EXCLAVES'

G. W. S. ROBINSON The University of Southampton

EXCLAVES are not important phenomena consist of a single village with its lands. But in political geography. They are rare and the fourth, at Baarle in North Brabant (N 4 on mostly small. But their special status is of Figs. 1 and 2)3 is far more complicated. Atlas value in illustrating the relations of states in maps which show here an exclave of Belgium difficult geographical circumstances and in within Holland have severely simplified the illuminating the importance of uninterrupted situation. This "exclave" consists in fact of at territory to present-day states. This paper least 33 exclaves (not to mention Dutch coun- might have taken the form of a detailed analy- ter-exclaves), most of them within the built-up sis of one or two exclaves, and some readers area of the village and quite indistinguishable might prefer it so. It is the author's conviction to the stranger. Some plots are even claimed that in geography too often an example has by both countries, and the church and church- been taken to prove a case; geographers have yard are generally reputed common ground. in general been slow to look around for excep- Pene-exclaves are parts of the territory of tions to their rules. In this study, therefore, one country that can be approached conveni- the world population of exclaves has been ently-in particular by wheeled traffic-only used as the field, and the attempt has been through the territory of another country. These made to say what could be said about exclaves areas usually function fully as exclaves, though as a class of phenomena, treating in turn form, they have not the formal territorial isolation of origin, and function, but emphasizing espe- normal exclaves. In Europe there are eight cially the functional conditions, the way in pene-exclaves known to the author, six of which things are done differently and life is which are concentrated on the Austro-German lived differently in exclaves. These small, and Irish frontiers (P 1-8 on Figs. 1, 3a and specialized territories naturally bring to mind 3b).4 Pene-exclaves are separated from their those better-known small, specialized terri- home countries -to various degrees and in tories, the tiny countries; and a comparison various ways. Direct access may be hindered between conditions in exclaves and tiny coun- by the difficulty of the terrain, as in the Val- tries has been adumbrated in the final section. lee Etroite (P 7); or by the narrowness of the An exclave is a part of the territory of one territorial isthmus, as at Drumully (P 5); or country entirely surrounded by the territory of by both, as at Jungholz (P 3). This Tyrolean another country. village is connected to its home country by a Normal exclaves are not common. They hundred-yard-wide neck of territory on top of occur in four places, all in Europe. They are a 5,000-foot-high mountain: it is in fact all all small, under 10 square miles in area, and but a normal exclave. Most pene-exclaves none has a population of over 1,500. The could, however, at some expense be connected normal exclaves at Llivia, Campione, and to their home countries by the construction of Btisingen (N 1,2,3 on Figs. 1 and 2)2 each special roads or tunnels. At least one pene- 1 The author wishes to thank those who have helped exclave, Balderschwang (P 1), should cease to to satisfy his curiosity in the exclaves and tiny coun- exist before long when the planned German tries he has visited. He is also grateful for information Alpine road is constructed through the village. given him by the Office for All-Berlin Questions, Quasi-exclaves are those exclaves which for Berlin; the Home Office, Berlin; the Home Office, one reason or another do not in fact function Munich; the Ministry of Finance, The Hague; the Police Commissioner, Dublin; the Revenue Commis- as exclaves today. There are two of these. By sioners, Dublin; the Office of Works, Innsbruck; the the Treaty of Versailles, Belgium was awarded Home Office, Stuttgart. not only the Prussian districts of Eupen and 2 L. Pedreschi, "L'exclave italiano in terra Svizzera Malmedy but also the whole of the railroad di Campione d'Italia," Rivista Geografica Italiana, Vol. LXIV (1958), pp. 23-40. In addition to Biisin- gen there is a second German exclave in the Canton of 3C. Kramer, Baarle-Nassau en Baarle-Hertog Schaffhausen, the single farm "Verena Hof," which (Baarle-Nassau, 1952). lies a quarter of a mile within Swiss territory in the 4 The author would be pleased to hear of pene- north of the canton. exclaves outside Europe, which he has not studied.

283 284 G. W. S. ROBINSON September

4c/I r 0 0

RPUBLIC KINGDOM

UNITEDITER

0~~~~~~~~

2:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

PALESTINE o F 1j, j miles.

REPUBLICS Q2 ONF~ [~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ INDIA 20mk

1000 miles

FIG. 1. Location map. Normal exclaves: Ni, Llivia; N2, Campione; N3, Buisingen and Verena Hof; N4, Baarle-Hertog. Pene-exclaves: P1, Balderschwang; P2, Klein Walsertal; P3, Jungholz; P4, Hinterriss; P5, Drumully; P6, Termon Valley; P7, Vallee Etroite; P8, Bagni di Craveggia. Quasi-exclaves: Q1, Raeren-Wey- wertz railroad zone; Q2, Nagar Haveli and Dadra. Virtual exclaves: V, Vatican exclave. Temporary exclaves: TI, West Berlin; T2, Mount Scopus. Tiny countries: A, Andorra; L, Liechtenstein; M, Monaco; V, Vatican City State; CI, Channel Islands; IM, Isle of Man; SM, San Marino. from Raeren to Weywertz (Q 1 on Figs. 1 and tached parts of German territory entirely free 4). This line passes beyond the Belgian fron- from restrictions. The Portuguese territories tier into Germany in five places, each time behind Daman (Q 2 on Figs. 1 and 4), Nagar leaving German territory cut off to the west Haveli and Dadra, are classed as quasi-ex- of the line. In fact the railroad is now used claves for a very different reason. The whole by the Belgians solely for through traffic, and area (some 200 square miles) was occupied they leave movement across it into the de- by forces of the Indian Republic in 1954, and 1959 EXCLAVES 285

Ni J 2 Lugano

I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~00

N33 i~s 4 mlJ r 'N....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M '0 ' JI~t r v. ?C?| |S/ | 3 m iI e__1 7~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~

Verenacofrda SPAIN 3 miles 2 m~~~~~~~~~~~,aites

FIG 2 Noma exlaesin etil.No Livi, pai. 2,Campione,

4~~~~ SPa IN ara ar mitesa 2 miaves

rod.NBiignadVerena Hof , emn.Sne stenaetmakttw nGray 4 are

Hertog, Belgimand Bxcaare-Nssi eaui1,Hollvan, Showing the ConcesionIaly. rAd o ccess from Bealgium.i Theas

black areas are Belgian exclaves.

has naturally not functioned as an exclave lands and buildings in and near Rome were since. declared extraterritorial from the point of view Virtual exclaves are areas treated as the of the Kingdom of Italy. While these do not exclaves of a country of which they are not in in law form part of the Vatican City State, the strictest legal sense an integral part. By they function as if they did and are effectively the Lateran Treaty of 1929, which created the under Vatican administration. Vatican City State (V on Fig. 1) ,5 certain Temporary exclaves are created where what

. U. Toschi, "The Vatican City State," Geographical was one state has been divided by an avow- Review, Vol. XXII (1931), p. 529. edly temporary or provisional line, such as an 286 C. W. S. ROBINSON September

P1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~P2 5miles

4,~ ~ ~ ~ 4

:7 Bold~~erschng .Y

N 4~~4

2 miles ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 5O~~m' ile

P3,JughlzuTroghowigras adoet,00mtr ssipe.P, itris yo.Ln #ve *1, meter is tipped. oads how- in ecke line aresuitble or Hepitrfficonly

armistice line or an occupation-zone limit, isolated from the home country as a temporary which leaves islands of one zone within exclave. The other example is by far the most another. At present there are temporary important exclave in the world today, West exclaves in two places. The armistice in Pales- Berlin (T 1 on Figs. 1 and 5) 6-critical not tine allowed for a demilitarized area on Mount 6 G. W. S. Robinson, "West Berlin, the Geography Scopus, including the Hebrew University of an Exclave," Geographical Review, Vol. XLIII buildings and others (T 2 on Figs. 1 and 5). (1953), p. 540. As West Berlin was at first defined The area is divided into two parts, one occu- (i.e., by reference to prewar administrative areas) it included in addition to the main territory 9 small pied by the Jews, the other by the Arabs. As additional exclaves, varying in area from one-half to the whole area is surrounded by Arab-occu- 80 acres. Six were uninhabited, and all these, along pied territory, the Jewish part is effectively with one more with a population of 15, were handed 1959 EXCLAVES 287

P6 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A,

CO~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C

1 mi~~~~~~e Lough mle

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e 't eccha + / ~~Craveg~gia

Melzet

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3 miles' M i'cx:G..

FIG. 3b. Pene-exclaves in detail. P5, Drumully, Ulster, showing road and rail systems. P6, Terrion Valley, Ulster, showing road system. Land over 500 feet is stippled. P7, Vallee Etroite, France. Land over 2,000 meters, heavy stipple; land hetween 1,500 and 2,000 meters, light stipple. Intemnational frontier as it was hefore 1947 is shown hy dotted line. Stairway at the Col de l'Echelle also indicated. P8, Bagni di Craveggia, Italy, showing roads. Land over 1,500 meters is stippled.

only on account of its size and prestige, but worlds. Strictly speaking, West Berlin is not also because it occupies a position not merely an integral part of Western Germany and so between two countries, but between two does not fall within the definition of an over to the Russians early in the occupation. As this exclave given here. Seen in a broader view, surrender was made without reservations, these areas however, it must be admitted that West Ber- cannot now be classed as quasi-exclaves. The remain- lin functions as far as it can as if it were a ing two, Steinstiicken (40 acres, pop. 600) and part of Western Germany, and it certainly Papenberger Wiesen (12 acres, weekend pop.), are forms an outpost of the "West" entirely sur- still functioning exclaves. For a complete list and map, see Robinson, op. cit., pp. 546-47. rounded by the territory of the "East." 288 G. W. S. ROBINSON September

Qi QQ2 (Vt +~Daman

i3ELG1uA, /0+

+ Montjoie ~ *m

5 m iles ______mile

FIG. 4. Quasi-exclaves in detail. Qi, Raeren-Weywertz railroad zones, Germany. The entire railroad is in Belgium. Q2, Nagar Haveli and Dadra, Portuguese India.

ORIGINS pique over the high-handed treatment handed out 30 years before by the town to the Lord The exclaves that survive in the world today of Biisingen in defiance of their own interven- have no common origin; they do not even date tion as suzerains. Campione escaped the Swiss from a single period. Several come down from conquest of Tessin through the respect it com- the Middle Ages; the most recent was created manded as a fief of the Monastery of St. in 1949. Ambrose at Milan, a status which did nothing So far as our mediaeval exclaves are con- to save it from incorporation in the Italian cerned, what calls for explanation is rather dominions of Napoleon.9 their survival today than their existence in the British India was, like mediaeval Europe, a Middle Ages. In those days the face of Europe welter of exclaves and enclaves; but all were was peppered with exclaves; they could almost subject to the paramount power, and all were be described as a normal feature of the land- reduced to the level of administrative incon- scape.7 At least two survivals can be traced to veniences, where they were not abolished, personal interventions. Baarle-Hertog8 would after the attainment of independence. After certainly have been included in the Dutch Re- that there remained only the exclaves of the public at the Peace of Westphalia, as were colonies of other European powers. Pondi- several similar neighboring exclaves, had it cherry until its extinction in 1954 comprised not been preserved by the interest of its Lady, no less than 12 distinct parts. The two exclaves who happened to be a person of exceptional awarded to the Portuguese of Daman as interest at court in The Hague at the time. indemnification for Mahratta piracy are the Similarly, when the Hapsburgs sold the suzer- sole survivors of the ancien regime, and even ainty over the Hegau to Schaffhausen in 1723, these have been reduced to the status of quasi- they withheld that over Bfisingen through exclaves (Q 2 on Figs. 1 and 4). 7 The same is true of the tiny states; most of them Exclaves can also result from carelessly date from the same period. 8 In the twelfth century the Duke of Brabant drawn-up treaties. The best-known case is leased the hunting rights of Baarle to the Lord of that of Llivia. The Treaty of the Pyrenees Breda, but he expressly excluded the cultivated land allocated to France 33 villages in the Cer- and houses of the village, which at that time took the dagne to link her territories in Conflent with form of scattered oases in the heathlands. The Lord's those in Val Carol. Though lying directly in hunting rights have matured into Dutch sovereignty, the Duke's overlordship of fields and houses into 9G. W. Schneider, Ueber die politischen Grenzen Belgian. der Schweiz (Berne, 1923). 1959 EXCLAVES 289

TI Papenberger D T1i l_ Wies'en K> w^ * SOVIET amburg * I \EAST BERLIN WESTERN' EAST * Hanove tWEST BERLIN N \

Frank fort

Steinstucken 100 mites Ts' Munich GERMANY 10 miles

T21

1'-s

FIG. 5. Temporary exclaves in detail. Ti, West Berlin. Access roads, railroads and canals. Air corri- "S dors are stippled. Small subsidiary exclaves are shown in black. T2, Mount Scopus. Armistice lines appear as a double frontier. The Mount Scopus demilitar- Not dissim ipar i s the co pized us zone is divided into a north, Israel-held sector and a southern, Jordan-held sector. Buildings in these >~~~ areas are shown in black.

but ~ ~ %0 of a twn 70dCity

I mile the way, Llivia could not be included deliberately in the created exclaves and pene-ex- 33 because it had the status not of a village claves for prestige and tactical reasons. Prestige but of a town. largely explains the occupation of Berlin by Not dissimilar is the condition that can the Western powers; tactical advantages were result when an existing administrative boun- supposed to accrue to Belgium from the dary or cease-fire line is hastily accepted as a Raeren-Weywertz railroad and to France from makeshift political divide, which then hardens the Vallee Etroite. In both cases the quasi- into a frontier and possibly survives for dec- or pene-exclave was a device to secure this ades. The convolutions of County Fermanagh advantage without unnecessarily extensive in Ireland, the petty exclaves around Berlin annexations. and the deserted university buildings on Mount Scopus are all results of this kind of SURVIVAL frontier-making. The survival of an exclave depends on the Recent treaties and agreements have also continued acquiescence of three parties: the 290 G. W. S. ROBINSON September home country, the neighbor country, and the blockade by an air-lift unprecedented for exclave. scale and duration in time of peace. Blockade The home country is naturally the one most has been resorted to by Switzerland as well, interested in the maintenance of the status but a limited blockade with limited objec- quo. We have, however, seen the British and tives. When the Italians opened a casino at Americans renounce seven small exclaves Campione with the obvious intention of cir- around Berlin (T 1 on Fig. 5)-one inhabited cumventing Swiss laws against gambling, by 15 persons-on account of the practical Swiss gendarmes surrounded the area and no impossibility of administering them. visitors were allowed in until the Italian The exclaves themselves are not normally authorities agreed to impose a five-franc limit in a position to alter their international status on gambling by Swiss citizens. by their own action; but they can agitate for changes, and some have done so. Both COMMUNICATIONS Busingen and Campione have petitioned for The essential element in the condition of an cession to Switzerland, the latter not since the exclave is that it is in direct contact with its Risorgimento, but the former as recently as the neighbor country, but can communicate with two World Wars. The Swiss have consistently its home country only across the territory of declined to accept the offer, on the same the neighbor. Critical for the exclave, then, grounds as in the case of Vorarlberg-what are the arrangements in force for communica- has been taken from a weakened neighbor tion with the home country. may well be reclaimed by a strengthened one. The device which would seem most obvi- The Swiss and German governments did in ously convenient, a recognized neutral or con- fact discuss the exchange of Biisingen for cessionary road, is in fact rather rare. The equivalent Swiss territory; but an equivalent only true instance is the neutral road of Llivia could not be found. (N 1 on Fig. 2) spanning the mile-wide gap The principal threat to survival comes from between Llivia and the nearest point of the the neighbor state, and it may be expressed Spanish "mainland." It is established by con- peacefully or violently. The Swiss strove for vention that neither country exercises juris- centuries to absorb their enclaves peacefully. diction on this road; so that Llivia enjoys Apart from recent attempts at exchange, they contact with Spain unfettered by French importuned both Napoleon and the Congress controls. The air corridors from Western Ger- of Vienna for outright cession, but without many to Berlin are another version of the success; and before that Schaffhausen had "neutral road" established by convention at made repeated attempts to buy the suzerainty the time the exclave was created, and the over Busingen from the Hapsburgs. Other Autobahn from Helmstedt to Berlin has func- neighbors have shown less concern for the tioned in something of the same way. feelings of others. Direct occupation was the A rather less secure link results from uni- method favored by the Indian Republic lateral concessions by the neighbor country. against the undefended French and Portu- These may be broad, well defined and perma- guese exclaves. Similar methods were tried nent, like the Dutch concessions for Baarle- by the Russians against Steinstucken (see T 1Hertog, which date from 1754 and allow prac- in Fig. 5) in 1952; but a five-day Russian tically free provisioning of Baarle-Hertog occupation ended in a withdrawal forced by from Belgium, though the whole trade is counter-measures against vulnerable Russian checked by the Dutch customs at the frontier; interests in West Berlin. Against the West- Belgium has no rights over the road. Much Berlin exclave itself, the Russians have so far more recent arrangements of a very similar been unable to proceed by the direct use of nature exist at Balderschwang and Hinterriss, force for fear of precipitating a general war. and the Irish and Roman exclaves are run Instead they have resorted to blockade- more informally on the same principles. always a natural weapon ready for use against Movement of persons between exclave and an exclave. West Berlin has proved less vul- home country is controlled by the neighbor nerable to this kind of attack than most, country everywhere except over the neutral because it is big enough to contain three road to Llivia and the air route to Berlin. Ire- aerodromes, and it was possible to counter the land is an exception of a rather different kind, 1959 EXCLAVES 291 since personal movement is normally uncon- forced to issue its own postage stamps valued trolled everywhere between the United King- in francs, Italian stamps being unobtainable dom and the Irish Republic. It is only in the and Italian curency of no importance in the case of the temporary exclaves that the con- economy of Campione. There was a prece- trol exercised by the neighbor country is in dent for this situation from Baarle-Hertog, fact irksome. The insecurity of the surface which remained unoccupied by the Germans route to Berlin is notorious. Free access to in the First World War, and was administered Steinsticken is restricted to residents; others by the Belgian government-in-exile through must be provided with a special pass as its embassy at The Hague. Biisingen, however, troublesome and expensive to obtain as an did not escape the occupation of Germany in international passport. Communication be- 1945, because there was this time no alterna- tween Israel and Mount Scopus is reduced to tive home government to which to turn. a fortnightly convoy escorted by Jordanian There seems no reason why an exclave troops. should not become the seat of an e'migre' gov- ernment approved of by the neighbor country.

ADMINISTRATION There was talk of such a development at Llivia at the end of the Spanish Civil War; The home country is in every case eager to but neither there nor elsewhere has an exclave make the administration of exclaves conform in fact ever played such a part. as closely as possible to the pattern on the "mainland." The most bizarre effects of this policy are to be seen at Baarle, where every ECONOMY public service and every branch of the admin- It is normal for an exclave to be tied to the istration is duplicated right down to the tele- home country not only politically but econom- phone cables and water mains. ically as well. This calls, of course, for efficient Almost always neighbor countries allow communication between the two, and this may access to officials and make reasonable ar- be achieved by a neutral road, as at Llivia; by rangements for the conveyance of the mails, concessionary through traffic, as at Hinterriss, etc., across their territory, sometimes, as in Balderschwang, and Jerusaleum; by a set-back Ireland, informally, in other cases by formal of the customs line, as at Drumully; by lapse, agreement. The exception is Steinstiicken. as on the Raeren-Weywertz railway; or even The East Zone authorities allow passports for by the use of a lower grade of transport-for access to this hamlet to neither policemen nor instance, some jeep traffic uses the direct but civil servants, so that the inhabitants enjoy by dangerous all-Austrian track from Scharnitz accident a degree of freedom from official into Hinterriss' (P 4 on Fig. 3a), and the supervision undreamt of elsewhere in Europe Onsernone valley (Bagni di Craveggia, P 8 today. on Fig. 3b) is usually approached from Italy There do arise, however, occasions when an on foot over the passes. Approach "over the exclave is in a position to choose between rival passes" was also normal in earlier times in the regimes in the home country; and if it rejects Klein Walsertal, at Balderschwang, and at that prevailing in the part nearest itself, there Hinterriss, and helps to explain their present is no way it can be brought into line without status as pene-exclaves, which derives from the consent of the neighbor country, and in later improvement of communications valley- troubled times this is liable to be withheld. wards towards neighbor countries. Thus after the Armistice of 1943 Mussolini set But some exclaves have followed the oppo- up his puppet "Social Republic" in Upper site line of development, and have become Italy. Campione simply declared its continu- economically assimilated to their neighbors, ing allegiance to the Kingdom of Italy, and Jungholz and Klein Walsertal to Germany, maintained contact with the Royal govern- Campione and Btisingen to Switzerland. This ment in the South through its legation at means in each case that the exclave falls Berne. In fact the Commune of Campione behind the customs fence of the neighbor found itself left to run its own public services country and outside that of its home country, (which it largely still does), and was re- and that the neighbor's currency alone is used absorbed into the Swiss economy. So thorough in the exclave'and its general economic orien- were both processes that the commune was tation is towards the neighbor; though the 292 G. W. S. ROBINSON September positive economic measures of the neighbor CONDITIONS OF LIFE IN EXCLAVES AND A (crop bounties, trade schools, etc.) will not of COMPARISON WITH TINY COUNTRIES course be extended to the exclave. The direct AND NEUTRAL TERRITORIES taxes usually continue to be paid to the home The unusual conditions of life that may be country, but the indirect go to the neighbor. encountered in an exclave might be expected At the post office one sees Austrian stamps to be shared by other small territories with sold for German marks and Italian or German special status. Those which it is proposed stamps sold for Swiss francs. to consider especially are the very small The two Austro-German pene-exclaves are independent countries in Europe"1-Monaco, each the subject of a definite nineteenth-cen- Liechtenstein, San Marino, Vatican City State tury convention, handing over the customs -together with the condominium of Andorra and currency to German control. The Swiss and the independent appanages of the British have never treated Campione as foreign terri- crown-the Isle of Man and the Channel tory in an economic sense.10 The only attempt Islands-and neutral territories-the Moresnet at economic assimilation to Italy was made by and Kuweit zones in particular.12 Very small the Fascists, and it failed badly. Biisingen dependent territories and colonies are not lived for centuries in a kind of insecure inter- included, though comparisons might be made national limbo. It lies so close to Schaffhausen in some particulars with such places as Basuto- that German policy has never succeeded in land, the Canal Zone, or Macau. re-orienting its economy, and it prospered only The special conditions of life in exclaves with the help of variable and uncertain Swiss may arise from three circumstances: (1) a customs concessions until 1947, when at last special relation with the home country, (2) a the French Occupation Authority agreed to special relation with the neighbor country, or its admittance behind the Swiss customs fence (3) a special regime within the exclave itself. and the exclusive use of Swiss curency. It is the second and third circumstances which Baarle and Berlin fall together into an inter- may also affect tiny countries; in neutral ter- mediate class. This is because Baarle-Nassau ritories the first and second are of course indis- (Holland) and Baarle-Hertog (Belgium) still tinguishable. form one village; and East and West Berlin, So long as life in an exclave is oriented for all their rivalry and contrast, still form one towards the home country, it is liable to suffer city. Though Baarle-Hertog and Baarle- from the length and fragility of the link with Nassau are provisioned from Belgium and the "mainland." Transport between exclave Holland, respectively, the inhabitants buy and home country is not only liable to inter- ruption in most cases at the whim of the neigh- retail from either source without distinction bor country, but also has to be effected by and both Belgian and Dutch currencies circu- prescribed routes, along which there is no late freely. In Berlin the ties between East chance of picking up or unloading part- and West were very close at the beginning of freights. This can of itself raise the cost of the occupation. They have loosened progres- living in the exclave by increasing the price of sively since; but there remains normally un- provisions there, and this happens at both controlled movement of persons between the Hinterriss and Balderschwang. But the effects two parts of the city (but not beyond) as well can be even more serious where the exclave as several shared urban services. Though the relies on selling its products in highly com- two currencies are confined to their own parts petitive markets. It is the remoteness and of the city, many Easterners shop widely in difficult access of home-country market towns West Berlin and over 45,000 workers com- that have driven Btisingen into the arms of mute between the two halves of the city daily. Schaffhausen. The situation of West Berlin is more acute still. Prewar Berlin specialized, 10 The Vallee Etroite has also never belonged eco- among other things, in those metropolitan nomically to its present home country, France. The land remains the property of the inhabitants of Mele- 11 G. Playfair and C. Fitzgibbon, The Little Tour zet, the Italian village to which the valley belonged (London, 1954). politically before 1946, and it is exploited by the 12 A. Melamid, "The Economic Geography of Neu- proprietors without hindrance from the French tral Territories," Geographical Review, Vol. XLV authorities. (1955), p. 359. 1959 EXCLAVES 293

industries that thrive on a rapid, efficient, and raising economy. Since the village passed flexible net of communications and transport behind the Swiss customs fence in 1947, the such as normally centers on a capital city. The high prices paid for grain in Switzerland have whole economy of West Berlin now suffers led to a great extension of the arable land. from its isolation at the end of a precarious Some exclaves are dependent on their neigh- and unremunerative haul of 80 miles through bors not merely for the sale of their produce, unfriendly territory, while its competitors lie but even for the employment of their popula- embedded in the West-German and West- tion. Neither Campione nor Busingen is able European markets and in constant easy touch to support all its inhabitants from the resources with their clients. of its own territory. Many must go to work in It is obvious that every exclave is vulnerable Switzerland. But there they find themselves to pressure or even attack from the neighbor at a disadvantage; as foreigners they are the country. The fate of Nagar Haveli and Dadra first to be thrown out of work when times are has been mentioned, as well as the attempts bad, and they are unable to profit from the on West Berlin and Steinstuicken and the Swiss trade-schooling without which they can- pressure exerted against Campione in the mat- not hope to rise to the better-paid posts in the ter of the casino. The Italian authorities Swiss economy. West Berlin used to be in learned their lesson from the Campione epi- much the same position. In 1952 between 40 sode; and when an attempt was made by the and 50 thousand West Berliners worked in government of San Marino (SM on Fig. 1) to East Berlin, while 24 thousand Easterners set up a casino in the republic (which is worked in the West. The tables have since entirely surrounded by Italian territory), they been turned-the 1956 estimates were 15 and organized a blockade in their turn, and forced 33 thousand, respectively. the abandonment of the venture. However, The curious and expensive duplication of when the French attempted to impose their services in Baarle-Hertog and Baarle-Nassau will on Andorra (A on Fig. 1) by rather simi- has its parallels-equally curious and equally lar methods, they were only party successful. expensive-in tiny countries and of course in Andorra is not, like San Marino, a simple neutral territories. The shared suzerainty over enclave. Not only does it lie geographically Andorra has led to duplication in both politics between two countries, it is also subject to a and administration, parallel representation, joint sovereignty; so that it always has in an parallel schools, and parallel public services. appeal to the other co-sovereign a political In the Kuwait Neutral Zone the oil companies back-door for escape from interference from have been compelled to duplicate port facili- either side. ties in order to maintain the balance between But the changing policy of a neighbor coun- the sovereigns. try may affect life in an exclave even when it But while both exclaves and tiny states may is not aimed at coercion. There are innumer- be victims of encirclement by their neighbors, able examples of this kind of thing from they are also in a position to be thorns in their Berlin, where the changing policy of the Rus- neighbors' sides and can profit from a situa- sians or their puppets in East Berlin with tion which places them inside a neighbor's regard to freedom of movement across the territory but outside his jurisdiction. At first sector-boundary, shopping facilities, and cur- sight one would suppose that every exclave rency regulations constantly impinge on life in was a smugglers' paradise. In fact few are. West Berlin as well. Land use in Biisingen has Some clandestine shifting of goods goes on in long depended on the customs policy of Switz- backyards at Baarle it seems; but apparently erland.13 In 1895 heavy duties were imposed not much, because it is quite legal for the on the movement of grain, and the arable inhabitants at least to buy from Dutch or Bel- acreage in Biisingen consequently declined, gian sources as they please. Apart from this though much arable land was also turned over there seems to be little evidence that enclaves to potatoes. In 1914 potatoes became dutiable encourage much smuggling. Several are elim- as well, and the Biisingers were forced to inated from consideration, of course, by being develop their grassland and rely on a stock- merged with their neighbor countries for cus- 13 M. Bolli, "Die Enklave Bfisingen," Geographica toms purposes. In other cases the revenue Helvetica, Vol. IX (1954), p. 225. men find an exclave perhaps easier to manage 294 G. W. S. ROBINSON September than other places; they can so easily check force can be effective against an exclave too; what goes in from the home country that but more important usually is the attitude of leakage beyond that point is not difficult to home countries, most of which limit gambling detect. The exceptions are at Llivia and West on their territories, which of course include Berlin, the two exclaves with an uncontrolled the exclave as well. The gambling laws of line of access to their home country. East Belgium are, however, rather less rigid than Germans and East Berliners may shop freely those- of Holland, so that groups of "sporting" in West Berlin, but they still have to pass the Dutchmen can club together to hire a coach customs control between Eastern and Western which takes them without frontier formalities territory. So heavy is the inter-sector move- to Baarle for a little flutter on Belgian terri- ment, however, that evasion is general, and tory, incidentally providing the commune of Western money-changing bureaus can be seen Baarle-Hertog with a useful regular income hard at work all day providing Western marks from licences. for shoppers from the East. At Llivia the More serious can be the political role of the Spanish customs keep no representative in the exclave; and here Berlin is pre-eminent. West exclave, and the French control the frontier Berlin serves quite consciously as the shop only spasmodically. The result is that the little window of the West in Eastern Germany, a town has become a regular shopping center constant reminder of another way of life, of for the surrounding French villagers, who an alternative. More specifically it is no come in on foot after every kind of commodity doubt an important nest of espionage, and is that sells cheaper in Spain than in France. certainly a center for propaganda, and par- Even the shop names in Llivia are bilingual, ticularly radio propaganda, which can be as if the shopkeepers expected as many cus- broadcast from such a position regardless of tomers from over the border as from their own disapproval and discouragement from the country. The tiny countries that are not in a neighbor country. No other exclave is far customs union with their neighbors are really enough from its "mainland" to make such better placed for smuggling than are exclaves, development worth-while; but it is quite a especially where they lie between two coun- specialty of tiny states (Radio Andorra, Radio- tries or on the high seas. Andorra is notorious Television Monte Carlo-even perhaps Radio in this respect, and the Channel Islands (C I Luxembourg and Vatican Radio), though on Fig. 1) had once a similar reputation. But usually on a commercial rather than a political in fact any small territory under separate plane. sovereignty can serve the smuggler's turn- West Berlin is a refugee center too. The independence is not essential. Small colonies, exclave attracts the dissatisfied East German like Goa or Gibraltar or St. Pierre, can be very like a magnet. In times of crisis as many as convenient, and a "free zone" like old Tan- 4,000 a day have sought refuge there; but per- giers is another obvious choice. haps more significant is the fact that the drain Gambling is another weakness of the neigh- is continuous. Of course, were West Berlin a bor state that can be exploited by the exclave tiny state acting on its own, it would have or tiny state. Since the spectacular success of burst with the strain long ago. But precisely Monte Carlo, practically all the tiny states because it is an exclave, it is able to function have dreamed of setting up as gambling hells. as a funnel for the refugees, continually pass- They have failed usually because their inde- ing them on to its "mainland" farther west. pendence was incomplete. Andorra is actually Andorra received large numbers of refugees subject to the co-sovereignty of the Bishop of from both sides during the Spanish Civil War, Urgel and the French Republic, and their veto but the same was true of many quite normal has been effective in this respect. Any of the French towns along the Pyrenean frontier. Channel Islands or the Isle of Man would San Marino, on the other hand, has as a matter probably find the disapproval of Her Majesty's of policy extended its hospitality to the refu- Privy Council equally effective. Even sov- gee for centuries; and its isolation has enabled ereign status can in some circumstances be it to do so in circumstances where no other insufficient to prevent interference, as was country could help. The most recent occasion demonstrated by the Italian blockade of San was the Second World War; but the most Marino. The case of Campione shows that memorable was in 1849, when Garibaldi was 1959 EXCLAVES 295 given sanctuary in the face of the combined luxury articles which appeal to people on armies of France, Austria, Spain, and Naples. holiday (Andorra, Channel Islands, Isle of It is obviously in the relative autonomy of Man). Recently they have all tended to dis- their internal arrangements that the tiny states cover also that their political setup itself, with differ most from exclaves; and in this respect its quaint trappings of sovereignty and its there are several peculiarities of tiny states Ruritanian atmosphere, is sufficient to attract that are not normally shared by exclaves. A year after year a steadily increasing volume of steady stream of postage stamps provides an tourists. No exclave can compete with this. important part of the revenue of all tiny states Several of them are in unexciting environ- that are in a position to take advantage of it ments, it is true; there are in any case few (Monaco, San Marino, Liechtenstein, Vati- visitors to the plains of Brabant or Ulster or can ).14 Especially low taxation and freedom the quiet banks of the middle Rhine. But from compulsory military service may attract Llivia, which lies in the finest valley in the residents (Channel Islands, Monaco, Mores- Pyrenees, if not in Europe, has still only one net), or may make a privileged class of those visitor for every 10,000 who go to Andorra, entitled to them (Monaco). Low customs not thirty miles away. Only Campione and the duties may lower the cost of living (Channel Klein Walsertal have really succeeded in Islands, Isle of Man, Andorra, Vatican). Ex- attracting the tourist. Campione depends claves are normally disqualified from the principally on the casino-tripper from Lugano; enjoyment of these advantages because they the Klein Walsertal has exploited its position lack the degree of sovereignty which is in inside the German economy, which it owes to most instances necessary. Campione's brief its status as a pene-exclave. Mountain valleys hour of glory as a "stamp-issuing country" of its caliber have a scarcity value in Germany brought little profit and was born of genuine which they completely lack in Austria. necessity. West Berlin issues its own stamps Of course Ruritania costs money, and this because it is, as explained above, technically kind of expense most exclaves avoid. Cam- not an exclave of Western Germany, but only pione, however, is still fiscally practically an behaves in most important respects as if it independent territory: the taxes go in to the were. It is here the exception which proves mayor's office and he provides the essential the rule. services at village level. On a larger scale Most tiny states have recently found a new West Berlin, being an entity somewhere source of income in the tourist. The tiny between a state and an exclave, has to provide states all lie, it is true, in regions that lend its own keep, and in particularly difficult cir- themselves to development of this kind-the cumstances. Of course it cannot succeed; and Riviera, Rome, the Alps, and Pyrenees, the here the advantage of the exclave status is beaches of the Adriatic and the Bay of St. revealed. Though the meretricious profits of Malo (see Fig. 1) are already tourist areas in sovereignty are denied, there is always a home their own right. In competition with neigh- country to fall back on when the situation is boring resorts the tiny countries can usually desperate and help is needed at all costs-as it offer the visitor something unique. The Casino always is in Berlin. Apart from this assurance of Monte Carlo is the oldest and most success- of support in real need, it must be admitted ful lure. Other countries can offer cheap that the exclave shares most of the disabilities dutiable goods, which are usually the kind of of isolation with the tiny state but can reap 14 The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are few of the rewards that can compensate for it, excluded from this benefit because the postal services because those rewards depend on the exercise are in the hands of the British Post Office; Andorra is excluded because the joint suzerains each operate a of some degree of sovereignty, which the postal service of their own. exclave normally does not have.