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The insanity of endless growth

The authors consider the reality that endless on a finite planet is unsustainable, Haydn especially if society has exceeded ecological limits. The paper examines various aspects of society’s endless growth predicament. It reviews the idea that there are ‘limits to growth’; Washington it then considers the ‘endless growth mantra’ within society. The paper then considers the and Helen ‘decoupling’ strategy and its merits, and argues that it is, at best, a partial solution to the Kopnina problem. The key social problem of denial of our predicament is considered, along with the contribution of anthropocentric modernism as a worldview that aids and abets that denial. About the authors Finally, the paper outlines some potential solutions to our growth predicament. Haydn is an environmental scientist, writer and activist he world is faced with a grave of the ‘green economy’, which it describes as based at the PANGEA predicament, yet one rarely spoken “a new engine of growth” (our emphasis). The Research Centre, UNSW, Tof. The United Nations (UN), almost UN Goals (available Sydney, NSW, Australia. all governments, business, media and at http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/) Helen is an environmental both the political ‘left’ and ‘right’ are busy also fail to acknowledge that endless growth anthropologist at Leiden University, Leiden, and The extolling endless growth. Yet we live on a finite is impossible and its pursuit fundamentally Hague University of Applied planet, so clearly endless economic growth unsustainable (Kopnina, 2016b). Science, The Hague, the is impossible, and its pursuit unsustainable Netherlands. and unethical – indeed, such destructive Ecological limits pursuit of the impossible is insane. There This obsession with endless economic Citation are three main drivers of ‘unsustainability’ growth demonstrates that societies Washington H and Kopnina H – overpopulation, and still do not understand that humanity (2018) The insanity of endless growth. The Ecological Citizen the growth economy (Washington, 2015). has exceeded ecological limits, and 2: 57–63. We feel it is time to focus on these. These that this is the root cause of the current points have been made in the past, but for environmental crisis. The book Limits Keywords quite some time the reasons behind the to Growth (Meadows et al., 1972) showed Anthropocentrism; unsustainability and insanity of endless that human growth and the ; growth have not been explored. We feel concomitant increase in the consumption societal change; society (and academia) need to be regularly of resources would exceed planetary limits reminded of them. around the middle of the , The question “On a finite planet, is it possible causing . Upon its release, to keep growing economically forever?” this report was strongly criticized by is one hardly ever asked in neoclassical traditional economists, who labelled the economics (Daly, 1991; 2014) or in many other authors ‘prophets of doom’ (Solow, 1973). academic disciplines (Washington, 2015). However, a recent 40-year review of Limits Even the World Commission on Environment to Growth has shown that its models are and Development (1987) report Our Common remarkably accurate (Turner, 2014). To Future did not ask that question – suggesting summarize key environmental indicators that ‘sustainable development’ required a of ecological : Cartoons gross domestic product growth rate of 5% n The Global now The three cartoons appearing in this article are (a rate at which the global economy would stands at 1.6 Earths (Global Footprint reproduced with permission double its output every 14 years). Network, 2017). of Polyp, their creator (see More recently, the UN Environment n The Living Planet Index has declined by http://polyp.org.uk/ for more Programme (2011: 2) has promoted the idea 58% between 1970 and 2012 (W W F, 2016). cartoons).

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poverty, unemployment, debt repayment, inflation, balance of payment deficits, the population explosion, crime, divorce and drug addiction.” This has not changed much in the 25 years since Daly wrote those words, and economic growth is still widely seen as the panacea for almost all societal ills. Sometimes commitment to growth may be promoted in the guise of ‘free trade’, ‘competitiveness’, ‘productivity’ – or even as ‘sustainable development’ (Victor, 2008). Indeed, from its coining in to now, ‘sustainable development’ has had its meaning largely coopted to mean ‘sustainable growth’ – a phrase which, we suggest, is an oxymoron (Washington, 2015). World leaders seek growth above all else. Neoclassical n The species extinction rate is at least 1000 economics claimed that the benefits of times normal (Millennium Ecosystem growth would ‘trickle down’ and alleviate Assessment, 2005). global poverty, but this has failed (Kopnina n At least 60% of ecosystem services are and Blewitt, 2015). As Daly (1991) notes, degrading or being used unsustainably the verb ‘to grow’ has become twisted; (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, we have forgotten its original meaning: to 2005). spring up and ‘develop to maturity’. That n Four of nine have is, in nature, growth gives way to maturity, now been exceeded as a result of human a . To grow beyond a certain activity (Steffen et al., 2015). point can be disastrous. A final aspect of growthism is that it is In effect, we are bankrupting nature and commonly claimed that “economic growth consuming the past, present and future of is necessary if we are to have jobs.” Is this “We are bankrupting our biosphere (Wijkman and Rockström, claim correct? There are good grounds to 2012). On a finite world with expanding question whether jobs have historically nature and consuming human population and consumption, been linked to growth. Victor (2008) notes the past, present clearly something has got to give. that the idea only developed 60 years ago, and future of our Humanity faces a fundamental problem, and for most of human history we managed biosphere.” for it is totally dependent on the biosphere to provide employment without economic it is degrading (Washington, 2013). Hence growth. Does growth necessarily bring society needs to understand and accept employment in any case? For example, that we are way past sustainable ecological there were more Canadians with incomes limits. less than the ‘low Income cut-off’ in 2005 than in 1980, despite real Canadian gross The endless growth mantra domestic product having nearly doubled Environmental science may tell us that the over that period (Victor, 2008). As Victor consumer society is on a self-destructive (2008) notes, it is possible to develop path, but many of us successfully deflect scenarios where full employment prevails, the evidence by repeating in unison poverty is eliminated, people have the mantra of perpetual growth (Rees, more leisure, and greenhouse gases are 2008). Yet endless repetition does not drastically reduced, in the context of low make something true. Daly (1991: 183) – and ultimately no – economic growth. It pointed out that economic growth is is thus mistaken to assume that economic unrealistically held to be “the cure for growth is a necessity for full employment.

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Indeed, once we have exceeded ecological increased. Victor and Jackson (2015) limits, growth will make us worse off. We note that while there has been some have then reached ‘relative decoupling’, any serious absolute (Daly, 2014). However, unless there are decoupling is not evident. At best, as Victor changes in social outlook, our experience (2008) notes, attempts at decoupling slow of diminished well-being will be blamed down the rate at which things get worse, on ‘product scarcity’. The orthodox but do not turn them around. Hence, talk economic and policy response will then be of ‘100% decoupling’ is likely to be merely to advocate increased growth to remedy wishful thinking that allows business-as- this. In the real world of ecological limits, usual growth to continue. Indeed, focusing this will make us even less well off, but our attention on the idea of decoupling “Attempts at this will in turn lead to advocacy of ‘even runs the risk of becoming part of the denial decoupling slow more growth’ (Daly, 1991). This becomes of the unsustainability of endless growth. a death spiral. Healing our world requires down the rate at accepting the reality that the economy Denial which things get cannot grow forever. However, in recent How is it possible for civilizations to worse, but do not years the concept of decoupling has been be blind towards the grave and rapidly turn them around. put forward to argue that it is possible to approaching threats to their survival, ” have continued economic growth without even when the evidence for those threats producing further environmental damage. is extensive (Brow n, 2008)? Humanity has a key failing – we tend to deny our Decoupling problems. Humanity denies some things ‘Decoupling’ refers to the idea that an because they force us to ‘confront change’, economy can continue to increase its output others because they are just too painful, or of goods and services, without thereby make us afraid. This human incapacity to increasing pressure on the environment hear bad news makes it hard to solve the – for example, by shifting to renewable environmental crisis. Of course, another energy sources, and using efficiencies to source of this denial is ideological, where reduce the amount of resources and energy the reality of the environmental crisis consumed. Reducing the use of energy is denied owing to neoliberal hatred of and materials by society is certainly any regulations that could restrict the needed, and some claim we can move to activities of business (Oreskes and Conway, a ‘Factor 5’ strategy and only use 20% of 2010). The result of such denial is that, as the energy and materials we currently use a society, we continue to act as if there is (von Wiezsäcker et al., 2009), whilst still no environmental crisis, no matter what retaining our current quality of life. The the science says (Washington, 2017a). problem with this approach is that the very Perhaps the key form that denial takes in concept of decoupling suggests we can the public realm is simply silence – thus keep on growing forever. As noted above, the silence about the environmental crisis; the UN advocates the ‘green economy’ yet also sees this economy as “a new engine of growth” (United Nations Environment Programme, 2011: 2); this combination of ‘green’ and ‘growth’ is only made plausible by invoking the idea that it is possible to completely decouple economic growth from environmental impacts. How successful have we been in decoupling? Some modest decoupling of material flows occurred from the mid- 1970s to mid-1990s, but total material throughput in the global economy still

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the silence about the fact that the world point that totally transforms systems is overpopulated; the deafening silence […] In a single individual it can happen in about the impossibility of endless growth a millisecond. All it takes is a click in the (Washington, 2015). mind, a new way of seeing. In the past, denial of ecological limits was common in neoclassical economists. It has only been possible for our societies However, such denial of reality is not just a to maintain a belief in the desirability of thing of the past. An Ecomodernist Manifesto pursuing endless growth, because of the (available at http://www.ecomodernism.org/) dominant anthropocentric worldview of It has only “ was written in 2015 by eighteen professionals, modernism (Curry, 2011), which sees the been possible for ten of whom are academics. The manifesto world as no more than a resource for human our societies to claims: use (Crist, 2012). To put this another way, maintain a belief in the obsession with endless growth has the desirability of Despite frequent assertions starting in the been the offspring of the anthropocentric 1970s of fundamental “limits to growth”, ‘human chauvinism’ and ‘speciesism’ that pursuing endless there is still remarkably little evidence that has dominated Western society for at least growth, because human population and economic expansion the last 200 years. of the dominant will outstrip the capacity to grow food or In contrast, an ecocentric worldview finds anthropocentric procure critical material resources in the intrinsic value in nature (Washington et al., foreseeable future […] To the degree to 2017). It holds, as Daly (1991: 248) notes, that worldview of which there are fixed physical boundaries “there is something fundamentally wrong modernism.” to human consumption, they are so in treating the Earth as if it were a business theoretical as to be functionally irrelevant. in liquidation.” Society thus needs to return to ecocentrism and adopt an Earth ethic Such a dismissal of ecological limits (and (Rolston, 2012) and undertake the ‘Great the rapidly worsening environmental crisis) Work’ of repairing the Earth (Berry, 1999) to indicates many in academia are still in enter the ‘Ecozoic’ (Swimme and Berry, 1992). denial of the insanity and unsustainability Changing to a worldview of ecocentrism is of endless economic growth. thus the key step on the path to a sustainable future (Washington et al., 2017). Anthropocentrism versus ecocentrism Solutions Many things change (and solutions become A major problem with tackling the easier) if we change our worldview and environmental crisis is the distraction ethics. As (1997: 84) notes: caused by partial solutions. For example, we acknowledge the need for the People who manage to intervene in systems maximum possible ‘decoupling’ as part at the level of a paradigm hit a leverage of a circular or green economy, one that massively reduces society’s use of energy and materials (Kopnina and Blewitt, 2015). However, such savings should not be seen as ‘a new engine of growth’, nor will such savings be long-term solutions if we fail to address overpopulation and overconsumption. The plain truth is that partial solutions are only of value if they are part of a comprehensive move to abandon endless economic growth. We suggest the following solution frameworks (Washington, 2015): n accept ecological reality and roll back denial;

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n adopt an ecocentric worldview (inspired Western society (globalized around the by a sense of wonder at life), where we world) is a ‘consumer culture’ that has abandon the false anthropocentric been deliberately constructed since 1950; dream of ‘mastery of nature’. and what was deliberately constructed can also be deconstructed (Assadourian, These are the overarching changes in our 2013). Thirdly, the growth economy is “The steady-state mindset that we must make. Within them still espoused by the UN and almost all economy deals are the practical strategies, including: national governments. However, a rational with all three key n controlling through (and ethical) solution has been espoused drivers of ecological education, and non- by ecological economist unsustainability, plus coercive, humane strategies (Engelman, since the 1970s: the steady-state economy 2016); (Daly, 1991; Daly, 2014). A steady-state a key driver of social n rolling back the deliberately constructed economy features a sustainable population unsustainability: consumer ethic (Assadourian, 2013) and size for the of its region, inequality of concurrently adopting a ‘cradle to cradle’ low resource use and a distribution of income. approach (Kopnina and Blewitt, 2015); wealth which is fair and equitable on an ” n moving past growthism to a steady-state intergenerational basis (Daly, 2014). economy (Daly, 2014); The transition path to a steady-state n solving urgently, focusing economy will be made up of many small on mitigation; ‘positive steps’ that society can take n adopting of ‘appropriate’ technology, (Washington, 2017b). The steady-state especially 100% renewables within two economy deals with all three key drivers to three decades, concurrently with of ecological unsustainability, plus a key major drives for energy efficiency and driver of social unsustainability: inequality conservation; of income. The scale of income inequality n reducing poverty and inequality, while as a problem can be understood from the simultaneously supporting the Nature fact that the wealthiest 10% of the world’s Needs Half vision (Kopnina, 2016a); population now owns approximately n educating effectively for sustainability 85% of the world’s wealth (Credit Suisse, based on ecological reality and 2016). The ‘cradle to cradle’ approach (and ecocentrism; the related circular economy) arguably n creating the political will for change. offer the most hope to cut resource use (Kopnina and Blewitt, 2015). However, we Change is urgently needed, and is certainly feel that ways forward can only be found if feasible. The key to this is breaking the silence the steady-state economy and the circular of denial, by talking about the problems. economy (within the former) are adhered This may sound wishy-washy, but in fact to in strict terms and practice. That means meaningful dialogue on the impossibility of that they must not be subverted to become endless growth is an essential step. Academia partial solutions used to encourage further can (and should) lead the way on this. growth. Solving the key cause of the problem – the As remarked above, to enable these idea we can have endless economic growth changes, what is needed is a major on a finite planet – means tackling the three paradigm shift from anthropocentric key drivers of unsustainability (Washington, modernism to ecocentrism (Washington 2015): overpopulation, overconsumption and et al., 2017). We acknowledge that the growth-focused economic policy. scale of our predicament is huge, but However, this also means tackling some maintain that solutions are possible if we of the biggest taboos in society. First, overcome the denial that currently blocks many in society still consider discussion them. Now, accepting the reality of our of limiting the human population a predicament can be depressing. Hence the taboo, but we cannot afford to have this need to discuss statements such as: “It is remain an ‘undiscussable’. Secondly, too late.” The danger of such statements

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is that they tend to become self-fulfilling Berry T (1999) The Great Work: Our way into the future. prophecies, as they give people an excuse Bell Tower, New York, NY, USA. to go into despair, and do nothing positive Brown D (2008) The ominous rise of ideological (Washington, 2015). In fact, every action think tanks in environmental policy-making. In: we take towards a ‘Great Work’ of repairing Soskolne C, ed. Sustaining Life on Earth: Environmental and human health through global governance. Rowman the Earth (Berry, 1999) is useful. So it is and Littlefield, Lanham, MD, USA: 243–56. never too late. Some actions, indeed, may fail, but some may help to turn the tide – a Crist E (2012) Abundant Earth and the population question. In: Cafaro P and Crist E, eds. Life on the ‘great tide’ of rising action (Moore, 2016). Brink: Environmentalists confront overpopulation. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA, USA: 141–51. Conclusion Credit Suisse (2016) Global Wealth Report 2016. The insanity and unsustainability of Credit Suisse, Zurich, Switzerland. Available at endless economic growth is a critical https://is.gd/JJyEjg (accessed February 2018). reality that society must acknowledge Curry P (2011) Ecological Ethics: An introduction (2nd and discuss. To ignore this is irrational The insanity and edition). Polity Press, Cambridge, UK. “ and self-destructive. Ecological limits unsustainability of Daly H (1991) Steady State Economics. Island Press, exist and have been exceeded. Yet society Washington, DC, USA. endless economic remains locked into the unsustainable Daly H (2014) From Uneconomic Growth to a Steady State mantra of endless growth that has caused growth is a critical Economy. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK. the environmental crisis. Most government reality that society Engelman R (2016) Nine population strategies to stop and business response to this has been to must acknowledge short of nine billion. In: Washington H and Twomey undertake partial solutions, while at the P, eds. A Future Beyond Growth: Towards a steady state and discuss. To same time denying the central cause – our economy. Routledge, London, UK: 32–42. addiction to endless growth. Our ability ignore this is Global Footprint Network (2017) World Footprint: Do we to deny our predicament is aided by the irrational and self- fit the planet? Global Footprint Network, Oakland, dominant worldview of anthropocentric CA, USA. Available at https://is.gd/rUTqiT (accessed destructive.” modernism. Hence we face a difficult February 2018). predicament, for the global experiment of Kopnina H (2016a) Half the earth for people (or more)? endless growth has well and truly failed, Addressing ethical questions in conservation. and destructively so. Biological Conservation 203: 176–85. Change is not easy but it is possible, but Kopnina H (2016b) The victims of unsustainability: only by accepting the nature and scale of A challenge to sustainable development goals. our predicament. If we break the silence International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology 23: 113–21. of denial, then everything becomes easier. The other great game-changer is changing Kopnina H and Blewitt J (2015) Sustainable Business: Key our worldview from anthropocentrism to issues. Routledge, London, UK. ecocentrism. We can then move to slow (then Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Living Beyond stop) growth in population, and minimize our Means: Natural assets and human wellbeing. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya. resource use via a steady-state economy. Available at http://www.millenniumassessment.org We can stop global ecocide, improve social (accessed February 2018). equality and move to a truly sustainable Meadows D (1997) Places to intervene in a system: future. Then, this era could become, not the In increasing order of effectiveness. Whole Earth egotistical ‘Anthropocene’, but the start of (Winter): 78–84. the sustainable ‘Ecozoic’. That is a worthy Meadows D, Meadows D, Randers J and Behrens W (1972) vision for the 21st century, a ‘Great Work’ The Limits to Growth. Universe Books, Washington, we can all help bring to reality. n DC, USA.

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