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Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on October 1, 2010 Geological Society of America Special Papers Mining and Metallurgy in Ancient Perú Georg Petersen G. and William E. Brooks Geological Society of America Special Papers 2010;467;xvii-90 doi: 10.1130/2010.2467 Email alerting services click www.gsapubs.org/cgi/alerts to receive free e-mail alerts when new articles cite this article Subscribe click www.gsapubs.org/subscriptions/ to subscribe to Geological Society of America Special Papers Permission request click http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/copyrt.htm#gsa to contact GSA Copyright not claimed on content prepared wholly by U.S. government employees within scope of their employment. Individual scientists are hereby granted permission, without fees or further requests to GSA, to use a single figure, a single table, and/or a brief paragraph of text in subsequent works and to make unlimited copies of items in GSA's journals for noncommercial use in classrooms to further education and science. This file may not be posted to any Web site, but authors may post the abstracts only of their articles on their own or their organization's Web site providing the posting includes a reference to the article's full citation. GSA provides this and other forums for the presentation of diverse opinions and positions by scientists worldwide, regardless of their race, citizenship, gender, religion, or political viewpoint. Opinions presented in this publication do not reflect official positions of the Society. Notes © 2010 Geological Society of America Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on October 1, 2010 Mining and Metallurgy in Ancient Perú by Georg Petersen G. translated by William E. Brooks Los dos Españoles la llaman Laguna de Chuchiabo, topónimo Aymara, muy sugestivo y de gran colorido en el monótono y melancólico paisaje del Altiplano cuyos límites se esfuman en el aire diáfano de las serranias agrestes circundantes y donde en el transcurso de los remotos tiempos geológicos las “lágrimas del Sol” se vertieron copiosamente para cristilarze en los opulentos yacimientos auríferos… Crónica de la Conquista del Perú Anónimo de Sevilla, 1534 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on October 1, 2010 Prologue The pre-Columbian miner explored widely in ancient Perú and exploited its mineral resources using simple tools of bone or horn for rudimentary open-pit and underground workings. Numerous rocks, min- erals, and metals, either obtained from smelting or as native metals, played an important role in development of the Andean and coastal Peruvian cultures. Such use can be dated at archaeological sites where the fi rst inhabitants of South America are thought to have appeared more that 19,000 years ago.1 During the fi rst millennium B.C., a second stage took place with the fabrication of metallic objects by the Chavin. These objects were mainly of gold, silver, copper, and bronze with minor use of platinum, tin, lead, and mercury. Peruvian metallurgy dates to the time of the Chavin (700–500 B.C.) and continued even upon the arrival of the Spaniards. Mining during ancient times was mystical and religious. The ancient Andeans felt intimately connected with nature and the mines that provided the metals were worshipped and given offerings. Padre Calancha (1638) described how the ancient Peruvians worshipped their gold mines (chuqui), their silver mines (coya), and mines that yielded other metals (corpa). Pyrite, cinnabar (llimpi), and the furnaces (huayras) used for smelting were also revered. Padre Bernabé Cobo (1652, Libro XIII, c. XI, p. 166) observed that those who worked the mines also worshipped the hills and the mines, which were called coya, and were asked to yield their mineral wealth. The miners danced, drank, and left candles in order to glorify their prayers. They worshipped the metals that were called mama and the shiny pyrite called corpa. Sulfur, soroche, silver, the smelt- ing ovens, and the gold nuggets and fl akes were revered and blessed. Cinnabar was called llimpi and according to Morúa (1925), was a very mystical metal.2 This regard for the wealth of the mineral world was such that rare stones were regarded as idols and were not used for offerings. The themes of mining and metallurgy in ancient Perú were aesthetic, utilitarian, and religious. There has been much speculation on the absence of iron artifacts in Peruvian archaeology, especially given the fact that iron minerals are present in Perú. The absence of metallic iron in the archaeological record is signifi cant and it is important to say that when the Spanish Conquest took place, the ancient Peruvians had not evolved beyond copper-bronze technology. Even though they had perfected other types of metal tech- nology, ironwork demanded an advanced process that the ancient Peruvians had not achieved. The ancient Peruvians, as well as other Native American groups, had not reached the Iron Age, but were in transition when they were brutally confronted by a foreign nation that readily applied its knowledge of iron metallurgy to tools and weapons. xix Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on October 1, 2010 Acknowledgments For cooperation and collaboration, sample analysis, and other support, I wish to express my appreciation and gratitude to the following institutions, scientists, and individuals: Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería, Departamento de Geología; Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería del Ministerio de Energía y Minas; Compañía de Minas Buenaventura S.A.; Cerro de Pasco Corporation; Mauricio Hochschild y Cía. Ltda. (Mina Raúl); Compañía Miñera Pativilca, S.A.; Museo Nacional de Antropología y Arqueología; Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera; Museo Arqueológico Amano; Museo Oro del Perú; Ing. Guillermo Abele; Arqto. Santiago Agurto Calvo; Ing. Mario Arenas; Sr. Paulino Arias; Ing. Juan Ayza; Ing. Alfonso Barreda M., Ing. José Becerra (Casa de Moneda, Lima); Dr. Junius Bird; Dr. Duccio Bonavia; Prof. Fernando Corantes; Ing. Julio Dávila V.; Dr. Estanislao Dunin-Borkowski; Dr. E.R. Caley; Sra. A. Cucchi; Dr. César Cánepa; Dr. H.D. Disselhoff; Sr. O. Fernández de Cordova Amézaga; Ing. J. Fernández Concha; Dr. Ramón Ferreyra; Srta. Angela Florez; Ing. Mariano Iberico; Ing. Franz Langer; Srta. Heather Lechtman; Sra. Marta Macedo de Rojas; Ing. Luis De Montreuil; Dr. Jorge Muelle; Ing. José Peña Prado; Ing. C. Richard Petersen; Dr. Ulrich Petersen; Sr. Rogger Ravines; Dra. Rosalvina Rivera C.; Ing. César Sotillo Palomino; Dr. Hermann Trimborn; Sir John Wilson, Ph.D. Special thanks to Dr. Duccio Bonavia, Dr. César Cánepa, and Dra. Rosalvina Rivera who graciously reviewed the original manuscript and to Sra. Helga B. de Schroth for typing the manuscript. xxi Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on October 1, 2010 The Geological Society of America Special Paper 467 2010 Mining and Metallurgy in Ancient Perú by Georg Petersen G. translated by William E. Brooks INTRODUCTION A vast number of worked sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks have been found at archaeological sites throughout Perú. Minerals were similarly used for gems, decoration, and other uses. Metals and fossils, as well as animal and plant material, were also used. The use of natural resources was more utilitarian than economic for the ancient indigenous groups, and many things that were utilized then are not in use today. Authors who have made signifi cant contributions to these materials studies include: Ahlfeld (1946); Alonso Barba (1640 [1967])3; Baessler (1906); Bingham (1948); Bonavia (1970); Ball (1941); Marshall (1964); Muelle and Wells (1939); Mujica Gallo (1959; 1961); Posnansky (1945); Rivero and Tschudi (1851; 1853); Schmidt (1929); Seeler (1893); Squier (1878); Uhle (1908); and others. This work is a continuation of those studies and an attempt has been made to collect samples of the many mineral materials that were used in ancient Perú. A brief description of each is given, as well as its use, and locations where ancient miners might have sourced the mineral. This information was provided by interviews with archaeologists as well as from sources listed in the bibliography. Contrary to what was believed earlier, all the mineral samples found at archaeological sites, with only a few exceptions, may be found at many locations throughout Perú. Petersen G., Georg, 1970, Mining and metallurgy in ancient Perú (a translation by W.E. Brooks, 2010, of Minería y Metalurgia en el Antiguo Perú, Arqueo- logicas 12, Publicaciones del Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Museo Nacional de Antropología y Arqueología, Pueblo Libre, Lima, Perú): Geological Society of America Special Paper 467, 90 p., doi: 10.1130/2010.2467. For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. ©2010 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved. 1 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on October 1, 2010 CHAPTER 1 Minerals, Gems, and Pigments4 Several minerals have not been confi rmed and have been and Atacama (Chile); Cerro Verde del Tambo del Corta- omitted, such as the occurrence of ruby in the region of Cuenca, deral between Islay and Arequipa (Raimondi, 1878); Acarí, Ecuador, discussed by Juan and de Ulloa (1751) and an occur- Camaná; Tingue, Cerro Verde, Arequipa; Mina del Carmen, rence near Huancabamba (Steinmann, 1929/1930). Similarly, oc- Cerro Trinidad, Arequipa; Mina Santa Rosa, Huantajaya, currences of crisoberyl (BeAl2O4) and euclase (BeAlSiO4(OH)) Tarapacá; Ilo, Moquegua; Chala, Camaná; Pampa Colorada, (Tschudi, 1891, p. 143) have been omitted. It was not consid- Hacienda Chocavento, Camaná. Other name, lájsa (Tschudi, ered necessary to rectify erroneous determinations that were 1891); however, not from Quechua. contained in the bibliography. It is suffi cient to say that samples Bitumen (Tar). Residue from hydrocarbons. Localities: northwest identifi ed in archaeological collections as turquoise, topaz, lapis Perú; region of La Brea de Chumpi, Parinacochas; Pirin , lazuli, and rose quartz may actually be crysocolla, jade, citrine, Puno; many outcrops in the east. Found on the beaches at dumortierite, garnet, sodalite, fl uorite, or other possibilities. Talara; used as a glue for arrowheads, shells, and as mortar.
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    Cisco Controlled Substances Specification Revision B6 EDCS-661823 Page 1 Doc Number: EDCS-661823 Last Revision Date: 04/30/2021 Policy Owner: Jack Allen Joe Johnson Policy Owner’s Org: Supply Chain Transformation: Sustainability Legal Market Access: Environmental Affairs Next Review Date: Upon changes in applicable global market access requirements Cisco Controlled Substances Specification Revision B6 Cisco Systems, Inc Page 1 of 35 CISCO CONFIDENTIAL All printed copies and duplicate soft copies are considered un-Controlled copies and the original on-line version should be referred for latest version Cisco Controlled Substances Specification Revision B6 EDCS-661823 Page 2 – Table of Contents – Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................... 3 Scope ........................................................................................................................................................... 3 Policy Statement ......................................................................................................................................... 3 1.1. Substances Restricted in Products ........................................................................................................... 3 1.2. Assessment Substances ............................................................................................................................ 7 1.3. Manufacturing Controlled Substances & Consumable Materials ..........................................................
  • Pscde3 - the Four Sides of the Inca Empire

    Pscde3 - the Four Sides of the Inca Empire

    CUSCO LAMBAYEQUE Email: [email protected] Av. Manco Cápac 515 – Wanchaq Ca. M. M. Izaga 740 Of. 207 - Chiclayo www.chaskiventura.com T: 51+ 84 233952 T: 51 +74 221282 PSCDE3 - THE FOUR SIDES OF THE INCA EMPIRE SUMMARY DURATION AND SEASON 15 Days/ 14 Nights LOCATION Department of Arequipa, Puno, Cusco, Raqchi community ATRACTIONS Tourism: Archaeological, Ethno tourism, Gastronomic and landscapes. ATRACTIVOS Archaeological and Historical complexes: Machu Picchu, Tipón, Pisac, Pikillaqta, Ollantaytambo, Moray, Maras, Chinchero, Saqsayhuaman, Catedral, Qoricancha, Cusco city, Inca and pre-Inca archaeological complexes, Temple of Wiracocha, Arequipa and Puno. Living culture: traditional weaving techniques and weaving in the Communities of Chinchero, Sibayo, , Raqchi, Uros Museum: in Lima, Arequipa, Cusco. Natural areas: of Titicaca, highlands, Colca canyon, local fauna and flora. TYPE OF SERVICE Private GUIDE – TOUR LEADER English, French, or Spanish. Its presence is important because it allows to incorporate your journey in the thematic offered, getting closer to the economic, institutional, and historic culture and the ecosystems of the circuit for a better understanding. RESUME This circuit offers to get closer to the Andean culture and to understand its world view, its focus, its technologies, its mixture with the Hispanic culture, and the fact that it remains present in Indigenous Communities today. In this way, by bus, small boat, plane or walking, we will visit Archaeological and Historical Complexes, Communities, Museums & Natural Environments that will enable us to know the heart of the Inca Empire - the last heir of the Andean independent culture and predecessor of the mixed world of nowadays. CUSCO LAMBAYEQUE Email: [email protected] Av.