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The Confederado Colony in Santarã©M, Brazil Wesleyan University The Honors College Everything Has Become Southern: The Confederado Colony in Santarém, Brazil by Sara Philippe Class of 2019 A thesis (or essay) submitted to the faculty of Wesleyan University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts with Departmental Honors in History Middletown, Connecticut April 16, 2019 Table of Contents Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………….2 Introduction – The Last Bastion of the Southerners: The US Civil War and the Amazon………………………………………………………………...…………..4 Chapter One – Empire Dreamers and the Amazon Frontier: Brazil and the Amazon in the Antebellum US Consciousness…………………………….…..17 Lansford Hastings, US Imperialist………………………………………………....20 US Expansionism and the Amazon………………………………………………..29 The Plow, the Rifle, and Religion………………………………………………….47 Chapter Two – Paving the Path for Migration: The Planning of an Amazonian Colony……………………………………………………………............................65 Hastings and the Emigrants’ Guide to Brazil…………………………………………68 Debating the Colony: The Dream of the Amazon Empire in the US Press…….......87 Dreaming of Immigration in the Brazilian Press………………………………….105 Chapter Three – Portraying the Empire of the South: The Confederado Colony in Santarém, 1867-1888……………………………………………...….110 Settling in Santarém: Reports of Successes and Failures………………………….111 Outsiders’ Accounts of the Santarém Colony…………………………………….123 Chapter Four – Following the Beckoning of the Rainbow: Slavery, Race, and Labor in the Confederados’ Santarém……………………………….…….…..152 Confederados, Slavery, and Freedom..……………………………………….……...154 The Creation of a Confederado Identity …………………………………………....166 Brazilian Theories about Race and the Amazon……………………………...…...180 Challenging Confederado Historiography……………………………………............185 Epilogue – Confederados in Fordlandia……………………………….……...194 Bibliography……………………………………………………………...……..198 1 Acknowledgements My biggest thanks goes to my thesis advisor, Professor Valeria López Fadul, for everything she has done for me throughout the process of writing this thesis. She has been an enormous help every step of the way. She has been the best advisor I could have ever imagined, ever-supportive and ever-encouraging. I feel extremely priveleged to have gotten the opportunity to work so closely with her. The process of writing this thesis has been a true delight because of her. She has made me a better writer and historian. I am very grateful for the Wesleyan University History Department’s White Fellowship for providing me with the financial support to travel to and research in the Brazilian cities of Belém and Santarém. I want to thank the archivisits and the librarians at the Public Archive of the State of Pará (APEP) and the Arthur Vianna Library in Belém for their assistance. I also want to thank Professors Flávio Gomes and Iamara Viana for their insight on this thesis in the very beginning of the process. I am grateful to Professor Gomes for connecting me with Professor Eurípedes Funes, who guided me to the Center for Historical Documentation of the Lower Amazon (CDHBA). Without his guidance, I would not have known about this wonderfully rich archive. I am grateful to the director of the CDBHA, Professor Gefferson Ramos Rodrigues, for his support, hospitality, and kindness to me while I was there. I also want to thank the student archvists there – Joanderson, Maira, and Lara, in particular – for their immense help, insight, and laughter along the way. They went above and beyond to assisit me in my research, taking time from their work to sort through documents and share ideas. Their enthusiasm for this project fueled mine. I am very thankful to Wesleyan’s History Department for inspiring me to study history and for shaping the way I think about the world. I want to thank 2 Professor Demetrius Eudell in particular. He is an incredible thinker and historian, whose ideas have significantly shaped this thesis, and for this, I am greatly indebted to him. I wish every student had the opportunity to study under him. I also want to thank Professors Erik Grimer-Solem, Courtney Patterson-Faye, and Khalil Johnson whose courses have been essential to my intellectual growth at Wesleyan. And of course, a great, big thank-you goes out to my amazing family and friends who have supported me throughout this process. 3 Introduction The Last Bastion of the Southerners: The US Civil War and the Amazon “Oh! he had to repel this temptation, remembering the old reasons: never would Gordon obey the Yankee law, never by returning to Savannah would he make the Yankees believe that he recognized their victory. Santarem was the last bastion of the Southerners…They would refuse to surrender until death. Wounded soldiers, dying of hunger and thirst in their beleaguered redoubt, do not surrender themselves under the pretext that the life of a prsioner is more comfortable than the hell of heroes. By staying in Santarem, Gordon Locke and his people would forever testify to the failure of the Yankees; in spite of their military victory, the Cause would not have been betrayed. At Fort Sumter, Anderson had eventually surrendered, in Santarem, Gordon Locke would show that a Southerner resists better than a Yankee.”1 The passage above is taken from Santarem, a novel published in French in 1959 by Jacques Guicharnaud, a French theatre scholar and Rollin Osterweis, a scholar of United Staes history. Though a novel, Santarem is not a work of pure fiction. It is connected to a true story – that of the two hundred indivuals who migrated from various parts of the southern United States to Santarém, a city locted in the Brazilian Amazon, following the conclusion of the US Civil War. The “Anderson” mentioned in this passage refers to Robert Anderson, a US Army commander. Anderson surrended to the newly formed Army of the Confederate States of America on April 14, 1865, two days after the Confederate Army fired the first shots of the war at the Union’s Fort Sumter in South Carolina. “Gordon Locke” is a ficitional character, based on many of the colonists who followed a man named Lansford Warren Hastings to Santarém in 1867. The characterization of Locke in the above passage is an attempt to narrate the story of these colonists, who would 1 “Oh! il fallait repousser cette tentation, en se rappelant les vielles raisons: jamais Gordon n’obérait à la loi yankee, jamais par son retour à Savannah il ne ferait croire au Yankees qu’il reconnaissait leur victoire. Santarem était le dernier bastion des Sudistes…On refuserait de se rendre, jusqu’à la mort. Les soldat blessés, mourant de faim et de soif dans leur redoute assiégée, ne se redent pas sous le prétexte que la vie de prisionner est plus confortable que leur enfer de héros. En restant à Santarem, Gordon Locke et les siens témoigneraient pour l’éternité de l’échec des Yankees; malgrés la victoire militaire de ceux-ci, la Cause n’aurait pas été trahie. Anderson au Fort Sumter avait fini par se rendre, Gordon Locke à Santarem montrerait qu’um Sudiste résiste mieux qu’un Yankee,” Jacques Guicharnaud and Rollin Osterweis, Santarem (Paris: Librairie Plon), 1959, 301. 4 become known in Brazil as confederados, and the meaning of their decision to emigrate, rather than remain in the US. For Guicharnaud and Osterweis, the confederados of Santarém stand, without a doubt, as a symbol of a continued resistance to the Union victory in the Civil War. Osterweis was a scholar of the Confederacy whose writing combatted the myth of the Lost Cause, which he defines as the most persistent “regional legend” in US history.2 The myth recasts the nature of the antebellum south and the Civil War in an attempt to characterize the cause of the Confederacy as just and heroic. It seeks to diminish the role of slavery. At the end of Santarem, the year is 1898 and a US consul gives Locke the opportunity to return to the US. Locke refuses, however, unwilling to recognize the Union’s victory. Figure 1.1 Close-up from “Mappa da Amazonia,” Luiz R. Cavalcanti, 1894, Biblioteca Nacional Digital do Brasil. This thesis places the confederado colony in Santarém in its historical context, unveiling its deeper implications for nineteenth-century Brazilian and US history. I originally set out to study two separate communities in the Brazilian Lower Amazon: 2 Rollin G. Osterweis, The Myth of the Lost Cause, 1865-1900 (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1973), x. 5 the confederados of Santarém and the quilombos (communities of fugitive slaves) of the Lower Amazon. While researching for a paper in Professor López Fadul’s course on the History of the Amazon, I was struck by the finding that a US citizen and former member of the Confederate States of America – Romulus J. Rhome – co-owned a slaveholding plantation in the Amazon in the 1870s and 80s. Two aspects of this discovery were of particular interest to me: first, that someone who had owned slaves in the US had found a way to continue enslaving people in another country, following the abolition of slavery in the US, second, that this confederado’s partner was a member of one of the region’s biggest slaveholding families that, over the course of the nineteenth century, experienced the constant escape of slaves to quilombos. Rhome led me to learn about Confederates who immigrated to Brazil in the first few years after the Civil War’s conclusion. They numbered in the thousands. While the majority settled in the province of São Paulo, where they founded their own city, Americana, in homage to their nation of origin, a couple hundred made homes for themselves in Santarém and its surroundings. The confederados of Santarém, in contrast to the colony at São Paulo, have received little scholarly attention. The only extensive study of the colony is confederado descendant Norma Guilhon de Azevedo’s Os confederados em Santarém: saga Americana na Amazônia (1979). The scope of this project then shifted to the confederados of Santarém, in an effort to give this colony its due treatment.
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