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How learned to adapt in ‘Nusantara’

Yahya Cholil Staquf

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How Islam learned to adapt in ‘Nusantara’

Yahya Cholil Staquf usantara is a term used to describe the vast Indonesian is secretary for political archipelago that stretches across the tropics from in and international affairs the west to Papua in the east. It is a region characterized by for the supreme council immenseN geographic, biological, ethnic, linguistic and cultural diversity. of Nahdlatul Ulama, Indonesia’s largest The word “nusantara” first appeared in Javanese literature in the 14th Islamic organization. century, and referred to the enormous chain of islands that constituted He previously served the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire. as press secretary for Nusantara is a compound noun derived from ancient Javanese: Abdurrahman Wahid, the nusa (“islands”) and antara (“opposite” or “across from”). In his book late Indonesian president and NU leader. “Negarakertagama,” written circa 1365, the author and Buddhist monk Mpu Prapanca described the territory that comprised Nusantara, which included most of modern Indonesia (Sumatra, , Bali, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Kalimantan, , part of the Malukus and COVER STORY APRIL-JUNE 2015/VOLUME 5/NUMBER 2 19

Bhinneka Tunggal Ika may serve as a model for establishing a true alliance of civilizations, capable of addressing a wide array of dangers that threaten contemporary humanity.

West Papua), plus a substantial portion of of civilizations, capable of addressing a wide the territories that now comprise Malaysia, array of dangers that threaten contemporary Singapore, Brunei and the southern humanity. Philippines. As of 2010, this region was High among those dangers, of course, is the inhabited by approximately 1,340 distinct Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, known as ISIS. ethnic groups speaking nearly 2,500 different The phrase Bhinneka Tunggal Ika first languages and dialects, according to Indonesia’s appeared in an ancient Javanese kakawin (book Central Bureau of Statistics. of poetry), known as “Kakawin Sutasoma.” Indonesia’s national motto – Bhinneka Composed in the 14th century by Mpu Tunggal Ika – was coined during the so-called Tantular, this renowned book promotes golden age of Majapahit. Bhinneka means mutual understanding and tolerance between “different” or “diverse.” The Sanskrit word Buddhists and Hindu followers of Shiva. The “neka” (like the Latin term “genus”) signifies phrase appears in chapter 139, verse 5: “kind,” and is the etymological antecedent of the commonly used Indonesian word “aneka,” Rwāneka dhātu winuwus Buddha Wiswa, which means “variety.” Tunggal means “one.” Bhinnêki rakwa ring apan kena parwanosen, Ika means “that.” Thus, Bhinneka Tunggal Mangka ng Jinatwa kalawan Śiwatatwa tunggal, Ika may be literally translated as “Variative Bhinnêka tunggal ika tan hana dharma mangrwa. (ie, different) Yet One.” Within the context of modern Indonesia, this implies that It is said that Buddha and Shiva are two distinct despite enormous ethnic, linguistic, cultural, substances (or entities). They are indeed geographic and religious differences, the different, yet it is impossible to regard them as people of Indonesia are all citizens of a single, fundamentally different (when one apprehends unified nation – the Unitary State of the the underlying Unity of existence). Republic of Indonesia. Yet the connotations of this motto are For the essence (truth) of Buddha and the essence far more profound and universal in their (truth) of Shiva is One (tunggal). (The diverse significance than may appear at first glance. forms of the universe) are indeed different, yet In fact, the concept, historical precedent and simultaneously One, spiritual reality of Bhinneka Tunggal Ika may serve as a model for establishing a true alliance For Truth is indivisible. 20 STRATEGIC REVIEW COVER STORY

It is important to note that the civilizational centuries and was already deeply rooted within greatness attained in the East Indies the culture of a wide geographic region that lay archipelago (Nusantara) did not begin with the at the crossroads of many ancient civilizations. Majapahit dynasty. Archaeological remains and The value of this single quatrain of other historical records indicate that complex poetry from “Kakawin Sutasoma” is that it sociocultural systems had developed within encapsulates – and helps us to comprehend Nusantara from at least the third century. And – the worldview embraced by the Nusantara long before that, intense economic and cultural civilization as a whole, which underlies its interchange had occurred, both among local remarkable religious pluralism and tolerance. populations within Nusantara and with the Namely, that the universe arises from a single outside world, especially India and China. An source, which constitutes the “spiritual economic boom stimulated by maritime trade essence” of all things. From this perspective, is evident from at least the first century (Paul cultures and religions that appear to be widely Michael Munoz, 2006), with an abundance of divergent are in fact like colors emerging from ancient Roman gold coins found in Nusantara a prism, derived from a single source of light. attesting to the remarkable scope, and extent, This profoundly spiritual worldview of such trade. emerged spontaneously among the people Given the remarkable ethnic, linguistic and of Nusantara. Given the enormous cultural cultural heterogeneity of the region, and the and linguistic diversity present within the dynamic interactions between members of East Indies archipelago, it was impossible different groups, Nusantara societies naturally to create, much less enforce, the relatively developed a highly pluralistic outlook on high degree of cultural, linguistic and/or life. Cultural and religious influences from religious uniformity characteristic of some abroad were quickly assimilated by Nusantara’s regions of the world. The people of Nusantara highly adaptive, and flourishing, civilization. concluded that they must accept the reality Thus, Mpu Tantular’s observation regarding of this diversity, which confronted them on Bhinneka Tunggal Ika did not emerge from a a daily basis, and hone their ability to coexist void. Rather, it expressed the collective wisdom peacefully with others. As a result, they came of Nusantara, which had developed over the to view cultural and religious differences as inevitable, and developed a civilization that emphasized attaining a state of harmony as the most effective way to maintain order within a Cultures and religions that appear complex social and cultural environment. to be widely divergent are in fact The arrival of Islam like colors emerging from a prism, derived from a single source of rom the seventh to the 10th centuries, light. FIslam established deep roots in the Middle COVER STORY APRIL-JUNE 2015/VOLUME 5/NUMBER 2 21

East, from Spain and Morocco to western Islam was forced to “surrender” India, giving birth to a new civilization and to the prevailing local customs, countless works of genius. These territories and power, of Nusantara’s highly underwent a gradual process of Islamization, and Arabization as well, in the Levant, pluralistic civilization. Mesopotamia and the northern coast of Africa, as a result of having been conquered and subjugated by Muslim rulers. In other words, military conquest was the Shariah) dominated such discourse, due to the essential prerequisite, and catalyst, for the central position of law in establishing order development of classical Islamic civilization. and governing the relationship between various Islam quickly attained military and political members of society. supremacy in the Middle East, which enabled Muslim rulers to enforce order and manage What about Nusantara? the community at large in accordance with religious doctrine and dogma. It was precisely Given the paucity of contemporaneous in this atmosphere that the classical teachings historical records, no convincing explanation (ie, interpretation) of Islam evolved, including has been provided to date of the precise aqidah (the system of Islamic doctrine, as mechanisms through which Islam penetrated related to Divine teachings); fiqh (the vast Nusantara. A number of records indicate body of classical Islamic jurisprudence); and that Islamic kingdoms were established in tasawwuf (Islamic mysticism, through which Nusantara from the late 13th through the 15th Muslims explored the spiritual dimension of centuries (including Jeumpa, Tambayung and life). Malacca), prior to the process of Islamization Although Muslims’ interpretation of Islamic gaining decisive momentum in Java with the doctrine, dogma, law and spirituality was establishment of the Demak Kingdom. inevitably diverse, it was the responsibility Notably, virtually all academics agree that of Muslim rulers (ie, conquerors) to Islam spread throughout Nusantara through establish order, which in turn created a a “diffusive” and “adaptive” process that, for powerful impetus to establish uniformity of the most part, eschewed military conquest. religious doctrine and law, at least within an Like Hinduism and Buddhism before it, Islam “acceptable” set of parameters. Thus, for purely “dissolved” and was gradually absorbed into the political reasons, the question of religious prevailing local civilization of Nusantara. “authenticity” became a central topic in the In distinct contrast to other regions of the heated debates that often occurred among Muslim world (eg, from Spain to India), there various competing schools (ie, interpretations) is no record of the application of fiqh as a of Islam. Given these circumstances, it is comprehensive legal system within the Islamic no surprise that fiqh (often conflated with kingdoms of Nusantara. The resolution of 22 STRATEGIC REVIEW COVER STORY

legal issues (such as crimes and disputes) was North Africa, the Persian and Turkish cultural generally handled through the application of basins and much of South Asia – Islam arrived customary law, or adat, which differed from in the form of a “judge” by subduing, imposing region to region. For example, to this day the order and adjudicating disputes. In Nusantara, of West Sumatra retain Islam arrived as a guest and was later adopted a matrilineal system, distinctly opposed to the into the family. In turn, Nusantara Islam patrilineal system employed in mainstream developed a distinct character, which is quite fiqh interpretation of family law. And yet, different from that manifested by Islam in this Minangkabau adherence to adat is other regions of the Muslim world. accompanied, smoothly and unselfconsciously, In the Middle East, for example, Islam by a strong self-identification with Islam on the is commonly viewed as a socioreligious- part of the Minang people as a whole. Indeed, political system that is “complete,” “final” and over time local customs (adat) throughout authoritative, offering human beings no choice Nusantara have become flavored, or colored, by but to comply with the dictates of that final the influence of Islam. Yet there has never been construction. In Nusantara, on the other hand, any systematic and comprehensive application Islam is in a state of constant learning. For of “Islamic law, as defined by the mainstream of more than 600 years, its leading practitioners classical Islamic discourse, in public affairs. have carefully studied social reality, in order In other words, Islam was forced to to ascertain the most elegant means to achieve “surrender” to the prevailing local customs, their goals, while maintaining harmony within and power, of Nusantara’s highly pluralistic a diverse and highly pluralistic society. civilization. To cite yet another example from Although Nusantara Islam is distinct from West Sumatra, the Islamic law of inheritance, the Middle East model, this does not mean that which favors males, was subordinated to it constitutes any form of heresy. Prominent – or at least compromised with – Minang ulama (religious scholars) and other Muslim customary law, in which land and houses are leaders within the East Indies archipelago have bequeathed through a matrilineal line. Islam been quite deliberate and prudent in ensuring thus experienced a softening of its “original that the manner in which they practice and discipline.” Likewise in Java, where many promote Islam adheres to the fundamental traditional rituals have been adopted as “part teachings of the Islamic paradigm, follows of Islam” after being adjusted to a lesser or its intellectual traditions and maintains an greater extent through a steady process of inseverable bond to the established references assimilation. of classical Islam, anchored in the teachings of authoritative mujtahid (leaders within various The Islam that learns schools of Islamic thought) from the earliest generations who lived in the Middle East. In ithin the regions dominated by other words, the model of Nusantara Islam is W“classical Islam” – the Middle East, an absolutely authentic stream of Sunni Islam, COVER STORY APRIL-JUNE 2015/VOLUME 5/NUMBER 2 23

as preserved and taught by authoritative ulama. held by the renowned Persian poet and mystic The task of ensuring the authenticity of Jalal ad-Din Rumi (1207-1273): Islamic teachings, while maintaining harmony with the prevailing social reality, has never The difference among men results from the outward been easy. Nusantara’s ulama have traditionally name; when you reach the inner meaning you reach utilized two principal strategies to accomplish peace. Oh marrow of existence! It is because of the this. perspective in question that there is a difference The first is to ensure a balanced focus of between a Muslim, a Zoroastrian and a Jew. … attention upon the spiritual dimensions of Every prophet and every saint hath a way, but it Islam (tasawwuf ), so that the animating spirit leads to God; all the ways are really one. of religion, as a source of universal love and compassion, is not neglected when issuing The Spanish-born Sufi Ibn ’Arabi (1165- judgments (fatwa) involving the formal/exoteric 1240), who is often referred to as Shaykh norms of Islamic law. al-Akbar, or The Great Master, expressed a Nusantara’s ulama introduced Islamic similar view when he wrote: mysticism (tasawwuf ) and a variety of spiritual brotherhoods (tariqa) established My heart has become capable of every form; it is by their predecessors in the Middle East a pasture for gazelles and a cloister for Christian to local communities throughout the East monks, and a temple for idols, and the pilgrim’s Indies archipelago. Their teachings on Islamic Ka’ba, and the tables of the Torah and the book of mysticism elicited an enthusiastic response from the Koran. I follow the religion of Love, whichever locals and soon became the prevailing image/face way his camels take. My religion and my faith is the of Nusantara Islam. true religion. In fact, mysticism became the primary attraction of Islam to local communities Significantly, Jalal ad-Din Rumi and Ibn throughout the region, for it is compatible with ’Arabi are two of the most authoritative figures the long-established mystical traditions prevalent within the realm of Islamic spirituality and throughout Nusantara. In a Strategic Review mysticism. article titled “Indonesia’s Big Idea: Resolving It is clear that these spiritual insights the Bitter Global Debate on Islam,” authors provide “doctrinal legitimacy and protection” Kyai Haji A Mustafa Bisri and C Holland that not only authorizes but actively Taylor described the principal elements of encourages the participation of Muslims Islamic mysticism, which have become integral in the affairs of a highly pluralistic society. to the spiritual orientation/cultural heritage of This profoundly spiritual worldview also Nusantara and form its basic character. provides a psychological and emotional safety Two brief citations may serve to illustrate the valve for Muslims, who might otherwise manner in which Mpu Tantular’s concept of be disturbed by others’ rejection of Islamic Bhinneka Tunggal Ika parallels the worldview proselytism (da‘wa) or their reluctance to 24 STRATEGIC REVIEW COVER STORY AFP PHOTO/SONNY TUMBELAKA AFP PHOTO/SONNY

fully adopt the formal teachings and rituals law on others. of Islam. Due to their understanding of Islam Nusantara ulama creatively seek “space for as an “offer of salvation,” Nusantara ulama maneuver” in regard to Shariah, to remain consider proselytism as an attempt to “save” closely involved within the wider social arena, others, which will only succeed if the persons without abandoning their affiliation with, or concerned are willing. If not, the proselytizer practice of, Shariah itself. In the case of the has no responsibility for the decision of others Minangkabau tradition cited above, ulama to choose a different path in life. utilize the Shariah-sanctioned practice of The second strategy referenced above is allowing the distribution of inheritance in to position Islam as an equal citizen within a accord with any consensus reached among highly pluralistic society, rather than as the heirs. Thus, local customs (adat) that might beneficiary or carrier of a violent, supremacist otherwise conflict with fiqh (Islamic law) are ideology. Nusantara ulama generally believe positioned within the “realm of consensus.” that public affairs should be managed with the This approach to Islamic law has served as consent of all parties concerned. In Nusantara, the basis for Nusantara ulama to accept the Muslim leaders have rarely been burdened by secular state of the Republic of Indonesia and the expectation or demand to impose Islamic reject the establishment of a so-called Islamic COVER STORY APRIL-JUNE 2015/VOLUME 5/NUMBER 2 25

The model of “Nusantara Islam” Purification is an absolutely authentic stream egardless of their ethnic or geographic of Sunni Islam, as preserved and Rorigin, conquerors generally have similar taught by authoritative ulama. anxieties and behavioral tendencies as they seek to promote their own self-interest. The most fundamental of these impulses is to ensure the perpetuation of their rule, in the face of overt or latent resistance from those who have been state, or caliphate. Because Islam arrived subjugated. Thus, it is logical that conquerors in Nusantara as a respected guest and not tend to be repressive. a conqueror, Muslims generally accept the Classical Islamic law (fiqh) is replete with fact that they are not the only party destined such repressive dictates. One of the more to determine the fate of society as a whole. dramatic examples may be found in the Nusantara’s political systems – and particularly book “Kifaayat ‘l Akhyaar” (“The Satisfying the relationship between state and religion – Selections”), written by Taqiyudin Abu Bakr have traditionally reflected consensus among bin al-Husaini al-Husni in the all the stakeholders concerned. Even Islamic 14th century. Among the various dictates of kingdoms such as Jeumpa, Tambayung and Islamic law cited in this book is an explicit Mataram have traditionally been regarded as requirement that Muslims discriminate against the product of consensus among adherents non-Muslims. of traditional law (adat), rather than the In Nusantara, Islam never had to struggle embodiment of a formal “Islamic state.” beneath the burden of such injunctions. In In general, it may be said that the ability the absence of foreign conquerors, there was of Nusantara ulama to adapt to social reality no threat of resistance to a so-called foreign without abandoning their own adherence to religion. Thus, within the 16th century Islamic Shariah stems from the fact that they have kingdom of Demak, the sultan’s chief religious mastered Shariah, not merely in the sense of adviser, Ja’far Sadiq Azmatkhan, popularly compilations of Islamic jurisprudence but as known as Sunan Kudus, forbade Muslims to profound legal theory. Islam teaches that the slaughter cows within the territorial limits of law must be based upon Divine guidance. Kudus (in today’s Central Java Province), due But Islam also teaches that in providing to his respect for Hindus’ belief in the sanctity guidance, God’s purpose is never the pursuit of the animals. of His own interests. God provides guidance Another early propagator of Islam in Java, for the benefit of humanity. Thus, anything Raden ’Ainul Yaqin, popularly known as Sunan beneficial to humanity is in harmony with Giri, was the main arbiter of disputes among God’s “objective,” and the purpose of Shariah his contemporary ulama in regard to Islamic itself. law because of his profound expertise in the 26 STRATEGIC REVIEW COVER STORY

“I follow the religion of Love, whichever way his camels take. My religion and my faith is the true religion.”

field of Shariah. Yet the best known of Sunan spirituality and ethics. Giri’s teachings, which have become indelibly associated with his memory, are his teachings Harmonious civilization, about universal virtues, which are sculpted compassionate religion upon his tomb in East Java: or nearly 2,000 years, Nusantara’s Wenehana mangan marang wong kang luwe. Fcivilization has constituted a unique Wenehana sandangan marang wong kang wuda. experiment and direct experience of the ability Wenehana payung marang wong kang kudanan. of human beings to live peacefully amid Wenehana teken marang wong kang wuta. diversity. It is about prioritizing harmony with others, above one’s own self-interest; Give food to those who are hungry. spiritual self-confidence, which allows one Give clothes to those who are naked. to experience and embrace new ideas and Give shelter to those caught in the rain. teachings; seeking of character, rather Give walking sticks to those who are blind. than purely material achievements; knowing that differences of opinion (and religion) are In general, the Islamic narratives that have not harmful. long thrived in Nusantara are oriented toward Nearly all of the world’s religions have come the spirit, rather than the letter, of the law. to Nusantara without encountering resistance. Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence, as an instrument The people of Nusantara are free to embrace to maintain order) was not considered to be any religion that suits them, and to abandon urgent because preserving public order was not said religion without harm if and when they the most crucial challenge facing local societies desire to do so. And everyone who becomes a or their rulers. A strong cultural disposition citizen within the communal life we share is to seek harmony served as the primary part of an indivisible unity, regardless of what foundation, and guarantor, of social order. In superficial differences may exist: Bhinneka such circumstances, detailed and sophisticated Tunggal Ika. legal instruments were not required, nor was Within the civilization of Nusantara, Islam there any need for coercion to enforce such found its “heaven.” Islam was not burdened dictates. These circumstances allowed the with worldly concerns such as rebellion or proponents of religion to delve deeply and other internal and external threats. Islam was unveil the core of religious teachings, namely blessedly free of being instrumentalized to COVER STORY APRIL-JUNE 2015/VOLUME 5/NUMBER 2 27 AFP PHOTO/CHAIDEER MAHYUDDIN PHOTO/CHAIDEER AFP

serve as a vehicle for advantage in conflict, Differences of opinion because in Nusantara religion has rarely been (and religion) are not harmful. regarded as a worthy cause for quarrel. Islam thus enjoyed the widest possible opportunity to engage in relaxed dialogue, with social and historical reality. and that Shariah should serve to promote the Within this nonpoliticized atmosphere, well-being of humanity, rather than function Islam has proved more successful at grounding as a tool of repressive authority. In Nusantara, its core teachings in public life than in Islam was free to fulfill its mandate in the many parts of the world. This is because of Koran: to become a source of universal love Nusantara Islam’s willingness to empathize and compassion. with others and engage in dialogue with In our present era, both the civilization of reality, rather than seek to impose one’s own Nusantara and the variant of Islam it has long understanding of reality upon others by force. nurtured are in a state of decline. This is due The success of Nusantara Islam also stems from to a wide range of pressures stemming from its conviction that religion should serve as a globalization, including the spread of a highly path to enlightenment for individual souls, politicized and supremacist understanding of 28 STRATEGIC REVIEW COVER STORY

In our present era, both the civilization of Nusantara and the variant of Islam it has long nurtured are in a state of decline.

Islam. The memories I have tried to evoke in social, cultural, political and religious life with this essay – of Nusantara’s glorious civilization, love and spiritual beauty. It is a profound love and its unique expression of Islam – may be and beauty that lies at the heart of our vision rightly viewed as a civilizational plea for help. of an alliance of civilizations and stands within Yet it is simultaneously a reminder and an our grasp, should we elect to transform this offer to the world – an invitation to imbue vision into reality.