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African American Religious Leaders in the Late Antebellum South

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African American Religious Leaders in the Late Antebellum South Teaching Christianity in the face of adversity: African American religious leaders in the late antebellum South A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of English and American Studies PhD in the Faculty of Humanities 2011 Thomas Strange School of Arts, Histories, and Cultures Table of Contents Table of Contents 1 Abbreviations 2 Abstract 3 Declaration 4 Copyright Statement 5 Acknowledgements 6 Introduction 7 Chapter 1: „For what God had done to their souls‟: the black preacher in the 19 colonial and early antebellum South Chapter 2: Preacher, teacher, counsellor or rebel: The multiple functions of 66 the black preacher on the plantation Chapter 3: The licensed black minister in the biracial and independent black 107 churches in the late antebellum South Chapter 4: The white evangelical reaction to African American religious 148 leaders and slave Christianity Conclusions 196 Appendix 204 Table 1: Statistics on WPA interviewee relocation 204 Table 2: Statistics on the location of black preachers in the WPA 205 narratives Bibliography 206 Word Count: 79,876 1 Abbreviations used Avery Avery Research Center, Charleston Caroliniana South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia Duke Duke University Special Collections, Durham ERO Essex Record Office, Chelmsford SHC Southern Historical Collection, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill VHS Virginia Historical Society, Richmond VSL Virginia State Library, Richmond 2 Abstract Religious leaders were key figures within African American society in the late antebellum South. They undertook a vital religious function within both the plantation slave community and the institutionalised biracial and independent black church and many became a focal point for African American Christianity amongst slaves and free blacks. These religious leaders also took on a number of secular responsibilities, becoming counsellors, mediators, and advisors, individuals that blacks would frequently seek out for their opinion, advice and solace. African American religious leaders held a position considered to be vital and prestigious. But such a position was also perilous. Black religious leaders had to reconcile the conflicting demands of two groups whose needs were almost diametrically opposed. Slaves and free blacks wanted to hear a message of hope, but the Southern elite wanted to hear a message of obedience to ensure that their authority remained unchallenged. Appeasing both groups was an almost impossible task. Failing to meet their demands, however, could be disastrous for black religious leaders. Slaves and free blacks who heard a message of obedience to the Southern white elite rejected the authority of the black preacher, who was then often unable to continue his ministrations. Conversely, those who were considered to be teaching a message that was undermining the planter‟s authority faced reprisals from white society. These reprisals could be violent. In order to survive, black religious leaders had to chart a difficult course between the two groups, giving a sense of hope to the enslaved but in a manner that did not appear to undermine white authority. Within historical scholarship, it has been argued that African American religious leaders shared a common role. By the late antebellum period, however, a divide had emerged amongst black religious leaders. Although they continued to share many of the same goals, responsibilities, and challenges, the form of Christianity practiced by black preachers on the plantation was not the same as that practiced by licensed black ministers in the biracial and independent black church. Christianity within the plantation slave community continued to include African traditions and rituals that had survived the transatlantic crossing. Christianity within the biracial and independent black church, however, had begun to reject these African traditions as backward and outdated, and had moved instead towards a form of religion that, whilst still emotional and uplifting, was also more formal and hierarchical, resembling the Christianity of white Southern evangelicals. Black preachers and licensed black ministers were preaching Christianity in the face of adversity and had the potential to become political leaders within the African American community. The realisation of this potential was hindered, not only by the constant supervision of these religious leaders by the white elite but also through the refusal of black preachers and ministers to use Christianity to justify acts of resistance. This research adds new insight to the role of African American religious leaders through a detailed understanding of their different approaches in delivering the Christian message. 3 Declaration No portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning. 4 Copyright Statement The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trade marks and other intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and table (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Property and/or Reproductions. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/DocuInfo.aspx?DocID=487), in any relevant Thesis restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library‟s regulations (see http://www.manchester.ac.uk/library/aboutus/regulations) and in The University‟s policy on Presentation of Theses. 5 Acknowledgements Although I do not want to produce an exhaustive list of everyone who has helped during my research I do need to give my thanks to some people in particular without whom I would not have to been able to complete my thesis. My biggest thanks are to my supervisors, David Brown and Brian Ward. Throughout my thesis they have been a constant source of help and encouragement, and have given me both advice and, occasionally, a sense of cajoling to keep me on track. I am also very grateful for all the wider opportunities they have given me, introducing me to wider networks, and encouraging me to apply for funding to support my research. The research for my thesis has been greatly aided by a number of grants and travel awards. Research I carried out in Virginia was greatly aided by the Virginia Historical Society, who kindly awarded me a Mellon Fellowship. In carrying out further research in America I was helped through a Peter Parish Memorial Fund Postgraduate Research Grant from the association of British American Nineteenth Century Historians. Awards from the Postgraduate Research Travel Fund from the School of Arts, Histories and Cultures at the University of Manchester also helped my research both in America and in the United Kingdom. A number of people have helped me during my research and although there is not time to thank them all I am very grateful for all the help they have given me. I do need to thank some people specifically, however. During my research visit to America Matthew Dutton and John White introduced me to both the culinary and sporting delights of South Carolina. My housemate Robert Woolley has been a sounding board for a number of discussions throughout my study. Finally I need to thank my family. My parents, Roger and Caroline, as well as my sister Hannah, have supported and encouraged me throughout my research. 6 Introduction In the 1850s, Northern journalist Frederick Law Olmsted visited an African American church in New Orleans. Upon entering he encountered a black preacher about to begin his sermon. Olmsted recalled the rough nature of the preacher‟s discourse, noting that while the sermon was based on a Biblical text „words were frequently misplaced, and their meaning evidently misapprehended, while the grammar and pronunciation were sometimes such as to make the idea intended to be conveyed by the speaker incomprehensible to me‟. Yet despite the uneducated content of the sermon, the preacher‟s words still had a tremendous impact on the black congregants, as members let forth with „shouts, and groans, terrific shrieks, and indescribable expressions of ecstacy [sic] – of pleasure or agony – and even stamping, jumping, and clapping of hands‟. Even Olmsted commented that „I was once surprised to find my own muscles all stretched, as if ready for a struggle, my face glowing, and
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