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Civic : Three Early American Political Association Committees and Their Relevance for Our Times

Hindy Lauer Schachter, New Jersey Institute of Technology

n 1996 , then-presi- pointed, chaired by Harvard profes- contains no period when the scope I dent of the American Political Sci- sor William Bennett Munro.3 Some and content of elementary- and ence Association appointed a Task idea of the caliber of group mem- high-school satisfied academic Force on Civic Education for the bers can be gleaned from the fact political . From the turn of Next Century. The Task Force was that each committee contained at the century to the twenties all the presented as a response to a specifi- least one future APSA president. APSA-sponsored investigations of cally modern problem: the loss of After the third group reported in precollegiate civics education ex- in the preceding 25 1922, the topic of civic education pressed dissatisfaction with the years. Its creation emerged from seems to have become less salient reigning educational models and un- "deep concerns about the viability of for the . A hiatus of ease with the type of citizens they in America" emanating over 15 years ensued before the were creating. from the current decline in political APSA appointed a fourth task force A speaker at the 1905 APSA ses- participation with a substantial gap in 1939 (American Political Science sion on education said flatly "the opening between older and younger Association Committee on Coopera- beginner in political science brings citizens' participation patterns ("Civ- tion with the National Council for to his work only a very meager ic Education for the Next Century" the 1939). equipment" (Schaper 1906, 266). 1996). The Task Force was to ad- Reviewing the work of the three Having tested students dress issues of civic education and early committees yields some in- at ten universities, Schaper labeled engagement by developing instruc- sights for the contemporary debate the general level of knowledge ex- tional resources for upper-division on civic engagement. In several re- ceedingly low and proposed im- high school and lower-division col- spects these analyses provement for its "salutary effect on lege students. prefigure the strategies current citizenship" (288). Civic education was an important scholars see as cutting-edge ap- The Committee of Five asked rhe- APSA concern from the organiza- proaches to using education to com- torically tion's founding in 1903 up until the bat apathy and cynicism. To the ex- early 1920s. For the first two de- tent that these approaches actually Is it not a curious fact that though are useful, we can only gain by ex- our schools are largely instituted, cades after its inception, the Associ- supported and operated by the ation played an influential role in ploring early pleas for reform. To , yet the study of analyzing the problem of adequate the extent that the early ideas were American government in the training for citizenship at the ele- implemented but were unsuccessful schools and colleges is the last mentary and secondary level. The at changing civic engagement, we subject to receive adequate atten- 1905 Annual Meeting in Baltimore might want to ask why this lack of tion? (American Political Science featured a section devoted to the progress occurred. Association Committee of Five 1908, 221) topic. A year later, a Committee of In this article I analyze the early Five was appointed to investigate 1 committees in terms of their view of This Committee linked poor prepa- high-school government instruction. civic education at the time they were ration at the early levels to the In 1911, a Committee of Seven re- 2 writing and their goals and strategies plethora of bad politicians and weak ceived a similar charge. At the 1920 for reform: What problems did the public servants its members believed Meeting, a third task force was ap- early committees see in the teaching dominated turn-of-the-century of civics? What were their aims in American government. trying to improve teaching? How did Hindy Lauer Schachter is a professor The Committee of Seven sent a of at New Jersey Institute of they intend to reach their objectives? survey to elementary and high Technology. She is the author of Reinvent- Answering these questions will per- schools and found that they devoted ing Government or Reinventing Ourselves mit comparisons with contemporary insufficient time to civics (American (SUNY Press, 1997). Her earlier works reform efforts. Political Science Association Com- include Frederick Taylor and the Public mittee on Instruction 1916). J. Lynn Administration Community: A Reevaluation Barnard (1916), a member of the (SUNY Press, 1989) and Public Agency No Golden Age Communication: Theory and Practice (Nel- Committee, lamented that schools son Hall, 1983). She can be reached at Even a cursory glance at the early did not educate efficient citizens [email protected]. materials shows that our century even though more young people

PSOnline www.apsanet.org 631 wanted to practice good citizenship Munro (1915) argued that active cussing it in the context of strategies than in earlier times. citizens are the first essential of effi- for instruction in civics. The 1920 Committee character- cient administration. A second omission deals with ized high-school civics instruction as The Committee of Seven is the tone. No report whispers any doubt superficial and ill-organized. It con- most emphatic in keeping to the ori- that this particular committee could cluded that, at best, courses handed entation of active citizenship. This make a difference. These reports students a smattering of unrelated committee shows some debt to the abound in optimism. They exemplify facts that prepared them poorly for New York City Bureau of Municipal can-do . Every pro- citizenship ("The Study of Civics" Research's concept of the efficient nouncement affirms that educational 1922). citizen who, viewed as an owner of improvement can change civic life. the public service, cares for the en- For the writers of these reports, terprise as a whole and will not sim- school matters. No second thoughts, Education for Citizenship ply use civic knowledge for his or no hesitations appear about whether The early political scientists ob- her own selfish interests (New York proper instruction at the elementary City Bureau of Municipal Research and secondary levels can have key jected to inadequate education be- 4 cause they believed that better in- 1908-1913). But the Committee lim- repercussions on adult behavior. struction would produce better its the role of the citizen in a way citizens. Their primary focus was to that does not appear in the early increase the pupil's desire and ability Bureau literature by making refer- Experiential Learning to perform citizenship duties. As one ence to a dichotomy between All of the task forces inveigh Committee of Seven member ex- and technique. In the Committee's against rote learning; the practice of plained, "From the beginning to the view, everyone can (and should) get having students memorize passages end of teaching, the chief aim should involved on issues of policy; but citi- from and textbooks be to get the child to perform his zens must defer to experts on techni- met universal disdain. The Commit- part in civic life" (Hill 1914, viii). cal issues. Without defining the tee of Five spends a good part of its Modern political scientists are boundaries of the technical, the report arguing that classes split between those who want to cre- Committee's report goes so far as to are no place to teach civics. They ate a polity of active citizens working say that in technical matters "no one recommended that schools establish but an expert is qualified to form an for the community (e.g., Barber separate government courses that of any whatever" 1984) and those who posit the citi- offered practical education to enable zen as passive customer intent on (American Political Science Associa- tion Committee on Instruction 1916, people to meet their civic duties. individual satisfaction (e.g., Osborne Such government courses would bor- and Gaebler 1992; Office 34). Citizens have to learn humility in the face of expertise. row natural science . of the President 1993, 1994). The Students would be sent into the three early committees all upheld Any reader of the early literature community to observe phenomena the importance of active citizenship. must be struck with two omissions. and report on them: Instead of read- They wanted to use education to The first relates to gender. Both the ing about the history of juries, stu- produce engaged adults who would Committee of Five and the Commit- dents would watch a jury get impan- act for the good of the state and the tee of Seven met at a time when eled. entire society. A member of the women could not vote. Committee The Committee of Seven report Committee of Five wrote that members cite participation in elec- refers readers to an article by Wil- tions as an important citizen duty. liam Allen who had worked at the there is no satisfaction in life so Because the reports say that educa- Bureau of Municipal Research and great as devotion to the welfare of tion is supposed to prepare people the state. All private satisfaction who argued that schools should seems small when compared with to carry out civic duties, it is odd teach languages and civics in the that of a man who has gained the that no mention is made of how fe- same manner: confidence of his fellow-citizens males' exclusion from fulfilling this through honest action and per- obligation might affect their school- The way to study German is to sonal sacrifice. (Reinsch 1914, iv-v) ing. The omission is particularly sur- begin to talk and read German, prising because the Committee of not to talk and read English about One member of the Committee of German.... So the way to teach Five report briefly discusses differ- civics ... is to give boys and girls Seven noted, ences in the number of male and "chores" or tasks that compel them to feel for civic ideals—i.e., the good citizen in the completest female high school teachers and to discharge and not merely read sense is one who does not allow principals in different states, and the about civic duties. (1916, 154) himself to become so engrossed in Committee of Seven contained a the process of making a living as female member, Mabel Hill, who The way to mold citizenship be- to lose sight of those other duties was an administrator at various girls' havior, according to the Committee of good citizenship that he owes schools. These committees knew that ... to society generally and above of Seven, is to give young people a gender was a salient educational chance to act like good citizens. all to the state" (Barnard 1916, variable, yet they refrained from dis- 30-31). Even at the elementary level this

632 PS September 1998 means cooperating with civic organi- sioner render, and whose business Analysis and Conclusions zations or government agencies on is it to read them? Why? (National projects such as beautifying empty Education Association 1915, 23) In several respects, the problems lots (an early exposition of service noted by early committees and the learning). It means having pupils For a unit on education, these solutions they suggested are similar to problems and solutions at issue work on projects in groups where questions are asked: they have to interact with each other today. The early committees saw a to make important decisions (Munro polity with too many apathetic citi- What changes have been made in zens who were unwilling to engage 1922). your high school course of study in One member of the Committee of the last ten years?... What public questions; such apathy is an Five endorsed forming "Boys' Re- changes would you suggest in the impetus for concern in our own publics" during summer vacations. In content and methods of teaching time. The early committees expected this attempt to teach the meaning of the studies you are taking to make that experiential education involving cooperation, sixty to eighty boys them more useful to you? (29) service projects would help correct would rent land near the town and the problem; that idea is popular in subdivide it among themselves, with An issue of contention among contemporary literature as well (e.g., each boy growing the crops he likes. the reports is whether teachers Barber and Battistoni 1993). Two of the early committees urged in- The boys would elect a seven- to should focus students' attention on creased educational emphasis on the nine-person council to make rules, a national, state, or local govern- mayor and police force to enforce local community; Ostrom's 1996 call ments. Both the Committee of Five for a task force also suggests that them, and a judge to preside over a and the Committee of Seven favor quasi-court in case of disputes (Re- increased concern with local entities the local option. These reports as- is educationally useful. insch 1914). The boys would arrange sume a child's key interests lie their own government. For the first This congruence at the level of close to home. A national focus content cannot eliminate intergenera- time in their lives, would involves too many abstractions. matter on a daily basis; they would tional differences in scope and style. Since local examples are more The early reports might not be con- be forced to see how different politi- likely to be concrete (e.g., the po- cal actions affected them personally genial to some modern readers be- lice officer on our block, the sanita- and how they affected the whole cause they cover only a part of the tion workers who keep our neigh- boys' community. Such an action- material contemporary educators centered approach was seen as re- borhood clean), they will be more understand to fall under the rubric quiring a change in teacher training, likely to elicit greater empathy and of civics and they cover that material away from instructing potential civics interest and spur greater behav- in a determined tone that might teachers in history alone and to- ioral change. In addition, local and seem strident to some people. wards giving them a better under- state were seen as the The modern view is that a civics standing of government. ones that largely determined the course has three goals; it should in- J. Lynn Barnard, a member of the conditions under which people crease student knowledge about poli- Committee of Seven, also on a lived. tics, make pupils better citizens, and special committee of the National The Munro Committee of 1920 increase their understanding of their Education Association's Commission opposed a local focus. Its report sees and the rights of others (see, on the Reorganization of Secondary the national government playing the for example, Langton and Jennings Education. That body published con- key political role in reality. This dra- 1968). The early documents elimi- crete strategies for fostering student matic shift in emphasis might have nate almost all concern with individ- interest in activism at the local level proceeded from the national govern- ual rights. Their worry about in- that could be used by classroom ment's assuming an increased role creasing pupil knowledge comes not teachers without much change. For a over time, but this hardly seems as a stand-alone concern but as a result of their authors' shared belief unit on water supply, the committee likely. It is doubtful that a relevant that such an increase would change suggests asking pupils these ques- shift in local/state/national functions tions: pupil behavior in ways that would occurred in less than ten years. resonate into adulthood. Members More likely, the preference changed of the early committees were fervent If you suspect that your water sup- because the Munro Committee met ply may be polluted, how will you in their attempt to promote active proceed to verify your suspicions? shortly after America's participation citizenship. If you find that it is polluted, what in World War I and the other com- Modern readers might prefer a should you do about it? What mittees finished their work before broader and more nuanced message, should your father do about it? ... America entered the conflict. Under- one that took more account of rights If your community needs a new standing defense and international water system, how may a citizen and that addressed possible prob- proceed to arouse issues loomed larger as civic duties lems in implementing a shift to more in the matter? ... What kinds of for a committee whose members active citizenship. These disparities reports should a water commis- were touched by a major war. in tone and scope, however, do not

PSOnline www.apsanet.org 633 eliminate the congruities that do ap- 1929). A civics curriculum anchored and incompetence. The lesson is that pear in strategies for developing bet- in service and civic experience never savvy folk know that they cannot ter citizens. took hold. Schools continued to make a difference; only fools get in- At the very least, acquaintance teach about civics; using Allen's volved. If these are teacher attitudes, with the early reports may save con- analogy, we might say that the Eng- even curricula that formally empha- temporary writers from the hubris of lish conversations simply concen- size service would not engender a thinking they have invented a new trated on modern German rather love of civic engagement. path to reconstruct education. In than the Medieval variety. The contemporary political science some important strategic aspects, the The lack of strong change can community is not united behind the Progressive Era efforts are congruent prod us to question the political idea of active citizenship. For those with the guiding principles of current savvy of our organizational predeces- scholars and teachers who hold to a attempts at reform. It seems similar sors. The political scientists living in customer model of citizenship, a lack requests for educational change have the first two decades of this century of civic engagement may not be cru- been raised off and on in the politi- considered themselves the experts of cial. The early committees do not cal science community for over their day in the workings of govern- write as if they expect dissent within eighty years. ment. Yet, that expertise did not their own professional ranks; mod- Recognizing this redundancy pre- extend to knowing how to proceed ern educators echoing early sugges- cipitates the question: Why are to effectively change school systems. tions about cleaning up lots might problems of civic engagement still The current interest in educational find some of their own colleagues around? If education can correct the issues opens the question of whether chastising them for coercing students problem, and experiential education more intensive service-oriented cur- to perform service rather than allow- and local focus are the ideas that ricula can be developed in our era. ing them to spend that time in pri- work, why have they not worked al- It is hard to answer this question vate-sector jobs. Neither at the uni- ready? How could Langton and Jen- with the unalloyed optimism of the versity nor high school level are nings (1968) find that completing a early committee members. The re- teachers necessarily going to agree high-school civics course barely af- sults of their efforts remind us that philosophically with the idea of man- fected a pupil's political knowledge interesting ideas do not necessarily datory service. This lack of disciplin- or participative orientation? get implemented in the way their ary unanimity could sabotage efforts We can discard some answers im- originators envisioned. Repeated at change. mediately. Failure to have an impact calls for the same educational re- The issue of how the current was not due to APSA's distancing forms seem standard in many disci- APSA's practical political skills stack itself from K-12 teachers and admin- plines. A recent study of efforts to up against those of its Progressive istrators. A member of the precolle- reform introductory courses Era predecessors must also be ad- giate constituency sat on both the shows waves of commissions and dressed. If our professional associa- Committee of Five and the Commit- task forces repeatedly making almost tion has an appetite for change, can tee of Seven. identical proposals. From 1956 to it persuade local educational author- Failure did not result from a lack the present, each succeeding com- ities to undergo the dislocation of of concrete instructional and assess- mission identified the same problems significant reform? Does the modern ment techniques relating to active as its predecessor and then offered Association have a track record of education. While the committee re- similar suggestions for reform—al- spearheading such ground-level ports themselves are too short to most as if it were working in a his- change? The record would seem to contain many specific suggestions, torical vacuum (Coleman, Holcomb, indicate that the earlier groups had they reference related materials that and Rigden 1998). Large closer ties to the K-12 administrative offer classroom teachers detailed are often dominated by inertia, so world; both the Committee of Five guidance. that change of great magnitude is and the Committee of Seven in- very difficult. Reforming any en- A possible answer is that schools cluded representatives of this con- trenched educational practice seems stituency, while the current Task implemented the early reform pre- to be difficult. scriptions in a weak rather than a Force on Civic Education for the strong form and only intense shifts In our field, a unique additional Next Century is composed com- in education could have increased obstacle may be that many teachers pletely of university-level academics. civic engagement. An observer in the themselves are politically apathetic The historical inclusion of precolle- 1920s reported that the early APSA and cynical. Such teachers may im- giate administrators would seem to committees had some impact on civ- plicitly impart these attitudes to stu- suggest that, if all other relevant fac- ics textbooks and teachers' presenta- dents regardless of the formal course tors are equal, the earlier groups tion of material, spurring greater offerings. Newmann (1987) argues should have had an easier time get- coverage of the way governments that schools often foster apathy by ting their points across than would actually worked and less discussion conducting a curriculum of cynical the current task force. of the history of states and constitu- realism wherein students are implic- Ironically, for all their optimism, tions, but getting change beyond that itly told that democratic ideals are the early reports send us the cau- point was always difficult (Brown constantly violated through greed tionary message that using education

634 PS September 1998 to change civic participation is more apathy reigns, the reforms imple- want us to learn from this irony that easily outlined than accomplished. mented are likely to produce only di- we should not follow up on their ef- Their actual message is that, if you luted versions of the envisioned forts. I see them as people who would propose a curriculum that promotes changes. The authors of these reports, expect us to use their lack of success as active citizenship in a society where however, would be the last people to a goad to spur us on to one more try.

Notes

1. The five members were James James, Isi- nard, Edgar Dawson, Walter Fleming, Charles 3. Fifty-eight people signed the Committee dor Loeb, Paul Reinsch, William Schaper, and Grove Haines (chair), Mabel Hill, Frank report that appeared in the American Political James Sullivan. The first four taught at the uni- Horack, and James James. All members ex- Science Review. versity level; Sullivan was a high school adminis- cept Hill taught at the university level; she 4. For an analysis of the efficient citizen con- trator. was a secondary school administrator. James cept see Schachter (1997). 2. The seven members were J. Lynn Bar- also sat on the Committee of Five.

References

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