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Toponymy and Teaching: Cultural History and Cultural Experience

Toponymy and Teaching: Cultural History and Cultural Experience

Toponymy and teaching: cultural history and cultural experience

Inge SÆRHEIM

1. Toponyms in the landscape: information and experience

1.1. The function of toponyms The main function of toponyms is to identify places or locations. The place serve as addresses or address markers in oral and written communication. By using place names it is possible to localize activities which are taking place and various phenomena in the daily conversation and in a written text. The farmers use field names when they are discussing the daily work on the farm. The fishermen have given names to the different fishing grounds in to be able to talk about their work. Herdsmen and mountaineers use names when they talk about mountain trails and difficult spots for the sheep grazing in the mountains. Another important function of place names is to give specific information about a location to the users of the names, e.g. about unwritten rights connected with the use of some locations; some names contain information about fishing grounds named after persons, Martinshella (‘Martin’s flat stone’), Nasen hans Arnt (‘Arnt’s nose’, a pointed rock). The purpose of names like Kniven (‘the knife’), Nålapuda (‘the pin cushion’), Oksafoden (‘the bull’s foot’) and Saltstud (‘the salty bull’) is to warn boatsmen about dangerous waters. Names like Vestasteinen , a stone where the ship “Vesta” was wrecked, and Kosmosgrunnen , a bank where the ship “Kosmos” was wrecked, help people remember the story of an important event. The examples are taken from south-west . Some names are made to insult someone and remind them about an action of injustice. The names Ølhagen (‘the beer field’) and Tjuva- myra (‘the thief’s bog’) refer to fields given to the “wrong” person during the reapportionment of farmlands, the first mentioned due to bribery by serving beer. The story of injustice is told through the , and the users of the name are reminded of the “unfair” 218 INGE SÆRHEIM

treatment. It is important to be aware that in some cases the shape, character or quality of a location is described through a comparison or a metaphor, cf. the name of the mountain Høvlatanna (‘the plain iron’), also called Preikestolen (‘the pulpit’), the brook Møyabekken (‘the maiden brook’, coming right out from the rock in a ravine), the corn field Kanaan (‘Canaan’, i.e. fertile ), the windy plain Vindbelgen (‘the bellows’) and the rocks in the sea Kverna (‘the corn mill’, referring to the sound of the waves) and Eistene (‘the testicles’, referring to the shape). The last mentioned is called Eidskjeret (‘the rock with an isthmus’) by the farmer on the nearby farm, but Eistene by the fishermen. Some names are ironical, e.g. Tjukke skogen (‘the thick forest’), denoting a plain or heath with no trees.

1.2. Information and experience The fact that toponyms consist of linguistic material ―words ―which give information about certain locations, makes them valuable as sources. They provide information to researchers, as well as to other people, e.g. students at university, school children, tourists and common people. They are useful as sources within many subjects ― , history, agrarian history, cultural history etc., as well as in interdisciplinary studies. The toponyms localize former traditions, events, activities, working processes and phenomena. By the semantic content the names give different types of information, e.g. about topography, fauna, flora, farming, hunting, fishing, travel, administration, defence, religion, special traditions and events. The toponyms also contain valuable in- formation about the local language, e.g. pronunciation, , vocabulary, linguistic development and change, language contact, etc. The fact that the place names mediate information about local culture and cultural history is one important aspect of them. It is tempting to add that the study of place names also gives a cultural experience to those who try to understand what they signify. This statement can be argued by one example. In the year-book of 2002 of Turistforening (tourist company) approx. 2500 toponyms from are presented and explained ―names of mountains, rocks, valleys, slopes, plateaus, plains, fords, marshes, lakes, rivers, farms, farmland, sea-shores, fjords and islands (Særheim 2003). The managing director and editor of the book emphasizes that knowledge and explanation of place names will enrich the travellers’ experience of the landscape ―that is why this theme was chosen. Through local toponyms hikers, travellers and tourists get information about the landscape where they are travelling, e.g. about topography, vegetation (trees, plants), fauna (wild animals), history, culture, tradition and language, and in addition a cultural experience. TOPONYMY AND TEACHING 219

This aspect ―the cultural experience ―also applies to school children, students and teachers who work with place names in interdisciplinary learning and teaching.

2. Using names in interdisciplinary teaching in primary school

2.1. Settlement names and settlement history In primary and secondary school in Norway place names are sometimes used to introduce various themes in subjects like history and social studies. This can be illustrated by one example. In textbooks for the 6 th grade (11 years of age) the settlement and agricultural history during the Iron Age and the Middle Ages is introduced by presenting different types of settlement names, e.g. names ending in ON (Old Norse) -vin , -heimr , -land , -staðir , -setr , -þveit , -bǿr, -ruð etc. These name elements are dated and a chronology between the different types of names ―and farms ―is suggested. The presentation of the different settlement names also includes characteristic features concerning each type of name and farm, e.g. the situation of the farm, the semantic meaning of the final name elements, the different types of first elements in the names, and various other linguistic and historical characteristics. A similar approach is found in many books on community history where the local history and settlement is presented. It would also be possible to introduce this theme in school by using , e.g. the surnames of the pupils in a class. Most school children in Norway, especially in rural areas, have a which is identical with a certain farm name (settlement name), e.g. a name ending in -heim , -vin , -land , -stad , -set , -tveit , -bø/-by , -rud etc. This is normally due to the fact that one of the child’s forefathers came from a farm with the actual name. In 1923 a law was passed that all inhabitants had to take a surname ( name). Many chose to use the name of the farm where they were living, while others chose to keep their patronym, making it to a fixed surname ( Olsen , Hansen , Pedersen etc.). The teacher might in other words use the surnames of the school children as a starting point when presenting the settlement history in the Iron Age and the Middle Ages, and also social history from the 20 th century. This approach would be in accordance with the pedagogical principle of introducing something unknown through something which is known to the children.

2.2. The spelling of surnames and language history A study of the spelling of farm names (settlement names), e.g. , 220 INGE SÆRHEIM

Dale , Re , Vik , Kartavoll , Grødheim , Lauperak , compared with the spelling of the equivalent surname, e.g. Malde , Dahle , Ree , Wiig , Kartevold , Grødem , Løvbrecke , can also be used in teaching to illustrate Norwegian language history. The spelling of many surnames dates from the period when Norway was under Danish rule and influence and Danish was used as the written language in Norway. The mentioned surnames reflect the language system and old spelling traditions of Danish. The Norwegian farm names (and other place names), however, are nowadays supposed to be spelled according to the traditional pronunciation in the local dialect, which represents an unbroken development from Old Norse, and according to the spelling principles of modern Norwegian. The difference in spelling of some surnames and the equivalent farm name is, as a matter of fact, a controversial issue in Norway. This question―the spelling of certain place names, especially farm names ―is often vigorously discussed in letters to the editor of local newspapers. Some people argue that the farm names ought to be spelled in the same way as the equivalent surname. This is, in other words, a question of current interest, where strong opinions and feelings are involved. The above mentioned examples show how place names ―and personal names ―have been and can be used in interdisciplinary teaching and learning in primary and secondary school. There are many more examples to be mentioned.

2.3. Collecting place names by school-children Another example of how place names have been used in teaching in primary school, deals with collection of local toponyms by children in primary school in the 1930ies. This is, as a matter of fact, the biggest project of collecting place names which has ever taken place in Norway. In the early 1930ies school teachers and pupils from all over Norway were encouraged to collect place names from their own home place ―their farm. The result of this project was a collection of approx. 1 million place names. The project was organized by the Museum and supervised by professor Gustav Indrebø. Pupils up to 7 th grade (13 years of age) were asked to write down on a sheet of paper (a standard form) topographical names and habitation names from their home farm. They were advised to write the names in the local dialect and include information on the names and places. In some cases the forms were filled out by the parents or the teacher. Maps were as a rule not used in this project, mainly because of the lack of maps that were suitable for this purpose at that time. Even though the quality of the name material collected by school TOPONYMY AND TEACHING 221

children in the 1930ies varies quite a bit, e.g. concerning the spelling of the names and the number of names that were collected, this project must be described as a great success. Not all primary schools in Nor- way took part in the project. is better represented and covered than other parts of the country, probably because of the vicinity to Bergen. But this is perhaps also due to the strong con- sciousness of cultural tradition and heritage in western Norway. The collected material from the 1930ies has been used by researchers and people who later have collected names from certain areas. This material is archived at the University of Bergen, but copies are found at other university libraries and archives.

3. Teaching toponymy in secondary school Many students in upper secondary school in Norway choose place names as material and theme for a special project in the subject Norwegian (language and literature). They write a paper on the special topic they have chosen. Studying place names is mentioned as one of several topics in the teachers’ plans for this type of project. Some teachers report that place names and personal names, as a matter of fact, is quite a popular theme among students on this level (11 th –13 th grade, i.e. 16–18 years of age). The students often collect a certain number of toponyms ―usually 50–100 names ―in the dialect form by interviewing old people who know the names in the oral tradition. The names are transcribed pho- netically or phonemically and given a form according to the national standard for official spelling of place names, cf. the comments on didactics and methods in section 5. The names are interpreted linguistically and as far as a historical background is concerned. The locations are marked on maps, and the local pronunciation is often registered on tape or mini disc. The collected names, the interpretations and the analyses are presented in a paper, which also usually contains maps and a discussion of a special topic or theme ―linguistic or historical ―where the corpus of topo- nyms is used as a resource.

4. Teaching toponymy in university and college has for a long time been taught in universities and colleges in Norway, on all levels ―within bachelor’s, master’s and doctor’s degree. The study of place names and personal names most often forms part of programmes in Scandinavian studies, i.e. the study of Scandinavian language and literature. The study of settlement names is also often included in programmes in history and archaeology. 222 INGE SÆRHEIM

More than 200 master theses have been written on toponymy in Norway. Most often the student has collected and analysed a corpus of place names ―usually 1000–1500 names, topographical names as well as settlement names. The names have been collected from oral sources by interviewing people who have learnt the names in oral tradition ― e.g. old farmers, herdsmen, fishermen, hunters, lumberers, mountain- eers and sailors. The toponyms are as a rule transcribed phonetically or phonemically and interpreted both linguistically and from a historical point of view, revealing the historical background of the naming. Most theses contain a short survey of the local dialect ―from a synchronic as well as a diachronic point of view. The locations with names have also most often been marked on maps. The master theses on local toponyms contain valuable information for researchers and schoolteachers as well as for people with a general interest of this field of study. Very few of the theses have been pub- lished, but most of them are available at university libraries and archives. Ten doctor’s theses have been written on toponymy at Norwegian universities. Two of them deal with settlement names ( -land and -bǿr), and one with names on mountain dairy farms. The other ones deal with names of lakes, names of fishing grounds, the city names of Bergen and Nidaros/ , names with definite or indefinite form, language contact in Norway (Finnskogane) and language contact in colonized areas (Normandy and Orkney). One doctor’s thesis deals with surnames. A number of papers on place names and personal names have been written by undergraduate students (on a bachelor level) at Norwegian universities and colleges, most of them within a study programme in Scandinavian studies. Many bachelor students have collected and analysed local topo- nyms from a rural area (a farm), in accordance with the model of the master theses, but on a smaller scale (often 100–200 names). Some bachelor programmes in Scandinavian studies at Norwegian institutions of higher education contain an introduction to the study of personal names and place names.

5. Comments on didactics and methods Working with local place names in secondary ―and primary ―school is in accordance with several pedagogical principles. As the first mentioned example in section 2 shows, it makes it possible to introduce new topics and knowledge through something that the school children already are familiar with ―a corpus of names and a tradition. Going from the well known to the unknown―from some- thing close to something distant ―is recognized as an important TOPONYMY AND TEACHING 223

pedagogical principle and method. The goal of working with toponyms in school is to get information and achieve knowledge about certain topics and within different subjects ―mother language, history, cultural history etc. Working with local names also helps the school children to get good feelings and a more profound understanding of their own background. The school shows interest in and uses material from the children’s home environ- ment. The information is often collected from their parents, grand- parents or other relatives, and neighbours ―they are the sources, the resource persons. Students at universities and upper secondary school usually work with place names on an individual base. But it is often useful to work together in small groups and share experiences also on this level. In lower secondary school and primary school it is suitable to work with this type of material in groups of 3–4, e.g. during interviews and field work (excursions), when collecting material from written sources in archives, when discussing possible interpretations and when writing different parts of the paper. Several useful exercises, technics and learning methods are involved when studying place names. Some of them will briefly be mentioned below.

5.1. Collecting a corpus of names from oral sources The students get practice in using interview when they collect names during a conversation with people (oral sources, informants) in the neighbourhood. They have to find out whom to interview ―i.e. those who know the names in oral tradition. The students must plan the interview, make appointments and pro- vide the needed equipment. They will get practice in taking notes, in registering the pronunciation and marking the locations on maps.

5.2. Collecting a corpus of names from written sources The students get practice in using libraries and archives in searching for names and earlier spellings in old documents. They also get experience in using necessary reference books at the libraries ―historical documents, recordings of properties, dictionaries, books on local history and theses dealing with the chosen theme.

On the two following pages some practical material is demonstrated. Fig. 1 gives an example of a widely used form for collecting place names in the field, whereas fig. 2 shows a segment of a map in large scale used for identifying the features to which the names are given.

224 INGE SÆRHEIM

Date: Interviewee Year of birth: Municipality: 26.3.1981 (informant): 1923 Bernt Meling Form no.: Interviewer: Farm no.: Farm name: 3 Inge Særheim 6 Haga Name no. Place name Information about the name and Map (as pronounced in the place ―type of locality, use reference the local dialect) of the place, special traditions, characteristic features, possible linguistic background etc. 15 Hestahagen A field (“hage”) where the AK 022-5-1 horses (“hest(ar)”) used to graze A 1 16 Bådhagen A field by the fjord (), AK 022-5-1 derived from “båt” ‘boat’ B 1 17 Buhagen A field by the fjord where the AK 022-5-1 cattle (“bu”) used to graze. Now B 1 cultivated land 18 Strannhagen A field by the fjord ―on the AK 022-5-1 shore (“strand”) B 1 19 Krågesjer A rock (“skjer”) in the sea. The AK 022-5-1 name has indefinite form in the B 1 local dialect, not definite form as marked on the map. The first element (“kråke”) means ‘crow’ 20 Loen A small grove (“lund”) with AK 022-5-1 hazel, called “hatlar” in the B 1 dialect 21 Steinhagen A field close to the farm houses. AK 022-5-1 There is a big rock (“stein”) here B 1 22 Den store steidn A big rock in the field AK 022-5-1 Steinhagen (no. 21) B 1 23 Hagabryggjå The jetty (landing, “bryggje”) AK 022-5-1 with the boat houses belonging B 1 to the farm Haga 24 Strannhagen A field on the shore (“strand”), AK 022-5-1 by the fjord B 1 25 Nibbå A headland (“nibbe”) and a bank AK 022-5-1 in the fjord. A dangerous spot C 1 for boats in the sea 26 Grødhau A mound (“haug”) with stones AK 022-5-1 and gravel. This is an B 1-2 archaeological site ―a burial mound. The first element of the name contains the Old Norse word grjót ‘stone’ 27 Ellingstykkje A piece of land (“stykke”) by the AK 022-5-1 fjord, which is named after a B 2 man called Elling

Fig. 1. Collection form for toponyms from oral sources. TOPONYMY AND TEACHING 225

Fig. 2. Segment of a map in original scale 1: 5 000 (here about 40% reduced). Each number refers to a toponym which also appears on the collection form. 226 INGE SÆRHEIM

5.3 Excursion and fieldwork The students will have to do necessary fieldwork when they collect names by visiting people who are used as sources (informants). They also need to go to certain places to study the landscape. An excursion to the area where the names are found is important in order to check possible interpretations.

5.4. Recording the pronunciation The students get practice in recording the local pronunciation of the names, by using a mini disc, tape recorder or other types of sound recorders. They must be aware of the problem of normalized pronunciation ―some persons tend to normalize (use a standard pronunciation) during the recording.

5.5. Marking the locations on maps The students must provide suitable maps of the area chosen for the project, and find and mark the different locations on the maps. This can be done by giving each name a number and place the number on the map (cf. fig. 2 above). The students will get valuable knowledge of mapping and of different types of maps available.

5.6. Transcribing the local pronunciation The local pronunciation of the names should be transcribed, by phonemic or phonetic transcription. The students will thus get practice in using a phonemic or phonetic alphabet. They will learn how to make a phonemic analysis of a dialect, and how to find the phonemic structure (system) ―the phonemes and prosodemes.

5.7. Spelling the names according to the national standard The corpus of names should be given a normalized form (spelling) according to the national standard and rules for official spelling of place names. The students have to learn the national standard and special rules and get practice in transforming the dialect form into a normalized form. This normally implicates interpretation of the names.

5.8. Setting up an alphabetical register of the names The whole corpus of names should be presented in an alphabetical list. The students will get practice in using a program of alphabetization. The names should be listed according to their normalized form, but TOPONYMY AND TEACHING 227

the local pronunciation and other types of information can easily be added to the list.

5.9. Using various data programs (electronic systems) The students should use special data programs when they work with the corpus of toponyms, e.g. during registration, analysis, sorting and presentation of the name material, and when they write the paper.

5.10. Studying the dialect Studying local toponyms implicates a thorough study of the local dialect. The students will examine important characteristics and rules of the dialect, from a synchronic as well as a diachronic point of view. They will learn about different methods of studying language variants ―e.g. the phonemic system and the development from older stages of the dialect.

5.11. Linguistic analysis of the names The corpus of place names will be analysed from a linguistic point of view. The use of toponyms as sources depends on a reliable linguistic interpretation of the names. This analysis will contain identification of words, sounds, grammatical forms and semantic meaning (word and name semantics), as well as . The names will be interpreted in accordance with the synchronic system and the diachronic rules of the dialect.

5.12. Analysis of the topographical and historical background It is important to study and analyse the topography and the historical background of the collected place names. The names must be inter- preted in accordance with the topography, the cultural history etc. The students must therefore study the landscape and the history of the area.

5.13. Identifying and discussing a topic The students ought to identify and discuss a special topic where the corpus of names can be used as a base (as sources). The topic chosen may be within different subjects or disciplines ― linguistics, history, cultural history, agricultural history etc.

5.14. Writing a paper The students should write a paper where the corpus of collected names 228 INGE SÆRHEIM

is presented and the names are used as sources in a discussion of a special topic chosen by the students.

6. Toponyms as sources ―some examples from south-west Norway

6.1. Settlement names As already mentioned, the different types of settlement names in an area give information about agrarian history and the development of the settlement. The dating of the farm names and the chronology between the different types of names has been studied by historians and onomasticians. Linguistic as well as historical criteria are used to date the names, e.g. names ending in ON -vin ‘meadow’ ( , Sandve ), -heimr ‘home, habitation site’ ( Malmheim , Nesheim ), -land ‘piece of land’ ( Høyland , Håland ), -staðir (probably) ‘habitation site’ (Oppstad , Gudmestad ), -þveit ‘clearing (in the forest), piece of land’ (Bråtveit , Grastveit ) and -bǿr ‘farm’ ( Bø , Sørbø ). The vin- and heimr -names, which are not found in areas with Viking settlement in the North Atlantic area, are believed to be coined approx. 200–600 (800) AD. Some of the vin -names contain i-umlaut, e.g. Bryne < ON *Brýnin , ‘meadow by the ridge of a hill’, cf. ON brún f. ‘ridge, edge’. The staðir- and land -names, which are found in areas with Norse settlement in the North Atlantic, but do not as a rule contain elements of Christian culture, are dated to the period 200– 1000 AD. Some field names containing endings like -land , -stad , -heim and -tveit reflect old farms that have been deserted, either during the Iron Age or the Middle Ages. Examples are Rossaland (ON hross ‘horse’), *Åmstad (ON almr ‘elm’), Austrheim (ON austr ‘east’) and Rettveit (ON reit(r) ‘narrow piece of farm land’). An ancient type of settlement names is found in some areas, e.g. in Jæren (Southwest-Norway): Sola , Tjora , Goa , Soma , Orre etc. (Særheim 2004). These names do not contain words that are recorded in Scandinavian languages. They are probably coined in the Bronze Age or the Late Stone Age. Several names of this type seem to describe the landscape when the sea level was considerably higher than today, approx. 4000 years ago. At that time this low-lying landscape was cut up by shallow arms of the sea. The names of this type contain suffixes that were used in the Indo- European or Germanic period, and some of them have parallels further south in . Orre , ON *Alra , is probably an old name of the river Orreåna, made with an r-suffix to the root IE *el- ‘run’, which is also found in the German river names Aller and Iller (Krahe 1964:34, Berger 1999:37, 153). Tjora , < ON Þjórar , is probably related to OE TOPONYMY AND TEACHING 229

þēor ‘boil, abscess’, describing some characteristic mounds and heights (Rygh 1915:184).

6.2. Field names A number of field names registered from the farms denote cornfields, hayland and pasture. More than a hundred field names are collected from some farms. The names contain many different local words for the special types of fields, hayland and pasture. In south-west Norway different types of meadows and pasture are called eng , voll , ekre , kjelve , bø , veise , , for(d) and aun , all of them with specific semantics. A fertilized meadow is called tjukkeng (‘thick meadow’) and an unfertilised one tunneng (‘thin meadow’). The field names give different types of information, e.g. about the shape of the land ( Fokka , ressembles a foresail), the soil ( Grydingen , stony ground), the right to use the land ( Ålmenta , could be used by everyone), buying and selling land ( Tolvskillingsbakken , sold for 12 shillings), the cultivation of the land ( Dugnadhagen , cultivated as a voluntary collective project), wages ( Triortateigen , the wages for the haymaking was three “ort”), time of work ( Todagstona , two days of haymaking), time of rest ( Eplemadsteinen , the haymakers would eat potato porridge on this rock), working methods ( Kvivollen , the meadow was fertilized by sheep in an enclosure that was moved around), the crop ( Lingjerdet , field of flax), the harvesting and outcome ( Seksberslåtta , six burdens of hay), sowing ( Såbyrja , the first field to be sown in the spring), storing the crop (Tjelman , storing the hay in a special rick with a roof that could be moved up and down, called hjelm ‘helmet’), special types of grass and seeds ( Storrbedane , ‘sedge grass’). Some names refer to cornmills and water that has been used to run the mills, e.g. Kvernabekken (a brook where the water was used to run a mill), Stemmamyra (a bog where the water was dammed up for the mill). Many field names are connected with the keeping of livestock. Many different words for horses, cattle, sheep, goats and pigs are found in the names. The first elements of the names Hesthom , Marahola , Merreslåttene , Øygjamarka , Rossmyr , Ryssekvæven , Horsatjørna , Braffehaugen , Jelketona , Følshelleren , Foletona and Fyljemyra refer to ‘horse’, containing the words hest , mar , merr , øyk , ross , rysse , horse , braffe , jelk , føl , fole and fylje . Some names contain the name of animals, especially of cows ( Svartsidaflota , a cow with a ‘black side’). Other names give information about different kinds of work with the domestic animals, e.g. milking ( Mjelkestølen ), herding ( Drifta- hagen , refers to herding the sheep in the mountain), dividing the flock (Skiljingsdalen , ‘divide’), cutting wool ( Ruegjerdet , ‘cutting the 230 INGE SÆRHEIM

winter wool of sheep’), washing ( Lusahella , washing and delousing the sheep) and slaughtering ( Slaktehaugen ). Names have been given to enclosures, fencing and difficult positions in the steep mountains, e.g. Baglåsen , Heptetona , Glibafestet , Sveltiheltona , denoting spots with no exit. Many place names refer to forestry, to the work with timber and firewood, e.g. Vedaberget (loading firewood on boats), Trosavika (gathering driftwood). They give information about floating and transporting timber, e.g. Tømmerberget (floats of timber were made fast to the rock), Stafast (log jam), Skotaberget (the logs were pushed down a mountain). A number of species of trees are mentioned ―most sorts of trees have been used in one way or another. The bark (called skav ), leaves (lauv ) and branches of some sorts of trees have been used as feed (called mork ) for the cattle in winter time, cf. Skavhelleren , Lauvåsen and Sjustuv ―the last mentioned is a tree stump where it was possible to fill up seven loads of mork (branches and leaves). In some slopes, like Taklia , people would take (tear) the bark of birches, used to cover the roof of the houses; the birches were called takbjørk . A large number of place names from the forests and mountain plateaus contain name elements referring to plants, herbs and wild berries that have been picked and used in the household. A number of place names denote locations where people have burnt coal ( kol ), e.g. Kolhom , and tar ( tjøre ), e.g. Tjøremila . Others are connected with cutting peat ( torv ) and different ways of drying and storing peat, e.g. Torvmyrhelleren (a cave where peat was stored), Reisa (drying of three standing pieces of peat, with one piece lying on the top).

6.3. Administration and defence Some names of counties and districts contain names of old tribes. The first element of the county name Rogaland and the district name (ON Rygjafylki ) is the word ryger , ON rygir, denoting the people living in south-western Norway. This tribe is mentioned by the Roman historian Tacitus in the year 98 AD. What the word ryger means, is not known. One view is that it is related to the word rug ‘rye’. The word fylke ‘county’ is related to the word folk ‘folk’, denoting an administrative unit, meaning ‘assembly of people’. Other tribes are mentioned in other county and district names in Norway, like , Grenland , Hålogaland (the present Helgeland ), Hadeland , and Romerike . Other administrative units in mediaeval times are so-called sokner ‘parishes’ and skipreider ‘ship districts’; each unit had a name. The skipreide was at first a military unit ―each skipreide equipped a TOPONYMY AND TEACHING 231

warship ―later it became a tax district. Each fylke ‘county’ was divided in so-called fjordungar ‘forths’, and each forth in several skipreider . The modern division of a fylke in kommunar or herad , i.e. ‘municipalities’, is in Norway based on the mediaeval division (units) of parishes. Names containing the word ting ‘judicial district’, like Tinghaug and Tingvoll , often reflect a tradition of folk-assemblies (parliaments) in mediaeval times. Names of this type are also found in areas with Norse settlement in the North-Atlantic area, like Tynwald on the Isle of Man, Dingwall in Scotland and Tingwall in Shetland ―and of course Þingvellir in Iceland. Names with the word borg ‘fort’, like Borgaråsen and Borgåsen , reflect an old defence system, a town fort. The forts are normally dated to the Iron Age, before 400 AD. Some names with the words varde and vete describe an old system of communication when spotting the enemy, by burning wood on top of a mountain. Examples are Varden , Vardafjellet , Brannsvarden , Veden and Vedafjellet .

6.4. Trade in mediaeval times Many old sites of trade contain the name element Kaup- ‘buy’, like Kaupaneset ( nes ‘headland’), cf. also ON Kaupangr , which is found several places in Norway, and the appellative ON kaupangr ‘site of trade, marketplace’. The town which in Old Norse was called Niðaróss (the present Trondheim), was sometimes called Kaupangr in mediaeval sources. Another name element denoting ‘marketplace’ in old names from towns and cities is torg . Several German sources from mediaeval times mention a harbour and trading place in north-western Rogaland, called Notau or Notow . This place was used by the Hanse, the powerful German trade league. This name is also noted on Dutch charts from the 16th and 17 th centuries, located in the area on the island Karmøy. There has been much discussion about the exact location of this place. Marine archaeologists from Stavanger sjøfartsmuseum have recently made interesting finds on the bottom of the sea under thick layers of mud at Avaldsnes, dated to the 13 th and 14 th centuries, probably reflecting the old harbour and trading place. The name Notau , Notow might reflect ON *Nautøy ―i.e. an island used as pasture for the cattle. The Old Norse name has probably been adjusted by German tradesmen and Dutch cartographers, cf. that the small island Hestholmen ‘island of horses’ in Karmsundet is called Perde holm on old Dutch charts. The island is called Bock van See . The town name from the same area might contain the 232 INGE SÆRHEIM

mentioned name element kaup (and vik ‘bay’). The name might be influenced by German speaking tradesmen, cf. MLG kopere ‘tradesman’, which is equivalent to ON kaupari ‘tradesman’.

6.5. Travelling A number of toponyms are related to travelling and transportation. They give information about sailing routes, dangerous waters and safe harbours. Harbours are often called Hamn (‘harbour’), Støna (‘landing place for a boat’) or Sjøen (‘the sea’). Dangerous rocks in the sea have got names like Oksafoden and Saltstud , containing words for ‘bull’ (okse and stut ). Places where travellers have called out for a boat to be shipped to the other side of a fjord, a lake or a river, have been named Ropeid and Kallali , containing words for ‘call out’ (the verbs kalla and ropa ). Some rocks, headlands and bays along the seashore have, as mentioned, been named after shipwrecks, e.g. Ofeliasteinen ( stein ‘stone’), Kosmosgrunnen ( grunne ‘bank’), Portugisarkloven ( klove ‘cleft’; named after a ship from Portugal), Tyskaren (a ship from Germany). Wrecks of ships have in fact been an important income source to many farms along the coast. The bay Tyneviga ( vik ‘bay’) is named after the wreck of an English ship, Tyne . Rocks called Skibasteinen ( stein ‘stone’) are as well named after ship wrecks. Klokkeskjeret (‘the rock of the church bells’) in Sola is told to be named after a ship that wrecked in 1558. The ship was carrying church bells from Stavanger Cathedral to Copenhagen, where they were supposed to be made into cannons for the castle. The bells are believed to lie on the bottom of the sea ―but they have not been found. Old fishermen tell that in stormy weather they hear the bells chime ―then they do not go out on the sea. Galgarinda (‘the hill of gallows’) in is named after gallows which were raised on this hill. Two men were hanged in 1615 because they had stolen goods from a ship that was wrecked in a winter storm the year before. Løvebukta (‘bay of the lion’) on the island Eigerøy is named after a warship, Norske løve (‘the Norwegian lion’), which was a flagship of the Norwegian-Danish fleet during the war with England in 1666. The ship was damaged and was at anchor in this bay. A great number of names give information about roads or foot- paths, cf. Kleiva (steep hill or mountain, where you climb), Krypen (narrow path, where you creep), Tronga (narrow passage), Uførberget (steep mountain, where it is impossible to cross), Døden (‘the death’, dangerous place), Hekkan (a swearword, very difficult to cross), Klakaskotet (‘blocks of ice are falling’, from above). Names like Vadet (‘the ford’), Gangsteinane (‘stones where you can walk’), Hoppesteinane (‘stones where you can jump’), Spranget TOPONYMY AND TEACHING 233

(‘the jump’) tell where it is possible to cross a river or a stream. The names Leitet , Glos , Skygnesteinen and Sjonarehaugen describe locations on a road with a good ‘view’, all containing words for ‘view; to see’ ( leite , glos , skygne , sjon ). Some places are named after people who have used the road: Nordmannsvegen (travellers from western Norway; in some regions in eastern and nordmann means ‘people from western Norway’), Austmannsskaret (people from , in names from Rogaland denoting people from Agder and ), Sæbyggjedalen (people from Setesdalen). Names like Brudled and Brudefølgjet , with the semantics ‘bridal procession’, denote rows of stones on a mountain plateau and describe a special tradition. People in a bridal procession crossing a mountain on the way to the church have laid down stones in a row, one for each member of the procession.

6.6. Fishing and hunting Some old names of rivers, lakes, mountains, islands and fjords reflect fishing and hunting, e.g. Hunnedalen ( Hunnevatn , Hunnåna , Hunne- fjell ) and Hundvåg (an island in Stavanger). The first elements Hunn- and Hund- are related to the English word hunt . The German river name Hunte and the Dutch Honte belong to the same root. The first element of the town name Ålgård is ål ‘eel’. It is verified in a document from 1462 that eel was caught at Ålgård in mediaeval times. A number of names from the sea are related to fishing. Some of them give information about fishing methods, like Notaberget ( not ‘seine’), Barmeberget (where the fishermen pull in the seine) and Kyrkjereksteren (fishing by drifting in a boat, with a church as the landmark). Other names refer to fishing rights and other traditions, like Svensraua (‘Sven’s ass’, fishing place used by Sven), Karlsméd (fishing spot found and used by Karl), Spiskammerset (‘the pantry’, fishing site used by people living on a small island with a light house) and Tobakksteinen (‘the tobacco rock’; the lobster fishers would put down a fish pot, and they bought tobacco from the money they earned). A number of names contain information about different species of fish, e.g. Mortaboen (‘bank with roach’), Hysesanden (‘ with haddock’), Steinbidberget (‘rock with wolf fish’), Brosmeseta (‘fish- ing site for cusk’), Humrahellerane (‘cave with lobster’). Other names refer to the way of navigating on the sea by drawing two crossing lines through special landmarks, two in each line. The fishing site is often named after one of the landmarks, often a 234 INGE SÆRHEIM

mountain. The fishing spot Reibarskallen is navigated from and named after a bright part with quartz called Reibet (på Håsteinshalsen ), i.e. ‘the rope’, on the island Håstein (‘high rock’). Sometimes the fishermen would use other names of the locations on land than the people living there. The mountain Hådyr (‘the high animal’), which is mentioned in Old Norse skaldic poetry, is called Den runde (‘the round one’) by fishermen. Many names from the forests and mountains are related to hunting ―birds and animals. The first element in Snoreberget , mean- ing ‘snare’, refers to grouse, Skarveheia to mountain grouse, Orrås to black grouse. Araseta refers to eagle and Steinulvstjørna to eagle owl. Approx. 80 names from the municipality of Sirdal with the first element Bjørn- refer to bear ―a few of them might contain the corresponding male name Bjørn . This gives an impression of the fauna in this mountain district a few generations ago. Wolves are mentioned in names like Skrubbagrefta and Ulvabrekka , the last mentioned from Jæren. A specific word for arctic fox, melrakke , is found in Merakkeknudane . The word lem ‘shutter’ in Lemmefjellet and Ørnelemmen refers to an ancient way of catching wild animals. This hunting method is recorded in mediaeval literature. Several names from the mountains contain words for reindeer. The word dyr ‘animal’ often refers to reindeer, cf. Dyraheia , a large mountain plateau between the districts of Ryfylke in the west and Setesdalen and Telemark in the east. Simleskaret refers to female reindeer and Reinsknuden to male animals.

6.7. Religion Several names, especially farm names, are believed to contain words for pagan ―pre-Christian ―cult. The first elements of some names are interpreted as a god’s name, e.g. Njærheim ( Njord ), Frøyland ( Frøya ), Frøystveit ( Frøy ), Totland ( Tor ). Other names where the first element is believed to reflect pagan cult are Helgaland ( heilag ‘holy’, a place of worship) and Hovland ( hov ‘pagan altar, a place of worship’). But some of these names have also been interpreted in another way. The first element in Frøyland has been explained as an adjective with the semantics ‘fertile’, while Njær- in Njærheim is interpreted as a word describing something ‘narrow’, e.g. a sound. The appellative hov could refer to ‘elevated situation’, and heilagr to a location with special protection. A number of names contain words for supernatural phenomena, cf. Trolldalen (‘the valley of the trolls’), Resadøra (the door where the mountain king, rise , is believed to enter the mountain), Gygresteinen (stones with marks of a female troll), Nykkheller (a hole in the TOPONYMY AND TEACHING 235

mountain by a lake where the water troll is said to live), Huldrahaugen (a hill where the wood nymph lives), Vetthaugen (a hill where supernatural beings live), Spelarhaug (a hill where supernatural beings are playing). Some names reflect Christian worship and traditions. Sankt- Olavsdalen , which is found several places, is the name of valleys where St. Olav is believed to have passed by. Misjonsåkeren (‘the mission’s field’) and Menandona are fields, and Velsignamyra (‘the blessed bog’) a marsh with peat where the income has been given to the Christian mission. Menandona is named after a town in Madagascar ( Manandona ), where one of the Norwegian missionary societies has had a special project.

6.8. Migration Norsemen who settled on the islands in the North-Atlantic area in the Viking Age coined names with the same words that they knew from their homeland. Sometimes they had to adjust to a different topo- graphy. The word raun , with the semantics ‘stone’ in Norwegian names, means ‘lava’ in Icelandic names, and gígur ‘ravine’ means ‘volcanic crater’. Varm- ‘warm’ and Reyk- ‘damp, smoke’ refer to hot springs and warm water in the ground. A number of names in areas with Norse settlement are identical with names in the homeland, cf. Larbrick (England, Norwegian Lerbrekk ), Sordale (Scotland, Norwegian Saurdal ), Skegirstad (Outer Hebrides, Norwegian Skjeggestad ), Litlaland (Shetland, Norwegian Litlaland ), Holland (Orkney, Norwegian Håland ), Stockaland (Man, Norwegian Stokkaland ), Le Tuit (Normandy, Norwegian Tveita ). There is, however, no reason to believe that the Norse settlers in the Viking Age reused existing Old Norse place names in the new areas. They coined toponyms describing the topography by using the linguistic material and naming traditions that they knew from their homeland. Many names in areas with Norse settlement are hybrids; they contain elements from different languages. Names of lakes in the Outer Hebrides like Loch Breibhat and Loch Sandavat are of Norse origin, corresponding to Norwegian Breiavatnet and Sandvatnet . Gaelic speakers have not understood the generic vatn ‘lake’ and have therefore added the word loch ‘lake, water’ ―which is related to English lake , French lac , Italian lago and Norwegian names like Lågen and Laugen . Toponyms of Norwegian origin are also found in America. A small town in Minnesota is called Nerstrand , and a town in Wisconsin . The towns have been named after the home towns of settlers from south-west Norway, and Suldal , in other words 236 INGE SÆRHEIM

reusing a local name. Many churches and parishes in are named after the home town of settlers, cf. Stavanger Lutheran Church in Seneca, Illinois, and Hanna Church (officially Grant Lutheran Church ) in Woden, Iowa, the last mentioned named after a family from Hana in . Churches called Stavanger , Skudesnes and Highland (some of them probably reflecting Høyland , Sandnes) are found in several states in USA and Canada.

6.9. Language and topography

6.9.1. Rivers Names of rivers, lakes, islands and fjords in Norway are ancient sources of Scandinavian, Germanic or Indo-European languages spoken in this area. Some of the oldest names have close parallels (toponyms and appellatives) further south and west in Europe, cf. the names Orre and Tjora which are mentioned above. The name Sira denotes an island in northwestern Rogaland and a river in Sirdal, Vest-Agder. This name is probably derived with a r- suffix to the root in the verb siga ‘flow’, describing strong current around the island and at the mouth of the river. The French river name Seine has been interpreted as containing the same root. The fact that there are parallel river names of this type in different parts of Europe, indicate Indo-European origin, i.e. that the names are 3000–4000 years old, from a period with a more common language in a large part of Europe. The names of this type, Sira , Orre , Tjora etc. represent the oldest sources of the language spoken in south-west Norway. They give information about relationship between languages, about vocabulary and naming principles and composition of words and names in the oldest known stages of the language. The fact that older forms of the names often have to be reconstructed, makes the interpretations and the information somewhat uncertain, even though one follows the rules of the development of the languages.

6.9.2. Islands and fjords A number of island names in northern Rogaland contain linguistic material that is not recorded in Scandinavian languages, e.g. Bokn , , Sjernarøy (ON Sj †rn ), Talgje , Karmøy (ON K†rmt ), , Byre , Sokn , Mosterøy and Rennesøy . Derivations of these types are as a rule made in the Germanic or Indo-European period, with ancient suffixes like -r, -t, -n, -tr , -str etc. TOPONYMY AND TEACHING 237

Also the oldest names of fjords in this area are uncompounded. At present the old fjord name often denotes a farm or a parish, e.g. , and Ølen , all of them probably describing wind and current. Fister is perhaps related to the verb fisa ‘fart’, Ølen and Jelsa to the Indo-European root *el- ‘flow’. The fjord has got a new name, with the word fjord ‘fjord’ as the last element: Fisterfjorden , Ølsfjorden and Jelsafjorden . Other fjord names which describe wind, current and rough waters are Jøsenfjorden and Jøssingfjorden . Both of them are derived from the verb esa ‘ferment’, the first mentioned with an ancient und -suffix, ON *J †sund , and Jøssingfjorden with an ing -suffix. River names are as a rule older than fjord names. The well-known Lysefjorden , called Lýsir in Old Norse, is named after the river (Lyseåna) in the far end of the fjord (Lysebotn). The river was called *Lýsa in Old Norse. At present this name, nowadays called Lyse , denotes a farm in Lysebotn. This name originally describes the colour and the clear water of the river.

6.9.3. angr -names A special word denoting ‘fjord, bay’ in Scandinavian toponyms is -angr , which is the last element in Stavanger , cf. also Hardanger , Høyanger , Geiranger and Porsanger . Names of this type are not found in Iceland or on other islands in the North-Atlantic area with Norse settlement and . Angr -names are therefore believed to be older than the Viking Age, i.e. made before 800 AD. The last element in Stavangr probably denotes the bay Vågen . The first element, which reflects the word stav ‘stick, pole’, might describe the headland on the eastern side of the bay, called Skagen , cf. Skagen in Denmark, denoting the northernmost tip of Jutland. This element also seems to appear in the name Breiangen , which is found a few places in Jæren, describing a wide bend or bow of a river. The first element in this name means ‘broad’. This name contributes to the discussion of the etymology of the element -angr , by supporting the view that the original semantics is ‘bend’. The definite form of this name could be an indication that the element -angr has been used in naming after 800 AD, since definite form of toponyms is a novation in the late Middle Ages. But there is also a possibility that this name at first had indefinite form, but got definite form around 1400–1500.

6.9.4. Mountains Names of mountains and mountain plateaus are often younger than names of rivers, lakes, fjords and islands. Names like Jotunheimen (‘home of the giants’) and Trollheimen (‘home of the trolls’) are fairly 238 INGE SÆRHEIM

young, the first-mentioned made by the famous traveller, journalist and author Aasmund Olavsson . The majestic mountain Skagastølstinden in Jotunheimen is named after Skagastølen , the mountain dairy farm of Skagen , a farm in Sogn. The farm got the primary name, the mountain a secondary name. This reflects that the mountains have been regarded as something distant and unimportant. The conception of mountains as something majestic and beautiful, i.e. the view of tourists, is fairly new. Another tourist name is Preikestolen ‘the pulpit rock’ from Lyse- fjorden. A local name of the rock is, as mentioned, Høvlatanna , ‘the plain iron’. The last element of Kjerag from Lysefjorden is probably related to the verb rekkja ‘stretch, reach’, like in Ulrikken (ON Alrekr ) from Bergen. The first element in Kjerag is maybe related to the verb kjerra ‘raise, erect’, meaning ‘the impressive, the large mountain’. There are many old mountain names in Norway, especially along the coast, where the mountains for centuries have been used as sailing marks. Siggjo in Sunnhordland seems to be derived from the verb sjå ‘see’, with the semantics ‘the visible’. Hårteigen on Hardangervidda has been interpreted as ‘the grey guide’, containing ON hárr adj. ‘grey’ and teigr ‘strip of land, parcel’, with the original semantics ‘show, point’ (cf. the German verb zeigen ‘show’). Another inter- pretation of the first element is ON hár ‘hair’, in other words ‘the lock (of hair)’. Toponyms in oral tradition give much information about words and pronunciation in the local dialect. More than 100 different words with the semantics ‘mountain, peak’, and approx. the same number of words meaning ‘valley, ravine’, are found in place names from Rogaland. This is an indication that the Norwegian language is well developed as far as description of topographical features is concerned. Many words are unknown to native speakers today.

7. Literature and name archives It is important to know where one finds collected material of place names from an area of interest and explanation of the names. Some place names are found on maps of different types and in published books and reports. Information about where and how to find a corpus of place names from an area, and suggested interpretations of the names, can be obtained at name archives at the universities and university colleges, e.g. in , Stavanger, Bergen, Volda, Trond- heim and Tromsø. At these institutions one may also get information and advice concerning explanation and correct spelling of place names, and about available publications. A number of published books and articles as well as unpublished theses deal with toponyms. Sandnes, Stemshaug 1997 presents interpretations of approx. 4000 TOPONYMY AND TEACHING 239

well known toponyms in Norway. Rygh 1897–1936 presents the approx. 50,000 settlement names in Norway, including old spellings, local pronunciation and interpretations. Stemshaug 1985 and Særheim 1985 are introductions to the study of place names. Særheim 1984 gives advice on how to collect toponyms, and 1993, 2002 on place name care and standardization. Onoma 37 (2002) contains articles on different aspects of Scandinavian and Nordic onomastics. A few other are mentioned in the bibliography below.

8. A journey in a cultural landscape Section 6 presents place names from one part of Norway, but names from other parts of the country and from other countries can also be useful in teaching on various levels, especially as far as parallels and linguistic relationship are concerned. Let us look at one example. The name of the German city Frankfurt (am Main ) means ‘ford of the Franks’ (Berger 1999). The Franks, an ancient Germanic tribe, crossed the river Main at Frankfurt. The last element in the name, -furt , is also found in other German names, e.g. Ochsenfurt , ‘ford of the bulls’, and Schweinfurt , ‘ford of the pigs’ (op. cit.). The word is related to the last element in English names like Stratford , ‘ford on a Roman road’, and Oxford , ‘ford of the bulls’ (Mills 1991). The semantics of Oxford and Ochsenfurt is similar with that of the Norwegian Øksnavad , meaning ‘ford of the bulls’. A parallel to -ford and -furt is found in names from south-west Norway, e.g. Forus , Foren , Forane and Madlaforen from Jæren. These names contain the word for(d) ‘ford, wet hayland’, which is related to the verb fara ‘go, rush, travel’ and the noun ferd ‘journey, travel’. Norwegian for(d) , English ford and German furt relate to port in Romance languages. Port is also a loanword in Scandinavian languages, meaning ‘gate’. This is just one example of the many parallels and close links between toponyms ―and words ―in Europe. The explanation of names in different countries and different languages gives interesting insight to school children and students into history, culture and language. A comparative study of toponyms in Europe is like a journey in a cultural ―linguistic and onomastic ―landscape.

References Berger, Dieter. 1999. Geographische Namen in Deutschland . 2 nd edition. (Duden Taschenbücher 25). Mannheim–Leipzig–Wien– Zürich: Duden. Helleland, Botolv. 1993. Adresser og stadnamn 2. Stadnamn i offent- 240 INGE SÆRHEIM

leg og privat bruk . [Addresses and place-names. Place-names in public and private use.] Oslo: Kommuneforlaget. Helleland, Botolv. 2002. Place-name care and standardization in the Nordic countries. Onoma 37, 325–356. Krahe, Hans. 1964. Unsere ältesten Flussnamen . Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Kruken, Kristoffer, Stemshaug, Ola (eds.). 1995. Norsk person- namnleksikon . [Norwegian dictionary of personal names.] 2 nd ed. Oslo: Det Norske Samlaget. Mills, A. D. 1991. A Dictionary of English Place-Names . Oxford– New York: Oxford University Press. Olsen, Magnus. 1928. Farms and Fanes of Ancient Norway . Oslo: Instituttet for sammenlignende kulturforskning. Rygh, Oluf (ed.). 1897–1936. Norske Gaardnavne 1–19. [Norwegian farm names.] Kristiania/Oslo: W.C. Fabritius & Sønner AS. Sandnes, Jørn, Stemshaug, Ola (eds.). 1997. Norsk stadnamnleksikon . [Norwegian place-name dictionary.] 4 th edition Oslo: Det Norske Samlaget. Stemshaug, Ola. 1985. Namn i Noreg . [Names in Norway.] 3rd edition. Oslo: Det Norske Samlaget. Særheim, Inge. 1984. Namn som fortel om oss . [Names that tell about us.] Stavanger–Oslo–Bergen–Tromsø: Universitetsforlaget. Særheim, Inge. 1985. Stadnamn fortel historie . [Place-names tell history.] Stavanger–Oslo–Bergen–Tromsø: Universitetsforlaget. Særheim, Inge. 2003. Frå Feisteinen til Napen . [From Feisteinen to Napen.] Stavanger Turistforening. Årbok 2002. Stavanger: Stavanger Turistforening. Særheim, Inge. 2004. Our oldest settlement Names . In: Astrid van Nahl, Lennart Elmevik, Stefan Brink (eds.), Namenwelten . Orts- und Personennamen in historischer Sicht , 318–332. (Ergänz- ungsbände zum Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde 44.) Berlin–New York: Walter de Gruyter.

Inge Særheim [email protected] Faculty of Arts and Education University of Stavanger NO-4036 Stavanger

Abstract: Toponymy and teaching: cultural history and cultural experience This article deals with toponymy and teaching, with a special focus on teaching in upper and lower secondary school (high school and junior high school). TOPONYMY AND TEACHING 241

Some comments are given on didactics and methods, and several examples are given on how names (especially place names) can be used in teaching on different levels and within different subjects, including interdisciplinary teaching and learning. Toponyms contain information about various aspects of cultural history, e.g. settlement history, farming, forestry, fishing and hunting, administration, de- fence, trade, travelling, migration, religion and language. They localize traditions, events, activities and phenomena, and are therefore valuable sources for students and researchers. Most examples of place names in this article are taken from south-west Norway.

Résumé: Toponymie et enseignement : histoire culturelle et expérience culturelle Cet article met en avant l’intérêt que peut revêtir l’onomastique dans l’enseigne- ment, particulièrement au niveau du lycée. Après quelques commentaires sur des aspects de didactique et de méthode, plusieurs exemples pratiques sont présentés et montrent comment on peut utiliser les noms (surtout les noms de lieux) dans l’enseignement à différents niveaux et dans différentes disciplines, ainsi que dans une perspective interdisciplinaire. Les toponymes sont des sources d’informations sur de nombreux aspects de l’histoire culturelle, que ce soit sur les types d’habitat, l’agriculture, l’ex- ploitation de forêt, la pêche, la chasse, l’administration, la défense, le commerce, les migrations et les modes de communication, la religion ou la langue. Ils localisent des traditions, des événements, des activités et des phénomènes, et constituent de ce fait de précieuses sources d’informations tant pour des étudiants que des chercheurs. La plupart des exemples de toponymes figurant dans cet article proviennent du sud-ouest de la Norvège.

Zusammenfassung: Toponymie und Unterricht – Kulturgeschichte und kulturelle Erfahrung Das Thema des vorliegenden Artikels ist Onomastik und Unterricht unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Unterrichts in den Klassenstufen 8–13. Die Themenbereiche Didaktik und Methodik werden kommentiert und viele Bei- spiele präsentiert. Diese sollen zeigen, wie man Namen (insbesondere Orts- namen) auf verschiedenen Niveaus und in verschiedenen Fächern im Unterricht einsetzen kann, was auch den fachübergreifenden Unterricht einschließt. Die Toponymen enthalten Informationen zu vielen Aspekten der Kultur- geschichte, z.B. Siedlungsgeschichte, Ackerbau, Forstwirtschaft, Fischerei, Jagd, Verwaltung, Verteidigung, Handel, Verkehr, Migration, Religion und Sprache. Sie lokalisieren Traditionen, Begebenheiten, Aktivitäten und Phäno- mene und sind deswegen sowohl für Studenten als auch für Forscher Quellen von hohem Wert. Die meisten Beispiele für die Ortsnamen in diesem Artikel stammen aus Südwestnorwegen.

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