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Home , Attitude indicator, Pitot tube

Instrument Ground School Day 1: Pilot Qualifications, and Attitude Instrument Flying What do I need for an Instrument Rating and to Maintain Currency

2 Instrument Rating Requirements §61.65(a)

1.Hold at least a Private Pilot Certificate 2.Be able to read, speak, write and understand English 3.Receive and log ground training from an authorized instructor or complete a home-study course 4.Hold a current FAA medical certificate 5.Obtain an endorsement for and pass the written knowledge test with a score of 70% or better 6.Accumulate the required flight experience per §61.65(d) 7.Receive and log the required flight training 8.Obtain an endorsement for and pass a knowledge and practical (flight) test Required Flight Experience §61.65(d)

• 50 hours of PIC cross country (10 of which must be in an airplane) • 40 Hours of actual or simulated instrument experience –15 hours must be with an instrument instructor •3 hours of which must be within 2 months prior to the test •One cross country flight under IFR with a filed flight plan –250 NM –Instrument approach at each airport –At least 3 different types of approaches Aeronautical Knowledge §61.65(b)

• You must receive and log ground training from a CFII or IGI or accomplish a home-study course on the following aeronautical knowledge areas: –Federal Aviation Regulations that apply to flight operations under IFR; –Appropriate information that applies to flight operations under IFR in the "Aeronautical Information Manual;" –Air traffic control system and procedures for instrument flight operations; –IFR navigation and approaches by use of navigation systems; –Use of IFR en route and instrument approach procedure charts; –Procurement and use of aviation weather reports and forecasts and the elements of forecasting weather trends based on that information and personal observation of weather conditions; –Safe and efficient operation of under and conditions; –Recognition of critical weather situations and windshear avoidance; –Aeronautical decision making and judgment; and –Crew resource management, including crew communication and coordination. Flight Proficiency §61.65(c)

• You must receive and log training from a CFII in an aircraft, flight simulator or flight training device that includes the following areas of operation: –Preflight preparation –Preflight procedures –Air traffic control clearances and procedures –Flight by reference to instruments –Navigation systems –Instrument approach procedures –Emergency operations –Postflight procedures Maintaining Instrument Currency Recent Flight Experience §61.57(c)

• You may not act as PIC under IFR unless within the 6 calendar months preceding the month of the flight, you performed and logged at least the following in an airplane in actual weather conditions, or under simulated conditions using a view-limiting device: –Six instrument approaches. –Holding procedures and tasks. –Intercepting and tracking courses through the use of navigation • Can use an simulator and/or advanced aviation training device (AATD) with certain additional requirements Maintaining Instrument Currency Recent Flight Experience – Safety Pilot

• If a view-limiting device is used in an aircraft, §91.109(c) requires: –A safety pilot who has at least an appropriate private pilot certificate –Safety pilot has adequate vision forward and to both sides –Dual controls or the view limited pilot holds a private certificate and the safety pilot determines the flight can be conducted safely • The safety pilot must hold a current medical certificate per §61.3(c) as the safety pilot is a required pilot flight crewmember. A “flight crewmember” includes a safety pilot since such person is required by regulation to be on board. • The safety pilot need not have an instrument rating, if the flight is being conducted under VFR • When the safety pilot is not the pilot in command, the safety pilot need not satisfy the recent flight experience requirements of §61.57 Maintaining Instrument Currency Recent Flight Experience §61.57(c)

• A pilot whose instrument currency has lapsed for less than six months may reestablish instrument currency by performing the tasks and maneuvers required for §61.57(c) as described in the prior slide • If you fail to maintain instrument currency for more than six calendar months you must complete an instrument proficiency check Instrument Proficiency Check §61.57(d)

• An instrument proficiency check must consist of the areas of operation and instrument tasks required in the instrument rating practical test standards • The instrument proficiency check must be— –In an aircraft that is appropriate to the aircraft category –In a flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of the aircraft category • The instrument proficiency check must generally be given by a — –Designated examiner –CFII Instrument Proficiency Check §61.57(d)

• Section 61.57(d) does not stipulate a minimum time requirement for the IPC. The FAA, however, indicates that a good rule of thumb is to plan at least 90 minutes of ground time and at least two hours of flight time –Instrument Proficiency Check Guidance is available at http://www.faa.gov/ pilots/training/media/IPC_guidance.pdf (this is also a good review for the PTS) • IPC should cover general operating and flight rules for IFR as set out in 14 CFR Part 91 and in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) Log Book Recordkeeping Instrument Rating Requirements

• Endorsements for the rating signed by an authorized instructor who certifies that the applicant §61.39(a)(6) – –Has received and logged training time within 2 calendar months preceding the month of application in preparation for the practical test –Is prepared for the required practical test §61.65(a)(6) –Has demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the subject areas in which the person was deficient on the airman knowledge test –Is prepared for the required knowledge test §61.65(a)(4) • Must log flight proficiency time required by §61.65(a)(5) and (c) • Must log ground training - §61.65(a)(3) • Must log flight experience required - §61.65(d) Instrument Rating Endorsements

• Written Test: –Aeronautical knowledge test: section 61.35(a)(1) and section 61.65(a) and (b). I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of section 61.65(b). I have determined that He/She is prepared for the Instrument Pilot Rating knowledge test. [DATE] Instructor Name, 1234567CFI, Exp. __/__/201_

• Flight Test: –Aeronautical Knowledge/Flight proficiency/practical test: section 61.65(a). I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the required training of section 61.65(b)(c) and (d). I have determined He/ She is prepared for the Instrument—(airplane, helicopter, or powered-lift) practical test. [DATE] Instructor Name, 1234567CFI, Exp. __/__/201_

• Prerequisites for Practical Tests: section 61.39(a) I certify that (First name, MI, Last name) has received the training as required by section 61.39(a)(6)(i) within the preceding two calendar months and have determined that he/she is prepared for the Instrument Pilot practical test. [DATE] Instructor Name, 1234567CFI, Exp. __/__/201_

• Meta Endorsement I certify that Mr./Ms.______has received training time required within the preceding 60 days in preparation for the (Name of test) (category and class) practical test and find him/her prepared for that test per CFR 61.39(a)(6). (if knowledge test is required and applicant has achieved less than 100%) He/she has demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the subject areas found deficient on the (Name of Test) aeronautical knowledge test. [DATE] Instructor Name, 1234567CFI, Exp. __/__/201_ Logging Instrument Time §61.51(g)

• May log instrument time only for the flight time in which you operate the aircraft solely by reference to instruments under actual or simulated instrument flight conditions • An authorized instructor may log instrument time when conducting instrument flight instruction in actual instrument flight conditions • For the purposes of logging instrument time to meet the recent instrument experience requirements of § 61.57(c), the following information must be recorded in your logbook— –The location and type of each instrument approach accomplished •Some debate exists as to how low the ceiling must be to log the approach –The name of the safety pilot, if required Logging Simulator Time §61.51(g)

• A person can use time in a flight simulator, flight training device, or aviation training device for acquiring instrument aeronautical experience for a pilot certificate, rating, or instrument recency experience • Provided an authorized instructor is present to observe that time and signs the person's logbook or training record to verify the time and the content of the training session. • The person also performs 2 unusual attitude recoveries and flies at least 3 hours of simulated flight time. §61.57(c)(3). Safety Pilot Time Logging

• Pilot-in-command time may be logged by the safety pilot, if he or she is acting as the PIC –The two pilots must agree that the safety pilot is the acting PIC –PIC time may be logged only while the other pilot is "under-the-hood" –PIC time may be logged because FAR 61.51(e)(1)(iii) allows certificated pilots to log PIC when acting as PIC of an aircraft on which more than one pilot is required by the regulations (§91.109(b)) under which the flight is conducted. A safety pilot is required for "hood work" • Second-in-command time may be logged by the safety pilot, if the safety pilot is not acting as PIC. SIC time may be logged because §61.51(f)(2) allows a pilot to log all flight time during which he acts as second in command of an aircraft under which more than one pilot is required. • There can only be one person acting as PIC on a flight at any given time Simulator Time Logging § 61.51(b)

• Sim time should not be logged as flight time because you never left the ground –Not counted as total flight time • Log the following –Date - § 61.51(b)(1)(i) –Total time of lesson - § 61.51(b)(1)(ii) –Location of the flight simulator - § 61.51(b)(1)(iii) –Type and identification number of the simulator - § 61.51(b)(1)(iv) –Time is entered in the "simulator” column - § 61.51(b)(2)(v) –Time is entered in the “simulated instrument conditions” column - § 61.51(b)(3)(iii) –Training time may also be entered if endorsed by the instructor and it includes a description of the training - § 61.51(h) VFR Day Instrument Requirements

• A – indicator • T – tachometer (for each engine) • O – oil gauge (for each engine using a pressure system) • M – manifold pressure gauge (for each altitude engine) • A – • T – temperature gauge (for each liquid cooled engine) • O – oil temperature gauge (for each air cooled engine) • F – fuel gauge • L – position indicator • A – anti collision lights (for aircraft certified after March 11th 1996) • M – magnetic • E – ELT • S – safety belts VFR Night Instrument Requirements

• A TOMATO FLAMES plus FLAPS • F – fuses (one complete spare set) • L – landing light (only if you are flying for hire) • A – anti collision lights • P – position lights • S – source of electricity (alternator, generator) Instruments Required for Instrument Flight

• DECKRAT –Directional gyro –Electrical source –Clock with seconds displayed –Kolsman-sensitive altimeter –Radios and navigation equipment, as required for the flight – –Turn coordinator with inclinometer IFR Instruments

C A K

D R

T

E

DECKRAT Pitot-Static System

• Pitot-static system is a system of pressure-sensitive instruments that is used to determine airspeed, altitude, and vertical speed • System includes a , static port(s), and the pitot-static instruments –Pitot tube measures ram air pressure to provide airspeed –Static port - often a flush-mounted hole on the measures

PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

• Errors in pitot-static system readings can be extremely dangerous as you may lose airspeed, altitude, and vertical speed data –Several commercial airline disasters have been traced to a failure of the pitot-static system – e.g. - crashed after its pitot tubes were blocked by ice and the crew reacted incorrectly causing a stall from which they did not recover • Altimeter, transponder and the aircraft's static system must be inspected every 24 months for IFR operations – § 91.411 • Aircraft with transponders must have the encoder and transponder checked every 24 months – § 91.413 Altimeter • compare the incoming static pressure with the pressure within its internal aneroid wafers • As the outside static pressure decreases with altitude, the aneroid wafers expand and cause the altimeter needle to rotate around the dial • Blockage of the static source will stop altimeter movement since the blockage stops any change in pressure –Altimeter with a blocked static system will simply continue to show the same reading it had when the blockage occurred Altimeter

• The accuracy of an altimeter is subject to errors from: –Nonstandard temperatures •Caution should be exercised when flying in proximity to obstructions or terrain in low temperatures –Nonstandard atmospheric pressure •Caution should be exercised when flying in proximity to obstructions or terrain in low •Barometric pressure exceeds 31.00” – set altimeter to 31.00 below 18,000’ –At the beginning of the final approach segment, set the actual altimeter setting, if possible. If not, increase ceiling requirements by 100 feet and visibility requirements by 1/4 statute mile for each 1/10 of an inch of Hg above 31.00 •Pressure below 28.00” - flight by aircraft unable to set the actual altimeter setting is not recommended Altimeter

–Aircraft static port –Instrument error •Mechanical and elastic errord –Preflight altimeter must be within 75’ of known field elevation –An “inch” error in the altimeter setting equals 1,000 feet of altitude. “GOING FROM A HIGH TO A LOW or HOT TO COLD, LOOK OUT BELOW.” • GPS altitude –GPS devices read the GEOMETRIC altitude of the aircraft, relative to a sea-level baseline that is defined in the WGS84 coordinate system. This altitude is unaffected by atmospheric conditions. Aircraft Altimeters derive altitude by measuring the air pressure –At low altitudes GPS altitudes will generally agree with the barometric altimeter, subject to altimeter temperature errors –At higher altitudes, the GPS altitude and barometric altitude often diverge because of limitations of barometric altimetry Vertical Speed Indicator

• The VSI indicates the aircraft’s rate of climb or descent • The VSI uses a diaphragm connected to static pressure from the static port • The case has a calibrated nozzle that restricts the leakage of air so that there is a time delay between a change in static pressure and the pressure in the case • Thus, if the aircraft climbs (or descends), the pressure within the diaphragm will decrease (increase), while pressure in the case will decrease (increase) at a lower rate due to the presence of the nozzle • Movement of the diaphragm is translated into movement of a needle by a mechanical system Vertical Speed Indicator

• If static system is blocked, the VSI will show 0 and no change in climbs or descents • Errors –Sudden or abrupt changes in aircraft attitude cause erroneous instrument readings –While VSI needle immediately shows a change, accurate rate information is not instantaneous – can take 6 to 9 seconds • Needle should be at 0 on the ground and in level flight. This is a pre-flight check item –If not at 0, you must allow for the error when interpreting the indications in flight • If turbulence is encountered, seek to maintain an appropriate pitch attitude instead of chasing the VSI needle or trying to maintain a steady rate.

• The input from the pitot tube is routed to a bellows in the instrument. The static input goes into the case surrounding the bellows. An increase in pitot pressure expands the bellows as long as the static pressure does not also increase. • The expansion of the bellows rotates a gear that turns the airspeed needle to display the aircraft’s airspeed Pitot Static Blockages

Blockage ASI Impact Altimeter / VSI Impact Pitot tube only (drain hole open) Airspeed will decrease — possibly No impact all the way to zero, if fully blocked

Pitot tube and pitot drain Blockage would probably go No impact unnoticed in level flight. In a climb or a descent, however, ASI will act as an altimeter because the trapped pitot pressure will be measured against varying static pressures (low speed shown near ground). ASI provides no useful airspeed information.

Static Port ASI will act as a reverse altimeter VSI will not show changes in – low airspeed above failure altitude; Altimeter will be frozen altitude; excessive airspeed below at failure altitude failure altitude. ASI provides no useful airspeed information. Very dangerous

31 Pitot Static Blockages

• Many aircraft have alternate static systems –Alternate static systems tends to reflect slighty higher altitude and slightly faster airspeed due to pressure difference between interior and exterior of the aircraft –Can also use GPS altitude as a rough guide • Can also break glass on VSI to get approximate static pressure • Static line leak in pressurized aircraft – will show cabin altitude Attitude Indicator

10° Bank Scale Pointer 20° 30°

45°

10°

Level / Pitch Scale5° 90° Artificial Horizon

Horizon Adjustment Knob Attitude Indicator • Depicts the orientation of the aircraft relative to Earth's horizon –Gives immediate and direct indication of pitch and bank –A primary instrument for IFR flight • Generally vacuum powered, but can be electrically powered • Functions using the principal of rigidity in space with a horizontal gyro - Aircraft rotates around the AI • Wings represent a pitch change of approximately 2° –Set wings to proper position on the ground with knob on the bottom of the instrument Attitude Indicator

• Attitude indicator errors: –Can tumble if 100-110° of bank or 60-70° of pitch is exceeded –Accelerations may cause a slight pitch up indication –Deceleration may cause a slight pitch down indication –Erection can take as long as 5 minutes, but normally occurs within 2 to 3 minutes –Small bank angle and pitch error possible after a 180° turn –May inaccurately display aircraft’s attitude, especially in skids and steep banked turns due to venting of gyro vacuum air –Can fail if vacuum or electrical power lost, as applicable • These inherent errors are small and correct themselves within a minute or so after returning to straight-and-level flight Compass Card/ HSI

Lubber Line Heading bug

180° index – e.g,

Compass card Heading adjustment Compass card 36 DG/ HSI

• Gyro stabilized –Indirect bank indicator (turns as heading changes) • Generally vacuum powered, but can be electrically powered • Functions using the gyroscopic principal of rigidity in space –Senses rotation about vertical axis • DG is the primary means of establishing your heading in most cases due to magnetic compass errors • As a result of Earth’s rotation, and because of small errors caused by friction and imperfect balancing of the gyro, the DG/HSI will drift or precess over time, and must be periodically reset from the compass –3° / 15 minutes is acceptable precession • Compare the heading indicated on the DG/HSI with the compass in straight and level unaccelerated flight at least every 15 minutes and reset the DG/ HSI, as necessary, to match the magnetic compass DG/HSI

• Errors –May tumble if limits are exceeded •Limits are approximately 55° of pitch and 55° of bank –Precession –During steep turns, pitching and rolling of the aircraft the changing relationship between the two gimbals in the instrument can result in an indication error or drift –Erection can take as long as 5 minutes, but normally occurs within 2 to 3 minutes –Can fail if vacuum or electrical power lost, as applicable Horizontal Situation Indicator

• HSI is a combination of the DG and OBS • Many heading indicators receive a magnetic north reference from a magnetic slaving transmitter, and generally need no heading adjustment –HSI’s and DG’s that are not slaved are called "free" gyros, and require periodic adjustment • Generally same errors as DG, but can also lose magnetic slaving Magnetic Compass

• Compass preflight checks –Fluid-filled –Moves freely –Correctly indicates known headings (taxiways, runways) – can also use a compass rose to check –Confirm deviation card is present Turn and Bank/Slip Indicator

Tw o I n s t r u m e n t s i n one Turn Coordinator

• Shows rate of turn and rate of roll into the turn • The rotor of the gyro in a turn coordinator is canted upwards 30° –Thus, it responds not only to movement about the vertical axis, but also to roll movements about the longitudinal axis • Turn coordinator thus provides an indication of roll at the earliest possible time • The airplane’s wings provide the indication of wings level flight and the rate at which the aircraft is turning – mark is standard rate turn –2 minutes normally; can be 4 minutes in fast aircraft • Provides no pitch information • Provides no bank information – only rate of turn –Approximate angle of bank for standard rate turn = (TAS/10) + 5

Slip Indicator

• Inclinometer –Shows the correct execution of a turn (coordinated) while banking the aircraft and indicates movement about the vertical axis of the aircraft (yaw) –Ball movement is independent of the turn coordinator •A round ball is set in a curved glass tube filled with dampening fluid •The ball moves in response to gravity and centrifugal force experienced in a turn Inclinometer

Centrifugal force greater Centrifugal force less Centrifugal than HCL – reduce than HCL – increase force and into the turn or increase rudder into the turn HCL equal bank or decrease bank Turn Coordinator

• Turn Coordinator errors –If the vacuum or electrical supply fails the instrument will show no turn •Usually has a warning flag –Low voltage or suction may cause the turn coordinator to show a shallower turn than actual –If gyro rotor speed is too high it will result in an excessive rate of turn indication Instrument Errors

• Remember SRM skills – take a deep breath and think! • Remember your resources –Pitot heat –Alternate static sources –GPS altitude capabilities –Compare instruments powered from different sources vacuum gyros vs. electrical gyro (turn and bank) – gyros vs pitot/static –POH / Checklists • Keep your scan moving and identify any instrument(s) that give you conflicting information –Promptly recognizing a problem is key •Don’t ignore red flags on instruments –Identify the instrument or system that is in error by determining what makes sense and what doesn't • Develop a plan to determine which instrument has failed –Slight pitch up should tell you whether the attitude indicator is working –Bank should tell you wither the attitude indicator, turn and bank and DG are working Instrument Errors

• Remember that pitch plus power equals performance – Know your numbers –As long as you have vacuum instruments, you can keep the airplane level –Set the pitch and power for the performance you want and trust the airplane • Eliminate the erroneous instrument or system from your scan –Keep a “post it” with you to cover an erroneous instrument to keep it from becoming a distraction. –Remember, your scan will tend to pick up the abnormal • With a failed instrument make very small changes and only make one change at a time and then verify that the anticipated change shows up on the instruments • DON'T become fixated on any one instrument or system –If you can't understand why an instrument is giving you a particular reading, there's a good chance there's a problem –Integrate the readings from all other instruments and determine which instrument is erroneous and eliminate it from your scan • Advise ATC of your problem as soon as you have things under control – aviate, navigate then communicate Clock Attitude Instrument Flying

• Attitude Instrument flying involves aircraft control by reference to its instruments rather than outside visual references • Skills –Instrument cross-check –Instrument interpretation –Aircraft Control • All three skills are used in all instrument flight maneuvers • Skills must be integrated into unified, smooth, positive aircraft control inputs Instrument Scan

• Instrument scan is critical –Slow methodical eye movements –Know when and where to look for the task at hand –Be relaxed –Create time for proper aircraft management • Continuous systemic focus on specific aircraft instruments for attitude and performance information –Doesn’t mean that eyes are moving like spinning slot machine reels Instrument Scan

• Instrument cross-check (aka - scan) –Scan patterns •Inverted V •Radial •Rectangular or oval –Instrument focus •Tw o b a s i c m e t h o d s –Control and performance –Primary and supporting •Similar, but differ in their reliance on the attitude indicator and the role of other instruments in controlling the aircraft • Make appropriate changes based upon instrument observation Inverted V Scan

• Initial scan generally should be from the attitude indicator down to the turn coordinator, up to the attitude indicator, down to the VSI, and then back up to the attitude indicator Inverted V Scan

• Step One - set a reasonable attitude and power setting for the desired maneuver –Remember the basic axiom of flight: Attitude + power = performance –Concentrate on the attitude indicator, set engine power by sound, and then glance at the engine's tachometer or manifold pressure gauge to fine-tune your power setting –Adjust the trim coarsely if pressures become excessive. • Step Two - Scan the turn coordinator (TC) and the vertical speed indicator (VSI) from the AI in an inverted V pattern –The TC and VSI are fine-tuners because of their sensitivity •TC will show a turn before the heading indicator •VSI will show a climb or descent before the altimeter • The scan should move at a slow speech rate - "and one and two, and one and two, and..."- • Key information while using the inverted-V scan is trend of motion information, rather than the specific numbers –Is the airplane doing what you want it to do - turning, flying level, climbing, or descending? Radial Scan

• In the radial scan you will spend 80 to 90% of the time looking at the attitude indicator with only quick glances at one of the other flight instruments • Your eyes always go from the AI to another flight instrument and never directly between the other flight instruments • The maneuver being performed at any given time determines which instruments are included in the scan pattern Rectangular Scan

• Rectangular scan covers all instruments equally, regardless of its importance to the maneuver being performed • Lengthens the time it takes for you to return to the critical instruments for a maneuver Common Errors

• Fixation - staring at a single instrument • Omission of an instrument from your scan • Emphasis on a single instrument rather than the necessary combination of instruments Control and Performance Method

• Establish Rough Settings –Set your attitude and a power setting with the control instruments (AI and tach/MP gauge) that will produce the approximate performance desired •Known attitudes and approximate power settings will reduce workloads • Trim –Trim to relieve control pressures •Essential for smooth, precise aircraft control and allows you to divert attention to other things with minimized changes to aircraft attitude • Cross-check –Cross-check performance instruments to determine if the rough settings are providing the desired performance –Involves both seeing and interpreting the instruments –If a deviation is noted, determine the magnitude and direction of adjustment required • Correct –Make any necessary attitude or power setting changes using the control instruments as necessary –Cross check performance instruments Primary/Supporting Instruments

Primary Supporting Primary Supporting Primary Flight Regime Supporting Power Pitch Pitch Bank Bank Power

Straight-And-Level ALT AI/VSI DG AI/TC ASI MP/Tach

Constant Airspeed Climb/ ASI AI/VSI DG AI/TC Descent MP/Tach ASI

Constant Rate Climb/ VSI AI DG AI/TC Descent MP/Tach ASI

Standard Rate Turn ALT AI/VSI TC AI ASI (MP/Tach initially primary if MP/Tach speed is changing) QUIZ