DOCSLIB.ORG

Geological Society of America Special Papers

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Geological Society of America Special Papers Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on October 1, 2010 Geological Society of America Special Papers Mining and Metallurgy in Ancient Perú Georg Petersen G. and William E. Brooks Geological Society of America Special Papers 2010;467;xvii-90 doi: 10.1130/2010.2467 Email alerting services click www.gsapubs.org/cgi/alerts to receive free e-mail alerts when new articles cite this article Subscribe click www.gsapubs.org/subscriptions/ to subscribe to Geological Society of America Special Papers Permission request click http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/copyrt.htm#gsa to contact GSA Copyright not claimed on content prepared wholly by U.S. government employees within scope of their employment. Individual scientists are hereby granted permission, without fees or further requests to GSA, to use a single figure, a single table, and/or a brief paragraph of text in subsequent works and to make unlimited copies of items in GSA's journals for noncommercial use in classrooms to further education and science. This file may not be posted to any Web site, but authors may post the abstracts only of their articles on their own or their organization's Web site providing the posting includes a reference to the article's full citation. GSA provides this and other forums for the presentation of diverse opinions and positions by scientists worldwide, regardless of their race, citizenship, gender, religion, or political viewpoint. Opinions presented in this publication do not reflect official positions of the Society. Notes © 2010 Geological Society of America Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on October 1, 2010 Mining and Metallurgy in Ancient Perú by Georg Petersen G. translated by William E. Brooks Los dos Españoles la llaman Laguna de Chuchiabo, topónimo Aymara, muy sugestivo y de gran colorido en el monótono y melancólico paisaje del Altiplano cuyos límites se esfuman en el aire diáfano de las serranias agrestes circundantes y donde en el transcurso de los remotos tiempos geológicos las “lágrimas del Sol” se vertieron copiosamente para cristilarze en los opulentos yacimientos auríferos… Crónica de la Conquista del Perú Anónimo de Sevilla, 1534 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on October 1, 2010 Prologue The pre-Columbian miner explored widely in ancient Perú and exploited its mineral resources using simple tools of bone or horn for rudimentary open-pit and underground workings. Numerous rocks, min- erals, and metals, either obtained from smelting or as native metals, played an important role in development of the Andean and coastal Peruvian cultures. Such use can be dated at archaeological sites where the fi rst inhabitants of South America are thought to have appeared more that 19,000 years ago.1 During the fi rst millennium B.C., a second stage took place with the fabrication of metallic objects by the Chavin. These objects were mainly of gold, silver, copper, and bronze with minor use of platinum, tin, lead, and mercury. Peruvian metallurgy dates to the time of the Chavin (700–500 B.C.) and continued even upon the arrival of the Spaniards. Mining during ancient times was mystical and religious. The ancient Andeans felt intimately connected with nature and the mines that provided the metals were worshipped and given offerings. Padre Calancha (1638) described how the ancient Peruvians worshipped their gold mines (chuqui), their silver mines (coya), and mines that yielded other metals (corpa). Pyrite, cinnabar (llimpi), and the furnaces (huayras) used for smelting were also revered. Padre Bernabé Cobo (1652, Libro XIII, c. XI, p. 166) observed that those who worked the mines also worshipped the hills and the mines, which were called coya, and were asked to yield their mineral wealth. The miners danced, drank, and left candles in order to glorify their prayers. They worshipped the metals that were called mama and the shiny pyrite called corpa. Sulfur, soroche, silver, the smelt- ing ovens, and the gold nuggets and fl akes were revered and blessed. Cinnabar was called llimpi and according to Morúa (1925), was a very mystical metal.2 This regard for the wealth of the mineral world was such that rare stones were regarded as idols and were not used for offerings. The themes of mining and metallurgy in ancient Perú were aesthetic, utilitarian, and religious. There has been much speculation on the absence of iron artifacts in Peruvian archaeology, especially given the fact that iron minerals are present in Perú. The absence of metallic iron in the archaeological record is signifi cant and it is important to say that when the Spanish Conquest took place, the ancient Peruvians had not evolved beyond copper-bronze technology. Even though they had perfected other types of metal tech- nology, ironwork demanded an advanced process that the ancient Peruvians had not achieved. The ancient Peruvians, as well as other Native American groups, had not reached the Iron Age, but were in transition when they were brutally confronted by a foreign nation that readily applied its knowledge of iron metallurgy to tools and weapons. xix Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on October 1, 2010 Acknowledgments For cooperation and collaboration, sample analysis, and other support, I wish to express my appreciation and gratitude to the following institutions, scientists, and individuals: Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería, Departamento de Geología; Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería del Ministerio de Energía y Minas; Compañía de Minas Buenaventura S.A.; Cerro de Pasco Corporation; Mauricio Hochschild y Cía. Ltda. (Mina Raúl); Compañía Miñera Pativilca, S.A.; Museo Nacional de Antropología y Arqueología; Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera; Museo Arqueológico Amano; Museo Oro del Perú; Ing. Guillermo Abele; Arqto. Santiago Agurto Calvo; Ing. Mario Arenas; Sr. Paulino Arias; Ing. Juan Ayza; Ing. Alfonso Barreda M., Ing. José Becerra (Casa de Moneda, Lima); Dr. Junius Bird; Dr. Duccio Bonavia; Prof. Fernando Corantes; Ing. Julio Dávila V.; Dr. Estanislao Dunin-Borkowski; Dr. E.R. Caley; Sra. A. Cucchi; Dr. César Cánepa; Dr. H.D. Disselhoff; Sr. O. Fernández de Cordova Amézaga; Ing. J. Fernández Concha; Dr. Ramón Ferreyra; Srta. Angela Florez; Ing. Mariano Iberico; Ing. Franz Langer; Srta. Heather Lechtman; Sra. Marta Macedo de Rojas; Ing. Luis De Montreuil; Dr. Jorge Muelle; Ing. José Peña Prado; Ing. C. Richard Petersen; Dr. Ulrich Petersen; Sr. Rogger Ravines; Dra. Rosalvina Rivera C.; Ing. César Sotillo Palomino; Dr. Hermann Trimborn; Sir John Wilson, Ph.D. Special thanks to Dr. Duccio Bonavia, Dr. César Cánepa, and Dra. Rosalvina Rivera who graciously reviewed the original manuscript and to Sra. Helga B. de Schroth for typing the manuscript. xxi Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on October 1, 2010 The Geological Society of America Special Paper 467 2010 Mining and Metallurgy in Ancient Perú by Georg Petersen G. translated by William E. Brooks INTRODUCTION A vast number of worked sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks have been found at archaeological sites throughout Perú. Minerals were similarly used for gems, decoration, and other uses. Metals and fossils, as well as animal and plant material, were also used. The use of natural resources was more utilitarian than economic for the ancient indigenous groups, and many things that were utilized then are not in use today. Authors who have made signifi cant contributions to these materials studies include: Ahlfeld (1946); Alonso Barba (1640 [1967])3; Baessler (1906); Bingham (1948); Bonavia (1970); Ball (1941); Marshall (1964); Muelle and Wells (1939); Mujica Gallo (1959; 1961); Posnansky (1945); Rivero and Tschudi (1851; 1853); Schmidt (1929); Seeler (1893); Squier (1878); Uhle (1908); and others. This work is a continuation of those studies and an attempt has been made to collect samples of the many mineral materials that were used in ancient Perú. A brief description of each is given, as well as its use, and locations where ancient miners might have sourced the mineral. This information was provided by interviews with archaeologists as well as from sources listed in the bibliography. Contrary to what was believed earlier, all the mineral samples found at archaeological sites, with only a few exceptions, may be found at many locations throughout Perú. Petersen G., Georg, 1970, Mining and metallurgy in ancient Perú (a translation by W.E. Brooks, 2010, of Minería y Metalurgia en el Antiguo Perú, Arqueo- logicas 12, Publicaciones del Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Museo Nacional de Antropología y Arqueología, Pueblo Libre, Lima, Perú): Geological Society of America Special Paper 467, 90 p., doi: 10.1130/2010.2467. For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. ©2010 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved. 1 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on October 1, 2010 CHAPTER 1 Minerals, Gems, and Pigments4 Several minerals have not been confi rmed and have been and Atacama (Chile); Cerro Verde del Tambo del Corta- omitted, such as the occurrence of ruby in the region of Cuenca, deral between Islay and Arequipa (Raimondi, 1878); Acarí, Ecuador, discussed by Juan and de Ulloa (1751) and an occur- Camaná; Tingue, Cerro Verde, Arequipa; Mina del Carmen, rence near Huancabamba (Steinmann, 1929/1930). Similarly, oc- Cerro Trinidad, Arequipa; Mina Santa Rosa, Huantajaya, currences of crisoberyl (BeAl2O4) and euclase (BeAlSiO4(OH)) Tarapacá; Ilo, Moquegua; Chala, Camaná; Pampa Colorada, (Tschudi, 1891, p. 143) have been omitted. It was not consid- Hacienda Chocavento, Camaná. Other name, lájsa (Tschudi, ered necessary to rectify erroneous determinations that were 1891); however, not from Quechua. contained in the bibliography. It is suffi cient to say that samples Bitumen (Tar). Residue from hydrocarbons. Localities: northwest identifi ed in archaeological collections as turquoise, topaz, lapis Perú; region of La Brea de Chumpi, Parinacochas; Pirin , lazuli, and rose quartz may actually be crysocolla, jade, citrine, Puno; many outcrops in the east. Found on the beaches at dumortierite, garnet, sodalite, fl uorite, or other possibilities. Talara; used as a glue for arrowheads, shells, and as mortar.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Andean Textile Traditions: Material Knowledge and Culture, Part 1 Elena Phipps University of California, Los Angeles, [email protected]
    University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln PreColumbian Textile Conference VII / Jornadas de Centre for Textile Research Textiles PreColombinos VII 11-13-2017 Andean Textile Traditions: Material Knowledge and Culture, Part 1 Elena Phipps University of California, Los Angeles, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/pct7 Part of the Art and Materials Conservation Commons, Chicana/o Studies Commons, Fiber, Textile, and Weaving Arts Commons, Indigenous Studies Commons, Latina/o Studies Commons, Museum Studies Commons, Other History of Art, Architecture, and Archaeology Commons, and the Other Languages, Societies, and Cultures Commons Phipps, Elena, "Andean Textile Traditions: Material Knowledge and Culture, Part 1" (2017). PreColumbian Textile Conference VII / Jornadas de Textiles PreColombinos VII. 10. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/pct7/10 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Centre for Textile Research at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in PreColumbian Textile Conference VII / Jornadas de Textiles PreColombinos VII by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Andean Textile Traditions: Material Knowledge and Culture, Part 1 Elena Phipps In PreColumbian Textile Conference VII / Jornadas de Textiles PreColombinos VII, ed. Lena Bjerregaard and Ann Peters (Lincoln, NE: Zea Books, 2017), pp. 162–175 doi:10.13014/K2V40SCN Copyright © 2017 by the author. Compilation copyright © 2017 Centre for Textile Research, University of Copenhagen. 8 Andean Textile Traditions: Material Knowledge and Culture, Part 1 Elena Phipps Abstract The development of rich and complex Andean textile traditions spanned millennia, in concert with the development of cul- tures that utilized textiles as a primary form of expression and communication.
    [Show full text]
  • A Reassessment on the Lithic Artefacts from the Earliest Human Occupations at Puente Rock Shelter, Ayacucho Valley, Peru
    Archaeological Discovery, 2021, 9, 91-112 https://www.scirp.org/journal/ad ISSN Online: 2331-1967 ISSN Print: 2331-1959 A Reassessment on the Lithic Artefacts from the Earliest Human Occupations at Puente Rock Shelter, Ayacucho Valley, Peru Juan Yataco Capcha1, Hugo G. Nami2, Wilmer Huiza1 1Archaeological and Anthropological of San Marcos University Museum, Lima, Perú 2Department of Geological Sciences, Laboratory of Geophysics “Daniel A. Valencio”, CONICET-IGEBA, FCEN, UBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina How to cite this paper: Capcha, J. Y., Abstract Nami, H. G., & Huiza, W. (2021). A Reas- sessment on the Lithic Artefacts from the Richard “Scotty” MacNeish, between 1969 and 1972, led an international Earliest Human Occupations at Puente Rock team of archaeologists on the Ayacucho Archaeological-Botanical—Project in Shelter, Ayacucho Valley, Peru. Archaeo- the south-central highlands of Peru. Among several important archaeological logical Discovery, 9, 91-112. https://doi.org/10.4236/ad.2021.92005 sites identified there, MacNeish and his team excavated the Puente rock shel- ter. As a part of an ongoing research program aimed to reassess the lithic re- Received: February 14, 2021 mains from this endeavor, we re-studied a sample by making diverse kinds of Accepted: March 22, 2021 morpho-technological analysis. The remains studied come from the lower Published: March 25, 2021 strata at Puente, where a radiocarbon assay from layer XIIA yielded a cali- Copyright © 2021 by author(s) and brated date of 10,190 to 9555 years BP that the present study identifies, vari- Scientific Research Publishing Inc. ous activities were carried out at the site, mainly related to manufacturing and This work is licensed under the Creative repairing unifacial and bifacial tools.
    [Show full text]
  • Resumen Final 2010 Restos De Fauna Y Vegetales De Huaca Prieta Y
    RESUMEN FINAL 2010 RESTOS DE FAUNA Y VEGETALES DE HUACA PRIETA Y PAREDONES, VALLE DE CHICAMA Por Víctor F. Vásquez Sánchez1 Teresa E. Rosales Tham2 1 Biólogo, Director del Centro de Investigaciones Arqueobiológicas y Paleoecológicas Andinas – “ARQUEOBIOS”, Apartado Postal 595, Trujillo-PERÚ- URL: www.arqueobios.org 2 Arqueólogo. Director del Laboratorio de Bioarqueología de la Facultad de Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, Perú. E-mail: [email protected] - Trujillo, Septiembre 2010 - 1 CONTENIDO Pág. 1. INTRODUCCIÓN 3 2. MÉTODOS DE ESTUDIO 4 a. DESCRIPCIÓN Y FILIACIÓN CULTURAL DE LA MUESTRAS 4 b. ANÁLISIS ARQUEOZOOLÓGICO 4 i. Identificación Taxonómica: Invertebrados 4 ii. Distribuciones Geográficas y Ecología 6 iii. Abundancia Taxonómica mediante NISP, NMI y Peso, Biometría y Estadísticas Descriptivas 6 iv. Alometria: Cálculo de la biomasa de Donax obesulus 8 v. Paleoecología: Especies Bioindicadoras 10 b. ANÁLISIS ARQUEOBOTÁNICO 10 i. Restos Macrobotánicos: Identificación Taxonómica, Frecuencia y Cantidad de Restos, Clasificación Paleoetnobotánica 10 ii. Restos Microbotánicos: Flotación Manual Simple, Acondicionamiento e identificación taxonómica, frecuencia y cantidad de restos. Carpología biometría de semillas, estadísticas descriptivas y análisis paleoetnobotánico. 11 iii. Antracalogía 12 3. RESULTADOS 13 a. ARQUEOZOOLOGÍA 13 i. MOLUSCOS 23 Sistemática y Taxonomía, Distribuciones Geográficas y Ecología, Abundancia Taxonómica mediante NISP, NMI y peso, Biometría y estadísticas descriptivas, Alometría de Donax obesulus, Diversidad y Equitatividad ii. CRUSTÁCEOS, EQUINODERMOS Y ASCIDIAS 37 Cuantificación: NISP y Peso 38 ii. PECES, AVES Y MAMÍFEROS: 41 Sistemática y Taxonomía 41 Distribuciones Geográficas y Ecología 44 Abundancia Taxonómica mediante NISP y Peso 46 2 b. ARQUEOBOTÁNICA 58 i. SISTEMÁTICA Y TAXONOMÍA 58 ii. MACRORESTOS: Frecuencia y Cantidad de Restos 60 iii.
    [Show full text]
  • 159. City of Cusco, Including Qorikancha (Inka Main Temple), Santa Domingo (Spanish Colonial Convent), and Walls of Saqsa Waman (Sacsayhuaman)
    159. City of Cusco, including Qorikancha (INka main temple), Santa Domingo (Spanish colonial convent), and Walls of Saqsa Waman (Sacsayhuaman). Central highlands, Peru. Inka. C.1440 C.E.; conent added 1550-1650 C.E. Andesite (3 images) Article at Khan Academy Cusco, a city in the Peruvian Andes, was once capital of the Inca empire, and is now known for its archaeological remains and Spanish colonial architecture. Set at an altitude of 3,400m, it's the gateway to further Inca sites in the Urubamba (Sacred) Valley and the Inca Trail, a multiday trek that ends at the mountain citadel of Machu Picchu. Carbon-14 dating of Saksaywaman, the walled complex outside Cusco, has established that the Killke culture constructed the fortress about 1100 o The Inca later expanded and occupied the complex in the 13th century and after Function: 2008, archaeologists discovered the ruins of an ancient temple, roadway and aqueduct system at Saksaywaman.[11] The temple covers some 2,700 square feet (250 square meters) and contains 11 rooms thought to have held idols and mummies,[11] establishing its religious purpose. Together with the results of excavations in 2007, when another temple was found at the edge of the fortress, indicates there was longtime religious as well as military use of the facility, overturning previous conclusions about the site. Many believe that the city was planned as an effigy in the shape of a puma, a sacred animal. It is unknown how Cusco was specifically built, or how its large stones were quarried and transported to the site.
    [Show full text]
  • Southern Destinations Gihan Tubbeh Renzo Giraldo Renzo Gihan Tubbeh Gihan Tubbeh
    7/15/13 8:18 PM 8:18 7/15/13 1 Sur.indd EN_07_Infografia As you head south, you start to see more of Peru’s many different facets; in terms of our ancient cultural legacy, the most striking examples are the grand ruins Ancient Traditions Ancient History Abundant Nature There are plenty of southern villages that still Heading south, you are going to find vestiges of Machu Picchu and road system left by the Incan Empire and the mysterious Nasca Lines. As keep their ancestors’ life styles and traditions Uros Island some of Peru’s most important Pre-Colombian Peru possesses eighty-four of the existing 104 life zones for natural seings, our protected areas and coastal, mountain, and jungle alive. For example, in the area around Lake civilizations. Titicaca, Puno, the Pukara thrived from 1800 Also, it is the first habitat in the world for buerfly, fish and orchid species, second in bird species, and B.C. to 400 A.D., and their decline opened up landscapes offer plenty of chances to reconnect with nature, even while engaging Ica is where you find the Nasca Lines, geoglyphs third in mammal and amphibian species. the development of important cultures like of geometric figures and shapes of animals and in adventure sports in deserts (dunes), beaches, and rivers. And contemporary life the Tiahuanaco and Uro. From 1100 A.D. to the plants on the desert floor that were made 1500 arrival of the Spanish, the Aymara controlled is found in our main cities with their range of excellent hospitality services offered years ago by the Nasca people.
    [Show full text]
  • Download Full Article in PDF Format
    Hafting and raw materials from animals. Guide to the identification of hafting traces on stone tools Veerle ROTS Prehistoric Archaeology Unit Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Geo-Institute Celestijnenlaan 200E (Pb: 02409), B-3001 Leuven, Heverlee (Belgique) [email protected] Rots V. 2008. – Hafting and raw materials from animals. Guide to the identification of hafting traces on stone tools. [DVD-ROM]1 . Anthropozoologica 43 (1): 43-66. ABSTRACT Stone tool hafting has been a widely discussed topic, but its identifica- tion on a prehistoric level has long been hampered. Given the organic nature of hafting arrangements, few remains are generally preserved. An overview is presented of animal materials that can be used for haft- ing stone tools, and examples are provided of preserved hafting arrangements made out of animal raw material. Based on the same principles as those determining the formation of use-wear traces on stone tools, it is argued that hafting traces are formed and can be iden- tified. The variables influencing the formation of hafting traces are KEY WORDS discussed. Specific wear patterns and trace attributes are provided for Stone tools, use-wear, different hafting arrangements that use animal raw material. It is hafting, concluded that the provided referential data allow for the identifi- wear pattern, experiments, cation of hafted stone tools on prehistoric sites and the identification animal raw material. of the hafting arrangement used. RÉSUMÉ Emmanchements et matières premières animales. Un guide pour l’identification des traces d’emmanchement sur des outils de pierre. Le sujet des emmanchements des outils de pierre a été largement discuté, mais leurs identifications à un niveau préhistorique ont longtemps été difficiles.
    [Show full text]
  • Bibliography
    Bibliography Many books were read and researched in the compilation of Binford, L. R, 1983, Working at Archaeology. Academic Press, The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology: New York. Binford, L. R, and Binford, S. R (eds.), 1968, New Perspectives in American Museum of Natural History, 1993, The First Humans. Archaeology. Aldine, Chicago. HarperSanFrancisco, San Francisco. Braidwood, R 1.,1960, Archaeologists and What They Do. Franklin American Museum of Natural History, 1993, People of the Stone Watts, New York. Age. HarperSanFrancisco, San Francisco. Branigan, Keith (ed.), 1982, The Atlas ofArchaeology. St. Martin's, American Museum of Natural History, 1994, New World and Pacific New York. Civilizations. HarperSanFrancisco, San Francisco. Bray, w., and Tump, D., 1972, Penguin Dictionary ofArchaeology. American Museum of Natural History, 1994, Old World Civiliza­ Penguin, New York. tions. HarperSanFrancisco, San Francisco. Brennan, L., 1973, Beginner's Guide to Archaeology. Stackpole Ashmore, w., and Sharer, R. J., 1988, Discovering Our Past: A Brief Books, Harrisburg, PA. Introduction to Archaeology. Mayfield, Mountain View, CA. Broderick, M., and Morton, A. A., 1924, A Concise Dictionary of Atkinson, R J. C., 1985, Field Archaeology, 2d ed. Hyperion, New Egyptian Archaeology. Ares Publishers, Chicago. York. Brothwell, D., 1963, Digging Up Bones: The Excavation, Treatment Bacon, E. (ed.), 1976, The Great Archaeologists. Bobbs-Merrill, and Study ofHuman Skeletal Remains. British Museum, London. New York. Brothwell, D., and Higgs, E. (eds.), 1969, Science in Archaeology, Bahn, P., 1993, Collins Dictionary of Archaeology. ABC-CLIO, 2d ed. Thames and Hudson, London. Santa Barbara, CA. Budge, E. A. Wallis, 1929, The Rosetta Stone. Dover, New York. Bahn, P.
    [Show full text]
  • Evidencia Del Complejo Arqueológico Kuélap
    El efecto de la inversion´ en infraestructura sobre la demanda tur´ıstica: evidencia del complejo arqueologico´ kuelap.´ Erick Lahura, Lucely Puscan y Rosario Sabrera* Resumen ¿Cu´ales el efecto de la inversi´onen infraestructura sobre la demanda tur´ıstica? Para responder a esta pregunta, se analiza el caso del Complejo Arqueol´ogico Ku´elap,el cual se ha beneficiado de la construcci´onde un sistema de telecabinas que ha hecho m´asaccesible y atractiva su visita desde su inauguraci´onen marzo del a~no2017. La hip´otesisque se plantea es que dicha inversi´onen infraestructura tur´ıstica ha tenido un efecto importante sobre la demanda tur´ıstica de Ku´elap.Para evaluar la validez de esta hip´otesis,se aplica un estudio de caso comparativo en el cual se utiliza un \control sint´etico" construido a partir de la informaci´onde los diferentes sitios arqueol´ogicos del Per´uentre los a~nos2008 y 2018. Este control sint´etico permite estimar cu´alhubiera sido la evoluci´onde las visitas a Ku´elapsi no se hubiera construido el sistema de telecabinas. Los resultados muestran que la inversi´onen infraestructura tur´ıstica en Ku´elapgener´oun aumento de aproximadamente 100 por ciento en el n´umero de visitas. En los ´ultimosa~nos,el turismo ha incrementado su importancia dentro de la econom´ıa,especialmente en pa´ısesen desarrollo Faber y Gaubert (2019). Seg´unla Organizaci´onMundial del Turismo (2019), dicha actividad genera cerca del 10 % del PBI mundial y crea 1 de cada 10 empleos en el mundo. En el Per´u,el turismo ha logrado una contribuci´onde cerca del 4 % al PBI nacional, seg´unreporta el Ministerio de Comercio Exterior y Turismo (2016).
    [Show full text]
  • UNDERGRADUATE SEMINAR ANT 3164-7927/ANG 5164-06DA LIMITED ENROLLMENT Spring 2015 by Instructor’S Permission
    1 UNDERGRADUATE SEMINAR ANT 3164-7927/ANG 5164-06DA LIMITED ENROLLMENT Spring 2015 By Instructor’s Permission Prof. Michael Moseley Thursday Periods 6-8 Turlington B352 (12:50 - 3:55 pm) [email protected] Turlington (TUR) Room 1208 Course website: http://lss.at.ufl.edu THE INCA AND THEIR ANCESTORS: ADAPTATIONS IN ANDEAN SOUTH AMERICA Drawing from ethnological, historical, and archaeological sources, this seminar explores human adjustments to extreme ecological conditions. Embracing the towering Andean Mountains, the parched Atacama Desert, and the Amazon jungle fringes, the Inca Imperium was the largest empire of antiquity ever to arise south of the equator or in the Western Hemisphere. It synthesized unique adaptations to acute environmental conditions that had precedents in earlier societies and states of the Cordillera. Many of these adjustments continue to sustain the hemisphere’s largest Native American populations. Consequently, ethnographies and ethnohistories of indigenous people capture fascinating cultural institutions that shaped the archaeological past. The seminar will explore both the successes of Andean people and the failures of human development induced by natural disasters. CLASS STRUCTURE In addition to opening presentations, weekly classes will have student commentary and discussion of assigned readings. There will be oral assessments of how the readings articulate with seminar topics. Drawing upon the readings, each participant will bring to class a ~2 page short synopsis of questions and issues for discussion. The weekly briefs are important because they will guide the seminar’s considerations. They will be graded as will oral participation. Attendance is required. WEEKLY READINGS Seminar participants will be assigned weekly reading that form core discussion issues.
    [Show full text]
  • Copper Alloy Sand Castings for General Applications1
    Designation: B584 – 09a Standard Specification for Copper Alloy Sand Castings for General Applications1 This standard is issued under the fixed designation B584; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval. This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the Department of Defense. 1. Scope* B148 Specification for Aluminum-Bronze Sand Castings 1.1 This specification covers requirements for copper alloy B176 Specification for Copper-Alloy Die Castings sand castings for general applications. Nominal compositions B208 Practice for Preparing Tension Test Specimens for of the alloys defined by this specification are shown in Table Copper Alloy Sand, Permanent Mold, Centrifugal, and 1.2 This is a composite specification replacing former docu- Continuous Castings ments as shown in Table 1. B271 Specification for Copper-Base Alloy Centrifugal Castings NOTE 1—Other copper alloy castings are included in the following B369 Specification for Copper-Nickel Alloy Castings ASTM specifications: B22, B61, B62, B66, B67, B148, B176, B271, B427 Specification for Gear Bronze Alloy Castings B369, B427, B505/B505M, B763, B770, and B806. B505/B505M Specification for Copper Alloy Continuous 1.2 Component part castings produced to this specification Castings may be manufactured in advance and supplied from stock. In B763 Specification for Copper Alloy Sand Castings for such cases the manufacturer shall maintain a general quality Valve Applications certification of all castings without specific record or date of B770 Specification for Copper-Beryllium Alloy Sand Cast- casting for a specific casting.
    [Show full text]
  • Cisco Controlled Substances Specification Revision B6 EDCS-661823 Page 1
    Cisco Controlled Substances Specification Revision B6 EDCS-661823 Page 1 Doc Number: EDCS-661823 Last Revision Date: 04/30/2021 Policy Owner: Jack Allen Joe Johnson Policy Owner’s Org: Supply Chain Transformation: Sustainability Legal Market Access: Environmental Affairs Next Review Date: Upon changes in applicable global market access requirements Cisco Controlled Substances Specification Revision B6 Cisco Systems, Inc Page 1 of 35 CISCO CONFIDENTIAL All printed copies and duplicate soft copies are considered un-Controlled copies and the original on-line version should be referred for latest version Cisco Controlled Substances Specification Revision B6 EDCS-661823 Page 2 – Table of Contents – Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................... 3 Scope ........................................................................................................................................................... 3 Policy Statement ......................................................................................................................................... 3 1.1. Substances Restricted in Products ........................................................................................................... 3 1.2. Assessment Substances ............................................................................................................................ 7 1.3. Manufacturing Controlled Substances & Consumable Materials ..........................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Pscde3 - the Four Sides of the Inca Empire
    CUSCO LAMBAYEQUE Email: [email protected] Av. Manco Cápac 515 – Wanchaq Ca. M. M. Izaga 740 Of. 207 - Chiclayo www.chaskiventura.com T: 51+ 84 233952 T: 51 +74 221282 PSCDE3 - THE FOUR SIDES OF THE INCA EMPIRE SUMMARY DURATION AND SEASON 15 Days/ 14 Nights LOCATION Department of Arequipa, Puno, Cusco, Raqchi community ATRACTIONS Tourism: Archaeological, Ethno tourism, Gastronomic and landscapes. ATRACTIVOS Archaeological and Historical complexes: Machu Picchu, Tipón, Pisac, Pikillaqta, Ollantaytambo, Moray, Maras, Chinchero, Saqsayhuaman, Catedral, Qoricancha, Cusco city, Inca and pre-Inca archaeological complexes, Temple of Wiracocha, Arequipa and Puno. Living culture: traditional weaving techniques and weaving in the Communities of Chinchero, Sibayo, , Raqchi, Uros Museum: in Lima, Arequipa, Cusco. Natural areas: of Titicaca, highlands, Colca canyon, local fauna and flora. TYPE OF SERVICE Private GUIDE – TOUR LEADER English, French, or Spanish. Its presence is important because it allows to incorporate your journey in the thematic offered, getting closer to the economic, institutional, and historic culture and the ecosystems of the circuit for a better understanding. RESUME This circuit offers to get closer to the Andean culture and to understand its world view, its focus, its technologies, its mixture with the Hispanic culture, and the fact that it remains present in Indigenous Communities today. In this way, by bus, small boat, plane or walking, we will visit Archaeological and Historical Complexes, Communities, Museums & Natural Environments that will enable us to know the heart of the Inca Empire - the last heir of the Andean independent culture and predecessor of the mixed world of nowadays. CUSCO LAMBAYEQUE Email: [email protected] Av.
    [Show full text]