. Periodicals postage paid Albuquerque, NM, and additional mailing offices. Single copies are $3.95. A one-year mem- bership to the Conservancy is $25 and includes receipt of American Archaeology. Of the member’s dues, $6 is designated for How to Say Hello: By mail: The Ar- a one-year magazine subscription. READERS: For new memberships, renewals, or change of address, write to The Archaeo- chaeological Conservancy, 5301 logical Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 402, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517, or call (505) 266-1540. For changes of address, include old and new addresses. Articles are published for educational purposes and do not necessarily reflect the Central Avenue NE, Suite 402, views of the Conservancy, its editorial board, or American Archaeology. Article proposals and artwork should be addressed to Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517; by the editor. No responsibility assumed for unsolicited material. All articles receive expert review. POSTMASTER: Send address phone: (505) 266-1540; by e-mail: changes to American Archaeology, The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 402, Albuquerque, NM [email protected]; or visit our Web 87108-1517; (505) 266-1540. All rights reserved. site: www.americanarchaeology.org American Archaeology does not accept advertising from dealers in archaeological artifacts or antiquities.

4 fall • 2001 Museum exhibits • Tours • Festivals Meetings • Education • Conferences Events A ■ NEW EXHIBITS University of Pennsylvania Museum of Canadian Museum of Civilization Archaeology and Anthropology PENNSYLVANI

OF Hull, Quebec, Canada—The Philadelphia, Pa.—The museum’s perma- superb new exhibition nent Mesoamerican gallery has just been “Across Borders: updated to incorporate some of the UNIVERSITY in Iroquois Life” explores newest information and theories many aspects of about the ancient Maya and other Iroquois beadwork prehistoric Mesoamerican cultures. from the 14th cen- With more than 200 arti- tury to the present. facts, including five ART

OF Over 300 rarely exhibited world-famous carved pieces are featured, many from stone monuments, the ren- Mint Museum of Art USEUM M the early 1800s. (800) 555-5621 ovated gallery offers an Charlotte,N.C.—“The Sport of Life and

MINT (Through November 4) overview of the region’s cultures and de- Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame” is tailed information about the principal the first traveling exhibit in the United High Desert Museum Mesoamerican civilizations that flourished States to explore the world’s first team Bend, Ore.—Since ancient times, and influenced one another. (215) 898- sport, which began around 1500 B.C. in the Klamath tribes of southern 4000 (Newly renovated permanent gallery) southern Mexico with the early Olmec. Oregon and northern California It includes 175 artifacts such as jade have practiced a distinctive - carvings of Olmec ballplayer kings, making tradition using natural ■ CONFERENCES & FESTIVALS ceramic vessels, jewelry, costume fibers such as cattails, willows, and Voices from the Past: accessories, and artifacts from major porcupine quills. Through an ex- Archaeology Lecture Series public and private collections in Mexico amination of trends in basketry, September 3–December 17, selected Mon- and the United States. (704) 337-2098, the new exhibit “Twined and days at 6 P.M., Hotel Santa Fe, Santa Fe, also see www.ballgame.org Traded: Klamath Tribes Basketry, N.M. Southwest Seminars presents this (September 22–December 30) 1860-1920” details the cultural free public lecture series by top Southwest- history of the Klamath, Modoc, ern archaeologists. For a list of speakers and Yahooskin Band of Snake Indi- and dates see www.SouthwestSeminars.org ans through the late 19th and early or call (505) 466-2775 20th centuries. (541) 382-4754 (Opens November 3) 2001—A Chaco Odyssey: MUSEUM A New Look for the New Millennium

HEARD Florida Museum of Natural History September 15, U.S. Navy Memorial and Gainesville, Fla.—“Myths and Dreams: Naval Heritage Center, Washington, D.C. Exploring the Cultural Legacies of The 8th Annual Symposium of the Pre- Heard Museum Florida and the Caribbean” uses ar- Columbian Society of Washington, D.C. Phoenix, Ariz.—The new exhibit tifacts, photographs, art, and maps examines old questions, new research, and “Brilliant: Navajo Germantown and to trace the evolution of the Ameri- new ideas about Chaco and its environment. Eyedazzler Textiles” examines the cas from the first encounters of Eu- For information, contact PCSWDC breathtaking colors and bold designs ropean explorers with native inhab- Registration: 11104 Bucknell Dr., Silver of Navajo textiles from the late 19th itants to the present day. (352) Spring, MD 20902 or e-mail chaco@ancien- and early 20th centuries. (602) 252- 846-2000 (Through January 2002) tamerica.net 8848 (Through January 13, 2002)

american archaeology 5 Events

Sixth Annual Festival of Pai Arts information, call (608) 785-8463, or visit September 22–23, 9 A.M.–5 P.M., Mu- the Web site www.uwlax.edu/mac2001 seum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff, Ariz. Learn about the Yuman-speaking peoples, Transformations of Place: Paa-ko in the the Paiute tribes, and tribes of the Col- Spanish Colonial World orado River, including the Pai Pai, Yava- October 25, 7 P.M., National Hispanic pai, Hualapai, and the Havasupai. Artists Cultural Center, Albuquerque, N.M. A will display basketry, , jewelry, and lecture by Mark Lycett, professor of an- dolls while musicians and Hualapai thropology at the University of Chicago. Dancers perform. (928) 774-5213 (505) 266-1540

Moundville Native American Festival Red! Hot! Alive!: United Through MUSEUM

September 24–28, Moundville Archaeo- Culture—A Multicultural Celebration ABBE logical Park, Tuscaloosa, Ala. Using au- of Music and Dance thentic raw materials, southeastern Native October 27–28, Heard Museum, Abbe Museum Grand Americans and other experts will demon- Phoenix, Ariz. The Heard’s new fall festi- strate more than 20 different arts, crafts, val celebrates the Southwest’s rich heritage Opening Celebration and , including pottery mak- through art, traditional foods, and music September 29, Bar Harbor, ing, basketry, shell and bead work, tex- and dance performances from across Ari- Maine. The Abbe will hold a tiles, metalwork, jewelry, musical instru- zona and Mexico. Ballet Folklorico, grand opening celebration for ments, and the ancient game of stickball. Apache Ga:an and the dance traditions of its new year-round museum, Southeastern Indians such as the Choctaw Southern , Mexico, and Tohono with Maine Native American will perform traditional dances and songs O’odham waila music are just some of the basketry demonstrations, and sell crafts and foods. (205) 371-2572 exciting performances visitors will see. drumming, singing, storytelling, Call (602) 252-8848 for more informa- A Weekend in Ruins and children’s activities. The tion or visit www.heard.org Archaeology of the Americas museum has renovated and October 5–6, Orlando Museum of Art, Eiteljorg Museum Harvest Celebration expanded an early 1890s land- Orlando, Fla. Join top scholars for a free November 1–16, Indianapolis, Ind. Cele- mark building in downtown Bar weekend of learning with lively discus- brate Native American Heritage Month Harbor, adding 17,000 square sions about the archaeology, history, cul- with traditional music and cuisine, and feet of space and enabling the ture, and art of the ancient Americas. Pre- learn how harvesttime has been cele- Abbe to expand its popular pro- sentations will provide participants with brated by native peoples for generations. grams and collections store- information about current issues and the (317) 636-9378 house. The new museum will most recent archaeological discoveries in open with the permanent exhi- Florida, , , and Peru. 2001 Southeastern Archaeological bition “Wabanaki: People of the Call (407) 896-4231 for more informa- Conference Dawn,”which explores 12,000 tion or visit the OMA’s website at November 14–17, Marriott Hotel, Chat- years of Maine Native www.OMArt.org tanooga, Tenn. This annual conference American history. October is will include a variety of presentations and Archaeology Month in Maine, Midwest Archaeological Conference special events. For more information, visit with special programs sched- October 12–14, The La Crosse Center, La the Web site www.uark.edu/campus-re- uled throughout the state. Crosse, Wis. The conference features var- sources/seac/seac2001.html or call the (207) 288-3519 ious workshops and symposia. For more Marriott at (800) 228-9290.

6 fall • 2001 in the Big Eddy Is Washing Away NEWS Archaeologists explore a remarkably well stratified site threatened by erosion.

site in southwestern that could be one of the most important stratified Paleo- Indian sites in America is being threatened by erosion. The Big AEddy site, which has numerous well- stratified occupations ranging from Mississippian and Woodland to possi- bly pre-Clovis, is being rapidly eroded by the . The site was discovered in 1986, and archaeologists for the Center for Archaeological Research (CAR) at Southwest Missouri State University began excavating there in 1997. “There are well-dated, well-strati-

CAR fied pre-Clovis-age deposits,” said Neal Lopinot, the director of CAR. Archaeologists excavate an area of pre-Clovis-age deposits during the 1999 season. They’re digging Many groups of prehistoric about 14 feet below the surface. Indians camped at the over the course of thousands of years. prairies offered plants, and animals year, soil that may hold cultural The adjacent Sac River provided fish, such as deer and turkey. , the deposits. This rate of erosion has mussels, waterfowl, and edible plants, -like rock used to make stone apparently accelerated recently. while the surrounding forests and , was found in the gravel bars of “There’s been a lot of discussion” the Sac and in the steep bluff just about how to remedy this problem, CULTURAL LAYERS across the river. Every major archaeo- Lopinot said. AT THE BIG EDDY SITE logical period is represented in the But the possible solutions, such as Mississippian and Woodland Periods river terrace, with the oldest artifacts ripraping—using crushed rock and 500 to 2,500 years old found at a depth of 11 to 13 feet. boulders to cover and stabilize the Late Archaic Period Today, the river is a source of exposed soil—are not very realistic or 3,000 to 5,000 years old hydroelectric power. About six miles economically feasible. Middle Archaic Period 5,000 to 7,000 years old upstream from the site is the Stockton “Nothing is likely to be done other

Early Archaic Period Dam, which for 30 years has released than what we’re doing, which is full-scale 7,000 to 10,000 years old large amounts of water—nearly 5,000 excavation or mitigation,” he added. Dalton Culture 10,000 to 11,000 years old cubic feet per second—to generate CAR will conclude its excavation power, thereby eroding the site. The of the site next year, when it will focus 11,000 to 12,000 years old erosion rate during the 11-year period on the Paleo-Indian and upper pre-

Pre-Clovis Culture from 1986 to 1997 was calculated at 2.7 Clovis deposits. Very little excavation of more than12,000 years old feet per year. This translates into the those deposits has been done so far.

Dates are in radiocarbon years loss of 11,786 cubic feet of soil per —Michael Bawaya

american archaeology 7 in the Maya Art Shows Scribes’ NEWS Great Political Influence Scribe capture, torture, and execution were a prominent feature of Maya warfare.

rowing evidence from ancient are mutilated and bleed copiously.” Maya glyphic texts and Similar images are found at is showing how scribes played a and Piedras Negras. All three key role in promoting their sites are located on the western edge king’s position, especially during of the southern Maya lowlands along Gthe Classic period from A.D. 600 to 900. the Río Usumacinta. This prominent political role awarded Captured scribes were first pub- scribes much prestige, while at the licly humiliated, then their fingernails same time putting them at great risk for were pulled out and the ligaments torture and execution, as they were fre- snapped at the joints in order to quently targeted by enemy warriors for destroy their fingers, symbolically mut- capture during battle. ing the political power of the king Kevin Johnston, a Maya archaeolo- who employed them. Following this gist at Ohio State University, is closely torture, the scribes were executed, examining ancient texts, murals, and either by decapitation or heart sacri- stelae—elaborately carved stone monu- fice. Although other archaeologists

ments often containing historical or have noted that several captives in JOHNSTON

political information—to better under- Maya art appear to be scribes, none KEVIN stand the fate of Maya scribes captured A stela from Piedras Negras, in , had previously demonstrated that in battle. Johnston’s research was depicts a captured scribe holding a bundle of scribe capture was a prominent feature inspired by an illustration published in a quill pens. of Maya warfare. 1995 National Geographic article on the “Just as the ability to produce texts Maya polychrome murals of , One of the captives carries in his right through scribes was an important com- Mexico, showing the public display of hand a quill pen, indicating that he ponent of the king’s power, so the loss tortured captives by their captors. and the other captives are scribes,” of his ability to generate texts through “The reconstruction included a Johnston says. “All of the captives look scribes revealed and created a signifi- detail that previous renderings had not: in fear and agony at their hands, which cant loss of power,” explains Johnston. “So closely associated were warfare and writing as sources of power that they came together in a single political practice: the capture in battle of scribes and the public destruction of their capacity to produce texts.” According to Johnston, the 50 or so small, independent Maya states of south- ern Mexico, Belize, northern Guatemala, and western , were inherently politically unstable. Because kings lacked standing armies, they did not BURKS

have coercive authority over their subor- JARROD dinates and therefore primarily exercised An illustration of part of a mural found in Bonampak, Chiapas, in southern Mexico, depicting their authority through public ritual dis- captured Maya scribes having their fingers broken and their fingernails torn off. In the play and political writings. foreground is the head of a decapitated scribe. —Tamara Stewart

8 fall • 2001 in the Oregon Trail Tragedy Uncovered NEWS Archaeologists excavate a site that played a crucial role in the Mormon migration.

his summer,archaeologists located and began excava- tions of Seminoe Fort,a trad- ing post on the Oregon Trail that was operated between 1852T and 1856, and abandoned after a series of Indian raids.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints has been looking for the site for years because of its religious, rather than its archaeological significance. Seminoe Fort was the site of one of the largest overland migration tragedies in American history. In the 1850s, thousands of members of the LDS Church, also known as Mormons, migrated from Illinois to the new church headquar- ters in Salt Lake City. There was a backlog of newly converted Euro- pean immigrants who wished to WALKER make the pilgrimage, but the church

DANNY couldn’t pay for everyone to have a wagon.The Church arrived at a less Diaries from the 1850s describe an American flag flying over Seminoe Fort. Excavations verified costly solution—two-wheeled hand- these accounts by locating the base of the flagpole, which is located at the center of the "x" carts that would be pulled along the shown here. 1,300 mile journey from a train sta- tion in Iowa to Salt Lake City. people got caught in a November and trade goods like buttons, beads, The idea worked for the most blizzard in central Wyoming. Search pipes, bullets, and fine china.Archae- part, said Danny Walker,Wyoming’s as- parties came out from Salt Lake City ologists, for the most part, haven’t sistant state archaeologist, but it didn’t to take people back to the fort, and been able to identify any Mormon work for one handcart company. to a natural shelter nearby called items, but Walker thinks they may Several handcart companies Martin’s Cove.About 50 died in the have found at least one: a brass tem- made the journey in 1856 with few storm and another 100 perished on perance token. It states that the per- casualties; but one, Edward Martin’s other parts of the trail. The LDS son carrying it swears not to use in- handcart company, left Iowa at the Church holds sacred the place toxicating beverages. end of August, too late to make it where these pioneers died, because The LDS Church hopes to use across the plains to Utah before win- of their dedication to the faith. information found at the site to ac- ter storms set in. The excavation of the site has curately reconstruct Seminoe Fort as “If they’d just been three weeks uncovered six cabins, four with their part of an interpretive center on the earlier,they would have made it,” foundations mainly intact. Artifacts Mormons’ western migration and the said Walker. include construction materials such Martin’s handcart disaster. Martin’s company of about 575 as square nails and window glass, —Martha Mulvany

american archaeology 9 in the Excavations Shed Light NEWS on Little-Known Area of the Southwest Site was occupied intermittently for at least 3,200 years.

esearchers working at the opportunity to see what was Mescal Wash site, about 30 going on in this part of the miles southeast of Tucson, have Southwest,” says Jeffrey NC. uncovered evidence of a large Altschul, president of Statistical I pithouse village that was inter- Research. Rmittently occupied from about 1200 There have been news RESEARCH, B.C. until about A.D. 1450. Although the reports stating that the site, site has been known of for about 50 which is located at the conflu-

years, it was only recently that ence of Mescal Wash and STATISTICAL researchers have had the opportunity Cienega Creek, represents a A 1,000-year-old pithouse with a recessed /entry- to excavate and study the site in depth. new, mysterious culture. way that probably served as a communal facility. In June and July of last year, According to Altschul, howev- archaeologists with Statistical Research, er, the unique traits of the site are a burial practices,” says Altschul. Inc., a Tucson-based firm, conducted result of the village’s location on the Researchers have uncovered limited testing of the more than 200 fringe of three prehistoric cultural about 115 pithouses and other struc- features at the site that would be groups, the Hohokam, the Mogollon, tures. The archaeologists encountered impacted by a planned Arizona and the Chihuahuan or Casas an unusual architectural style charac- Department of Transportation inter- Grandes cultures of northern Mexico. terized by a rectangular pithouse with change reconstruction and railroad “What we’re seeing is an agrarian a circular recessed hearth/entryway. bridge replacement project. The test community that borrowed cultural This style has been documented at results led to the second phase of the concepts from other groups in the only two other sites in southeast project, which began in January and southern Southwest, resulting in a Arizona and is not previously known was completed last June. great variability in cultural traits such from the Hohokam region. “This project has given us a rare as architectural styles, ceramics, and —Tamara Stewart Topper Site Said to Be Pre-Clovis The site may be more than 16,000 years old.

team of scientists specializing in the dating of landforms, indicates the site to be of pre-Clovis age. He geological layers recently completed an analysis estimated that the stone tools found below the sand layer of the Topper site near Allendale, South Carolina, could be a few thousand years older. concluding that the site’s oldest artifacts are “The Topper site is another example on the eastern least 16,000 years old. The pre-Clovis layer was seaboard of a pre-Clovis site,” said Goodyear. “We are going Adiscovered at the site by Albert Goodyear, director of the through a process of confirmation that must continue in order Allendale Paleoindian Expedition for the South Carolina to build confidence about the site’s validity and antiquity.” Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, in 1998 (see Many researchers believe that the Clovis people were “Finds on Opposite Coasts Among Oldest Known,” the first Americans, and that they migrated from the Old American Archaeology, Fall 1999). World to the New World about 13,500 years ago via a land Goodyear was unable to radiocarbon date material bridge across the . But evidence for sites that from the site. There is a layer of sand that lies about three claim to predate the Clovis period, such as Cactus Hill in feet above a number of stone tools and, using a technique Virginia, in Pennsylvania, Monte called optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), which Verde in , and the Topper site, challenge this notion. measures environmental radiation, he determined the sand “Now we really need to put our thinking caps on to fig- is 15,000 to 16,000 years old. Goodyear said OSL, cou- ure out when and where the first settlers of the Americas pled with the geological study of the statigraphy and related came from,” Goodyear said. – Tamara Stewart

10 fall • 2001 in the Recording Rock Art A group of volunteers is working to capture NEWS threatened images for future study.

team led by archaeologist JoAnne Van Tilburg is working to photograph and map endangered rock art images at Little Lake, a spring-fed oasis Ain the Mojave Desert in California. The area, which is about 160 miles north of Los Angeles on state highway 395, contains one of California’s largest concentrations of rock art. Thousands of images are found on volcanic TILBURG escarpments and cliffs next to the lake V A N and along its edge. The Little Lake area

J O A N N E is also known for its earthquakes, with a network of small faults running underground. It suffers from “nearly A crew member traces a on a piece of thin plastic. Though all the are constant seismic activity,” said Van photographed, sometimes the images aren’t very clear. In such cases the petroglyph is traced, Tilburg, who is director of the Rock Art which serves as another means of recording it. Archive, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA. Some of the The project has been so successful that the area. Because of the heat, no oldest rock art on the site is found on Van Tilburg and her volunteers were work is done at the site during sum- boulders that are easily disturbed by named winners of this year’s Governor’s mer. Van Tilburg won’t know what the earthquakes. Historic Preservation Award by the State damage, if any, it caused until she and “There are few archaeological sites Historical Resources Commission. her team return to the site, which in California” that are so vulnerable to Van Tilburg believes the rock art could be as soon as this fall. this threat, she said. dates from the mid-1800s to at least --Michael Bawaya So Van Tilburg assembled a team 8,000 years ago and is the work of of volunteers that has been working several different tribes. According to since 1997 to record the rock art for studies done in the early 1900s, the The crew’s work often their own research and for future schol- rock art dealt with the search for food. includes climbing up ars to study. The rock art, which con- But some researchers now think it cliffs to find and record sists of petroglyphs, painted petro- reflects the trance-like states of medi- the rock art. This cliff glyphs, and pictographs, is pho- cine men called shamans. The trances, is more than 100 tographed with digital cameras and which were part of religious rituals, feet high. then entered into a database. Graphic probably resulted from water, sleep, designers edit the photographs—but and food deprivation. not the rock art image itself—so that The rock art depicts “symbolic they are clear enough to study. The activity,” Van Tilburg said. Its meaning rock art is also mapped so that its origi- will be the subject of further study. nal location will be known in the event “We’re trying to collect the infor- it’s subsequently moved or destroyed. mation,” she said, “so that we and Gordon Hull, a computer program- other investigators can examine and mer and volunteer who set up the data- test these theories.” S A A C I base, said they have recorded approxi- In June, an earthquake meas-

D E B R A mately half of the Little Lake images. uring 5.9 on the Richter scale hit

american archaeology 11 First Place: Moon House Ruin, Utah Ernie Long, Sacramento, California $150 prize American Archaeology Photo Contest Winners

Thanks to everyone who entered our photography contest. We received 79 entries. Vicki Singer, our art director, and I chose the winners, and it wasn’t easy. As is the case with all such contests, declaring a winner is really nothing more than stating an opinion. But Vicki and I think everyone will agree that these three photographs are excellent. —Michael Bawaya, Editor

12 fall • 2001 Second Place: Ruins at Cerrode Santa Clara, New Mexico Terry Edward Ballone, Albuquerque, New Mexico $75 prize

Third Place: Moon House Ruin, Utah Walter Kleweno, Albuquerque, New Mexico $25 prize american archaeology 13 14 washing, engaged set The for Saal, a replication in in one this preparation of ritual, the of cloister which the for love the buildings included feast. Second The that a Coming meal cloister still and stands, of members Christ. foot fall is • 2001

B O B BROOKE God’s Peculiar People An archaeologist searches for the truth at one of America’s first religious communes.

BY BOB BROOKE

I will not give sleep to mine eyes, or slumber n 1732, the followers of Conrad Beissel, the orphaned son of a to mine eyelids, until I find out a place for German baker,founded a reli- the Lord, a habitation for the mighty God gious commune along the Cocal- of Jacob. Lo, we heard of it at Ephrata: ico Creek, 68 miles from Philadel- phiaI,Pennsylvania, where they waited we found it in the fields of the wood. for the Second Coming. People who Psalm 132 visited the commune, known as the Cloister at Ephrata, often thought they heard the singing of a “choir of angels” coming from its prayer house. Now, amid the roar of semis and the clip-clop of Amish buggies, a group of students led by Stephen Warfel, sen- ior curator of archaeology at the State Museum of Pennsylvania, is trying to uncover information about the com- mune. This summer Warfel’s team in- vestigated a large cellar partially discov- ered during an excavation in 1963. “This cellar may have been a vault built to entomb the dead,”Warfel said as he took a soil sample with an auger. “Because it’s associated with a dormi-

PHMC tory addition that was never completed, An early-20th-century photograph of the surviving buildings at Ephrata Cloister. we don’t expect to find remains. american archaeology 15 16 (T (Middle) quar 2 ; blage, ar ( clay blue field found and two-handled Bottom) 000 op) e Eur w tzite borr shell-edged season. These as field under including opean-made ow a likely R bifur These econstr quar season: pit pr the cup, point The cate ehistoric used tzite d br r ser uring and econstr potter is ucted others' or base (T ving ceramics. r thumbnail for eminiscent hand-painted op . t he communal y ar ro bowls, ear spear ucted includes tifacts dormitor w, 1994 (Bottom thenwar

fr om point; end potter a of field wer pitcher left) plain y pearlwar food late-17th-centu scraper e building ro e a y season potter w, r vessels quar a ecover ser and ,

quar fr a . om vice e plate tzite y hand-painted s. on at tz vessels ed left) Cr wer and M the bifur side-notched eamwar fr w ount ry om e ith A dining. Kedar

cate r Eur ecover jasper f German M ound Zion opean ount es base cr site. eamwar in and ed during knife; Zion spear a script, ear spear fr The r pearlwar om efuse-filled thenwar a during the es, a point; a quar ssem- point; and cellar 2000 and tz es the a es a end

a shun ter, ments, from It B Forsaking their to lear coming fromasf Adjusting sulting pretation munity discov ser posed to f e dating tothecloister'sbeginnings. sister fa trash-filled pit, cloister declined industr fe system inthebuildings. pr contains ser sylvania Ger wo sleep had long sumed 1934. F continue shall sun, dail el or vidence r w ior totheinstallationofafiredetectionandsuppression ma msteads operatedbycong lear ved v rk y often sur man came per or es est-lasting communalsocieties. eight remaining Until “W Indeed, Ephrata In a he andhisstudentsretiretonearby ed, s y, prog ag Colleg bout worldly in The histor n n ar n er ve of his ies such prepared 1988, . as ho e from o ienced and member e Consequentl in piousness. an wner H re Baptist 11 liv y we Ephrata and the f W c a we ress their his chaeolog an ed of ollowing istor w cloister 1691 v o 300 halleng e of field arf ealed e, ical wn or after re eeks, interprets one ve an Cloister somewhat orphan the f-campus baseball his ways locations function, ship el’s from iginal of containing awideva a ical biased andomittedimpor aspaper member r, member studies s. ar ar in spir Chur W ar documents. sc by contain or the

c wo did wo building chaeological c inv ed the loister hool of Eberbac proper y, and haeological aw orldly and more whic member Beissel's itual buildings y, rking rk as Beissel dig estigation, at the ch in y the w ay cap W w house, s The inv and M wo s as into become it. the

making, f of of the asIo arf or of and incorporated h aw engag useum traditional undisturbed cloister of ith solel ty while hard a one el, rk W h, f Now fo Ephrata, colleg oundations interpret akening ag 18th s the cloistered regation w the arf

lear r Ger wa—have death Unf W wo pr of tog mu and mer e ’s y estigation, as inv ed of el f f inv the , ide. of carpentr dor or ays a leaning rk ning Commission on man and ollo a ev ether or ch centur e ev This ri in estigation gr Amer mystic. tw in ri ing At itspeak, estigation, nine. str eight students. tunatel state ening,

mitor PHMC entuall in whic ety ofbur aduated, like inf whic interpretation 1941, H we o y, fa visitor the member uctures, to is , as r f lif 1768; r cemeter Conrad or or efuse and rs eat y. ming sought out ica's Fr ch At tant in identify the on y, e, students—som hour the y’ on whic h lif mation h soughthimout histor When the anklin andMar ” ar discussing and pr y, and based s y estyle ag caused sur s said tog a the was occupants. brother He divided Sev c these to, in earliest deposits e where and shov s. s ied ar (PHMC) PHMC whic haeological the cloister viv deter fall fo Beissel ether ies. toda The P in 24, ic W edg 1814 hoped the enth he ar r required inting. its h gleaned ed of mation. arf the var el, site, tif him • W W he h of tif y e docu- immi s inter mine clois , ,p el. com- until acts. the Wa arf arf enn- 2001 ious into a pre- acts of Da and and and hot the the the be- ex lso ro re as- ” to to el el It it r- e y y a ------

PHMC PHMC B O B BROOKE american they br sam Zenubia. lical be baptized, low tuall women The quired f lif Brother Roses wo the of oathsandla hooded trouser God. da ri to freedom fromreligiousper gr spired, Householder the Dunker er Beissel’ lannel ag e ated s, ing y) liv re ed e, by idea the y

Cloister P Ephrata Beissel Gottlec called commune e names wo eople he t The settled, the of he moving him s, to its as the s petticoats s of Sab of ar r e v Beissel becameknownasF believ Sharon, of r ship. P same xper a est, member member chaeology obe. the ennsylvania Rosicr s, divine when, themselv brother joining her batar preac Bethania. ht. at whi s andliv lif suc Cloister he tookthelo and along, we wsuits, Brethren iment e to ed Though mit That but The h had was re ians, known ucians, hed Cocalico f inspiration. it in s or ch as s the in s

dra substitute to distracted es closer 1732, ed on incorporated hard timethe w tw pants. and plaindress. w celibacy The Ja sister wo the the wn a “God's as cloister with as bez, bandon Baptist o he and white, as re one wilder Labadists, and f celibate secution in1720, mar by he ve Creek. fa ounded to s the didn’t r thousands Euphemias, a f other ms sur Beissel d a y tookbib peculiar east, God. r people strang of and gain had faith, ied Sisterhood, shir their ness. the the prohibit f religious Sev member to The on t, ather order oot washing, tr rounding thecloister ’s e; t with The Inspiredof traditional he ied man c from Ho enth ideals people. its pr of har - member Dunker inciples we s: Fr to or purpose whom y other isma. and ied- his intentwa the s Da liv ve gr r mar- of easons we ” oups. e y r, the the s lif w a (Satur men The s, re rejection s he seeking that solita omen's estyles r the was ose called men's Quak ev Fr fe y wh and re om fo - en- In- re ry to at d l- y s . . - - in chance, pet—a cologist, play unusual Tr Wa disposed the cloisterorwasbroughtthere byanewmember ca happened object to someone damage appeared Oldham used scattered. glass one ash the of rfel be at During Wa pieces for a late was must trumpet Ephrata observed. or rfel an Baroque an glass said cloister Guy of alchemy likely discarded to Though Since 16th Tr put ethnomusi because la speculated to the would apparatus be have the Oldham, e object voices. compositions wereallwrittenforacappel that and, a ’s see on asure? and occurred 1995 only Music object trum- . repli “Had musical it seemed life—some taken have dis- The has it.” had early by it it. in a Ephrata—but - - excavation, Instrumentation served was that small compositions a no it been been the Steve ar special trash 17th elsewhere tradition. been valve tifact the an implausible full-time portion no more placed of Wa centuries. pit. important object with simply or purpose. rf care a America el slide At student cr numerous Oldham David (right) of on in ew first, was wasn with were thrown tubing and the members. the Burke, because ’s part —Bob discusses either it discovered ’t trash, ’s its was first was site written part and conclusion is in of disposal,” one common Brooke missing a thought musical the “some- . Itwas cloister before widely of gift of an these the pit, an at to - , 17 This 1908 photograph shows the Saron (left) and the Saal. The Saron was built in 1743 for householder couples who chose to live as celibate brothers and sisters. It was a brief experiment, and when the householders departed, the building was remodeled to accommodate the Sisterhood.

After eating, they sang in five-part harmony in the Bethaus for two hours, went to bed at nine, awoke at mid- night to attended a two-hour worship service during which they waited for the Second Coming, then returned to bed, only to rise again at five in the morning.Their beds were wooden benches, their pillows wooden blocks. The cloister was self-sufficient.The brothers erected buildings,farmed, performed various handicrafts, and cooked and cleaned.The sisters busied themselves with such tasks as sewing, singing, canning, and calligraphy. Ephrata’s members were not always able to maintain its ideals. According to the Chronicon Ephratense, the of- ficial history of the cloister written by Brothers Lamech

and Agrippa in 1786, all property was to be held in com- PHMC mon, yet Warfel found fragments of two dozen earthen- This is one of two storage cellars found under the brothers' dormitory. ware vessels with members’ initials scratched into them. It was carved out of limestone bedrock, lined with cut stone, plastered, “There’s no doubt these were labels, identifying the and whitewashed. These cellars suggest that the Brotherhood planned for objects as personal possessions,”Warfel explained.“Such the future, even though they arose with other community members each behavior was inconsistent with the values of the night to await the Second Coming of Christ. Ephrata society.” Ephrata’s members were to avoid meat during their five in the morning and prayed in the Bethaus, or prayer sole meal of the day because meat promoted the tempta- house, for an hour, then they worked until nine, at which tions of the flesh. But the discovery of hundreds of animal time they paused for another hour of prayer.Work re- bones suggests the members were unable to abstain. sumed at ten for another two hours, stopping for a one With regard to temptations of the flesh, there were al- hour worship service followed by four more hours of legations that the brothers and sisters succumbed to them. work.At five o’clock, they spent another hour of praying, People living near the cloister expressed concerns that un- then the following hour was devoted to dinner in the married men and women were living under the same roof Kedar, their communal dormitory. in the Kedar, and consequently a separate dormitory was

18 fall • 2001 PHMC The Kedar site was excavated in 1995. Once the sod was removed with shovels, all excavating was done with small hand tools. The building to the right is believed to be Conrad Beissel's house. Its construction date is not known. The Saron and the Saal are in the background.

18th-century coins were recovered by Warfel’s team on Mount Zion, proof that Eckerlin engaged in commerce. In order to regain control, Beissel expelled Eckerlin in 1745. Beissel also removed the brothers from Mount Zion, ordering them to build a new dormitory, called Bethania, and a prayer house in the meadow near the cabin where he lived.According to Lamech and Agrippa, Beissel ordered all references to the Brotherhood’s dormitory and prayer house on Mount Zion erased from the records.The society never got over this schism and slowly began to decline.

Telling a More Truthful Story

arfel began his investigation, known as the BROOKE Ephrata Cloister Archaeology Project, in 1993, B O B The Saron has workrooms, such as this one, on each of its three main W conducting a remote sensing survey of the 25- floors. Each floor also has a kitchen, a dining room, and 12 sleeping rooms. acre property. He used ground-penetrating radar,proton magnetometry, and terrain conductivity, all of which are built for the brothers in 1738.Three years later, Beissel or- capable of detecting irregularities at a depth of six to nine dered the destruction of the Bethaus, presumably due to feet.These tools are relatively new to archaeology and, ac- his suspicion that illicit activities occurred there. cording to Warfel, his excavation is one of the few that has Beissel, who called himself “the superintendent,”ruled employed all three. the cloister with an iron hand, banishing anyone who did- Warfel used them to detect various types of under- n’t yield to his authority. His relationship with Israel Eck- ground disturbances.A proton magnetometer works like a erlin, the head of the Brotherhood, eventually became hos- high-powered metal detector. It can also detect fired or tile. It was Eckerlin’s idea to add a mill and an orchard to heated rocks and clays. Ground-penetrating radar uses the make the community self-supporting, which conflicted transmission and reception of low-frequency radio waves with Beissel’s principles of self-denial and poverty. Many to find materials with nonconductive surfaces.Terrain con-

american archaeology 19 ductivity measures the soil's ability to conduct an electri- Second Coming to be imminent, it’s thought that Ephrata’s cal charge, detecting disruptions in subsurface soils members may have decided to build the Kedar on such an caused by a trench, a foundation, or a deposit of artifacts. impermanent foundation. After completing the survey, Warfel’s team began an exca- During the 1996 and 1997 seasons,Warfel’s team lo- vation of the trash pit discovered in 1988 and found that cated the complete foundations of the Kedar and the it lay beneath the remains of the Kedar, which was con- Bethaus. Although it was built only a year after the Kedar, structed in 1735. the Bethaus had a limestone foundation.The sturdier con- The search for the Kedar’s foundation began there, in struction may be due to its religious significance in a com- the center of the cloister compound, in 1994. Historic doc- munity dedicated to God. It may also indicate that the uments mentioned the Kedar, but not its location. Using members had come to think that the Second Coming ground-penetrating radar,Warfel detected a large feature might be some time in coming. A layer of fill soil contain- with a “tail-like” appendage. ing demolition debris and datable ceramic artifacts cov- “We originally thought this feature to be the remains ered parts of both structures’ foundations, verifying that of a communal structure, since such structures at the Ephrata’s householders cleared the site for farming in the cloister are massive and have at least one subsurface early 19th century, after the last celibate member died. drain,” he said. Warfel’s team has been digging on Mount Zion since But what they found, upon excavating, was a borrow 1999.The 1963 excavation on the hilltop claimed to have pit from which the cloister members took clay that was discovered the location of the Brotherhood’s prayer used to build their structures. It wasn’t until the 1995 sea- house, which was built near the dormitory in 1739, but son that they discovered a portion of the Kedar’s founda- Warfel’s findings challenge that claim.His 1999 excavation tion.The Kedar, the cloister’s first large communal dormi- investigated a large area adjoining the earlier dig site and tory, was post-built—a technique that used wooden posts, exposed new architectural features, including two cellars which were sunk into the ground, to support the frame- with built-in shelves. It’s now clear that the foundation dis- work of the building. The method, which was not very covered in 1963 is not the prayer house, but an unfinished durable, was commonly used by 17th- and 18th-century addition to the dormitory. American immigrants. Eventually, these posts would rot, The exact location of the Brotherhood’s prayer house making the building unstable. Because they believed the is still in question.Warfel had the good fortune of obtain- PHMC God’s Acre Cemetery and the rear of the bakery (left), which still stands, are seen in this 1908 photograph. The Saal and Saron are in the background. In 18th-century Ephrata, each person ate approximately a pound of bread a day. The loaves they baked weighed about four pounds.

20 fall • 2001 BROOKE B O B Several members of the crew sift through excavated dirt in search of small artifiacts.

ing an 1815 map of the cloister that was found in an attic indicate that the brothers may have helped repair the sol- by a descendant of a householder family nearly six years diers’ clothing.The large number of buckles, leather ago. Using the map,Warfel’s team began a search for the punches, and iron tacks also suggests that they made and building west of the dormitory site.They uncovered evi- repaired . dence of another structure that could be the prayer Over half a million artifacts have been recovered from house, but further investigation is necessary to identify it, Mount Zion alone.Warfel has found samples of stone tools and the excavation has concluded for this season. and spear points, some of which date to at least 3500 B.C., The buildings on Mount Zion served as a Revolution- indicating the property was once occupied by Native ary War military hospital during the winter of 1777—the Americans who camped along the banks of the Cocalico same winter Washington quartered the Continental Army Creek for short periods while hunting. But most of the ar- at Valley Forge—through the spring of 1778. Historians tifacts speak of the strange life in Ephrata Cloister. writing about the cloister in the 19th century stated that Though the excavation has uncovered a wealth of in- Mount Zion buildings were burned to rid the site of ty- formation, the entire story of Ephrata Cloister remains to phoid fever, which claimed the lives of numerous sick and be told. Next season,Warfel’s team will continue its search wounded soldiers as well as several cloister members for the elusive foundation of the Brotherhood’s prayer who nursed them.At that time, it was thought that burn- house on Mount Zion. ing materials that came in contact with infected people “Historical archaeology is sometimes criticized for was the only way to stop the spread of the fever. But so being the handmaiden to history,”Warfel said,“because far, Warfel has found no evidence of burning on the site. many projects only seek to confirm what’s already What he has found—datable ceramics and early-19th-cen- recorded.” tury coins so worn that they appear to have been in cir- But Warfel is rewriting history at Ephrata. culation for decades—lead him to determine that the dor- “I think that if there’s one contribution we’re making, mitory was used as late as 1840. it’s that we’re able to tell a more truthful story about the “In the past two seasons, we’ve recovered over a hun- lifestyles of the men and women that lived here,”he dred glass medicine vials,” said Warfel,“as well as newly added.“The people who inhabited the cloister seemed to cast and used musket balls,some of which may have been be superhuman because of their extraordinary lifestyle. surgically removed from wounded soldiers.” However, they were much like everyone else.” In addition, the discovery of buttons, straight pins, hook and eye fasteners, thimbles, and six pairs of scissors BOB BROOKE is a writer who lives near Ephrata Cloister.

american archaeology 21 22 The BY yielding Ar chaeologist CLAIRE Gault new POOLE site truths Michael has yielded about Collins Challenging Paradigm a the the wealth believes Clovis of I He C and pr scale fund ar r and brow sites these Amer and belie 60-y nor f chaeolog ve the acts eceiv ollins’ people. tif r sity th of has Te acts, ear-old the the “It Collins “It Collins Clovis t’ approac khaki, nev it’ ve in 11 icas, project, at s nomadic and xas ed ivate donor Clovis t received earl s doesn’t of often s Nor er knowitfromlookingatMic wr fields A more the ists he wo m ustin insouthw Ar Te his national also and iting aking y with th ar has and rk c Clovis xas hing ” in Ju 25-acre heological takes c wo as he Amer

months haeologist ly has big-game Collins’ bother artifacts. unco far of his approximatel at his if

rk G sa in s. 100 repor it’ ault

A attracted ys. gr At thispoint, three we ica. boots team c and cowboy ustin ve s eater entral Gault a of re me, r s deg one Consequent ing mild ts, hunter ef Resear ester digging. ha y the inter keeping ” mov has ear fo whic concer r he Te a ve ees of s mone r ite, spr hat treasure ts y s xas, fir n BellCounty

been sa es national the logg s. to ch $600,00 h ing st ma in ys there’ located k through Then require ns.

g and y eeping the m Laborator people ed of y et the ly da leading as ost The , shed the hael Collins. funding trov y. more s enoughmone fire the his w come shade. from impor press ell researcher a more heat. e the t e ants bout temperature to some . he xcavation as of Man than a y f the inhabit team oundations h sun tant fo at the Clovis fall But at funding. co ill y e 50 r the light 300,000 y anal ba ve a Clad in m of • xper Clovi br y lar m of y, ra edia. from f ou’ 2001 Uni- ar y to ysis ush iles has the the ge his ge on ar- ti ts is d s . - -

D A R R E N POORE C. Scott Speal, a member of the Gault excavation team, digs a three-foot-by-three-foot test POORE trench. He’s digging into light colored

D A R R E N clay deposits of early Paleo-Indian age. 24 wo ma chipped c of f re The that This but radiocarbon are Clovis ab indicates ing—which site lar cores, craftsmanship), find nice vis. below that n’t Collins n Clovis. sugg Ar ound hipped blades, umber v the ly tif ge y ealed asilicaresiduethatresultedfromcutting rk r extraor y alsof f But

Among In “The In we I enowned it. has acts

ound ests ha can gr if object ing and ” don’t bif is ass I projectile ve we addition re the Collins sa is addition don’t in yielded , blades be aces, r in dinarily the

of ha small they equir fr possib been

or to ound abladethat, onl could an order ustrated Clovis ve the r the later know dates the Clovis adiocarbon cane. y es y think was

f and or ma also animals. lar delicate to other—is Clovis striking lev ch ly resemble to ys. ge g to most e blades, points to t

y cut et heir occupations. used ar vidence are probabl the el Collins’ la the where “It w overshot we it been that be coal Clovis, ve ye [c ’s ab meat. an essential.

re har e r bones ly here. r, a mater a impressiv pre-Clo f ify xquisite ove or ould be bsence (whic point-edgraver he distinctive object cutting whic dated. f we coal], steak y ound s flake we tattooing, this, of The ” has team under microscopicinspection, used the the ’v ial of ’d with h h e a came - - kniv grav some e and f has a or flakes points Clovis This ar continuous fr er es, dif om and shaving tif also br s kind ficult acts a have deposits and oken at s, are the huge and anadze. Clovis f ound trait of f been Clovis their lake-like motion are , biface or plants, at of s ites, found gr chiseling. the Clovis scores elegantl point purpose ass.That a that stone but w Gault prob at tools made ood carries flint The it Gault. implement. of site. is y - - knapping. of rare over clear I t’s

to and sition wards Plateau, site, frequented and dra moth-hunting Gault not fr find Overshot quar om wn unusual The quar sur also one located tz site area cr by r tz side flak ounding ystal Clovis by flakes, to time its - betw t find its hose was where ri people, is whatecologistscallanecotone—atran ch sites thatha 13,200 tion he’ c f minute the nescence diocarbon eroded a of fi the in l tec some Clovis, and quar and ight, acts are shad bout her f rs een ound c New spr c s hnology w y’ t thr tz har her So The t stone thought concluded time ve dates ater y with disco using the ee ings the tw in widel this who coal, f bluf Collins t, y traces Me y collag ound. o ear s, f et whic indings G a mater site dated. dating. dif and ve xico and from those seems to cent per where else—sometimestw f plant desirable “Here, There’ and fe another subjected than bones, we , they or trappedvar gain. over can ve a fs, ulf y ind we the s the r to tec r fe accepted beenradiocarbondated, ent ag be re ed. en As the cent h jibes of re namedafterasmalltown seeps, Coast r has y “ F “That t come

that be ha o. where ial The ex ent he hnique At mostClovissites, fl five indings we w approximatel time. lif more a seemed taken a light e patte s ow from at t ve After as Collins He otic cool unreliable. xotics, e the man he kind result, dif can collectable cross ve r with to Gault’ plant en’t Gault

Clovis we per used been to ” of back Plain ry rock, t means fe ma y’ Clovis he By Collins rn energy their sophisticated y one stone called re notions the rence. from be w d

high cent. of gr c little the

ious animals, y of ” j dated of of her to ater the s s ust communities. ound abundant measur in u ma nomadic, mall sa also nir later dated. we Clovis meets se Collins animal h m ar animals, r small model. ys, y t whic heat, tool the etur undred other f y s It ther y from v hunting ound sa obility tif re e build can’t plants. is ana fall contradict the of xotic: Gault test game a 12,900 ys. w w acts f y “Nothing probabl or bout ing n molumi m bur ater as h occupa- But a sugg the hunted “Clovis ” animal • w . to Clovis aking, bones some more. creek stone bur be Gault .” up mam- y a we we sa her than 2001 ned, enty ou’ per- t that ar Th that less and and has the the th dif hat Ed fo est ys. ra nt to re re ti in It d e e e y r ------

M I C H A E L COLLINS M I C H A E L COLLINS the broad-based, popular theory that they were purely nomadic game hunters.” The sophistication of the Clovis and their mastery of their environment leads Collins to conclude they were not the first Americans, that they learned from their precursors. “Sites like this show that the Clovis adapted.You don’t get that much diversity in such a short period of time,” he says.“Besides, you never find the first of something.” He also points to sites that some experts believe predate Clovis, such as Meadowcroft, in Pennsylvania, and Wilson-Leonard, in Texas. How the Clovis got to central Texas is subject to conjecture. Most archaeologists be- lieve they came to the Americas from Asia via the Bering Strait land bridge that at one time linked with . But Collins thinks they could have come by skin boats from Eu- across the north Pacific or even the north Atlantic, and then followed the coast- line southward. “Everyone says they must have walked here,” he says. But he observes that people used some kind of watercraft to reach the Australian con- POORE tinent thousands of years before Clovis.

D A R R E N “Archaeologists don’t give these people enough credit.They had the brain power; they Members of the Texas Archeological Society work at the site. During the past two years, were as smart as we are now.” hundreds of people have contributed thousands of hours to this project.

ple to dig there for a fee of $25 per day. Collins says some THE DISCOVERY OF THE SITE looters were making a living selling what they found.They did a lot of damage,breaking up the deposits and leaving itting on a folding chair in the shade of his truck, sur- broken , beer and soda cans, and cigarette rounded by horses and cows, Collins gives a brief his- butts in their wake. In some areas, they removed the Story of the Gault site, which was named after one of upper 70 centimeters of the stratigraphy. its original owners, H. C. Gault.When the land was cleared In 1990, David Olmstead, a collector from nearby Tem- around the turn of the century, big piles of fire-cracked ple, found an area of the site that hadn’t been disturbed, rocks were found, probably from rock ovens that were and began to dig there. He dug about five feet into what used over the last 9,000 years or so. he called “gray, gritty dirt” and hit a jackpot: two Clovis J. E. Pearce, a former archaeologist at the University of points and four elaborately engraved stones, with straight Texas, found abundant evidence of prehistoric peoples lines that ran parallel or intersected. He got in touch with there. Pearce’s modus operandi was to visit an area he a man named Pete Bostrom, who cast and photographed wanted to explore, hang out with the men in town, and them. Bostrom then called Collins and Tom Hester, who eventually ask them about a good place to find - was then the director of the Texas Archeological Research heads. He would then go to that place, obtaining permis- Laboratory at the University of Texas, and suggested they sion from the landowners to dig. get in touch with Olmstead. In the winter of 1929, he began digging at the Gault Olmstead took them to the site, and they made site.Though he took few notes, Pearce took photographs arrangements for a brief excavation in June 1991. During a and made extensive collections of his findings,which con- two week period, they found a and three sisted of stone tools, projectile points, and one Clovis arti- engraved stones, as well as several blades and blade cores. fact: a blade. “This was a manufacturing site,” Collins remembers Collectors and looters raided the site for decades. thinking. “It had wonderful flint, the creek and lots of During the 1980s and 1990s, the landowner allowed peo- plants and animals to eat.”

american archaeology 25 has had volunteer field crews come from as far away as New Hampshire to lend a hand.Texas A&M archaeologists Mike Waters and Harry Shafer led a field class that spent an entire semester there in the spring of 2000.They worked Sunday nights through Thursday nights at the site, sleeping in cabins at a nearby church school camp, and then re- turned to the university on Fridays to work in the lab. They dug down in five-centimeter increments with trowels, spatulas, and even bamboo fashioned into trowel- shaped tools (which they purchased from Pier 1) so as not to scratch or chip the artifacts. By the end of the semester, they had dug all the way to bedrock.Their work yielded

30,000 items, ranging from blades and points to bison and COLLINS raccoon bones. I C H A E L But, even with the extra help, things don’t always M (From left) A coarsely serrated blade used to cut meat; a blade used to go smoothly. cut grass or cane; a typical Clovis blade; a small serrated blade used to “People work for short periods, and we have a few cut meat. Microscopic analysis of the blades helped to determine their volunteers without experience,” Collins says. uses. The purpose of the typical Clovis blade is unknown. Though the heat is oppressive, rain can be far worse. The Texas Archeological Society held a field school the After Hester and Collins left, the looters returned and second week of June, with several hundred volunteers dig- took everything they could find. The looting stopped ging for six days. On the morning of the seventh day, five when the Lindsey family of Florence,Texas, acquired the and one half inches of rain fell in two hours.The following site in 1998.The Lindseys found some mammoth bones, week brought two more inches of rain.Though the exca- including a mandible with four teeth.They called the Uni- versity of Texas in May 1998 to come out and take a look. “There were more Clovis artifacts than I had seen in my entire life,” Collins says. Two of the country’s best paleoarcheologists, of the University of Arizona and George Frison of the University of Wyoming,visited the site in the spring of 2000, and they were amazed at its size and the plentitude of Clovis artifacts. Collins got access to the site by leasing it for three years, an agreement that expires May 31, 2002. “I knew time was short, so I quickly raised support money and began inviting field schools and volunteers to get to work on the site,” he says. HELP ARRIVES

“ ypically people want to monopolize a find like this,” David Carlson says of Gault.“But Collins did some- T thing rare: He invited other people to work the site. He wanted as many people as he could get from related disciplines to maximize the time he had.” Carlson, a Texas A&M archaeologist, is leading a five- week field school of about 15 students at Gault. They camp out at Collins’s farm, which is about 20 minutes from the site,working from 7:15 A.M. until around 2 P.M. After dinner at the farm, they spend several hours doing lab work. “We want to get a better sample of Folsom-age arti- POORE

facts, which are right above the Clovis,” he says.“I wanted D A R R E N what we we’re doing to complement what they had al- Al Redder, a member of the Texas Archeological Society, carefully brushes ready done.” dirt from artifacts. Redder found numerous artifacts during the week he A considerable amount of work has been done. Collins spent working this spot.

26 fall • 2001 D A R R E N POORE american training w f Nor produced another onetobewr C vation I’m stratig will ha da pires. tinue equall acts as ys ve THE th o ar ev alread Collins “The Like Collins, “W “W occup

probabl included, llins spent at He to c y r ent, Amer aphic units. sites heological e e hardl busy the gro busy ar lost spends Collins, y sheer some the datag chaeology hopes y IMP over und ica, asleep, has who hasbeene we site—there sc y one with himself y seeeac and holar ”s a re wr size f preliminar tw a or wo ACT a hundred W co that ys month her the It wasaf itten because preser o

novices. s ater enerated bythepresentinv r ve W of kshop or itten aboutGault. f or at r red ater career ev h other est the three da s one we OF Gault—at year entuall and cleaning ve and s. with of y xcavating f oot thickwithClovismater site—there’ re I’

“ of repor book, . And s ve his or “She f GAUL Shaf ,” Clovis to ifty some

ys tarps, he sa been y time r come. the esear ts a per er Gault up ge and least w a ts ys ofhiswif think sheer kind, ar bout ge son in eek Collins or decades, after ch T s So he in tif tting A until nothing will ustin

acts da at at fa believ center the the ma density the r, ys, the 10 up his teamhas and his ” become ybe in site. in stor estigations he P Gault site, es . at e, M . lease m the like will con his laments. ., In ev ms. 4 there’ who is ultiple of when Satur A lab. en staf it . ar site an ial. M ex an in ti- .” y a ” s f - - - ened bones has ter (Left) inch, with (Above) the with our compar t being abletoradiocarbondateClovismater gr and the a r manuf n that’ Fall where tif “That’ Her r CLAIRE he ang ies, umber jacket. r bag ound to acts ecover dr with which 2000 ar Marilyn Amer ar ” evidence be y anal knowledg W “W “Is “The Some e? s ticle Collins sa a W W e scr s wh of actur ater POOLE r wh ater pr then and bunc emoved Bone e ha That’s ater it y isons. he this eening. issue allows yze eser of of “La Oreos. icas. Shober fa y s believ scr spr taken y delicate is cr s debita ve lls animals i vatives in h t Salle, them. ng earl has we he eening of ucial standing shares it

along sa Hopefull the theseconf of ings, The the ys whilemunc e in American g, to process. y?’ endedupwithsuc to “It’ written y Clovis charcoal. of Clovis a captur La mesh ter objects ” befor ge the Clovis, es thattheGaultsitewillcont with We helps member hear s e the Belle, the

and vidence ms time Collins’ there. laborator

e deposits of e the on. need y, for Ar being to tbreak ” k tiny earliest with the someone willfindaClovishear chaeology of the biological and licts betw ept Forbes br surr of ” or to eak objects. Y scr time. Collins’s far r y, to ounding s the late emoved ou f back at

hing onthelastofhislunc coming ma ine-g een wher down less disappointment look Gault of and Lone . could inhabitants y Clovis, is Gault e damage G r team, up een evidenceandtheo come as r dir they fr other h a ained ock-har is at Star om ault: r t small esour often and back, in see alter ar gr the holds will State” national these the e than eat densityofar d We from rock as exposed plaster ial fromthesite. fragmentar sa the clay nativ ces, ”W a one-eighth whole gi d y, generally of jackets. appear bone ‘What and ve whole on’t ater mater . publications. under Te a e the bout

and ri us facilitates theor xas in bute to y ed s Clovis The a kno and occurs har of g lar sa ial— does plas- in tool ood and not the d- an ys. ies the ge th h, w - - 27 M O N A MILLS The First Americans

Despite the growing number of pre-Clovis sites, a prominent archaeologist argues that the Clovis were the first to inhabit the New World.

BY BRIAN FAGAN

hink of landscape on a grand scale, of vast Between 1949 and 1951, large-scale excavations there re- steppe-tundra, snow- and ice-covered mountains, vealed four associated with Clovis points, strat- of rugged, ice-mantled coasts, and unexpected ified under Folsom artifacts.With the advent of radiocar- oases of more temperate vegetation.Think of for- bon dating in 1949, Clovis sites were dated to about 10,000 aging across endless grass-covered plains, to 11,000 years ago. Today, with accelerator mass spec- through tropical and temperate woodland, across trometry carbon dating and tree-ring calibrations, the Clo- Tharsh deserts, never seeing another person from one day vis people are dated to between 13,000 and 13,500 years to the next. Imagine being one of the first to settle ago.The great Ice Age became extinct at about in a virgin continent, perhaps meeting no more than a few the same time; indeed Clovis hunters may have helped in dozen people a year. Contemplate a life continually on the the process. After 13,000, Clovis gave way abruptly to a move,with the threat of predators on every side. Above all, much greater variety of Paleo-Indian cultures. think of a huge continent with only a few thousand inhab- In the years since the original Clovis excavations, sim- itants, scattered from the Arctic Ocean to the Strait of Mag- ilar distinctive fluted points have come from sites in all of ellan, living in every kind of environment imaginable. Small the lower 48 states, and also from Mexico. Well-docu- wonder we know almost nothing about the first Ameri- mented Clovis sites and hundreds of isolated projectile cans.They left almost nothing behind them. As Canadian point finds paint a picture of a widespread, highly mobile archaeologist Richard Morlan remarks, searching for the culture, which subsisted not only on big-game hunting, first Americans is like “a search for a needle in a haystack— but on plant foods and smaller game as well. Clovis groups and a frozen one at that.” soon spread rapidly into unexploited territories where the The first settlement of the Americas remains one of carrying capacity of the land was very low. Furthermore, the great controversies of archaeology, remarkable as Clovis artifacts have at least loose ties to late Ice Age tech- much for its rhetoric and wild claims as for hard evidence. nologies in the Old World. For a generation or more, the Until 1926, most experts believed that the New World was Clovis people were the first Americans, portrayed as Paleo- settled about 4,000 years ago.Then archaeologist Jesse Fig- Indian big-game hunters with deadly stone-tipped , gins excavated the in New Mexico, where he who traveled from Canada to Tierra del Fuego in a few found Paleo-Indian stone points in association with the breathless centuries, decimating megafauna on every side. bones of extinct bison (embedded in the rib cages of the “Clovis is first” achieved the status of archaeological skeltons). Folsom was a landmark discovery, which added dogma—yet no Clovis points occur in South America. at least 6,000 years to North American prehistory. But was Clovis the earliest of all,or did humans arrive Then, in 1932, amateur collectors found projectile in the Americas sometime earlier? Almost all the experts points and extinct mammal bones lying along the shores of now agree that first settlement took place either during long-dried-up shallow lakes at Clovis, also in New Mexico. the closing millennia of the late Ice Age, some 15,000 to american archaeology 29 30 location doubts by Monte y sites 14,500 under of Clovis sites, ologists ments from earlier Some g hear earliest tended ve human theref cium v Ohio Riv one-half 20,000 y e there, or ear xcavated ealed inia r stone with sity people s ag If Clovisisindeedthefir Ev Monte Adovasio Three ths, in t has ore author carbonate heir then, er Ve bear a than of ha ye the occupation that 11 o, occupation accept the ear er southw millennia? thousands Clovis and y t rde yielded ve ar Ar ools. but invalid. Meadowcroft ye sites living n Amer Ve s ag strata, s an most ofthemlittlemorethanisolatedscatter Clovis. an

Clovis izona, atural these been ar ities, is simple ag r fe y dug y de o, F the it sees are o. w detailsha occupation resemblance sites or icas. of or perhaps as in The in a est ofPittsburghinthe1970sand1980s. among raised the Adovasio earl state. with the incur the f onl of e of small one dating new xample, C game stone the whic miles hile 13,955 y occupation y world's strong site widel dates sion, Rockshelter of None a c sur sites gr them bout laimed h is animals the ar ve with to oup south and date countered ve r st, another est tif Cactus to ounding a beenpublished. y to we that leading at bout of ry earliest Monte we acts; accepted Va Clovis c 14,555 of to slightl meticulous re least to laimants. the nce of r mustconfrontanother includes adiocarbon and are stone date 13,500 contaminated these some Clovis H on Monte earl Ve Ha Clovis ill humanl claimed 19,600 tool deposits, y earlierthanthat, plant with year a rde, to “smoking ynes in y tools tr cr J little s ames countr w y ibutar a kits. souther s ite,o itical Ve ear most bout care an ooden f e ag oods y of xper At present, y r said to dates s de o, ear occupied Although m av Adovasio ccupied the and ag y six y. odified and slightl be ar 18,000 erag by gun, i t, s of a mple- o. n to ch , bout con ag Uni pre- and Vi Ar cal the ar fo ae- re lie ed ”a o. r- e e y s r - - - - year Alaska ri gatherer Dur passed the could 300 to more ev the mals asw people A question: t nor f habited mental. (30,000 unco last easter g in Queen hear Strait. fi or he ists ustralia rs ch en Alaska this t the th ing continental late most

I s ag Some But F f t coastal ce eet ve ha earlier Amer or y passable n ha Fr of r reg and Siber etreated fir to Charlotte r ve the Ag o. Despite Siber ed what Ice om in y ve below ell asgame. Wh and Nor ear ear st likel f gr The Canadianar (ov mo ion e reg

icans earlier ound . Br late mov Amer oups. Ag traces Alaska, Long ia w environments s, y was s ve ia er th the itish ions about as y as ag 13,000 e, and ar

bef shelf Ice moder r ed southward Amer r prolong earl o)? 35,000 c perhaps oute. at no icans—if Aleutians? apidl Islands stretc ar haeological canonproclaimedthatthe times, Amer Fur ma ore Columbia crossed southward Ag of its they ri a y

signs The coastalroutew The and v y y sea e, ica as ther n y. height. earl ed a ear hes ev bout ica settledsolate, world thenspreadsouthwardintothe lev ed Man 12,000 y then and ans subsisting crossing? as en as s ear of chaeologist KnudFladmar more, y the dr dur from, of els. Theoreticall ag ideal sear er know f ered high we habitants idence, sible tosuppor h or earl excavate a The Draw excavated. Mammoth a found w y human the human ypothesis y-shod, ha we s 18,000 o s. suspects the y gr bison If we ing along er re ter sea people In ag ve than crossed But didthe oup c El Unf other y year re nor hing, sa sea ar in gr f in m

mu nor o)

theor Llano or that as the ha suppor lev wer y, chaeological of deglaciated 1962. Could the ust eat or not restr of t Mammoth s occupation the ve J Ice ch lev heast 20,000 1 amateur y late ther and occupation apan els e Tw across tunatel coldest ag f ear r Russian was Ar s the emains.

of y, found surel that

r is ice y, fish till ould ha els a y o on easons, Five o. Ag chaeological onl ial hunter-gather of we the n s Clovis the are Ice secure vir people ted compared with ev the fir Asia y alsohuntsea t withhardev or e the ag coastline belie land. that sheets and y humans in re mammoths ar y southeaster y tuall en ye 1 y, coasts, st toda o, first Ag fir chaeologists, the millennia Kamc biologicall this be could because at points as the coastal ar ve fall ar by human w when st ha Amer e sea ve Okina Blackwater sites, in y s to c baseline too. environ allo ha ar man y. as hunter- haeolo settler on ve 12,000 Ber

ag Society impos ea, • of be this nor hatka, ve were mam- using ha k has unin we liv

o, and 2001 we cov- icas y and

the but the the ing We wa by ve th in- ed or of of as re is n d , y s . ------

E L L L A N O ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Murray Springs & Escapule, AZ Clovis and Pre-Clovis Sites Lehner, Naco, Leikem & Navarette, AZ Clovis, NM Lubbock Lake, TX L Bering Land Bridge Route A Sheaman, WY U Lange/Ferguson, SD R Coastal Route E Domebo, OK N T Aubrey,TX ID E Rogers Rockshelter,MO I CE Kimmswick, MO SH EE Dietz, OR T East Wenatchee, WA

12 Hiscock & Arc, NY Shawnee–Minisink, PA Meadowcroft, PA (Pre-Clovis site) 23 11 , VA 22 28 5 26 13 Williamson, VA 27 6 25 Cactus Hill, VA (Pre-Clovis site) 14 Monte Verde, Chile (Pre-Clovis site) 21 15 Gault, TX 10 16 9 17 18 Dent, CO

DESIGN 24 Colby, WY 3 7

H A R T 1 4 Anzick, MI 2 8 Creek, TN W H I T E • 20 ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONSERVANCY SITES Chesrow,WI S P A R K E S Silver Mound, WI

K A T H L E E N Borax Lake, CA Did the first Americans come by land, or by sea, or both? These are theoretical coastal and inland Nevers, NH migration routes. The Clovis people definitely traveled inland, as these Clovis sites show.

mammals and fish from the Pacific Coast? The Cro- stratified and accurately dated site dating to 25,000 years Magnons of western Europe hunted sea mammals and ago or more. So far, however, the case for anything other fished salmon, as did late Ice Age Africans and Solomon Is- than a few small-scale settlements before 15,000 years ago landers in the southwestern Pacific. But the real intensifi- is unproven. cation of fishing and sea mammal hunting around the Over 10,000 archaeologists work in the Americas. world took place much later, after about 10,000 years ago. Many of them are engaged almost entirely in administra- Far to the south of Alaska, the Daisy and Eel on tive functions, but the number of people in the field ac- southern California's Channel Islands provide evidence for tively looking for Paleo-Indian settlements is still impres- maritime adaptations by 9,000 years ago. But were these sive. Much of Central and South America remains adaptations developed locally, or did they result from the unexplored, and it is in these regions that very early sites diffusion of maritime economies down the Pacific Coast, are most likely to be found—if they exist at all. One could which arrived in the north much earlier? We simply do not logically expect to find even earlier sites in North Amer- know. Nor do we have any evidence for watercraft such as ica, but the region has now been thoroughly explored, yet skin boats or planked from the late Ice Age north, no traces of any human settlement earlier than, at the out- technologies which require a high degree of seamanship side, 14,000 years ago have yet come to light.Those that to operate in chilly northern waters, where a person have are, at best, scatters of stone artifacts and sometimes falling in the icy water has but minutes to live. Compelling some animal bones. As the years pass, the existence of as a coastal route might be, there is absolutely no archae- older sites is increasingly doubtful simply because there ological evidence to support it, nor is much likely to be are so many people looking without success. found in the future. We cannot dismiss a pre-Clovis people out of hand. The issue of settlement routes is still unresolved, and The first archaeological sites in the Americas may simply so is the date of first settlement, even if we have become be invisible.The archaeological “signature” left by the first more conservative in recent years.A date in the 15,000- settlers would have been exiguous at best, given that they year range seems entirely possible, while many people, would have been tiny populations that moved rapidly over this writer included,would be delighted to learn of a well- enormous distances. For the most part, they appear to

american archaeology 31 32 ab Amer fir and dif ser sor f witness thedistinctiv tropics. quite r thing and heavil ve earliest closel we of South throughout that their nor ment, south ve Canada. often madealmostentirel of br tions led tohighl after ha possessed logical por wind Br erl and but from tions ha gr noted tor coasts mal began ound ecord oups, idg idg r st r ly ve ve y fe souther s.

v s? se sity ted

of should ed do Are Meadowcroft, Three-quar gales, Sometime gr populations Amer r did

similar other

I other y, e joinedSiber e. dw a ent icans tool the y, of dif the y environments, and of as dif belie Monte aduall bandonment. over that to the we The and to Ber settlement, onl of we P Asia. fo their fe of elt not B Amer The the f fe aleo-Indians. inundate ollows tool outlines re ut icans f ref r rent? s kits. a same, the Amer n

amiliar cultures r y ested, ingia ve y div the we ma know the ent souther in pre-Clovis a cultural over dang pr ha y e Afr sur Rio a the lect bandon We

xploited mu tool ica: fir Ve culture shelving, y re transitor imordial tin kit. ve The around ters highl low ica's

viv adapted er from

:D ha st Do r or Grande, erous know

w ch environmental enor a mov y de, fe “Eac and se humanadapta when pointed As T Clovis settlement ve kits of e ia to the as ur mu ofacentur human er same n ev w.

has the icas, quite To y r over e Clovispoints K

man ing oots coast a the en the been mous ed of an their 48 h regionhaditsownhistor ch mobile Monte Anthropologist alahar often ve om land

of lee y y we 16,000 nothing sites Alaska. potential judg c an Amer

humans to ry slightl onstantl preser open eastward the must especiall more states argument y inhospitable y ofw tradition, the ter souther re the dif b in shore Dilleha

population—people out, of of entirel remark ve earl br est-pre- areas— succes- e i m in Ve late simple, fe the some- was ry millennia. by idg them icans !K Deser the ha y after Low-l y sites, y div r fi ve y r and ood andotherper of Clovis, th the ent

ear de, ung rs earlier di- di- f e. ve y on moder Stone Ice fir

or scenar n e er y y y a land probabl t these - - onto e Both s st can xposed t ying, se the whi an San Ag ag highl Fo had T These settled , exas y reality Ric br p o, Ag or e, date. n lsom, Amer The be ch io h Stone human lace, hunter-gatherer hunter-gatherer bitterl idg r igher the hunter-gatherer y but e y hard ising

define T Clovis f applied soon echnological or inland, cultural to por e ar . Sa ican I belie Ber on whic 24 was Ag tif fir southw ys y cold, gr table, and Lee sea blades w acts y. vanished e ing st t items Dilleha ound ishables it ”M he side. ith sto naviga ev h to settle- ve lev mam mor tradi once Land a en they land sup- wer rm College bio- and

and ybe est- the we els in in s, if e e y y s - - - found (now fieldwork, ab o fir BRIAN Santa predecessor ments. of pling ofanuninhabitedcontinent. settler par we the a most e other I unknown, had haps Alaska these to mantling along of in xotic ws. am fo T 1962 st ove the exas tropical

human y t ra still settled The Amer and wrong Barbara, adapt earlier F It interesting questionofallis: g earliest the AGAN s, f all, Society by and T edible ing ascinating In ech w we lack F. par question nor ill careful coast. icans

shor impeccable but E. econom University). is settled settler w . to conditions as s in and cel depend As Gr a ther ans settler are ould f new f far pr lora? een sa their t, or the W w global ofessor of ying we the n obser the s Amer south ill ithin of q there author intr ha y Nor animals, of uestions mov rs s To cultures alwa occup not Clovis ve fir we this. .U of fi icate, war fir ve ma been societies, vis settles andalotmorefield t cultural kit contemporar Amer cultures Clovis ar populations constant gr was hunter-gatherer Ber man whic ing stratig vation.

ican a with th hat, f st these rs ed as by about15,000y of re ar ri ation. fe ound ry st ys nf on y Amer t Amer or chaeology v ingia people many ming an w Chile, y This processoffir

neither in ed, y or southward—either Ar settlement settler h prov be div when ica, unf iginated small-scale people ve done, raphic y rhetor sur centur centur we unoccupied tunatel questions cultural chaeolog re traces eb them Rather, ry er traditions books a sites ica to icans. amiliar and man r proceeded, re and fl e whose chase ounding

se, where natural bed dif the ected inane and s at “How didhumanswith the to receded. As Bob highl simple pre-Clovis rose ic, ies, i wo y, we on ancestor es, and the fe by y, in into of If be south. throughout ter r it but but ar other metaphor and y the environments, rk re a after ent University there fe ancient is population now—and y stilllittleknown their and y lif the rapidly chaeology was sa ms handful

their in the people w and ear div mov land?” eways the nor the c Ke the ys, on sear ve tool y Asia. losel Ti the of fl is man elusiv st settlement s er s P ll the had same ry passing. we ny perhaps owed dating, meticulous aleo-Indian y, a ements xplosion of initial direct, ag and completel of immediate them continent, se. fall ch of

inland, Stone ice . after n single president kits. y re I wo o, y How i dif and of r cal the adapted Califor f suspect esult umber Human tied e other or I • or across earlier Clovis sheets No mo thing, fe rk bands shad hope Who leav- over peo- the dust and, 2001 r tool Clo has The per- Ag and and the ent did the mi- rt nia, ve or to of of s, h e y y s - - -

J O A N N E DICKENSON TheThe ConsequencesConsequences ofof ContactContact It was once thought that European diseases decimated Native American populations. Recent research is examining this notion. RAMENOFSKY F . A N N In this 16th-century illustration, a medicine man ministers to Aztecs infected by smallpox, the deadly legacy of the Spanish invaders.

BY TAMAR STIEBER rom the opening of its first crude one-room ulation count began to climb—gently at first to 1,150,000 schoolhouse until about 35 years ago,America in 1928, when the esteemed Smithsonian ethnologist weaned its sons and daughters on the notion James Mooney published estimates based largely on oral that relatively few Indians inhabited North Amer- history and scant historical records. His count was fol- ica when Christopher Columbus “discovered” lowed by several sharply revised estimates over the next the New World. In 1894, the U.S. Census Bureau 40 years. Alfred Kroeber, one of the founding fathers of decidedF only 490,000 indigenous people lived in the modern anthropology, pronounced in 1939 that 4.2 million United States 300 years before the American Revolution. people populated the continent when the first Europeans With time and research,however, the retroactive pop- arrived.Three decades later, Henry Dobyns made the con-

american archaeology 33 34 continent, pox, tidal Hemisphere the nativ panopl hor trov to nous populationov ican ber ited—intentional order (he tear sava can era, Nativ presented model proac per indicated T atham Dobyns. cent ofEuropeand ses s” er later readil Kroeber ge Indian. In hisseminal1966paper T Despite wave P scarlet e hed antamount sial argumentthat by suc opulations: ”t Mound y Amer and stood Eur es hadvir o of claimed e h y this xplorer wiping the opean of a Onl guns, acknowledg inf stor He fe ica. is my was f Estimate, vir in ar ve ectious magnitude an near y chose ies r contact. ulent r, direct the more Like iad disa early-16th-centur Spanish ly 18 enc s An tuall and out to elicited er thene

from and ex Black million) Appr hanted most to epidemics—pr diseases y noimmunity anthropological clusion ” Asia dur more inf benign Some counterpoint ed Dobyns Amer not—upon gr emphasize England of luenza—s conquistadores, aisal eements about Nativ Death, that from cultural xt centur devastation. of than by ther Indians ica washometo12.2million ,“Estimating the y of ing themid-14thcentur picture into of he Indian Indians c the skeletons whic 95 and Te laimed “could w the the anthropologists the . c imar per y andahalf omance burial ept in atrocities Almost immediatel hniques to Fr h of Amer 1492. ideal ance, cent killed New heresy he Kroeber’ s il had f site wiftl not Abor ollow p that y ost-Columbian inter measles, bone icas of in of of W introduced stand of with y iginal , along the Europe e ed orld. , the the the across f view according Amer lesions Dobyns’ to about s, cove in “noble Amer indi a whi whic all Amer- of small Kroe shor ed. Ne y, with ican of that the the vis his ap- y, ge ch 75 the w h i- a a s t - - - - could W ithlacoochee have State gists—in concer demog teologist some bor if ical scientists—hasunear entire mu Ov sions. measles of ev r theor mate hazardl 35 cans. of the mained y h econstr ear isto not er ev the er ch y’ y ing r , s “I esulted ear re ry ents But theirdif Univ it’ ies

gr the Nativ While a after villa completel rapher most , y acrossspaceandtime. think community s wont s River oups some tidal on uction that epidemic Dobyns’ since and l er past ge fr eading e , om these sity C near deadl

none wave s, Amer but within to the olumbus, w e prof a ethnohistor xper .W decade, Dobyns ould of t withculturalanthropologists, non-vener do, T y ampa, fe not s spread to y ith shores. essor d pre-Columbian discredits, ica, as rences ha completel tur w ts of are ispute a the ev other onl as a seem fe Florida. n these they entuall mosaic eal still few fir a w y mu near-e of to thed evidencethatshedsdoubt, of new Of form er st ians, months, s, t er ’r hat ar be ” ch arguing to ratic ve Analysis an proposed impor e y said cour c man y of

nar xtinction than haeology unscathed. concur of y f n and othersocialph g more d Measles, r inding syphili udg eneration eplace isease par contact Geor epidemics se, y rowed markedlyinthe nativ while ts, of over of ed 300,000 ticular s. the anthropologists, ir could ge on Dobyns’ his r that did, e of Kroeber’ egular f burials of

at or e leaving the betw R. lif f one re of Nativ the e. Pe Milner indeed, s w it moving xample, vo mallpox e Indians No and n ar ipe xact ,a fall een point: biologists, w nsylvania s lutionar pedestal. c e asn’t w, ff s a c ar haeolo- , Amer out • ecting onclu id neigh neigh tifacts an ch how- deci hap yllic 2001 150 one ain os- re ys- an so or as i- y ------

F L M N H ARCHIVES boring groups, he said, the likelihood of an epi- demic spreading from one village to the next A Pioneer in Bioarchaeology “was not always that high.” Which leads Milner and a growing number of his colleagues to believe that far fewer Indi- ans succumbed to European disease than Dobyns calculated.The issue remains roiled in controversy because it leaves vital questions unanswered: How many Indians lived here im- mediately prior to Columbus? How many died prematurely after contact with Europeans? What were the primary causes of death? “It’s a very complex topic,” states Univer- sity of New Mexico archaeologist Ann Ra- menofsky. “Look at North America, for example. Where you see Indians surviving into the 20th century, does that mean disease wasn’t present or that the Spanish policy was not so severe?” In her 1987 book,Vectors of Death:The Ar- chaeology of European Contact, Ramenofsky concludes with what is becoming common cur- rency among contact-era anthropologists: For bioarchaeologist Clark Spencer Larsen, the transfer of Euro- Rather than any one single event or cause, it pean germs from the Old World to the New isn’t just about death; it’s was a unique confluence of circumstances, in- also about life. cluding such variables of nature as geography “I look at these populations as if they’re living and breathing,” and native population density, that helped forge declared Larsen, who heads the anthropology department at Ohio the ultimately destructive path of European in- State University. fectious disease contact in the Americas. A pioneer in the field of bioarchaeology, and perhaps its pre- In America’s southeastern woodlands, for eminent scholar, Larsen has spent the past 20 years directing the La example, the size and density of the native pop-

OWENS Florida Archaeology Project—a long-term research effort looking at ulation at the time of first contact was far the health impacts of European contact in Spanish Florida, which is WILL greater than most other parts of the country. now northern Florida and coastal Georgia. The project’s list of par- Naturally, this provided an ideal environment ticipants reads like a veritable Who’s Who in the emerging field of for the rapid spread of disease—as did frequent bioarchaeology. contact with European ships,which often made Larsen said the group’s work clearly shows that the health of in- America’s southeastern shores their second digenous Americans declined rapidly after European contact, port of call after the Caribbean. though perhaps not directly from killer epidemics. Noting the proximity of the Caribbean and “The main thrust of our work is to show there’s much more to this south Atlantic, Ramenofsky pointed out that discussion than just epidemic disease,”Larsen said. “That’s what his- “this was not the case in the Southwest.” torians focus on because that’s what’s in the historical record. And it’s “Native population density was lower in sensational because you tend to talk about thousands dying.” the Southwest than in the Southeast, and con- By their very nature, epidemics are acute, often killing their hosts tact with disease pools was less frequent.The before they can make their mark on the skeleton. So Larsen and others Franciscan supply trains from Mexico City,for are turning their attention to long-term chronic conditions such as ane- instance, came up to the New Mexico colony mia and osteoarthritis,which leave distinct skeletal signatures,to every three years,” she explained. learn about indigenous life after the Spanish arrived. The route took them along the Camino Larsen’s new book, Skeletons in Our Closet: Revealing Our Past Real—3,000 arduous miles across inhospitable through Bioarchaeology, describes 16th-century Native Americans as suffering from overwork and malnutrition under Spanish coloniza- terrain to the high desert of northern and cen- tion and thus predisposed to the variety of infectious diseases as- tral New Mexico. sailing the New World. This doesn’t negate the destruction wreaked That’s not to say that the Pueblo Indians on the New World by European epidemics. didn’t suffer as a result of their contact with “To be sure, many lost their lives because of infectious disease,” Europeans. he said. “But skeletons give us a more comprehensive picture.” “There’s no question that there’s a signifi- —Tamar Stieber cant population decline in the Southwest,”Ra-

american archaeology 35 36 Nor In ulation ab low gauntlet r 1680. among Amer well f it call so unscathed fromthepre-18th-centur Milner’ lations 1540. menofsky stressed.“ButIdon’tthinkithappensin1520or contact or ising, or in le th man y der the er It wasonl A “I some American drops be and ” ica. I Rio to lar in think s y think diaspora the had size. posed r r argument, Indians efine P elated inhabited ge sociall whic eople inthisregion hadthemisf Grande places in fir

to propor ar the Entire the their st the chaeological y immediatel h a g y to et indig remain gauntlet the best so water population in and number are wh through, she reg quickl tion the the enous way not completel y ions shed noted the Southw subject southeaster sites of or s y other estimates, to y bef of ” those Amer in like puebloans a of that see Ramenofsky prevailed, that bottleneck inhabited other major s. est ore andafterthe1680up y to the date ” it icans a “some that Geor gr bandoned. is is y epidemicsthatkilled n areas. to G eat to the chang alisteo ge about lowlands didn’t to sur sa that pueblos debate. Milner individuals Pueblo that gr y said. or viv A e that eet . tune ofbeing there D demog ed Basin . The sur these and 1500. Bolster the The European r of Rev and vive elativ Dean reasons are seaf or Nor y popu raphi made olt

pop ma this Snow the ing siz el ar- th of y y - - - - - plot the sky Israelites that other can measles plague. P passed became nev Europe co Amer 14th empir man we asc ve distribution re er said populations—muc y “I Wh “The It’ hal r centur provided icas. aliv ed’ icall communities tr nativ s ha Unlike over y, ul unlikel Lamb—while e repopulated and of e y ve the xtinct. y y of indeed? Europeans and [Europeans] e her recovered.

sho y—a of ideas smallpox, ancient households people New easter the y we w. af a Wh we time ” orementioned pr ll a Amer W n And bout y?” in ’ bef ll ime orld died, Egypt, r their ev of suff h cutting Ramenofsky elativ pass ore icas wh r er what as ebounded wa while breeding mar ered or the y know Whic of sur least hands spread m heavi murder immune tional wrenc enigmatic. cies lain—the pearance. Amer ities all t acknowledg d atel killer introduced and smallpoxothernewl their ing paths? the coming ease ble r, over he tw el ying death ,f ent, did y k po y vivo happened or a ed o y, European “tenth ex similar to As onl Amer indig This theor fo ve quickl of ly h sw icans centur local of and some ar hosts’ ge clusive. epidemics, with star hed that r ways, with en

t rs rt of y eigner to r he to whi w asked cer ath so of ship. r gr Ramenofsky iving y, allthemorevulnera- colonialism ms. f is enous ican systems, as v ies. practices actor the ound Nor the and plague” all masse indignities populations vo w ation, matter tainl W y. diseases. an ch from indig conditions ies not disease—remains of es, the suf hospitality ell the w arf Almost rt “But incur The listofatroc N y here,

newbor s, rhetor near-e with included Indians death gr are ex eakened later colonists, ativ fe disease cer y unique are, that in b enous who eat f r and

contr ,h or lood par their gr ed Amer of of ” it’ a tainty the sion. e fall the ,h r gainst eater Ramenof ow ev and xtinction icall ender s upheava the new bubonic Amer ticularl immedi- through ensla measles owever w n y hard or at r er almost Amer Nativ ibuted r • of in began eadil to disap- icans. While is anton mutu y epaid being man boys, tradi y. their y with poli- ho 2001 ‘dis not d not the the the the the the ing vil- ica ve in- is- to w i- e y y y y , l ------

D A V E SHELLY T H E N E W W O R L D T H E F I R S T P I C T U R E S O F AMERICA don’t ev fo the disease american gists, cific cans mine m g son descr you are or p whic giv come contact-era ve one laces,” umm r en r perhaps en uponthenumber mation sity “based the his the The encounter human begin Ev Fi Not “Y “That’ “Ev ” h places, dur by actual up g said r stomach.... a ou en smoke caption camp et st y book o er itself Hutc ing the ar f just steologist at g ibes it. of ixation that ybod common onl enerates s chaeology ge Hutchinson. on we contact-per The skeleton ed ev ” population wh all, pathog the time thr tting the he he’ in hinson y is Ne en fragmentar along ’r in ough y the y w said e ha For problematic s fir Except inrarecases, argued. W hard human ev gr ar interested orld f in. throws ve good book: or st the the his eater ens er c D

gr Hutchinson tell-tale The

haeologists is fifty Europeans ale y said. some eat nose Geor sick, tissue F “The iod the "They irst new ma and population “It’ s gameentirel element, into Hutc y year gia Pictures e and whom y “I population their xcitement evidence. pr s y’ depopulation build anthropologists, be disco and coast bone r in: to imar w re mouth; s eall the hinson of of ould they available ,a America ar so g a that’ TB obser y and et hands but ve contact bench y ny contact c lesions mu onl haeologists, lay “database, this figures. ry into ”

lesions the ha population the softtissueislong s includes the makes

face among ch y y. figures. of ving a is long ve Nor sev East CarolinaUni problem the ri to in up a elusiv

downwar e and figures theast left ” to enough act cher frozen xper enty-fiv soft Nativ an act. in it ” in ” other sa as anthropolo in illustration as by e c t y f ience Florida f tissue. a he lear or estimates or d, nature ve .” and dif Hutc e ha pur I syphilis bod a e Amer ry s whom the throw l fe ve ge, fir wide ungs, y as ha

coast. r e ear y spe that hin-

ent We be- expelling of of in- ve or to of enough i- s Theodor hot - - - This coals for the image diseases whether chance and usual Hutc noted wasunusualf Ar tent of theskeletons had some the centu whom Hutc duced diseasekilledof sets oping out violet mented precisel ab e De is chaeological Sur the les. poison pr e that “Right Located While of been Br hinson andcolleague hinson with smallpox is xplorations sick epar ry modus 300 light The y's a titled it e

to y Hutc Indian vidence, fr set there ed, the person, happened. 1591 acute om treponemal corpses what bur lea Hutc that "How dif of onto dur y the of near operandi. hinson. ve f engraving ied killed f are iculty and bur the cr body ing hinson

which screams onl enough They their happened, rather iter T of shor ve packed he ampa, ial a y his y f or Indiansatthistimeandplace. and bat, He the Tr “whole “So Her y disco seeds is ia indicate site eat depicting mar ound e of f mu tl inf laid wo thus has by sees y than we per out, nando you’ to Their Flor this ection, k, ar after roughl rk upon Je tightl ch curing no whic ’r e son. ve ev

kill ff where ‘I e his ser at xhibited bonelesionsconsis thr ve ida, some Sick." ofNativ illness re red alar task doubts en it, killed star T own. g long-ter death, y Mitc y ies de And atham the h job y over either T a ot tog if atham contemporaneous ting to

non-v among This Soto. disease

big of w bone The to it as ether in someone!’” night as gaug on e that hem ofthe va ge whic look excerpt happened, no Mound. lesion s Amer a at m his ick ri

enereal under Indian Mound It grav ." classic lesions .S ab negativ less European-intro- e back e man w h w ev f xposure, a les” or ica, is as e containing ll on’t Hutc under gr enty than scored inhales fr or inf oups suc om here Catch-22, he points is af and Ar are on e, erential f and ha hinson a h bodies ” kansas ecting de Some ultra- 16th- com- their with ve va r that ela not ve fo

ri to l- a r - - - 37 38 e in Their jointpaper some tion lie Old W posits called was ter fe in theNew r Amer tiv Drawings knowingl epidemic the ef Mitc us toda vir pean etur xample w fo ester ve Ar el ulent ms—it r or W y hem Dating Ho the causeofdeath. ts at chaeolog e to g ned ica. ships, enerations—the benign orld igin of the xplorer that n y. we of g wer disease old Ev Hemisphere This of T the y 1892. it home m atham, Columbus v e of pr entuall introduced the W remains er inf the used back utated and ior orld andcar syphilis, corpses ical fo raised s ecting intr Most 15th- dif rm contracted by jour with ,“Cor to silv they to y, Conte iguing ficulties, Plains

adults into of this the theor just ne er the the and the Exc f relates ofContact: syphilis, its syphilis we had ,c all yed ound nohardevidencepointing to Indians b All the xt, time. the that—a sur specter hocolate hang 1940s, link nativ transf re r 16th-centur the manner ied ittoEuropewhere, ”p vived been due back ch reciprocated venereal y g resents Adv e. theor to es. r of y knewf common erence, onic, alleg the to oes, maintain the theor to of e an ocates xposed the and of epidemic, y, the a edl this newandf non-v C T ey killer y controv f inf y. atham olumbus lack or or potatoes, y or cer formal e e Amer Despite in ection xplorer Epidemic Disease of unknown Hutc ev in in enereal but to of pre-Columbian diseases the en kind. calendar icas ev Mound tain wasthat er hard many the hinson whether olutionary sial theor f s Exc amiliar their the on who within disease. In ar more syphilis childr data, theor in r hang to y ecor Euro- as y addi- best also and en the the un- be- an ds to of it e y a died. as well chaeolog ag their stud h b pends high af anal sciences—DN and par behavior nascent fieldthate project co in G ri the ease sequent as lur ead ved eor f r ve ects digging ee, tment, to easter ysis, ying r social But Indeed, Snow red clearevidenceofsudden, ge in ier hopes gro of around illustrate upon ho

, t a to Milner P he state-of-the-ar ev wth . to collapse y—attests. epidemics ennsylvania we nmost population—is, Among where had measure sciences. up en computermodelingpredictinghowdisease Moha whic f ve the c stories. or 1634. has lose an A “rev an r, these mapping, of h lines he that wk ar been the easier after xplores theinter communication olutionizing the chaeolog This the Also the in wo V State t e alle the ar sor betw “slow xper bir five rks tec r the chaeological time ise called y ts th molecular success in hnology closel of Iroquois Uni een fir of ts calendar ical of er of the than upstate st in the ve ph activities, than the a record the y European t r ysical new wo he larg sity’ with Moha most depicts section ofbiologyand of betw field. bor e nations—and sciences hard r conte f xpected. e-scale death-by-dis- ds ield New s suc rowed discipline—bioar- Milner of ar anthropology wk ” of een the of Hutc though chaeolog h disease. and is xts. his epidemics Yo population— methods measles P the Dean . enn ” rk are from hinson colleagues fall soft Both

dur ph he g its He y, State • Sno etting tissue ysical other ing it’ men 2001 said sub has un- de- de- s ar- w, ’s a a -

S I L V E R HORN S I L V E R HORN american logical common sionar how thropologists record, transmission who cident inwhic what g sear of these w quois demog ulation at a we Nor following The bout et ell-documented that a re Kiowa sick theast, ch bout “W Combining Snow Scarlet “That wasthefir show people was ab ies. ate communities one teamplugg rapher Russell means, e mu the prog time—in le while ar had know While thesesor tools from sixty ” causing chaeology ed ch smallpox hundred to w said Sno fe a ram mo as ofitdocumented up par g ver of to h including the et of communal per “J ve ab a ticularly this designed with measure epidemics par a was esuit missionar the ed theinf epidemic little

this. epidemic le one around, cent. w. handle

da when knowledg t, st bigsmallpoxepidemicthathitthe Thor to “What we trade, the ys.” also ” complex Snow ne from deter computer The ts ofrecordsareamongthemost xt of disease. nton. population ” they by pots. rampant on or the he Snow door by in e the well-known mation intoacomputersim epidemic calendar mine what xplained, winter e said, by India f “One did As aresult, consulting ies couldidentifytheguy ound wasadepopulation w ” wouldn’t. histor was 17th-centur ith simulations. g recalling in of the happened et system and 1839-40, chang data the among inf ical r type, because an P ected UCLA Moha akistan, Snow said,“ from with Nobody the e r its a ecord when y J by the s specific events to cope, cour histor wk and esuit mis would histor a ar the eac fir many similar the ch V a kne st r se what bout alle ecor h aeo- and ical Iro- ical We an- people re in- all of in w y ded , - - - for still both and T nature the ab model to Amer tw “it’ mate ten In complicated byearlierorlaterpopulations, meaning munity of w r that lar measure AMAR ecord had as les. ge een fact, 15 whether s per odds summer near Snow “Iroquois “the Snow pa Confident just the willing, ly ” ica and STIEBER million. becausepr But . of comple cent he 2 disease. of Of a y the in are the Iroquoian the m ter matter added, modestl all and ev the cour illion 1492—a and the ys duehoma rain ho en that is area y most do winter x sites a Moha we se, we there number by how fr ,f enough make inf they of eelance of ior inv and re or y he v commonl of looking er ar ections histor attr tend a wk each long e liv a noted, chaeolog ’r are xample—that site tentativ a 4 e disease ibutes ed writer estigation intothear of V dif so ge year to m alle to y no way and people on at toahostofotherf illion fe and highl wouldn’t “Nobod accommodate . y living be r This y unaccounted-f just ence. his cited el y. f it from af or w ” chance. y, single y will f calenda in as p success ected a to organized br who eople ”A Santa y fe r so can Dobyns’ ang ief ex reach can tell w fter r ” component trapolate thorough—Sno liv a of shows e Fe, per chang us come par to liv ed these t ” them, hat, all New them. he e iods or within ed the chaeolog that s there. ticular the actor those e 18 Mexico. he villag up xplained. in “peculiar da the summer ” it’ “w and that million ys added, ” s with Nor s—cli abou e sites, com clear odds es— va of can ical not be- th ri w 5 a t - - - 39 new acquisition Defending King and Country The Conservancy acquires an 18th-century British fort in upstate New York.

he archaeological ruins of the Royal Blockhouse site stand sentinel atop a wooded hill overlooking the town of Fort Edward.The bluff commands majestic views of the . At the base of the hill stands the town Tof Fort Edward, site of the former British encampment of the same name. During the in the mid-1700s, the British Colonial forces constructed the Royal Blockhouse— a two-story palisaded fort situated on high ground above the main fort—to guard against French incursions from the north. The Royal Blockhouse, which accommodated 50 British Colonial soldiers and two small cannons, was manned between 1758 and 1762.The fort was one of only The Royal Blockhouse site is the Conservancy’s first French and Indian two such structures built in America, and the massive War site in the Eastern region. earthen palisades and gun emplacement of the Royal Block- house are still visible on the landscape. agreed to donate a 5-acre parcel adjacent to the main block- The Royal Blockhouse was assigned the vital role of house property. protecting nearby Fort Edward, which was strategically lo- No professional archaeologists have investigated the cated at the mouth of Lake George, near the southern en- Royal Blockhouse. As is typical of nearly all Colonial sites trance of Lake Champlain. Fort Edward became the British in the Lake Champlain area,looters have left their mark on Colonial force’s most important bulwark against French in- the ruins.When compared to other French and Indian and vasions following the fall of Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Revolutionary War sites, however, the integrity of the William Henry. Key players in the impending American Rev- blockhouse is excellent. Archaeologist David Starbuck, olution were stationed at Fort Edward, men such as Paul Re- who first brought the site to the Conservancy’s attention vere, Benedict Arnold, John Burgoyne, and . in 1998, feels that the Royal Blockhouse has the potential Owners Ruth and Harold Rist bought the 12-acre prop- to reveal information critical to understanding issues of erty decades ago with the idea of preserving it.The prop- , strategy, and lifestyle of the British Colonial erty is and a unique example of British Colonial military military. —Rob Crisell technology. A neighboring landowner,Joseph Feingold, has French and Indian War Conservancy in New York The town of Fort Edward opened a new Plan of Action visitors center this year CULTURE & TIME PERIOD: French and Indian War (1758-1763) dedicated to Royal STATUS: The site is on prime development property overlooking interpreting several Blockhouse Syracuse the Hudson River. Looting is a problem. of the nearby ACQUISITION: The Conservancy has one year to raise $65,000 historical sites, Albany to purchase the property and pay for its management. Five including NEW YORK acres are being donated. Rogers Island, HOW YOU CAN HELP: Send your contributions to The the Royal Blockhouse,

Archaeological Conservancy, Attn: Royal Blockhouse, 5301 and the original fort. New York Central Avenue NE, Suite 402, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517. For more information, call (518) 747-3693.

40 fall • 2001 new acquisition Big News in the Barrio The Conservancy acquires the Barrio de Tubac, the southern portion of Arizona’s first permanent European settlement.

he Santa Cruz Valley south of Tucson,Arizona, has a rich history of continuous occupation that spans nearly 5,000 years.Archaic period inhabitants were followed by the Hohokam (ancestors of today’s O’odham people), and T then the Spanish Colonial settlers of the late 18th centu- ry,and, beginning in the mid-19th century, American settlers. Spanish exploration of the region began as early as 1536, and the Santa Cruz Valley was part of a major explo- ration and transportation route through northern Sonora, Mexico, and southern Arizona beginning in the late 17th century. In 1732, Jesuit priests from the nearby mission of Pottery recovered at Tubac during excavations that took place between Guevavi regularly traveled to Piman Indian villages, called 1988 and 1996. rancherias, in the vicinity of Tubac to convert the inhabi- tants to Christianity and to hold Mass. In 1739, a mission Spanish Colonial and Mexican period sites in the Southwest. farm was established at Tubac where Spanish settlers lived Developers Roy Ross, Gary Brasher, and Baca Float in a Pima rancheria, supervising a small economic outpost. Land Development, Ltd. recently agreed to sell the barrio Due largely to hostilities between the Spanish settlers site to the Conservancy in a bargain-sale-to-charity to ensure and native peoples, the Tubac settlement suffered periodic its preservation.The Conservancy acquired the site with the abandonment throughout the Spanish Colonial period. In help of a grant from the Arizona Heritage Fund.The site will 1751, these hostilities culminated in the Pima Revolt, when be fenced, stabilized, and nominated to the National Regis- the northern Pima Indians rose up against the Spanish.Al- ter of Historic Places.Artifacts that were previously recov- though the rebels surrendered the following year, the up- ered from the site will be processed and curated as part of rising forced the Spanish to take additional steps to protect the project, and an interpretive trail will be created, with the missions, and they established a presidio at Tubac in trained docents leading regularly scheduled public tours June 1752, the first permanent European settlement in what through the preserve. would become the state of Arizona. “This project offers us an unparalleled opportunity to By 1767, the Tubac presidio boasted a population of protect our shared past and make generations of Arizonans more than 500, with nearly all of the Hispanic inhabitants and visitors aware of our Hispanic and O’odham heritage,” in southern Arizona located at the settlement. says Thomas Sheridan,director of the Documentary Relations Although the presidio is protected as the Tubac Presidio State of the Southwest program at the Arizona State Museum. Historical Park,the southern neighborhood,known as the Bar- —Tamara Stewart rio de Tubac, contains the remains of approx- ARIZONA Conservancy imately 32 historic Plan of Action buildings and thou- sands of artifacts, and Flagstaff CULTURE & TIME PERIOD: Archaic to Historic (6,000 B.C.-A.D. 1870) 40 is vulnerable to ero- STATUS: Erosion, vandalism, and development threaten the site. sion, vandalism, and 17 ACQUISITION: The owners have agreed to sell the 10-acre site encroaching develop- to the Conservancy as a bargain sale. A $64,150 Arizona State ment. Barrio de Tubac Park Heritage Fund grant was awarded for the site’s acquisition was the village that 10 Phoenix and preservation, and the Conservancy must raise $41,000 in supported the pre- 10 matching funds by December 2002. 8 sidio and its garrison HOW YOU CAN HELP: Please send your contributions to The of troops. The site is Tucson 10 Archaeological Conservancy, Attn: Project Tubac; 5301 Central considered by most scholars 19 Avenue NE, Suite 402; Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517. to be one of the best remaining Tubac american archaeology 41 new POINT acquisitions A Middle Mississippian Metropolis The Conservancy acquires an Arkansas mound center.

o some,it was just another farm in Poinsett County in northeastern Arkansas, but it got the attention of the Conservancy.Though seem- T ingly unremarkable, the farm con- tained a cache of cultural treasure. What appeared to be a clump of trees in the field is in fact an earthen mound looming large over the flat terrain. Indeed, it is one of the largest

and best-preserved mounds remain- GRUBER

ing in the northeastern quarter of the A L A N state.Three smaller mounds, reduced This mound, the largest at the McClellan site, stands nearly 22 feet high and covers more than by years of plowing,and thousands of an acre. It is one of the last intact mounds of its size in northeastern Arkansas. This mound was pot sherds,chunks of daub, and stone constructed around A.D. 800. flakes are now found where a large Middle Mississippian period (A.D. moners.These social changes mani- fessional research has been done on 1200–1400) town once stood.This is fested themselves in the construc- McClellan. This is surprising given the McClellan site. tion of earthen mounds, usually that it boasts more than 40 acres of The Mississippian period in around an open plaza, whereby the heavily concentrated archaeological Arkansas began around A.D. 1000 dwellings of the elite and important deposits, that a former landowner when cultural influences from up- civic buildings could be raised both took pride in preserving the site, and stream took root in the figuratively and literally above the that Arkansas runs one of the best vicinity of the McClellan site. The common people. But as fast as the research programs in the country— age, which is named after the river, is Mississippians appeared, they sud- the Arkansas Archeological Survey. best defined as a time when great denly vanished around 1550.There is Hence, most of what is known about cultural changes took place. Popula- much speculation, but very few con- the McClellan site is inferred from tions increased and moved into crete answers, as to why. work on other sites. towns located predominantly along Based on pottery collected from Each year, dozens of important the Mississippi’s tributaries, where the site, McClellan seems to have sites in the region are destroyed the rich soils yielded corn. been occupied during the middle of through the practices of laser land In addition to agriculture, art- the Mississippian period.Archaeolo- leveling of fields,field contouring for work and trade with far-flung places gists are confident that investiga- rice production, and development. also flourished. New, complex cere- tions of McClellan will reveal infor- The preservation of McClellan gives monial forms developed. In many mation about the beginnings, archaeologists an opportunity to cases, a new social order evolved evolution, and possibly the demise of examine a site with vast research into a system of nobles and com- the . Little pro- potential. —Alan Gruber

42 fall • 2001 Saving Mounds in Michigan The Sumnerville mound group may help archaeologists learn about the Goodall Hopewell.

he Hopewell culture is one of the best-known prehistoric cultures in the eastern United States. The flamboyant Ohio Hopewell sites, T with their large geometric earth- works, far-flung trade networks, and superbly crafted art objects used as mortuary offerings, have attracted much public interest. Almost as well known is the Havana Hopewell of Illinois, which displays all the elabo- rate cultural hallmarks of the Ohio Hopewell, but substitutes mound groups for geometric earthworks.

GARDNER Largely escaping popular attention—

P A U L though not that of local archaeolo- gists—is an -Michigan brand One of the two well-preserved mounds of the Sumnerville mound group. The mound is approximately of Hopewell known as the Goodall. 1,800 years old. Goodall sites, which are distrib- uted across northern Indiana and as the Havana Hopewell inhabited more conical mounds, the Sumn- southern Michigan, are rather plain Illinois. It now seems more likely erville mound group has been con- as Hopewell sites go.Archaeologists that the Goodall, who probably de- sidered a late manifestation of the originally speculated that the rived from Indiana’s Middle Wood- Goodall tradition. Goodall represented a migration of land people, adopted aspects of the This summer, the Conservancy Havana Hopewell people up the Havana Hopewell lifestyle. purchased the best-preserved portion Kankakee River, which runs through One Goodall site long known to of the mound group in southern northern Illinois and Indiana, to a archaeologists is the Sumnerville Michigan. Although the site has been new homeland. More recent re- mound group in southwestern heavily disturbed by the development search has demonstrated that the Michigan. Originally encompassing of the town of Sumnerville, the Con- Goodall inhabited Indiana for as long about six acres and including six or servancy purchased nearly three POINT Acquisitions acres of undeveloped land that in- clude two conical burial mounds White about four feet high and fifty feet in Potato Lake diameter. Adjacent to the wood-lot preserving the mounds is a cleared, Indian Village Sumnerville fallow area with considerable archae- on Pawnee Fork ological research potential.A small ex- McClellan ploratory excavation in the 1980s by Hunting archaeologists from Western Michigan Creek Cambria Parchman University indicated that this portion Place A. C. of the site had been used for non- Saunders Graveline mound burials, perhaps postdating Mound the Hopewellian mound construction by a few generations. —Paul Gardner american archaeology 43 CONSERV ANCY FieldNotes

Celebration at Zuni Site in 1999, after almost 20 years of nego- people are buried here, and we still SOUTHWEST—Zuni tribal officials tiations with the landowner.The Zunis turn to them when we need them.” and staff and members of the Conser- worked with the Conservancy to sta- The Zunis will maintain the site vancy gathered to celebrate the trans- bilize the site, backfill the looted for tribal and spiritual purposes, as fer of the Box S site to the Pueblo of rooms, and plant native grasses. well as for educational and scientific Zuni. Box S, which is known to the The celebration included tours of ones. By allowing the public to visit, Zunis as Heshodan Imk’oskwi’a, or the site’s archaeological features, a the Zunis hope to educate people Emerging Village, is a large masonry Zuni meal, and a traditional Zuni about the importance of preserving pueblo that was occupied by Zuni an- dance. Zuni Governor Malcolm ancestral Native American sites. cestors between A.D. 1260 and 1285. Bowekaty spoke to the group, ex- The Zunis obtained the site from the pressing his gratitude to all the people Conservancy with the help of a grant who helped to protect this sacred A Small Piece of a Big Puzzle from the Lannan Foundation. In re- place. He spoke first to his tribal MIDWEST—One might be tempted cent years, the site had been looted, members in Zuni, and then,turning to to think that an archaeological site but the majority of the approximately the rest of the audience said,“For you, that is a state park, a National His- 1,100 masonry rooms remain intact. this place represents the past. But for toric Landmark, and a World Heritage The Conservancy acquired the pueblo us, it is still living. Many important Site would be safely preserved for fu- ture generations.Unfortunately, nothing could be further from the truth if the site is Cahokia Mounds, the remains of the largest prehistoric town north of Mexico. Although the State of Illinois preserved the center of Cahokia by making it a state his- toric site, Cahokia’s outlying areas are endangered by the industrial, commercial, and residential develop- ment of nearby East St. Louis and the surrounding communities. The Conservancy created its second Illinois preserve on the western edge of Cahokia. Sur- rounded by highways, a golf course, modest homes, and small busi- nesses, this three-acre preserve had been used for agriculture until John Kelly, an archaeologist with Wash-

Conservancy members toured archaeological features such as roomblocks and a at ington University of St. Louis and MICHEL

Box S Pueblo. M A R K

44 fall • 2001 hokia’s far-flung trade networks. Preservation of the Fingerhut tract may provide another piece of the puzzle that is Cahokia.

Happenings at Howiri SOUTHWEST—The Conservancy is making progress on the Howiri Pueblo project in northern New Mex- ico. First described by archaeologist Adolph Bandelier in 1892,Howiri is a 1,700 room biscuit ware pueblo oc- cupied from A.D. 1325 to 1600, situ- ated on 17 vacant residential lots (22 acres) near Ojo Caliente, New Mex- ico. The term biscuit ware refers to a

KELLY prominent pottery type manufac- tured by a group of 20 to 30 pueblos J O H N These chert cores (top) and drills and blades (bottom) were found at the Fingerhut tract. The drills that occupied the lower Chama River and blades were primarily used to make beads, which the people of Cahokia bartered. The chert valley during the 14th and 15th cen- came from quarries in Missouri roughly 30 miles away. turies. The pottery resembles unglazed vitreous china, which is also Conservancy friend extraordinaire immediately southeast of the Con- called biscuit ware. Anthropologists purchased it last year. servancy’s parcel, preserved in a res- trace the living descendants of Kelly bought the land as a part idential backyard. Howiri to the people who now re- of a larger parcel that included a Although no excavations have side in nearby San Juan Pueblo. house. The house will now serve as taken place within the confines of the Last June in Santa Fe,New Mex- the field headquarters for the Powell Conservancy’s preserve, an archaeo- ico, the Conservancy sponsored a Archaeological Research Center,an logical survey of the surface produced lecture by Kurt Anschuetz entitled organization established by Kelly artifacts dating to roughly the 12th “Beyond Biscuit Ware:New Perspec- and his associates to conduct ar- century A.D., when Cahokia was at its tives on the Pueblo Archaeology of chaeological research in the Cahokia height. As well as the usual occupa- the Rio Chama.” Anschuetz is with area. The remaining land was sold at tion debris, the survey produced a siz- the Rio Grande Foundation for Com- cost to the Conservancy for perma- able quantity of small stone drills munities and Cultural Landscapes. nent preservation. which may have been used to manu- Later that month, Conservancy staff The preserve is located in the facture shell beads, and numerous members Jim Walker and Steve area of Cahokia referred to as the flakes of basalt, a likely by-product of Koczan led tours of the site. Fingerhut tract, which was named in the manufacture of stone . The Conservancy has just com- honor of an earlier landowner. Im- These items are intriguing, since pleted the construction of a perime- mediately south is the former loca- some archaeologists have made a ter fence protecting the preserve, tion of the Powell mound, the third controversial argument that certain and volunteer site stewards who live highest mound at Cahokia. It was goods, beads in particular,may have nearby have been recruited to guard leveled in the 1930s by a landowner been produced by specialists who the pueblo. The Conservancy still indifferent to the pleas of archaeolo- worked exclusively on making the needs just over $100,000 to com- gists. Another,smaller mound lies goods that were exchanged via Ca- plete the project.

american archaeology 45 THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONSERVANCY

Viva Veracruz VERACRUZ When: February 14–24, 2002 Where: Veracruz How Much: $2,395 per person ($385 single supplement) Join us in Mexico’s oldest port city,Veracruz, for an exciting look at the Olmec, Totonac, Huastec, Maya, Aztec, and Spanish cultures that have dominated the re- gion for thousands of years.You will visit Zempoala, a To- The ruins of , located in the Petén rain forest. tonac town conquered by the Aztecs, where Cortés lived during the first months of the Spanish invasion.At El Tajin, one of the great cities of Mexico, you will find its The Wondrous famous architecture and its numerous ballcourts.You World of the Maya GUA TEMALA When: January 16–26, 2002 Where: Guatemala How Much: $2,495 ($340 single supplement) Our tour delves into the world of the Maya—from Guatemala City to the rain forest of the Petén, which holds the vast ruins of Tikal.You’ll spend several days exploring this ancient city, which once spanned 25 square miles and had a population exceeding 75,000.You will visit Iximché, GREENLEE

the capital city of the Cakchiquel Maya from the late B E T S Y 1400s until the early 1500s.At Yaxhá, you will explore one The of the Niches at El Tajin. of Guatemala’s largest sites, containing more than 500 will tour the immense city of Cantona,which prospered structures. Other than Tikal, Yaxhá has the only known after the collapse of Teotihuacán.You’ll also visit Tres Za- twin pyramid complex. Other destinations include the potes,where the discovery of the first great Olmec head market town of Chichicastenango and the colonial city of sculpture in 1869 set off speculation about lost tribes Antigua. John Henderson, noted Maya scholar and author from Africa. John Henderson, a leading scholar on the of The World of the Ancient Maya, will guide the tour. cultures of , will lead the tour.

UPCOMING TOURS Aztecs, Toltecs and Peoples of the Mississippi Yampa River Teotihuacános Valley—April 2002 —June 2002 —April 2002 Tour prehistoric and historic Experience incredible river Explore the ancient cultures of archaeological sites of the scenery and archaeology near central Mexico. Mississippi Valley region. Dinosaur National Monument.

46 fall • 2001 Patrons of Preservation The Archaeological Conservancy would like to thank the following individuals, foundations, and corporations for their generous support during the period of May through July 2001. Their generosity,along with the generosity of the Conservancy’s other members, makes our work possible.

Life Member Gifts of David Jones, Minnesota $1,000 or more David and Sue Knop, California Betty Banks, Washington Roland and Martha Mace, New Mexico Lois Chaffey, California Jack and Pat McCreery, California Joseph J. Collmer, Texas Betty Mitchell, Illinois Lawrence and Kathleen Peterson, Colorado Helen Darby, California Gavine Pitner, Ohio Virginia Ives and Paul Orsay, Missouri Melvin and Giulia Simpson, New York Sarah O’Connor, Ohio (in memory of Allen O’Connor) Conrad and Marcella Stahly, New Mexico T. N. Parks, Utah Rosamond Stanton, New Mexico Leila D. J. Poullada, Minnesota Kathryn Wanlass, Utah H. Warren Ross, California Gordon and Judy Wilson, New Mexico Thomas Richards, Virginia Sheila Sherman, Missouri Catherine Symchych, Wyoming Foundation/Corporate Gifts Richard Woodbury, Massachusetts of $1,000–$4,999 Albuquerque Community Foundation/T. J. Sivley and Mary Ray Sivley Perpetual Endowment Fund, New Mexico Anasazi Circle Gifts of Deupree Family Foundation, Arizona $2,000 or more Klutts Family Foundation, Louisiana Anonymous (1) Archie D. and Bertha H. Walker Foundation, Minnesota Carol M. Baker, Texas Howard Berlin, New Jersey Foundation/Corporate Gifts Donna Cosulich, New York of $5,000–$14,999 Janet Creighton, Washington Greenlee Family Foundation, Colorado J. L. and Martha Foght, Illinois Oakleaf Foundation, Minnesota Bernize Glozek, Moore Family Foundation, California

TO MAKE A DONATION OR BECOME Leaving a Legacy A MEMBER CONTACT: Earlier this year, the Conservancy received a bequest from the es- tate of a long-time, loyal member. Julia Clark of Maine had been a regular donor for many years. The Archaeological She gave consistently to help support the Conservancy’s work—$25, $50, often as much as $100. We were grateful for her generosity, and Conservancy never expected anything more. Imagine our surprise, then, when we learned that Ms. Clark had 5301 Central Ave. NE, left the Conservancy a bequest of $275,000. We were touched and Suite 402 honored to know that our work had meant so much to her. Her final gift was an expression of her values; she knew how important it is to Albuquerque, NM 87108 preserve the past. But it was also a reflection of her means. By leav- (505) 266-1540 ing the Conservancy in her will, Ms. Clark was able to make a contri- bution that she couldn’t have made during her lifetime. www.americanarchaeology.org This year, Ms. Clark’s generosity has helped to protect archaeo- logical sites around the country. We are very sorry to have lost her, but glad to know that her wishes live on. —Martha Mulvany american archaeology 47 Reviews

Casas Grandes Ancient Pioneers: and Its Hinterland The First Americans

By Michael E. Whalen and Paul E. Minnis By George E. Stuart (University of Arizona Press, 2001; 250 (National Geographic Society, 2001; 199 pgs., illus., $45 cloth; 800-426-3797) pgs., illus., $12 paper, $20 cloth, One hundred thirty miles south of the United $4 shipping; mail States border, in the Mexican state of Chi- order only at huahua, lie the ruins of the impressive prehis- 800-647-5463) toric town of (Great Houses) or Paquimé. From about A.D. 1300 to 1450, it was If you're looking probably the largest and grandest town in the for a readable, entire Southwest. Extensive excavations at the general introduc- core site from 1958 to 1961 by Charles Di Peso tion to American revealed a well-engineered water system and arc haeology Ancient Encounters: massive Pueblo-style roomblocks, as well as that is beauti- and Mesoamerican-style ballcourts and platform fully illustrated mounds. Exotic trade goods like copper bells by the renowned pho- the First Americans and macaws were abundant. Di Peso inter- tographers and illustrators of National By James C. Chatters preted all this to mean that Casas Grandes was Geographic, this is it. George Stuart, longtime (Simon & Schuster, 2001; a Mesoamerican outpost on the edge of Mexi- staff archaeologist at the National Geographic 303 pgs., illus., $26 cloth; can civilization, complete with ruling elites and Society and president of the Center for Maya 800-223-2348) a stratified social system. Research, has written a book for the beginner Forensic anthropolgist In this book,Whalen and Minnis,archaeol- that should interest most anyone. From the James Chatters tells his ogists at the universities of Tulsa and Okla- frozen Arctic to the steaming jungles of Cen- story of the discovery homa respectively, offer an insightful challenge tral America to the Andes and beyond, Stuart and examination of the to Di Peso’s interpretation.Armed with new tells the incredible stories of these regions famous skeleton found at data, they see a much less centralized and strat- and the cultures they produced—Ice Age no- Kennewick, Washington, on ified polity. Instead of a foreign outpost, Casas mads, Anasazi, Moundbuilders, hunters and the banks of the Columbia Grandes rests squarely in the cultural tradition fishermen, Maya and Aztec. He also introduces River in 1996. of the greater Southwest in general and north- us to the techniques of modern archaeology After careful examina- ern in particular, albeit with and explains how investigators are unraveling tion, Chatters concluded Mesoamerican touches.Whalen and Minnis see the many mysteries of ancient America. the remains, radiocarbon it as a society of intermediate complexity that Inspiring photographs capture the dated to 9,500 years ago, lacked well-defined power structures.The out- panoramic vistas that set the stage for are Caucasoid. lying settlements were influenced by central human occupation and struggle. Lavish illus- He gives a riveting Casas Grandes, but not ruled by it. trations recreate the lives of real people at account of the ensuing legal battle with local tribes over When compared to the work done at work. Striking photos dramatize the artifacts the bones, and makes a Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde, research in the of past cultures, ranging from 10,000-year- strong case for continuing Casas Grandes region is still in its infancy.But in old spear points to elaborate Moche gold this research in the interest Casas Grandes and Its Hinterland,Whalen and jewelry. Ancient Pioneers is one of the best of our common humanity. Minnis have made an outstanding contribution introductions to American archaeology ever to our understanding of this intriguing culture. produced. —Mark Michel

48 fall • 2001 Archaeologist Archaeologist (American Indian Liaison) responsible for administering and coordinating USDA programs with American Indian Tribes and Cultural Resource Programs in the State of South Dakota. In-state travelrequired. Masters degree in archaeology. Federal position with excellent salary and fringe benefits.

Contact Marlene Elko, NRCS at 605-352-1224 or e-mail [email protected] for application procedure.

EOE

Show Pride in America’s Archaeologic al Resources! Archaeological Conservancy T-shirt: 100% cotton To order, send your check to: The Archaeological Conservancy 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 402 • Albuquerque, NM 87108

NAME

ADDRESS

CITY

STATEZIP

❏ Conservancy T-shirt $12, plus $1.75 S&H circle size: S M L XL XXL Make your mark in time. Some Conservancy members think the only way to help save archaeological sites is through membership dues. While dues are a constant lifeline, there are many ways you can support the Conservancy’s work, both today and well into the future. And by supporting the Conservancy, you not only safeguard our past for your children and grandchildren, you also may save some money.

Place stock in the Conservancy. Evaluate your investments. Some members choose to make a differ- ence by donating stock. Such gifts offer a charitable deduction for the full value instead of paying capital gains tax.

Give a charitable gift annuity. Depending on your circumstances, you may be able to make a gift of cash and securities today that lets you receive extensive tax benefits as well as an income for as long as you live.

leave a lasting legacy. Many people consider protecting our cultural heritage by remem- bering the Conservancy in their will. While providing us with a dependable source of income, bequests may qualify you for an estate tax deduction.

Whatever kind of gift you give, you can be sure we’ ll use it to preserve places like colorado Lamb Spring and our Conservancy Preserve since 1995 other 195 sites across the United States.

Yes, I’m interested in making a planned-giving donation to The Archaeological Conservancy and saving Mail information requests to: money on my taxes. Please send more information on: The Archaeological Conservancy Attn: Planned Giving ❏ ❏ ❏ Gifts of stock Bequests Charitable gift annuities 5301 Central Avenue NE Suite 402 Name: Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517 Street Address: Or call: City: State: Zip: (505) 266-1540 Phone: ( ) -