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A Review on Historical Earth Pigments Used in India's Wall Paintings

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A Review on Historical Earth Pigments Used in India's Wall Paintings heritage Review A Review on Historical Earth Pigments Used in India’s Wall Paintings Anjali Sharma 1 and Manager Rajdeo Singh 2,* 1 Department of Conservation, National Museum Institute, Janpath, New Delhi 110011, India; [email protected] 2 National Research Laboratory for the Conservation of Cultural Property, Aliganj, Lucknow 226024, India * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Iron-containing earth minerals of various hues were the earliest pigments of the prehistoric artists who dwelled in caves. Being a prominent part of human expression through art, nature- derived pigments have been used in continuum through ages until now. Studies reveal that the primitive artist stored or used his pigments as color cakes made out of skin or reeds. Although records to help understand the technical details of Indian painting in the early periodare scanty, there is a certain amount of material from which some idea may be gained regarding the methods used by the artists to obtain their results. Considering Indian wall paintings, the most widely used earth pigments include red, yellow, and green ochres, making it fairly easy for the modern era scientific conservators and researchers to study them. The present knowledge on material sources given in the literature is limited and deficient as of now, hence the present work attempts to elucidate the range of earth pigments encountered in Indian wall paintings and the scientific studies and characterization by analytical techniques that form the knowledge background on the topic. Studies leadingto well-founded knowledge on pigments can contribute towards the safeguarding of Indian cultural heritage as well as spread awareness among conservators, restorers, and scholars. Citation: Sharma, A.; Singh, M.R. A Review on Historical Earth Pigments Keywords: red ochre; green earth; black earth; yellow ochre; pigments; wall painting Used in India’s Wall Paintings. Heritage 2021, 4, 1970–1994. https:// doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030112 1. Introduction Academic Editors: Diego Tamburini and Francesco Paolo Romano Since time immemorial, wall paintings have been done in almost all countries. Paint- ings of all kinds, encompassing all types of wall paintings as well, are a valuable part of Received: 17 June 2021 many countries’ cultural heritage. In prehistoric paintings, the artistic style was primitive, Accepted: 23 August 2021 and the techniques were also very basic, with the paint being applied directly onto the Published: 26 August 2021 rock surface. As a result of this, the pigments seep through the pores and coarse surface of rocks. Later, more complex designs and figures were painted on walls, which were often Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral prepared with several layers of plaster [1]. with regard to jurisdictional claims in The uses and evidence of earth pigments in the India begin with the hematite and published maps and institutional affil- quartz crystals found in the Acheulian deposits of the Lower Paleolithic period. One such iations. hematite specimen was discovered in the exposed floor of Hunsgi (Karnataka), locality V, and has a worn facet with characteristic striation patterns, indicating that it was used as a crayon to color or mark a rock surface [2]. Because this material does not occur in its natural state in the area surrounding the site, the site excavators believed that these Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. little hematite nodules were brought-in from afar. Paddaya goes on to say that these Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. red ochre nodules were probably also utilized for body ornamentation and other similar This article is an open access article purposes [3]. Six other tiny quartz crystals were discovered from the base of the lower distributed under the terms and Paleolithic deposit at Singi Talav (Rajasthan), which was interesting evidence. They were conditions of the Creative Commons virtually fully unchanged and measured 7–25 mm in length, making them too small to Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// have been employed as tools. They had been purposefully transported to the site, as had creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ the Hunsgi hematite nodules, and were collected for their visual attributes [4]. Although 4.0/). Heritage 2021, 4, 1970–1994. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030112 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage Heritage2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 2 Heritage 2021, 4 1971 collected for their visual attributes [4]. Although these are only inferences, it is impossible to theserule out are the only possibility inferences, of ita functioning is impossible reality to rule involving out the possibilityan aesthetic of sense a functioning among our reality fore- involvingfathers. an aesthetic sense among our forefathers. AccordingAccording toto Wakankar,Wakankar, some some of of the the earliest earliest depictions depictions in in Mesolithic Mesolithic rockrock paintings paintings paintedpainted inin greengreen colorcolor couldcould bebe thosethose belongingbelonging toto thethe upperupper PaleolithicPaleolithic eraera ofof IndianIndian antiquity.antiquity. The The discovery discovery of of green green earth earth (what (what he he refers refers toas to terra as terra verte) verte) in upper in upper Paleolithic Paleo- depositslithic deposits in one in of one the excavatedof the excavated rock shelters rock shelters (III A-28) (III atA-28) Bhimbetka at Bhimbetka [5] could [5]could be the be basis the forbasis this for hypothesis. this hypothesis. The chronological The chronological position inposition time of in the time green of paintings, the green however, paintings, is ahowever, point of contention.is a point of Greencontention. pigments Green were pigments discovered were first,discovered followed first, by followed red paintings, by red accordingpaintings, toaccording some scholars to some [6]. Wakankarscholars [6]. also Wakankar discovered also yellow discovered ochre, manganese, yellow ochre, and terramanganese, verte in and Bhimbetka’s terra verte shelter in Bhimbetka’s III A-28 in shel 1975,ter where III A-28 these in 1975, pigments where were these observed pigments to bewere smeared observed on multiple to be smeared areas in on the multiple shelter IIIareas F-23 in [ 2the,7,8 shelter]. These III early F-23 paintings [2,7,8]. These represent early thepaintings beginning represent of known the beginning or surviving of known rock art or in surviving India because rock art of thein India quality because of pigment of the applicationsquality of pigment in the form applications of fine and in controlled the formlines. of fine According and controlled to Mishra, lines. for theAccording paintings to atMishra, Bhimbetka, for the apart paintings from being at Bhimbetka,apart executed in red orfrom white, being bluish-green executed andin red yellowish or white, colors blu- hadish-green also been andused yellowish on occasions. colors had Since also they been were used only on preserved occasions. in Since fragments they were and were only foundpreserved at the in bottom fragments of the and paint were layer; found green at the painted bottom layers of the tend paint to belayer; the oldest.green painted Many shadeslayers tend of red to werebe the visible, oldest. rangingMany shades from of scarlet red were to pale visible, red toranging dark chocolate.from scarlet Natural to pale mineralsred to dark were chocolate. used to makeNatural these minerals pigments were [2 used,9] to make these pigments [2,9] TheThe largestlargest concentrationconcentration ofof prehistoricprehistoric sitessites andand rockrock paintingspaintings areare foundfound inin CentralCentral India’sIndia’s sandstonesandstone regions,regions, whichwhich spanspan threethree distinctdistinct mountainmountain systems:systems: thethe VindhyachalVindhyachal andand SatpuraSatpura inin MadhyaMadhya Pradesh,Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,Chhattisgarh, andand aa portionportion ofof UttarUttar PradeshPradesh andand thethe AravalliAravalli in Rajasthan. In In all all more more than than a thou a thousandsand rock-shelters rock-shelters with with paintings paintings have have been beenexplored explored and studied and studied by archeologists. by archeologists. It is interesting It is interesting to note that to prehistoric note that paintings prehistoric in paintingsIndia were in first India noticed were first12 years noticed earlier 12 years than earlierthe famous than discovery the famous of discovery the cave paintings of the cave of paintingsAltamira of(Spain). Altamira This (Spain). was done This by was Archib doneald by Carllyle, Archibald a superintendent Carllyle, a superintendent of the Archaeo- of thelogical Archaeological Survey of India Survey (ASI) of Indiain 1867, (ASI) in inthe 1867, Mirzapur in the area Mirzapur of the areathen of United the then Provinces. United Provinces.Like Marcelino Like de Marcelino Santuola, de through Santuola, discovery through of discovery Altamira ofin Altamira1879, Carllyle in 1879, was Carllyle the first wasscholar the to first attribute scholar these to attribute paintings these to the paintings Stone-Age to period. the Stone-Age Some of period.the prominent Some sites of the in prominentIndia with sitesshelters in Indiacontaining with sheltersprehistoric containing paintings prehistoric are Panchmari paintings in the are Mahadeo Panchmari Hillsin of theMadhya Mahadeo Pradesh, Hills Adamgarph, of Madhya Pradesh, Raisen, Mirzapur Adamgarph,, etc. Raisen, Mirzapur Mirzapur, has evidence etc. Mirzapur dating from has evidencethe Lower dating Palaeolithic from the
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