INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW HUMAN RIGHTS AND PEACE OPERATIONS
1 INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HUMANITARIAN LAW INSTITUT INTERNATIONAL DE DROIT HUMANITAIRE ISTITUTO INTERNAZIONALE DI DIRITTO UMANITARIO
INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW HUMAN RIGHTS AND PEACE OPERATIONS
2
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS / REMERCIEMENTS / RINGRAZIAMENTI 4
5
President:
Vice-Presidents: Members:
6
****
7 TABLE OF CONTENTS / TABLE DE MATIÈRES / INDICE Preface Opening address Welcome addresses Keynote address Addresses
8 THE APPLICABILITY OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW TO PEACE OPERATIONS De l’applicabilité du droit international humanitaire aux opérations de paix : pour des approches juridiques, militaires et éthiques Peace operations, an operational and legal concept The evolution of peace operations, from interposition to integrated missions À propos du cadre juridique des opérations de maintien de la paix The applicability of international humanitarian law to peace operations: a settled issue? The applicability of international humanitarian law to peace operations, from rejection to acceptance International humanitarian law and peace operations, scope of application International humanitarian law and operations conducted by the European Union
9 THE APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW TO PEACE OPERATIONS: SPECIFIC ISSUES Interaction of the legal regimes in peace operations Peace operations and the complementarity of human rights law and international humanitarian law The legal status of United Nations and associated personnel in peace operations and the legal regime protecting them The law of occupation: a relevant for peace operations? corpus juris
The applicability of the law of occupation to peace forces
Substantial relevance of the law of occupation for peace operations
International humanitarian law and the administration of territories by the United Nations Administration of territories by the United Nations: is there room for international humanitarian law? Understanding the international territorial administration accountability deficit: Trusteeship and the legitimacy of international organizations 10 IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW IN PEACE OPERATIONS Working Group 1: Peace operations and the protection of civilians The responsibility to protect: an introduction Protection of civilians in peace operations, or the “operationalisation” of the responsibility to protect The responsibility to protect and international humanitarian law Working Group 2: Peace operations and detention Right to detain during peace operations: some legal and operational issues Detention in peace operations: a practical approach Centre de Doctrine d’Emploi des Forces, Forces terrestres, France; Chef du Bureau Recherche, Division Recherche Retour d’Expérience The Copenhagen Process on the handling of detainees in international military operations 11 Working Group 3: Peace operations and the repression of international humanitarian law violations Introduction The role of peace forces in searching for persons charged with war crimes Peacekeeping operations and the International Criminal Court Preventing and reporting violations of international humanitarian law Working Group 4: Responsibility and compensation for damages caused during peace operations
Introduction
Operational command organic command: who is in charge?
Violations of international humanitarian law committed during peace operations and individual criminal responsibility
12 RELATIONS BETWEEN HUMANITARIAN ORGANISATIONS AND PEACE FORCES Civil-military co-operation: common sense or pandora’s box? La médiatisation des opérations de paix sert-elle le respect du DIH ? REPORTS OF THE WORKING GROUPS ON THE APPLICABILITY OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW TO PEACE OPERATIONS Group 1: Peace operations and protection of civilians Group 2: Peace operations and detention Group 3: Peace operations and the repression of international humanitarian law violations Group 4: Responsibility and compensation for damages caused during peace operations
IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW IN PEACE OPERATIONS
The teaching, dissemination and implementation of international humanitarian law in peace operations
General introduction The ICRC perspective 13 The United Nations perspective The NATO perspective The European Union perspective CONCLUSIONS OF THE ROUND TABLE Concluding remarks Closing address MESSAGES Pontificium Consilium de Iustitia et Pace 14 Acronyms List of Participants
Co-ordinators of the Round Table
15
16 OPENING SESSION
17 OPENING ADDRESS
18 19 «si vis pacem para bellum» 20 21 22
23 WELCOME ADDRESSES
24
25 protection agenda 26 27
28 29 “Concerto per la Pace”
30 KEYNOTE ADDRESS
31 32 jus ad bellum 33 Reaffirming further that the provisions of the Geneva Conventions and of this Protocol must be fully applied in all circumstances to all persons who are protected by those instruments, without any distinction based on the nature and the origin of the armed conflict or on the causes espoused by or attributed to the parties to the conflict”1. jus ad bellum
34 35 handling of detainees in international military operations” non-refoulement per se non-refoulement 36 vis-à-vis 37
38
ADDRESSES
39 40 fight based operations talebans -
41 - “Prospectives géostrategiques” «Le recours à la force sera de plus en plus encadré juridiquement. La judiciarisassions toujours plus prégnante deviendra une arme exploitée par les adversaires, moins incline à respecter le droit et comportera un risque d’inhibition pour ceux qui le respectent. A titre individuel le combattant des Etats respectant le droit sera de manière accrue astreint à un impératif comportement vertueux, ce qui constituera pour lui un surcroît de pression. La protection de l’environnement sera également à l’origine de contraintes supplémentaires pour l’action armée dont le respect ne sera pas partagé par tous les belligérants. L’excès de droit international pourrait conduire au non respect de ses prescriptions par les Etats pour le règlement des crises».
42 jus in bello 43 44 vis-à-vis
45
Peace and Law 46 Legal aspects of peace operations The focus of Switzerland 47
48 49 50 last but not the least peacekeeping peacemaking 51
52 53
54 Donor Forum stretching primus inter pares, Standing Commission. 55 bridging the gap 56 Advocacy, pledoyer” advocacy, Al Jazeera CNN 57
THE APPLICABILITY OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW TO PEACE OPERATIONS
58 De l’applicabilité du droit international humanitaire aux opérations de paix : pour des approches juridiques, militaires et éthiques 59 “To fight for a truth without destroying it by the very means used to defend it”.
Etudes et essais sur le droit international humanitaire et sur les principes de la Croix-Rouge en l’honneur de Jean Pictet. Essais sur le concept de “droit de vivre”: en mémoire de Yougindra 60 « Le cadre juridique des opérations de paix » « Droit international humanitaire et opérations de paix, champ d’application matériel » « Le droit international humanitaire et les opérations menées par l’Union Européenne ».
Khushalani. Les Nations Unies et le droit humanitaire, AJIL, 61
Droit international humanitaire coutumier: enjeux et défis contemporains, Le Comité International de la Croix-Rouge et le conflit de Corée. Recueil de documents. Le Comité International de la Croix-Rouge et la protection des victimes de la guerre, De Yalta à Dien Bien Phu - Histoire du Comité international de la Croix- Rouge 1945-1955 The United Nations Operation in the Congo: 1960-1964, L’intervention des Nations Unies au Congo, 1960-194, L’ONU et l’affaire du Congo, The United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC) 1960-1962 United Nations Forces in the Law of Peace and War, AJIL, Deliver Us From Evil. Peacekeepers, Warlords and a World of Endless Conflict Revue internationale de la Croix-Rouge, N . RGDIP, “Les progrès du droit international humanitaire et la circulaire du Secrétaire Général des Nations Unies du 6 août 1999”, in L’ordre juridique 62
international, un système en quête d’équité et d’universalité: liber amicorum Georges Abi- Saab, La Haye, Nijhoff, 2001, pp. 495-505. Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations. Ibidem Korean J. Int’l & Comp. L. Le conflit armé en El Salvador : le statut des forces rebelles et le rôle de la Mission d'observation des Nations Unies en El Salvador à la lumière du droit international humanitaire, College of Europe: Proceedings of the Bruges Colloquium. Relevance of International Humanitarian Law to Non-State Actors. 25-26 October 2002. The Vietnam War and International Law, Annuaire français de droit international, AFDI Recueil des Cours, 63
Traditions, Values, and Humanitarian Action, International Review of the Red Cross, Revue internationale de la Croix- Rouge” Customary International Humanitarian Law. Volume I: Rules. Volume II: Practice Part 2 Droit international coutumier. Volume I : Règles. Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond, CIJ Recueil 1986, Nicaragua Avis consultatif 64 −
relatif à la licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires Jugement Celebici Furundzija Droit international humanitaire coutumier: enjeux et défis contemporains, Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, The Warrior’s Honor: Ethnic War and the Modern Conscience, Bloody Constraint. War and Chivalry in Shakespeare, National Insecurity and Human Rights. Democracies Debate Counterterrorism, 65 − −
Scritti degli allievi in memoria di Giuseppe Barile, EJIL Baltic Defence Review, Krisensicherung und Humanitärer Schutz. Crisis Management and Humanitarian Protection légitime légal.” Dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue française, Revue militaire canadienne. Significant Incident: Canada’s Army, the Airborne, and the Murder in Somalia, Dishonoured Legaci: Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Deployment of Canadian Forces to Somalia, UN Peacekeeping in Lebanon, Somalia and Kosovo. Operational and Legal Issues in Practice, ad Somalia: human rights abuses by the United Nations forces, 66 − − −
Somalie : la guerre perdue de l’humanitaire, op. cit. Religions et Droit International Humanitaire, Des choix difficiles. Les dilemmes moraux de l’humanitaire. Traduit de l’anglais par Dominique Leveillé, ad Hard Choices. Moral Dilemmas in Humanitarian Intervention, 67 « Se battre pour une vérité en veillant à ne pas la tuer des armes mêmes dont on la défend » .
Actuelles III. Chroniques algériennes (1939-1958), ad 68 Peace operations, an operational and legal concept
69 The evolution of peace operations, from interposition to integrated missions
70 71 within the limits of its capacity’ 72 73 74 75 76 À propos du cadre juridique des opérations de maintien de la paix
« within the law rather than according to the law». 77 I La base juridique des OMP, une construction maîtrisée par le Conseil de Sécurité A. Les OMP, expression du pouvoir discrétionnaire du Conseil de sécurité 1. La motivation : la responsabilité principale du maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationale 78 2. La forme : la résolution, acte juridique ? 79 B. Les OMP, manifestation du pragmatisme du Conseil de sécurité 1. Une catégorie juridique englobante 80 2. Une catégorie juridique au contenu évolutif state-building nation-building 81
82 II. Le cadre juridique des OMP : les contraintes du pluralisme juridique A. La soumission des OMP à un cadre normatif pluriel 1. Les contraintes juridiques résultant des règles systémiques 83 2. Les contraintes juridiques substantielles 84 B. Le respect du cadre normatif dans le cadre des OMP 85 1. Respect du cadre normatif et hiérarchie des règles 2. Respect du cadre normatif et sanction 86 87
88 The applicability of international humanitarian law to peace operations: a settled issue?
89 The applicability of international humanitarian law to peace operations, from rejection to acceptance
I. Introduction de facto II. The UN-ICRC debate over the applicability of international humanitarian law to United Nations operations hors de combat
90
91 III. The United Nations undertaking to respect the principles and spirit of the Geneva Conventions and other international humanitarian law conventions
inter alia ”, American Journal of International Law AJIL International Legal Materials ILM 92 IV. The Secretary-General’s Bulletin on the Observance by United Nations Forces of International Humanitarian Law
UNTS 93 hors de combat
ILM International Peacekeeping 94 V. The Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, 1994
ILM AJIL 95 “as long as they are entitled to the protection given to civilians or civilian objects under the international law of armed conflict” VI. Accountability of peacekeepers for serious violations of IHL before national and international jurisdictions
“The promulgation of this Bulletin does not affect the protected status of members of peacekeeping operations under the 1994 Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel or their status as non-combatants, as long as they are entitled to the protection given to civilians under the international law of armed conflict”. 96 VI. The Applicability of the laws of occupation to the UN transitional administrations “actually placed under the authority of the hostile army” is “the effective
“In case of violations of international humanitarian law, members of the military personnel of a United Nations force are subject to prosecution in their national courts”. 97 control of a power over a territory to which that power has no sovereign title, without the volition of the sovereign of that State” exercise of exclusive governmental or administrative authority in the territory independently of the displaced sovereign de jure de facto
The International Law of Occupation European Journal of International Law ibid. Promoting Justice, Human Rights and Conflict Resolution through International Law, Liber Amicorum Lucius Caflisch 98
99 International humanitarian law and peace operations, scope of application ratione materiae
jus ad bellum jus in bello Jus ad bellum
Proceedings of the Bruges Colloquium, Relevance of International Humanitarian Law to Non-State Actors 100 Jus in bello “to whatever nation they belong” 101 a contrario "will not apply to an UN operation authorized by the Security Council as an enforcement action under Chapter VII (of the UN Charter) in which any of the personnel are engaged as combatants against organized armed forces and to which the law of international armed conflicts applies". 102 jus ad bellum jus in bello de facto 103 de facto de facto de facto 104 105
106 International humanitarian law and operations conducted by the European Union
I. Introduction
II. Internal legal framework 107 III. External basis for operations 108 could be otherwise permitted or authorized under international law IV. Planning operations 109 110 V. The consequences of the planning process for the applicable law
VI. Conclusions 111
112
THE APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW TO PEACE OPERATIONS: SPECIFIC ISSUES
113
Interaction of the legal regimes in peace operations
114 Peace operations and the complementarity of human rights law and international humanit rian law I. Introduction II. Simultaneous Application of Human Rights Law & Humanitarian Law 115 The Court observes that the protection of the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights does not cease in times of war, except by operation of Article 4 of the Covenant whereby certain provisions may be derogated from in a time of national emergency [T]here are thus three possible situations: some rights may be exclusively matters of international humanitarian law; others may be exclusively matters of human rights law; yet others may be matters of both these branches of international law III. Attribution of Conduct in the Context of Multilateral Operations
, 116 ultra vires Attribution in the Context of Collective Action
117 Attribution of the Conduct of Non-state Actors de facto lex 118 specialis complicit Caveat: Positive Obligations and the Attribution of Omission The Behrami Judgment Behrami
Behrami v. France 119 IV. Extraterritorial Application International Humanitarian Law occurring in the territory of one of the High Contracting Parties constitute a minimum yardstick, in addition to the more elaborate rules which are also to apply to international conflicts; and they are rules which, in the Court’s opinion, reflect what the Court in 1949 called ‘elementary considerations of humanity
Nicaragua v. U.S Corfu Channel Hamdan v. Rumsfeld 120 International Human Rights Law 121 international human rights instruments are applicable ‘in respect of acts done by a State in the exercise of its jurisdiction Varying Levels of Obligation
See Out of Bounds? Considering the Reach of International Human Rights Law” e.g 122 de jure de facto Textual Argument Limiting Application to a State Party’s “Territory” 123 “Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant, without distinction of any kind…” within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction or travaux préparatoires within its territory travaux travaux within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction travaux
“Non-application of Civil and Political Rights Treaties Extraterritorially During Times of International Armed Conflict”, 124 Negative & Positive Obligations in the Context of Collective Action e.g.
125 The legal status of United Nations and associated personnel in peace operations and the legal regime protecting them “International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law in Peace Operations” I. Introducing categories of protection
General protection 126 Special protection 127 An evolving regime against impunity 128 II. The Safety Convention and International Humanitarian Law “This Convention shall not apply to a United Nations operation authorized by the Security Council as an enforcement action under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations in which any of the personnel are engaged as combatants against organized armed forces and to which the law of international armed conflict applies.” contrario 129 Conclusions 130
131
The law of occupation: a corpus juris relevant for peace operations?
132 The applicability of the law of occupation to peace forces
Le Droit de la Guerre et les Nations Unies Le DIH et les Forces de l'ONU Pour le Maintien de la Paix: Nouvelle Génération Les Nations Unies et le Droit International Humanitaire Les Actions Militaires de l'ONU et le DIH Droit Humanitaire et Opérations de Paix Internationales L'application du DIH et des Droits de l'Homme aux Organisations Internationales Expert Meeting on Multinational Peace Operations, Applicability of IHL and International Human Rights Law to UN Mandated Forces The Blue Helmets: Legal Regulation of UN Military Operations Law in Humanitarian Crisis: How Can IHL be Made Effective in Armed Conflicts? International Peacekeeping Mélanges Abi Saab Les Nations Unies et le Droit International Humanitaire Michigan Journal of International Law YIHL RICR 133
Mélanges Pictet Palwankar Symposium sur l'action humanitaire et les opérations de maintien de la paix Les Nations Unies et le Droit International Humanitaire Liber Amicorum H. Gros Espiell Stanford Journal of International Law Hague Yearbook of International Law 134 I. A legal issue affected by the apparent contradiction between the concepts of occupation and peace-keeping operation "cette situation [d'occupation] se présentera seulement lorsque les forces onusiennes agissent en tant que forces belligérantes, sur la base des articles 42 et suivants de la Charte, ou dans le cadre d'une opération d'imposition de la paix"
stricto sensu Restoring and Maintaining Order in Complex Peace Operations, the Search for a Legal Framework German Yearbook of International Law Revue de Droit Militaire et de Droit de la Guerre Les Actions Militaires de l'ONU et le Droit International Humanitaire Les Nations Unies et le Droit International Humanitaire RICR 135 inter alia A. The importance of consent "les forces de maintien de la paix déployées sur le territoire d'un État avec le consentement des autorités locales ne sont pas des troupes d'occupation. En effet, si ce déploiement peut avoir pour effet de placer l'ensemble du territoire en question, ou une partie de celui-ci, sous l'autorité des forces de l'Organisation des Nations Unies, celles ne sont pas une armée ennemie. Le droit de l'occupation coutumier relatif aux
136 territoires occupés ne s'appliquera pas à cette situation" "In the Westphalian system, the consent of a State is a factor which carries significant legal consequences"
Ibid European Journal of International Law Ibid British Yearbook of International Law 137 all B. Changes in the nature of peace-keeping operations that are conducive to the applicability of the law of occupation de jure 1. The loss or absence of consent in the deployment of peace-keeping forces
op. cit. The Handbook of the Law of Visiting Forces 138 "There are however peace operations which do not have the consent of the host State. One example is UNOSOM II in Somalia. In that case there was no government in Somalia which was capable of giving its consent" 2. Using force or the threat of using force to extort consent “As for the second criterion [for a situation of occupation], while the FRY did consent to the KFOR presence in signing the MTA [Military Technical Agreement concluded on 9 June 1999], whether that consent was anything more than formal consent is doubtful. In light of the emphasis of the Geneva Conventions on factual circumstances, as opposed to labels, formal consent would probably be insufficient to overcome the presumption of occupation that arises from the circumstances leading up to the signing of the MTA. Further, formal consent may itself be lacking in this case. Although the FRY did express its consent in signing an international agreement, that consent may be vitiated if the agreement is found to be invalid. While duress does not usually constitute grounds for holding a treaty invalid, Article 52 of the Vienna Convention provides
Revue de Droit Militaire et de Droit de la Guerre EJIL 139 that 'a treaty is void if its conclusion has been procured by the threat or use of force in violation of the principles of international law embodied in the Charter of the United Nations” 3. The structural and normative changes in peace-keeping operations “the deployment of a United Nations presence in the field, hitherto with the consent of all parties concerned, normally involving United Nations military and/or police personnel and frequently civilians as well”
European Journal of International Law 140 “Recent practice has, however, blurred the distinction between peace keeping and peace enforcement with the result that the question of the applicability of international humanitarian law to peace-keeping operations now cuts across the peace- keeping/peace-enforcement divide. Traditional UN peace-keeping operations have shifted in the course of an evolving conflict from Chapter VI to Chapter VII; others have been transformed into hybrid operations including both peace-keeping and peace-enforcement elements […]” vis-à-vis
Symposium sur l'action humanitaire et les opérations de maintien de la paix, Rapport op.cit 141 vis-à-vis “Over the last decade, a new set of occupiers has increasingly administered territory – international organizations. Although their operations are rarely termed occupations, international organizations have deployed significant civilian and military presences to undertake many of – in some senses, more than – the activities of occupying forces in terms of control and governance. These occupations vary in their level of intrusiveness, with direct administration as the apogee of their power”
EJIL 142 corpus juris II. The applicability of the law of occupation to peace-keeping forces: a much debated issue A. Legal doctrine is largely opposed to the applicability of the law of occupation to UN peace-keeping operations inter alia77:
Les Nations Unies et le DIH IRRC Michigan Journal of International Law op. cit 143 “the United Nations has taken the position that in discharging their mandate, peace-keeping forces act on behalf of the international community at large, and thus cannot be considered as a 'Party' to the conflict, nor a 'Power' within the meaning of the Geneva Conventions. United Nations peace- keeping forces which carry with them the stamp of international legitimacy should be, and be seen to be impartial, objective and neutral, their sole interest in the conflict being the restoration and maintenance of international peace and security” “The force acts pursuant to the mandate conferred upon it by the Security Council and with the consent of the Government or the parties concerned. […] Thus, whereas the essence of an occupant-occupied relationship is that of conflicts of interests, that which characterizes a United Nations 'administration' of a territory is cooperation between the force and the local population”
op. cit. Ibid. The Charter of the United Nations – A Commentary jugement concernant des violations du droit humanitaire commises en Somalie et au Rwanda Journal des Tribunaux, Regina v. Brockleland 144 “international territorial administration is proving more difficult than anticipated […] both forms of occupation operate across a spectrum of environment with respect to the resistance they face and the coercion – even violence – they will deploy. From a position in which international organizations were seen as the agents for human rights and progress in post-conflict societies […] they are now discovering that they may limit civil liberties; and some audiences – local and international – are objecting to this trend […] As a result UN missions confront similar objections to their administration, and to the resultant employment of coercion, as do state occupations […] With respect to the legitimacy of coercion, as explained above, the internationalization of an occupation will not eliminate security threats to it. An occupied population will not suddenly view foreign troops as liberators simply because they hail from a number of countries or are wearing blue helmets or berets” mutatis mutandis
op. cit The International Law of Occupation Israeli Defence Forces Law Review Israel Law Review 145 "Second, that the occupying power is in position to substitute its own authority for that of the former government"
Restoring and Maintaining Order in Complex Peace Operations: the Search for a Legal Framework op. cit 146 The military force may determine, to what degree it exercises its power of civil administration through its direct delegates, and which areas it leaves in the hand of the former government, whether local or central government officials: permitting the activities of such governmental authorities does not, per se, detract from the factual existence of effective military control over the area and the consequences that ensue there from under the law of war”
Tsemel vs. Minister of Defence op. cit 147 “The present provisions do not constitute an exhaustive list of principles and rules of international humanitarian law binding upon military personnel, and do not prejudice the application thereof, nor do they replace the national laws by which military personnel remain bound throughout the operation” corpus juris
148 “The UN particularly balks at this aspect [implementation of the obligations arising from the Fourth Geneva Convention] given its frequent assertions that, as it lacks the mechanisms and resources of a state, it cannot assume many of the burdens flowing from international humanitarian law relevant to its armed forces. This concern would appear to be based in an unjustified apprehension of the extent of these obligations; obligations which ought to be weighted against the utility of the rights that accrue under the Fourth Convention. In addition, UN's relief, development and disaster agencies, which have almost always been present at the same time as recent UN military interventions, render the UN uniquely placed to meet a significant level of responsibility. In fact, this capacity is well beyond that of most states”
op. cit Restoring and Maintaining Order in Complex Peace Operations: the Search for a Legal Framework 149 “does not account for the acceptance that other rules of international humanitarian law can apply together with the mandate. Why should the situation be different for the part of international humanitarian law dealing with occupation than for the part of international humanitarian law dealing with, for example, detainees or the use of weapons?” jus cogens92 status quo corpus juris
Revue de Droit Militaire et de Droit de la Guerre jus cogens IRRC 150 “International organizations engaged in occupation and administration of territory can no longer relegate international humanitarian law to an afterthought. As a doctrinal matter, UN forces - either Blue helmets or 'coalitions of the will' [sic] – must follow international humanitarian law, as has been considered in a number of careful scholarly studies” B. Conditions for the applicability of the law of occupation to peace- keeping forces lex lata 1. Occupation is a question of fact “Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army” de facto Von List “International humanitarian law makes no distinction between a lawful and unlawful occupant in dealing with respective duties of occupant and population in
op. cit. 151 Occupied Territories […] Whether the invasion was lawful or criminal is not an important factor in the consideration of the subject” Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo, “In order to reach a conclusion as to whether a State, the military forces of which are present on the territory of another State as a result of an intervention, is an ‘occupying Power’ in the meaning of the term as understood in the , the Court must examine whether there is sufficient evidence to demonstrate that the said authority was in fact established and exercised by the intervening State in the areas in question. In the present case the Court will need to satisfy itself that the Ugandan armed forces in the DRC were not only stationed in particular locations but also that they had substituted their own authority for that of the Congolese Government. In that event, any justification given by Uganda for its occupation would be of no relevance; nor would it be relevant whether or not Uganda had established a structured military administration of the territory occupied” “Reaffirming further that the provisions of the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and of this Protocol must be fully applied in all circumstances to all persons who are protected by those instruments, without any adverse distinction based on the nature or origin of the armed conflict or on the causes espoused by or attributed to the Parties to the conflict”.
152 2. A legal definition governed by Article 42 of the 1907 Hague Regulations “Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army. The occupation extends only to the territory where such authority has been established and can be exercised”.
Von List op. cit. “ ” Naletilic ”. The International Law of Occupation op. cit. The Occupation of Enemy Territory The Handbook of Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict 153 lieu in lieu
BYIL 154
Ibid “ YIHL ” “ ” “ ”. op. cit “ ”. op. cit “ ” 155 jus ad bellum jus in bello jus ad bellum “ not only has no impact upon the applicability of international humanitarian law, but it also may not be used to interpret a provision of international humanitarian law” raison d’être
Jus ad Bellum Jus in Bello International Law and Armed Conflicts: Exploring the Fault Lines, Essays in honor of Y. DINSTEIN 156 Substantial relevance of the law of occupation for peace operations106 I. Introduction ad hoc de iure
Accountability of Peace Support Operations International Peaceekeeping xiii the Guardian 157 II. Peace operations “Peacekeeping is a technique designed to preserve the peace, however fragile, where fighting has been halted, and to assist in implementing agreements achieved by the peacemakers. Over the years, peacekeeping has evolved from a primarily military model of observing cease-fires and the separation of forces after inter-state wars, to incorporate a complex model of many elements – military, police and civilian – working together to help lay the foundations for sustainable peace. Peace enforcement involves the application, with the authorization of the Security Council, of a range of coercive measures, including the use of military force. Such actions are authorized to restore international peace and security in situations where the Security Council has determined the existence of a threat to the peace,
158 breach of the peace or act of aggression. The Security Council may utilize, where appropriate, regional organizations and agencies for enforcement action under its authority. ” [o]peration that impartially makes use of diplomatic, civil and military means, normally in support of UN Charter purposes and principles, to restore or maintain peace. ” III. The law of occupation
United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions 159 “Un » territoire est considéré comme occupé lorsqu’ il se trouve placé de fait sous l’ autorité de l’armée ennemie. L’occupation ne s’étend qu’aux territories où cette autorité est établie et en mesure de s’exercer.” “The authority of the legitimate power having in fact passed into the hands of the occupant, the latter shall take all the measures in his power to restore, and ensure, as far as possible, public order and safety, while respecting, unless absolutely prevented, the laws in force in the country.”
160 IV. Hague Regulations
European Journal of International Law 161 V. Geneva Convention IV “those who, at a given moment and in any manner whatsoever, find themselves, in case of a conflict or occupation, in the hands of a Party to the conflict or Occupying Power of which they are not nationals.” 162 the basis of the Convention, proclaiming as it does the principles on which the whole of “Geneva Law” is founded the Parties to the conflict may take such measures of control and security in regard to protected persons as may be necessary as a result of the war de iure
Commentary: the Fourth Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, Revue de Droit Militaire et de Droit de la Guerre Operational International Review of the Red Cross 163 inter alia 164 “Protected persons who are in occupied territory shall not be deprived, in any case or in any manner whatsoever, of the benefits of the present Convention by any change introduced, as the result of the occupation of a territory, into the institutions or government of the said territory, nor by any agreement concluded between the authorities of the occupied territories and the Occupying Power, nor by any annexation by the latter of the whole or part of the occupied territory.”
165 VI. Conclusion de iure de iure
supra 116 supra 118 Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 166
167
International humanitarian law and the administration of territories by the United Nations
168 Administration of territories by the United Nations: is there room for international humanitarian law?
I. Introduction canevalas II. What are the commonalities, and why are they ignored? 169 bona fide III. Where is IHL most likely to play a role in ITAs? a. Several roles for IHL 170 de jure/de facto IV. Is there legal room for IHL given all the other sources of law governing ITAs? 171 172 jus cogens V. Conclusion 173
174 Understanding the international territorial administration accountability deficit: trusteeship and the legitimacy of international organizations
∗∗∗ Introduction “UNMIK is not structured according to democratic principles, does not function in accordance with the rule of law, and does not respect important international human rights norms. The people of Kosovo are therefore deprived of protection of their basic
∗ International Peacekeeping: The Yearbook of International Peace Operations International Territorial Administration: How Trusteeship and the Civilizing Mission Never Went Away, ibid ibid 175 rights and freedoms three years after the end of the conflict by the very entity set up to guarantee them. […]” Trusteeship Colonial trusteeship
Second Annual Report 2001 – 2002 AJIL International Territorial Administration ibid. ibid 176 all political power which is set over men … being wholly artificial, and for so much a derogation from the natural equality of mankind at large, ought to be some way or other exercised ultimately for their benefit. If this is true with regard to every species of political dominion… then such rights, or privileges, or whatever you choose to call them, are all, in the strictest sense, a trust
An Introduction to the Study of International Relations Wardship in International Law, The Question of Aborigines in the Law and Practice of Nations The Acquisition and Government of Backward Territory in International Law: Being a Treatise on the Law and Practice Relating to Colonial Expansion The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa passim Mandates Under the League of Nations The Dilemmas of Trusteeship: Aspects of British Colonial Policy Between the Wars International Mandates and Trusteeship Systems: A Comparative Study , Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World Post-Colonial Studies: The Key Concepts Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention, The Global Covenant: Human Conduct in a World of States A History of Britain, Volume 3: The Fate of Empire 1776 – 2000 Between Anarchy and Society. Trusteeship and the Obligations of Power passim American University Journal of International Law & Policy Harvard International Law Journal Hague Yearbook of International Law passim. International Status of South West Africa, Advisory Opinion ICJ Reports 1950 passim Morality and the Law, The Speeches of the Right Honorable Edmund Burke in the House of 177 “…watch over the preservation of the native tribes, and to care for the improvement of the conditions of their moral and material well-being.” i.e the interests of the inhabitants of these territories are paramount accept as a sacred trust the obligation to promote to the utmost…the well-being of the inhabitants
Commons, and in Westminster-Hall Parliamentary Papers 132 Britain’s Imperial Century, 1815 – 1914 132 ibid Recueil de Droit International The Gentle Civilizer of Nations Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law ibid. Vitoria – Political Writings 132 Imperialism 133 Social & Legal Studies 132 et seq. 178
The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary International Territorial Administration 126 132 passim ; Oppenheim’s International Law Cases and Materials on International Law . 132 ibid. Transactions of the Grotius Society 132 132 179 International Territorial Administration as a form of trusteeship
Imperialism 133 ibid. et seq 133 134 133 dictum International Status of South West Africa, Advisory Opinion ICJ Reports 1950 ibid. International Territorial Administration 126 ibid ibid 180 The progressive internationalization of trusteeship Accountability under trusteeship Humanizing colonialism
ibid ibid 132 “ .” 132 ibid. 132 passim et seq. 181 Requirement of accountability
132 Imperialism 133 132 Ibid Imperialism “ .” AJIL L'Occupation des Territoires sans Maître, 133 Colonialism 1870-1945: An Introduction ibid. Michigan Journal of International Law 182 Accountability in the trusteeship context “Whose opinion should count …? International transitional authorities cannot function as governments answerable primarily to the people whose territories they administer. International trusteeships are not representative democracies…” “… final authority remains with the international presence and it is misleading to suggest otherwise. If the local population had the military and economic wherewithal to provide for their security and economic development then a transitional administration would not have been created. Where a transitional administration is created, its role is – or should be – precisely to undertake military, economic, and political tasks that are beyond existing capacities.” inter alia
The Speeches of the Right Honorable Edmund Burke in the House of Commons, and in Westminster-Hall 132 International Governance of War-Torn Territories: Rule and Reconstruction You, the People: The United Nations, Transitional Administrations, and State-Building 183
International Territorial Administration 126 passim ibid 184 Reviving the Trusteeship Council International oversight of state-conducted trusteeship The Trusteeship Council and ITA
ibid ibid ibid ibid ibid. 185
International Territorial Administration 126 ICLQ The Ultimate Intervention: Revitalising the UN Trusteeship Council for the 21st Century 2005 World Summit Outcome 2005 World Summit Outcome 186 Self-determination as an explanation for the lack of accountability The repudiation of trusteeship ipso facto
International Territorial Administration 126 UNTS UNTS 126 187 “Independence was a matter of political choice and not empirical condition.” “… decolonization abolished the distinction upon which the idea of trusteeship depended. There were no more ‘child-like’ peoples that required guidance in becoming ‘adult’ peoples: everyone was entitled by right to the independence that came with adulthood. Thus it no longer made any sense to speak of a hierarchical world order in which a measure of development or a test of fitness determined membership in the society of states.”
The link with accountability
.” Global Covenant 132 ” 132 Quasi-States 132 Quasi-States 132 132 132 188 The ‘legitimacy’ of international organizations as an explanation for the lack of accountability
Normative ideas of state-conducted trusteeship
The Responsibility to Protect 166 You, the People 155 The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century Ethics & International Affairs International Territorial Administration 126 ibid. Towards Colonial Freedom: Africa in the Struggle Against World Imperialism, passim Imperialism 133 “… 189 “[b]eneath the ‘humanitarian’ and ‘appeasement’ shibboleths of colonial governments, a proper scrutiny leads one to discover nothing but deception, hypocrisy, oppression, and exploitation.”
…” Essays on Colonialism, Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview Imperialism 133 132 e.g 132 178 132 132 Imperialism 133 ibid Histories of the Hanged: Britain’s Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire Imperial Reckoning. The Untold Story of Britain’s Gulag in Kenya Etude sur la situation de l’Etat indépendant du Congo King Leopold’s Legacy: The Congo under Belgian Rule, 1908 – 190 Normative ideas of international organizations
1960 King Leopold’s Ghost, 133 International Territorial Administration 126 et seq. Leiden Journal of International Law United Nations Peace-Keeping: Legal Essays 191
ibid. The Charter of the United Nations. A Commentary 184 EJIL , .” ibid. International Security passim 192 is
166 Reading Humanitarian Intervention: Human Rights and the Use of Force in International Law 193 Conclusion
194 IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW IN PEACE OPERATIONS 195 Working Group 1: Peace operations and the protection of civilians
196 The responsibility to protect: an introduction 1. The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) as described in the ICISS Report: main features “…if humanitarian intervention is, indeed, an unacceptable assault on sovereignty, how should we respond to a Rwanda, to a Srebrenica – to gross and systematic violations of human rights that affect every precept of our common humanity?”. International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty
The Responsibility to Protect - Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty The Humanization of International Law The International Journal of Human Rights Michigan Journal of International Law International Journal of Human Rights Third World Quarterly Military–Civilian Interactions: Intervening in Humanitarian Crises , Harvard Human Rights Law Journal, ; Preventing Future Kosovos and Future Rwandas: The Responsibility to Protect after the 2005 World Summit The United Nations, Peace and Security: From Collective Security to the Responsibility to Protect 197 droit d’ingérence “the question of when, if ever, it is appropriate for States to take coercive – and in particular military – action, against another State for the purpose of protecting people at risk in that other State a long-overdue internationalisation of the human conscience
American Journal of International Law La Responsabilità di Proteggere La responsabilité de protéger La responsabilité de protéger corolla ire ou remise en cause de la souveraineté? et seq. Le droit d’ingérence. Mutation de l’ordre international Rivista di diritto internazionale et seq. SFDI op. cit. 198 the intervention dilemma Rwanda in 1994 laid bare the full horror of inaction That – according to the Report - was a failure of international will – of civic courage – at the highest level Sovereignty has come to signify, in the Westphalian concept, the legal identity of a State in international law
Shake Hands with the Devil. The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda A Problem from Hell. America and the Age of Genocide et seq 199 the organising principle the final symbol of independent sovereign statehood and thus the seal of acceptance into the community of nations
International Law in a Divided World 200 to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war We the peoples of the United Nations incipit sovereignty as control sovereignty as responsibility
An Agenda for Peace op. cit. 201 the security of people – their physical safety, their economic and social well-being, respect for their dignity and worth as human beings, and the protection of their human rights and fundamental freedoms ❏ ❏ ❏ The domestic authority is best placed to take action to prevent problems from turning into potential conflicts When solutions are needed, it is the citizens of a particular State who have the greatest interest and the largest stake in the success of those solutions, in ensuring that the domestic authorities are fully accountable for their actions or inactions in addressing these problems, and in helping to ensure that past problems are not 202 allowed to recur this fallback responsibility is activated when a particular State is clearly either unwilling or unable to fulfil its responsibility to protect or is itself the actual perpetrator of crimes or atrocities; or where people living outside a particular State are directly threatened by actions taking place there any every erga omnes.196 2. Substantial Elements of the R2P the responsibility to prevent the responsibility to react the responsibility to rebuild
erga omnes Interventi delle Nazioni Unite e diritto internazionale Comunità internazionale e obblighi An Introduction to the International Criminal Court The International Criminal Court and National Jurisdiction et seq Global Governance 203 genuinely shock the conscience of mankind just cause large scale loss of life, large scale ‘ethnic cleansing’ remains both defensible in principle and workable and acceptable in practice Right intention Last resort: Proportional means:
op. cit. 204 Reasonable prospects: Right authority 3. The Impact of the R2P on Some Relevant Documents: from Concept to Policy and Law
Le Nazioni Unite 205
3.1 The High-level Panel’s Report to examine the current challenges to peace and security; to consider the contribution which collective action can make in addressing these challenges; to review the functioning of the major organs of the United Nations and the relationship between them and to recommend ways of strengthening the United Nations through reform of its institutions and processes a collective international responsibility to protect, exercisable by the Security Council authorizing military intervention as a last resort, in the event of genocide and other large-scale killing, ethnic cleansing or serious violations of international humanitarian law which sovereign Governments have proved powerless or unwilling to prevent
Address to the General Assembly A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility Rivista di diritto internazionale 206 - the notion of State sovereignty, today (…) clearly carries with it the obligation of a State to protect the welfare of its own peoples and meet its obligations to the wider international community the principles of collective security mean that some portion of those responsibilities should be taken up by the international community, acting in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, to help build the necessary capacity or supply the necessary protection, as the case may be - Collective security and the use of force under Chapter VII and in pursuit of the emerging norm of a collective international responsibility to protect, (the Security Council) can always authorize military action to redress catastrophic internal wrongs if it is prepared to declare that the situation is a “threat to international peace and security”, not especially difficult when breaches of international law are involved 3.2 The UN Secretary-General’s Report ” to embrace the 'responsibility to protect' as a basis for collective action against genocide, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity and agree to act on this responsibility, recognizing that this responsibility lies first and foremost with each individual State, whose duty it is to protect its population, but that if national authorities are unwilling or unable to protect their citizens, then the responsibility shifts to the international community to use diplomatic, humanitarian and other methods to help protect civilian populations, and that if such methods appear insufficient the Security Council may out of necessity decide to take action under the Charter, including enforcement action, if so required
op. cit op. cit In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All 207 “responsibility lies, first and foremost, with each individual State, whose primary raison d’être and duty is to protect its population. But if national authorities are unable or unwilling to protect their citizens, then the responsibility shifts to the international community to use diplomatic, humanitarian and other methods to help protect the human rights and well-being of civilian populations. When such methods appear insufficient, the Security Council may out of necessity decide to take action under the Charter of the United Nations, including enforcement action, if so required.” 3.3. The World Summit Outcome Document each individual State has the responsibility to protect its populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity encourage and help States to exercise this responsibility and support the United Nations in establishing an early warning capability prepared to take collective action, in a timely and decisive manner, through the Security Council, in accordance with the Charter, including Chapter VII, on a case-by-case basis and in cooperation with relevant regional organizations as appropriate prepared to take collective action … through the
2005 World Summit Outcome op. cit. op. cit. I crimini di guerra e contro l’umanità nel diritto internazionale. Lineamenti generali 208 Security Council on a case by case basis We accept that responsibility and will act in accordance with it 3.4. Security Council Resolution n. 1674 (2006), 28th April 2006 reaffirms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity 3.5. The African Union and Regional Practice The Union shall function in accordance with the following principles: (h) The right of the Union to intervene in a Member State pursuant to a decision of the Assembly in respect of grave circumstances, namely war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity The Peace and Security Council shall be guided by the principles enshrined in the Constitutive Act, the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It shall, in particular, be guided by the following principles (…) j. the right of the Union to intervene in a Member State pursuant to a decision of the Assembly in respect of
” 209 grave circumstances, namely war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity, in accordance with Article 4(h) of the Constitutive Act
3.6. The International Court of Justice and the R2P capacity to influence effectively the action of persons likely to commit, or already committing genocide 4. The Problem of the Legal Nature of the R2P: a New Norm, an Emerging Norm, a Policy or simply a New Approach?
Journal of Genocide research 210 une confirmation solennelle (…) de ce qu’on pourrait qualifier la collectivisation de la responsabilité de protéger tous les êtres humains contre les violations les plus graves des droits de l’homme il ne s’agit pas seulement de ne pas reconnaître les situations illégales, mais il faut aussi que chacun agisse positivement pour les faire cesser, en utilisant dans ce but tous les moyens disponibles et juridiquement admissibles
Revue Générale de Droit International Public op. cit. 211 “If the Security Council expressly rejects a proposal for intervention where humanitarian or human rights issues are significantly at stake, or the Council fails to deal with such a proposal within a reasonable time, it is difficult to argue that alternative means of discharging the responsibility to protect can be entirely
op. cit. op. cit. The Yale Law Journal et seq 212 discounted”.224 The ICISS Commission’s response to this dilemma was not to try and establish some alternative basis for the legality of interventions in these situations - we saw our role as not to find alternatives to the Security Council as a source of authority, but to make it work better. We opted instead for a clear political message: if an individual state or ad hoc coalition steps in, fully observes and respects all the necessary criteria of legitimacy, intervenes successfully, and is seen to have done so by world public opinion, then this is likely to have enduringly serious consequences for the stature and credibility of the UN itself. That is pretty much what happened with the U.S. and NATO intervention in Kosovo, and the UN cannot afford to drop the ball too many times on that scale
op. cit. Halting Genocide. Intervention and Legitimacy 213 On peut, sur ce sujet sensible, se rallier aux conclusions d’une grande sagesse de M. Boutros Boutros-Ghali: “il n’y a pas lieu de s’enferrer dans le dilemma respect de la souveraineté – protection des droits de l’homme. L’O.N.U. n’a nul besoin d’une nouvelle controverse idéologique. Ce qui est en jeu, ce n’est pas le droit d’intervention, mais bien l’obligation “collective qu’ont les Etats de porter secours et réparation dans les situations d’urgence où les droits de l’Homme sont en peril” ( ).228 the R2P is a concept, not yet a policy; an aspiration, not yet a reality was built on ideas, ideals and aspirations
, La Comunità Internazionale Droit international public , op. cit. 214 State and governing-elite-based system of rules into a framework designed to protect certain human and community interests
op. cit. erga omnes Customary International Law On the Use of Force ” ISPI Policy Brief 215 un concept aussi nécessaire que dangereux ne rien voir, ne rien entrendre, ne rien dire face aux violations massives des droits de l’homme qui se déroulent devant nos yeux – cela serait immoral
Recalling also Decides La responsabilité de protéger 216 opinio iuris diuturnitas opinio iuris diuturnitas evidence of a general practice diplomatic correspondence, policy statements, press releases, the opinions of official legal advisers, official manuals on legal questions, e.g. manuals of military law, executive decisions and practices, orders to naval forces etc., comments by governments on drafts produced by the International Law Commission, state legislation, international and national judicial decisions, recitals in treaties and other international instruments, a pattern of treaties in the same form, the practice of international organs, and resolutions relating to legal questions in the United Nations General Assembly we the peoples “Because the Hutu and Tutsi had lived intermingled and, in many instances, intermarried, the outbreak of killing forced Hutu and Tutsi friends and relatives into life-altering decisions about whether or not to desert their loved ones in order to save their own lives. At Mugonero Church in the town of Kibuye, two Hutu sisters, each married to a Tutsi husband, faced such a choice. One of the women decided to die with her husband. The other, who hoped to save the lives of her eleven children, chose to leave. Because her husband was Tutsi, her children had been categorized as Tutsi and thus were technically forbidden to leave. But the machete-wielding Hutu attackers had assured the woman that the children would be permitted to depart safely if she agreed to accompany them. When the woman stepped out of the church, however, she saw the assailants butcher eight of the
Principles of Public International Law op. cit. 217 eleven children. The youngest, a child of three years old, pleaded for his life after seeing his brothers and sisters slain. ”, he said, But the killers, unblinking, struck him down”
218 Protection of civilians in peace operations, or the “operationalisation” of the responsibility to protect
The Responsibility to Protect: Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and for All, 219
The Impossible Mandate: Military Preparedness, the Responsibility to Protect and Modern Peace Operations, 220 - - - - - - -
The Responsibility to Protect 221 under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations to ensure the protection of civilians, including humanitarian personnel, under imminent threat of physical violence to use all necessary means, within its capacity and in the areas where its armed units are deployed all necessary means
The Impossible Mandate? Ibid 222 Forces may use up to deadly force to protect civilians when competent local authorities are not in a position to do so up to
Ibid The Responsibility to Protect, 223 The responsibility to protect and international humanitarian law
224 225 shall be undertaken inter alia
226
Working Group 2: Peace operations and detention
227 Right to detain during peace operations: some legal and operational issues Kambai Interahamwe chapeau fora Kambai 228 ad hoc. ad hoc 229 Chapeau Delalic ad hoc 230 231 232 tour de force ad hoc
233 Detention in peace operations: a practical approach
Centre de doctrine d’emploi des forces, Forces terrestres Chef du Bureau Recherche, Division Recherche Retour d’Expérience “More and more often, our armies intervene in complex situations in which positive laws do not always give all the answers. Military ethics and professionalism thus become fundamental in decision-making. Military ethics are primarily a question of culture but also of experience. Here we come to the heart of what makes up an army. There is a duty to teach the rules of conduct to all. At the same time, there is the responsibility to forge strong consciences within individuals. (…) There can be no compromise in the values of an army; its ethics are not flexible, but are the cornerstone of every soldier’s conscience and actions.”
Introduction 234
I. The framework in which Armed Forces are used - - - - Being a member of a military organisation: 235 Being under responsible command Respect for the rules and customs of war Distinguishing from the civilian population 236
jus in bello - 237 II. Persons captured during peacekeeping operations or peacebuilding operations
- - - - - - - - - - 238 Five categories of prisoners can be defined 245 Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 Category 5 III. The responsibility of the command over captured persons savoir-faire savoir-être -
239 - - - - - Nevertheless, this does not change anything substantial in the treatment that must be afforded by the French military the law does not always have the last word absolute good and the absolute rule strive towards the good 240 Treatment of a captured person or of a prisoner. - - - - Conclusion
241 242 “…Those who think that the laws of armed conflicts should be a subject for deliberation while action itself attaches to concrete realities are extremely misguided and are following the wrong path.”
243 The Copenhagen Process on the handling of detainees in international military operations
244 245 ad hoc ad hoc 246 247 248
Working Group 3: Peace operations and the repression of international humanitarian law violations
249 Introduction Peace Operations and the Repression of International Humanitarian Law Violations. 250 crucial ad hoc ad hoc giants without arms and legs need artificial limbs to walk and work jurisdiction without territory ad hoc Blaškić shall cooperate with the International Tribunal shall comply without undue delay with any request for assistance or an order issued by a Trial
EJIL 251 Chamber ad hoc ad hoc ad hoc 252 in absentia the best system of criminal law is the one which never needs to be applied the most desirable peace forces are those which will never need to report violations of international humanitarian law
253 The role of peace forces in searching for persons charged with war crimes I. The History of Using Peacekeepers to Carry Out Arrests
254 serious criminal offenses
255 take all necessary measures against all those responsible for the armed attacks [that had left twenty- four UN peacekeepers dead] ... including to secure the investigation of their actions and their arrest and detention for prosecution, trial and punishment comply with any order or request of the [ICTY] for the arrest, detention, surrender of or access to persons …
256 who are accused of violations within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal required comply without undue delay with any request for assistance or an order issued by a Trial Chamber, including … the arrest and detention of persons [and] the surrender or transfer of the accused to the [ICTY] considered to be the application of an enforcement measure under Chapter VII of the Charter
Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to Paragraph 2 of Security Council Resolution 808 (1993) 257 to apprehend and detain former President Charles Taylor in the event of a return to Liberia and to transfer him or facilitate his transfer to Sierra Leone for prosecution before the Special Court for Sierra Leone cooperate in national and international efforts to bring to justice perpetrators of grave violations of human rights and international humanitarian law.
see also Twenty-third report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 258 to take the necessary action could II. The Legal Basis for Peacekeepers’ Arrest Powers urged
Letter dated 5 June 2007 from the Secretary-General to the President of the Security Council 259 bis “[s]eek the cooperation of any State or intergovernmental organization or arrangement in accordance with its respective competence and/or mandate “[e]nter into such arrangements or agreements, not inconsistent with this Statute, as may be necessary to facilitate the cooperation of a State, intergovernmental organization or person
Prosecutor v. Mrksić et al. Id. Id. 260 ratione personae the [European Convention on Human Rights] cannot be interpreted in a manner which would subject the acts and omissions of Contracting Parties which are covered by UNSC Resolutions and occur prior to or in the course of such missions, to the scrutiny of the Court
Agim Behrami and Bekir Behrami v. France Ruzhdi Saramati v. France, Germany and Norway Id. 261 III. The Future: Peacekeepers Making Arrests for the ICC? tour d’horizon
262 Peacekeeping operations and the International Criminal Court265
I. Introduction
263 indirectly 264 II. Part IX Cooperation and the ICC-UN Agreement ad hoc in accordance with the relevant procedure under the law of the requested State and, unless prohibited by such law, in the manner specified in the request, including following any procedure outlined therein or permitting persons specified in the request to be present at and assist in the execution process 265 obligation of cooperation and coordination III. A case study of cooperation between the ICC and a peacekeeping operation: the MONUC Memorandum of Understanding cooperate with efforts to ensure that those responsible for serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law are brought to justice, while working closely with the relevant agencies of the United Nations political process foreign combatants 266 authorizes MONUC to use all necessary means to fulfil its mandate in the Ituri district and, as it deems it within its capabilities, in North and South Kivu 267 IV. Challenges and future possibilities 1. The protection of confidential information per se vis-à-vis ad hoc 268 subject to the provisions of Rule 70 2. The relationship between conflict resolution initiatives and justice 269 3. Jurisdiction of the Court over crimes against peacekeepers welcomes the inclusion [of such attacks] as a war crime in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court personnel, installations, material, units or vehicles involved in a humanitarian assistance or peacekeeping mission in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations 270 V. Conclusion
271 Preventing and reporting violations of international humanitarian law
272 273 ad hoc Well, report yes always report! Now that you have heard what the Secretary of Defence has just said do you still say what you just said? Yes, I do! That’s the rule I would go on 274 275
276
Working Group 4: Responsibility and compensation for damages caused during peace operations
277 Introduction "Responsibility and compensation for damages caused during peace operations". - - - - - 278 Behrami and Saramati ratione personae inter alia Behrami and Saramati 279 Operational command versus organic command: who is in charge? 280 de facto de facto 281 de facto Chargé d’Affaires 282
283 Violations of international humanitarian law committed during peace operations and individual criminal responsibility
ad hoc 284 ad hoc 285 286 287 288 ad hoc ad hoc The UN Secretariat does not and can not condone criminal conduct by its officials and experts on mission. Criminal conduct by UN personnel puts into question the core values of the secretariat and directly affects the world body’s activities and essential missions. Although it concerns a very small minority of UN personnel, the problem is significant ad hoc 289 ad hoc comprehensive
290
RELATIONS BETWEEN HUMANITARIAN ORGANISATIONS AND PEACE FORCES
291 Civil-military co-operation: common sense or pandora’s box?
Introduction I. The evolving nature of humanitarian response 292 per capita per capita II. The end of innocence for humanitarian organizations 293 sine qua non III. Some pre-conditions for progress 294
295 La médiatisation des opérations de paix sert-elle le respect du DIH ? 296 nouvelles formes de la médiatisation des conflits leurs implications sur les différents acteurs humanitaires en particulier les ONG difficultés croissantes que pose la protection juridique des journalistes 1) Les nouvelles formes de la médiatisation des conflits 297 Abu Graib - - 298 Facebook You Tube » MySpace » la politique et les procédures de
299 sécurité pour les opérations (OPSEC) Les opinions ou croyances, notamment philosophiques, religieuses ou politiques, sont libres. Elles ne peuvent cependant être exprimées qu’en dehors du service et avec la réserve exigée par l’état militaire. Cette règle s’applique à tous les moyens d’expression. Elle ne fait pas obstacle au libre exercice des cultes dans les enceintes militaires et à bord des bâtiments de la flotte. Indépendamment des dispositions du code pénal relatives à la violation du secret de la Défense nationale et du secret professionnel, les militaires doivent faire preuve de discrétion pour tous les faits, informations ou documents dont ils ont connaissance dans l’exercice ou à l’occasion de l’exercice de leurs fonctions. En dehors des cas expressément prévus par la loi, les militaires ne peuvent être déliés de cette obligation que par décision expresse de l’autorité dont ils dépendent. L’usage de moyens de communication et d’information, quels qu’ils soient, peut être restreint ou interdit pour assurer la protection des militaires en opération, l’exécution de leur mission ou la sécurité des activités militaires 80 % des informations sur les opérations peuvent être obtenues ouvertement et légalement
300 2) Les ONG, à la fois otages et bénéficiaires de la médiatisation beyond the radar screen 3) L’ambiguité nouvelle de la situation du correspondant dans les conflits 301 Un cas particulier est celui des correspondants qui sont insérés dans les unités des forces armées, utilisant leurs logistiques et les suivant dans leurs opérations. L’insertion de journalistes au sein d’unités combattantes est une pratique ancienne qui remonte à la deuxième guerre mondiale. Elle a été largement utilisée lors du conflit vietnamien. Cette formule a été également utilisée en juin 1999 lors de l’entrée des forces françaises au Kosovo. « couverture médiatique des opérations aura désormais dans les années qui viennent un impact majeur et durable sur les opérations, qu’il s’agisse de l’opinion aux Etats-Unis, de celle des alliés de la coalition, conditionnant leur participation, et sur l’opinion des populations du pays dans lequel nous conduisons les opérations La perception de ces dernières peut affecter le coût et la durée de notre engagement ». nous avons besoin de présenter les faits – positifs ou négatifs – avant que d’autres s’informent dans des médias où figurent désinformation et déformation, comme ils continueront certainement de le poursuivre. Nos soldats sur le terrain doivent faire état de notre version des faits et seuls les commandants sur le théâtre peuvent faire en sorte que les médias aient accès aux faits en même temps que nos troupes. Il faut donc faciliter l’accès des médias nationaux et internationaux auprès de nos forces y compris celles d’entre elles engagées au sol. A cette fin, il convient d’insérer les médias au sein des unités. Ils vivront, travailleront, et se déplaceront en tant qu’éléments des unités où ils sont assignées afin de faciliter au maximum une couverture en profondeur de l’action de nos forces ».
public affairs guidance on embedding media during possible future opérations/deployments in the US Central Command (CENTOM) area of responsibility’’. 302 pour la sécurité des journalistes comme des forces un certain nombre de règles de comportement qui n’impliquent en aucun cas que soient bloquées des commentaires critiques, embarrassant, négatif ou simplement dubitatifs » le détail des forces en deçà du niveau du régiment, le nombre et l’identification des appareils, la localisation précise des unités , les indications concernant de futures opérations ou des opérations annulées, celles concernant les mesures de protection des forces, les règles d’engagement, les méthodes de collectes du renseignement, tout ce qui concerne les activités des forces spéciales, les images et identités des prisonniers ennemis, les précisions concernant les victimes des combats au sein des forces alliées jusqu’à notification officielle. Les responsables militaires devront expliquer les raisons de la sensibilité de certaines informations et en cas de manquements le problème sera évoqué avec l’organisation à laquelle appartient le journaliste inséré, qui pourra accepter son retrait »
303 le Conseil de sécurité examinera la question de la protection des journalistes en période de conflit armé exclusivement au titre de la question intitulée « Protection des civils en période de conflit armé - - 304
305 REPORTS OF THE WORKING GROUPS ON THE APPLICABILITY OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW TO PEACE OPERATIONS
306 Working Group 1 – Peace operations and protection of civilians
Rapporteur: Prof. Edoardo Greppi, University of Turin; Member IIHL ( ‘droit d'ingérence’ the question of when, if ever, it is appropriate for States to take coercive - and in particular military - action, against another State for the purpose of protecting people at risk in that other State erga omnes. shock the conscience of mankind remains both defensible in principle and workable and acceptable in practice 307 A More Secure World: our Shared Responsibility’ "In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All" an emerging norm "prepared to take collective action ... through the Security Council" "on a case by case basis" We accept that responsibility and will act in accordance with it reaffirms the provisions 01, paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document 308 State and governing-elite-based system of rules into a framework designed to protect certain human and community interests 309 - - - - - - 310 if we want to ensure that coercive peace operations are, in their conceptualisation, detailed planning and on the ground execution consistent with IHL, we still have a long way to go - - 311 not excessive in relation to the direct military advantage anticipated jus ad bellum jus in bello
312 Working Group 2 – Peace operations and detention
Rapporteur: Mr Dominique Arpin, First Secretary, Canadian Joint Delegation to NATO
ad hoc 313 - - - - - - - - Inter alia 314 ad hoc
315 Working Group 3 – Peace operations and the repression of international humanitarian law violations
Rapporteur: Prof. Fausto Pocar; President, International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, The Hague; Vice-President IIHL
ad hoc enforcement 316 may 317 may
318 Working Group 4 - Responsibility and compensation for damages caused during peace operations
Rapporteur: Ms. Maria Telalian, Legal Advisor, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Greece.
‘ ’ ’ 319 Behrami and Saramati 320 321
322
323
IMPLEMENTATION OF INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW IN PEACE OPERATIONS
324
The teaching, dissemination and implementation of international humanitarian law in peace operations
325 General Introduction
“The training plan for Operation Cordon [Somalia] did not adequately provide for sufficient and appropriate training in relation to several non-combat skills that are essential for peacekeeping, including the nature of UN peacekeeping and the role of the peacekeeper; the Law of Armed Conflict, including arrest and detention procedures; training in use of force policies, including mission-specific rules of engagement”; (…)
Ausbildungsmethodik 326 327 General Consideration 1 The teaching, dissemination and implementation of international humanitarian law must be part of the general training (fit for mission) of armed and security forces as well as of civilian personnel being deployed to peace operations. The High Contracting Parties undertake, in time of peace as in time of armed conflict, to disseminate the Conventions and this Protocol as widely as possible in their respective countries and, in particular, to include the study thereof in their programmes of military instruction Any military or civilian authorities who, in time of armed conflict, assume responsibilities in respect of the application of the Conventions and this Protocol shall be fully acquainted with the text thereof make the dissemination of international humanitarian law a matter of command responsibility within the armed forces and, as required by international obligations, ensure dissemination of IHL to the civilian population by including it in the educational curriculum Training in the Law of Armed Conflict General Consideration 2 During the preparation for a peace operation, special aspects of the legal
International Humanitarian Law in Situations of Acute Crisis 328 framework271 must be part of the mission specific preparatory training (fit for the specific mission). The Chief of the Defence Staff establish mechanisms to ensure that all members of units preparing for deployment on peace support operations receive sufficient and appropriate training on the local culture, history, and politics of the theatre of operations, together with refresher training on negotiation and conflict resolution and the Law of Armed Conflict, as well as basic language training if necessary countries whose militaries frequently participate in international peacekeeping operations will need to have more advanced law of war training to ensure smooth cooperation and coordination with peacekeeping units from other countries
Law of war Training 329 ius ad bellum 330 peacekeeping is not a job for soldiers, but only a soldier can do it General consideration 3 The most important topics for pre-deployment training include: a. non-violent means of de-escalation (techniques); b. use of force: i. self defence, ii. while carrying out the mandate; c. arrest and detention; d. protection of vulnerable groups according to the mandate; and e. violations of international law and duty to sanction.
331 General consideration 4 Training must conform to internationally recognized standards and benchmarks; there is a need for model training modules and training exercises; and due to lack of experienced trainers in certain nations, there is also a need for exchange of senior trainers. General consideration 5 Training must continue during the mission as far as the operation permits.
332 Conclusions
333 The ICRC perspective Relevance and Integration of IHL for Peace Support Operations (PSO) Forces 334 Integration of IHL into Doctrine Observance by United Nations Forces of International Humanitarian Law UN Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines 335 Integration of IHL into Education and Training 336 Effective Sanctions for Violations of IHL 337
Conclusion: ICRC and Peacekeeping Forces - Shared Concerns
338 The United Nations perspective the authority to protect civilians under imminent threat of physical violence 339 hors de combat 340 341
342 The NATO perspective 343 344 345 346
347 The European Union perspective 1. Instruction/training inter alia,
348 2. Dissemination inter alia, 3. Implementation applicable applicable
349 Conclusion
Official Journal 350
CONCLUSIONS OF THE ROUND TABLE
351 Concluding remarks
Peace operations, an operational and a legal concept "objet juridique non identifié"
The applicability of IHL to peace operations: a settled issue? 352 de lege lata Interaction of the legal regimes in peace operations 353 The law of occupation: a corpus juris relevant for peace operations jus ad bellum jus in bello 354 IHL and the administration of territories by the UN de facto de jure Working groups WG 1: Peace operations and the protection of civilians: Working Group (WG) 2 Peace operations and detention: 355 WG3: Peace operations and the repression of IHL violations: ad hoc WG 4: Responsibility and compensation for damages caused during peace operations: Behrami Saramati Relations between humanitarian organisations and peace forces 356
357 Closing address
- 358 - - - - - - - - - 359 -
360
MESSAGES
361
362
363
364
365 Pontificium Consilium de Iustitia et Pace inter arma caritas” 366 "Anche nei secoli passati, la visione cristiana dell'uomo ha ispirato /a tendenza a mitigare la tradizionale ferocia della guerra ... Ha reso un contributo decisivo all'affermazione '" delle norme di umanità e giustizia che sono ora, in forma debita mente modernizzata ... il nucleo delle nostre odierne convenzioni internazionali" "Non è infatti concepibile una pace autentica e duratura senza lo sviluppo di ogni persona e popolo:… "lo sviluppo è il nuovo nome della pace" ... Né è pensabile una riduzione degli armamenti se prima non si elimina la violenza alla radice, se prima, cioè, l'uomo non si orienta decisamente alla ricerca della pace" Inter arma caritas
367 Alassane TIGRI
368 in situ 369 370 371
372
373 ACRONYMS 374 375 376
377
378 379 380
381 382 383 384
385 386 387
388 389 390 391 392 393 394
395
396 397 398
399 400 401 402 403
404
405