“Methinks I see grim Slavery’s Gorgon form”: Abolitionism in Belfast, 1775-1865 By Krysta Beggs-McCormick (BA Hons, MRes) Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences of Ulster University A Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) October 2018 I confirm that the word count of this thesis is less than 100,000 words. Contents Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………… I Illustration I …………………………………………………………………………...…… II Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………. III Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………… 1 Chapter One – “That horrible degradation of human nature”: Abolitionism in late eighteenth-century Belfast ……………………………………………….…………………………………………….. 22 Chapter Two – “Go ruthless Avarice”: Abolitionism in nineteenth century Georgian Belfast ………………………………………………………………………................................... 54 Chapter Three – “The atrocious system should come to an end”: Abolitionism in Early Victorian Belfast, 1837-1857 ……………………………………………………………... 99 Chapter Four - “Whether freedom or slavery should be the grand characteristic of the United States”: Belfast Abolitionism and the American Civil War……………………..………. 175 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………….. 206 Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………... 214 Appendix 1: Table ……………………………………………………………………….. 257 Appendix 2: Belfast Newspapers .…………….…………………………………………. 258 I Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the help and guidance of many people to whom I am greatly indebted. I owe my greatest thanks to my supervisory team: Professor Ian Thatcher, who first and foremost taught me that I will not get things right first time and that with effort, they will improve. I honestly do not think this thesis would have seen the light of day without your guidance. Dr Kyle Hughes, for reading my early drafts and giving me invaluable advice and finally Dr Allan Blackstock, whose guidance from undergraduate helped me in numerous ways, mainly in seeing the big picture. I wish to acknowledge the support of the Department of Employment and Learning, without whose support I would not have been able to commence the study which resulted in this thesis. In addition, the support of the University staff has been invaluable. Particularly Marion and Elaine. In addition, I would like to thank the staff at the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland, the National Archives of Ireland, the National Archives in Kew, the National Library of Ireland, the Clifton House Archives, Boston Public Library, the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., the Bodleian libraries and the Presbyterian Historical Society of Ireland. I am also indebted to Muriel Cameron who so kindly gave up her free time to let me access the records of the Strong Room in the Lisburn Meeting House on multiple occasions. Similarly, I am much obliged for the guidance and generosity of Ross Chapman who let me borrow material from his private collection. I would like to thank Leanne Campbell, nee McMullan. Having a partner in crime during this research has kept me sane, all I can say is thank you. My parents, Victor and Shirlee, thank you for your support, during this long period. You watched my love of history first bloom and helped it thrive. The same thank you to my parents-in-law, Gerald and Sadie. Especially Gerald who has sacrificed some of his retirement to allowing me time to give to this thesis. Finally, my gratitude and love go to my husband Stephen and our two daughters, Nara and Nahlin. This thesis is not just my work, but a work that has only been possible with I sacrifices made collectively by us as a family. The three of you have inspired me when I thought of giving up. Thank you for pushing me. II Illustration 1. Erin tearing off her chains “Tun’d to Freedom” (Paddy’s Resource, 1795) III Abstract This thesis examines abolitionism in Belfast from its origins in the late eighteenth century through to the late nineteenth century. In this period Ireland underwent fundamental change. Belfast was not immune. It was transformed from a small Presbyterian town on the periphery into Ireland’s preeminent industrial city. This study will demonstrate that Belfast abolitionism issued from many sources. The local context is important, most strikingly in the theme of the ‘Irish slave’. This noted, one must also appreciate how Belfast abolitionism was conditioned by contemporary local, national, transnational, and international events and campaigns. This thesis is the first to undertake a longitudinal study of Belfast abolitionism in its various and multiple contexts. It throws fresh light on local, national, and international history. Despite the prominence and endurance of Belfast abolitionism it is an understudied aspect of Irish and British abolitionism, an imbalance this study addresses. Building upon earlier research, this thesis details how the formation of the Irish as slave mentalité and the impact of local demands for political and religious reform underpinned the appeal of abolitionism in Belfast. It examines how local change, for example the development of ‘Britishness’, impacted upon abolitionism. It also notes that there was strong continuity, most notably the survival of the Irish slave mentalité and ideas of liberty and natural rights, that ensured support for the abolitionist cause in Belfast. This made Belfast a prominent centre of abolitionism on the national and ultimately transatlantic stage. 1 Introduction From the mid-1770s, notions of liberty and natural rights lay at the heart of Belfast abolitionism. The continuity of this into the next century can be seen from an article of April 1833 in the Belfast News-Letter that declared: “Every man who is born has an absolute right, beyond all possible laws and customs, to personal liberty, nor can he ever rightfully be deprived of it…”1 Throughout the landmark events in the history of abolition – the abolishment of the British slave trade in 1807, the emancipation of British slaves in the 1830s2, and the end of American slavery in 18653 – the abuse and inhumane treatment of African slaves was roundly condemned in Belfast. Criticism of slavery was tightly entwined with local perceptions of the mistreatment of the Irish – Catholic and Dissenter – in the eighteenth century during the penal era. The impact of the penal laws on Irish memory was profound. A belief took root that the persecuted Irish wore a “Badge of Slavery”.4 Slavery thus became an object of attack in the form of the ‘Irish slave’ and slavery in general. The ‘Irish slave’ proved to be an enduring theme in Belfast abolitionism. As this thesis will demonstrate it survived into the nineteenth century, despite considerable political, social, demographic, and economic change.5 1 Belfast News-Letter, April 12, 1833. 2 While the British Abolition of Slavery Act took place in 1833, the government put in place the apprenticeship system. The system attracted significant criticism and was abolished in 1838, allowing for full emancipation. 3 While American slaves were emancipated in 1863 under the Emancipation Proclamation, the Thirteenth Amendment was not ratified until December 1865. 4 The impact of the Test Act on Ulster’s Presbyterians is still the subject of on-going dispute among Irish historians. For more information see in chronological order: Ian McBride, ‘Presbyterians in the Penal Era’, Bullán, 1, (1994): 73-86; J. C. Beckett, Protestant Dissent in Ireland 1687-1780, (London: Faber and Faber, 2009). In relation to the Irish wearing a ‘Badge of Slavery’ see: John Abernathy, Scarce and valuable tracts and sermons, (London: R. Griffiths, 1751). 5 For the various studies detailing change in Belfast see, in chronological order: Peter Gibbon, The Origins of Ulster Unionism, (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1975); Frank Wright, Two Lands on One Soil: Ulster Politics before Home Rule, (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1995); Christine Kinealy and Gerard MacAtasney, The Hidden Famine: Hunger, Poverty and Sectarianism in Belfast 1840-50, (London: Pluto Press, 2000); Catherine Hirst, Religion, Politics and Violence in nineteenth- century Belfast, (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2002); A. C. Hepburn, ‘Prisoners of the City’: Catholic Belfast in the Late Nineteenth Century’, in A. C. Hepburn., Catholic Belfast and Nationalist Ireland in the era of Joe Devlin: 1871-1934, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 7-37; John Bew, The 2 Slavery and anti-slavery were fraught topics in eighteenth-century Ireland, with Irish involvement in the slave trade and slave produce in the British colonies.6 The debates in Ireland were part of a broader debate across the British Isles in this period. The Somerset case of 1772 had a notable impact on British abolitionism, attracting more press attention and developing more cohesion in abolitionist organisation.7 This saw the beginning of petitions and bills in the attempt to end the British Slave Trade. Here, Enlightenment notions of liberty played a significant role in abolitionist thought. The Scottish Enlightenment had most influence in Ireland (and Belfast) due to Irish Presbyterians being educated in Scottish Universities.8 Enlightenment ideology – most notably liberty – had particular appeal in Ireland against a background of perceived ill treatment of the Irish, the Catholic majority and the Dissenters, by the British government and the Ascendancy. Anti-slavery agitation became popular in the Belfast press and in events such as the attempts of the Belfast Amicable Society in 1781 to harbour a runaway slave who escaped his master’s