UNIT Advent of Arabs and Turks 10

Learning Objectives

„„To learn the nature and outcome of the Arab Conquest of Sind and the military raids of and „„To acquire knowledge about the nature of Sultanate under its various dynasties. „„To know the socio-economic conditions of the country under the Sultanate. „„To understand the impact of Islam in with reference to syncretism in literature, art, music and architecture.

Introduction in such a way that the students examine it critically and raise new questions. The period from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries (1206-1526 CE) saw the Advent of Arabs: The Context arrival of Islamic institutions and Islamic The geographical location of Arabia culture in India. Historians have interpreted facilitated trade contact between India and the history of this period from differing Arabia. As sea-faring traders the pre-Islamic perspectives. Conventionally the regimes of Arabs had maritime contacts with the western the Sultanate have been evaluated in terms of and eastern coasts of India. Arabs too settled in achievements and failures of individual Sultans. Malabar and the Coromandel Coast. The Arabs A few historians, critiquing this personality- who married Malabar women and settled down oriented history, have evaluated the Sultanate on the West Coast were called Mappillais (sons- as having contributed to material and cultural in-law). Arab military expedition in 712 and development, leading to the evolution of a subsequent Ghaznavid and the Ghori military composite culture in India. Historians focusing raids, intended to loot and use the resources on history of class relations, have argued that the seized to strengthen their power in Central medieval state served as the agent of the ruling Asia, created a relationship of the conqueror class and hence, the regimes of the Sultanate were and the conquered. Following the invasion of diminutive in their institutional advancement Afghanistan by Khurasan (Eastern Iran) Shah when compared with the Great Mughals. Thus and later by Chengiz Khan severed the ties of there is no consensus yet amongst scholars in North India Sultanate with Afghanistan. Mongol determining the true nature of the Sultanate. invasions destroyed the Ghurid Sulatanate and The two-fold objective of this lesson Ghazni, and cut into the resources of Sultan are: (a) to introduce the students to a Nasir-ud-din Qubacha (1206-1228), the ruler conventional study of rulers, events, ideas, of Uchch and Multan. Thus the Sultan people and their conditions under the had the opportunity of expanding his influence Sultanate, and (b) to structure the content in northern India that enabled Muslim rulers to

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 135 29-02-2020 13:30:38 rule Indian provinces with Delhi as capital for about four centuries. Persian chronicles speak about the in hyperbolic terms. Their views Though it is customary to describe this dealing with the happenings during the period as the Muslim period, the rulers of period of a certain Sultan were uncritically medieval India came from different regions appropriated into modern scholarship.— and ethnicities: Arabs, Turks, Persians, and Sunil Kumar, Emergence of Delhi Sultanate Central Asians were involved militarily and administratively. Iltutmish was an Ilbari 10.1 The Arab Turk and many of his military slaves were of different Turkish and Mongol ancestries Conquest of Sind brought to Delhi by merchants from Bukhara, The Arab governor of Iraq, Hajjaj Bin Yusuf, Samarkhand and Baghdad. There were some under the pretext of acting against the pirates, slaves of other ethnicities as well (notably sent two military expeditions against Dahar, the Hindu Khan, captured from Mihir in Central ruler of Sind, one by land and the other by sea. India) but Iltutmish gave them all Turkish Both were defeated and commanders killed. titles. Hajjaj then sent, with the Caliph’s permission, The Sultanate (1206–1526) itself was not a full-fledged army, with 6000 strong cavalry homogenous. Its rulers belonged to five distinct and a large camel corps carrying all war categories: (a) Slave Dynasty (1206-1290) requirements under the command of his son- in-law, a 17-year-old Muhammad Bin Qasim. (b) (1290-1320) (c) (1320-1414) (d) Sayyid Dynasty (1414- Muhammad Bin Qasim 1451) and (e) Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526). Muhammad Bin Qasim marched on the Sources for the Study of Delhi fortress of Brahmanabad where Dahar was Sultanate stationed with a huge army. Dahar’s wazir (Prime minister) betrayed him, which was „„ Al-Beruni: Tarikh-Al-Hind (Indian followed by the desertion of a section of his Philosophy and Religion written in Arabic) forces. The predecessors of Dahar, the Brahmin „„Minhaj us Siraj: Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (1260) rulers of Sind, had usurped power from the (World Islamic History written in Arabic) earlier Buddhist ruling dynasty of Sind and, „„Ziauddin Barani: Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi(1357) with the patronage of Dahar Brahmins, had Sultanate up to Firuz Tughlaq occupied all higher positions. This led to „„Amir Khusrau: Mifta Ul Futuh (Victories discontentment and therefore Dahar lacked of Jalal-ud-din Khalji); Khazain Ul Futuh popular support. In this context it was easy for Muhammad Qasim to capture Brahmanabad. (Victories of Allauddin Khalji - Texts in Qasim thereupon ravaged and plundered Debal Persian) (Port) for three days. Qasim called on the people „„ Tughlaq Nama (History of Tughlaq dynasty of Sind to surrender, promising full protection in Persian) to their faith. He sent the customary one-fifth of „„Shams-i-Siraj Afif:Tarikh i Firuz Shahi (after the plunder to the Caliph and divided the rest Barani’s account of Delhi Sultanate in Persian) among his soldiers. „„ Ghulam Yahya Bin Ahmad: Tarikh-i- The Arab conquest of Sind has been Mubarak Shahi (Written in Persian during described as a “triumph without results” the reign of Sayyid ruler Mubarak Shah) because it touched but a fringe of the country, „„Ferishta: History of the Muslim Rule in India which, after Qasim’s expedition had a respite (Persian) from invasions for about three centuries.

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 136 29-02-2020 13:30:38 Mahmud of Ghazni and plunder and destruction of their places of worship. However, there is little evidence of any In the meantime, the Arab empire in large scale conversion of people to their faith. Central Asia had collapsed with several of its Even those who became Muslims to save their provinces declaring themselves independent. One of the major kingdoms that emerged out lives and properties, returned to their original of the broken Arab empire was the Samanid faith when the threat of Ghaznavid invasion kingdom which also splintered, leading to ceased. several independent states. In 963 Alaptigin, After defeating the Shahi king Anandapala, a Turkic slave who had served Samanids as Mahmud went beyond Punjab, penetrating their governor in Khurasan, seized the city of deep into the Indo-Gangetic plain. Before Ghazni in eastern Afghanistan and established reaching Kanauj, Mahmud raided Mathura. an independent kingdom. Alaptigin died soon In later historiography, of both the British and after. After the failure of three of his successors, Indian nationalists, Mahmud is notorious for the nobles enthroned Sabuktigin. his invasion of the temple city of Somnath Sabuktigin initiated the process of southward (1025) on the seashore in Gujarat. Many expansion into the Indian sub-continent. He scholars argue that these plundering raids defeated the Shahi ruler of Afghanistan, Jayapal, were more of political and economic character and conferred the governorship of the province than of religious chauvinism. Desecration of on Mahmud, his eldest son. When Sabuktagin temples, vandalising the images of deities were died in 997, Mahmud was in Khurasan. Ismail, all part of asserting one’s authority in medieval the younger son of Sabuktagin had been India. Mahmud’s raids and his deeds fit this named his successor. But defeating Ismail in a pattern, though their memories went into the battle, Mahmud, aged twenty-seven, ascended creation of communal divide. the throne and the Caliph acknowledged his This apart, the plundering raids of accession by sending him a robe of investiture Mahmud were meant to replenish the treasury and by conferring on him the title Yamini-ud- to maintain his huge army. The Turks relied on Daulah (‘Right-hand of the Empire’). a permanent, professional army. It was built around an elite corps of mounted archers who To Arabs and Iranians, India was Hind and were all slaves, bought, trained, equipped, and the Indians were ‘’. But as Muslim paid in cash from the war booty taken alike communities arose in India, the name from Hindu kingdoms in India and Muslim ‘Hindu’ came to apply to all Indians who kingdoms in Iran. were not Muslims. Persian sources contain exaggerated claims about the wealth seized from these raids. For Mahmud’s Military Raids instance, it is claimed that Mahmud’s plunder Mahmud ruled for thirty-two years. of the Iranian city of Ray, in 1029, brought During this period, he conducted as many as him 500,000 dinars worth of jewels, 260,000 seventeen military campaigns into India. He dinars in coins, and over 30,000 dinars worth targeted Hindu temples that were depositories of gold and silver vessels. Similarly, Mahmud’s of vast treasures. Though the motive was to raid on Somnath (1025) is believed to have loot, there was also a military advantage in brought in twenty million dinars worth of demolishing temples and smashing idols. spoils. Romila Thapar points out that those who The Ghaznavid soldiers viewed it also as a had suffered from these predatory invasions demonstration of the invincible power of seemed to maintain a curious silence about their god. The religious passions of Mahmud’s them, as Hindu and Jain sources available on army expressed itself in slaughter of ‘infidels’ Somnath expedition do not corroborate the

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 137 29-02-2020 13:30:38 Muhammad Ghori If Ghaznavid invasions were intended for loot, the Ghurids enlarged their scope to establish garrison towns to ensure the regular flow of plunder and Somnath Temple tribute. Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori details or viewpoints found in Arab chronicles. Muhammad of the (modern representation) Such plundering raids were economic and Ghori dynasty, known generally as Muhammad iconoclastic in nature, and communal character Ghori, invested in territories he seized. Through was attributed to them later. They represented the 1180s and Ghori established garrisons the kinds of disasters that were inseparable from in the modern provinces of Punjab, Sind, and contemporary warfare and the usual plundering Haryana. These centres of military power soon nature of rulers of the medieval period. attracted the in-migration of mercenaries in The history of the Ghaznavid dynasty after search of opportunities. These mercenaries the death of Mahmud is a story of endless clashes were recruited to organize fiscal and military over succession between brothers, cousins, and affairs of the Sultanate. The Sultan’s military uncles. There were, however, exceptions like commanders in north India were drawn from Sultan Ibrahim who ruled for over forty-two his elite military class. Specially trained in years and his son Masud who ruled for warfare and governance these slaves were seventeen years. The ever-hanging threat from different from agrestic (related to land\field Ghuris from the north and the Seljuq Turks labour) and domestic slaves. Lahore, then Uchch from the west proved to be disastrous for the and Multan were initially considered significant kingdom. The later rulers of Ghaznavid dynasty centres of power. In 1175 Ghori headed for the could exercise their authority only in the Lahore city of Multan which he seized from its Ismaili region and even this lasted only for three ruler. The fort of Uchch fell without a fight. The decades. In 1186 Ghuri prince Muizz-ud-din Chalukyas of Gujarat inflicted a crushing defeat Muhammad invaded Punjab and seized Lahore. on Muhammad Ghori at Mt. Abu (1179). After The last ruler Khurav Shah was imprisoned this defeat Ghori changed the course of his and murdered in 1192. With his death the expedition, consolidating his position in Sind Ghaznavid house of Mahmud came to an end. and the Punjab. Al-Beruni, mathematician, philosopher, astronomer, and historian, came to India Ghori attacked the fortress of Tabarhinda along with Mahmud of Ghazni. He learned (Bhatinda), a strategic point for the Chauhans Sanskrit, studied religious and philosophical of Ajmer. The ruler of Ajmer Prithviraj Chauhan texts before composing his work Kitab Ul marched to Tabarhinda and faced the invader Hind. He also translated the Greek work in the (1191). Prithviraj of Euclid into Sanskrit. He transmitted scored a brilliant victory in this battle but failed Aryabhata’s magnum opus Aryabattiyam to consolidate his position believing this battle (the thesis that earth’s rotation around its to be a frontier fight, and did not expect the axis creates day and night) to the West. He was the inter-civilizational connect between Ghurids to make regular attacks. Ghori was India and the rest of the world. wounded and carried away by a horseman to safety. Contrary to the expectations of

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 138 29-02-2020 13:30:39 Prithviraj Chauhan, Muhammad Ghori The world famous Khajuraho temple complex consisting of many temples including the marched into India Lakshmana temple, Vishwanatha temple in the following year and Kandariya Mahadeva temple was built (1192). Prithviraj by the Chandelas of Bundelkhand who ruled underestimated the from Khajuraho. potential danger of the enemy. In the The Rajputs had a long tradition of Second Battle of Prithviraj Chauhan martial spirit, courage and bravery. There was Tarain, one of the (modern representation) little difference between the weapons used by the Turks and the Rajputs. But in regimental turning points in Indian history, Prithviraj discipline and training the Rajputs were lax. In suffered a crushing defeat and was eventually planning their tactics to suit the conditions, the captured. Ghori restored him to his throne in Turks excelled. Moreover, the Turkish cavalry Ajmer. But on charges of treason he was later was superior to the Indian cavalry. The Rajput executed, and Ghori’s trusted general Qutb-ud- forces depended more on war elephants, which din Aibak was appointed as his deputy in India. were spectacular but slow moving compared to the Turkish cavalry. The Turkish horsemen had Jaya Chandra of Kanauj greater mobility and were skilled in mounted Soon Ghori was back in India to fight archery. This was a definite military advantage against the Kanauj ruler Jaya Chandra. When which the Turks used well against their enemies all Rajput chiefs had stood by Prithviraja in and emerged triumphant in the battles. his battles against Muhammad Ghori, Jaya Foundation of Delhi Sultanate Chandra stood apart, as there was enmity between Prithviraj and Jai Chandra, on account 10.2 The Slave Dynasty of Prithviraj’s abduction of Jaya Chandra’s After the death of Ghori there were many daughter . So Ghori easily defeated contenders for power. One was Qutb-ud-din Jaya Chandra and returned to Ghazni with an Aibak, who ascended the throne in Delhi with enormous booty. On the way while camping his father-in-law Yildiz remaining a threat to on the banks of Indus, he was killed by some him for the next ten years. The three important unidentified assassins. rulers of this dynasty are Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban. Rajput Kingdoms By the beginning of the tenth century two The Slave dynasty is also known as the powerful Rajput Kingdoms Gurjar Prathihara Mamluk dynasty. Mamluk means property. It is also the term for the Arabic designation of and Rashtrakutas had lost their power. Tomaras a slave. (Delhi), Chauhans (), Solankis (Gujarat), Paramaras (Malwa), Gahadavalas Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210) (Kanauj) and Chandelas (Bundelkhand) Qutb-ud-din Aibak was enslaved as a had become important ruling dynasties of boy and sold to Sultan Muhammad Ghori at Northern India. Vighraharaja and Prithviraj, Ghazni. Impressed with his ability and loyalty two prominent Chauhan rulers, Bhoja of the Sultan elevated him to the rank of viceroy of , Ghadavala king , the conquered provinces in India. Muhammad Yasovarman, Kirti Varman of Chandelas were Bin Bhakthiyar Khalji, a Turkish general from all strong in their own regions. Afghanistan assisted him in conquering and

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 139 29-02-2020 13:30:39 Bengal. Qutb-ud-din Aibak reigned for four years rebellions of Rajputs at Gwalior, Ranthambor, (1206 to 1210 CE) and died in 1210 in Lahore in Ajmer and Jalore. He overcame the challenge an accident while playing chaugan (Horse polo). of Nasiruddin Qabacha in Lahore and Multan, and frustrated the conspiracy of Alivardan, the Bhakthiyar Khalji is charged with destroying Governor of Bengal. He diplomatically saved the glorious Buddhist University of Nalanda India by refusing to support the Khwarizmi in Bihar, who is said to have mistaken it Shah Jalaluddin of Central Asia against the for a military camp! Detailed descriptions Mongol ruler Chengiz Khan. Had he supported of Nalanda is found in the travel accounts Jalaluddin, the Mongols would have overrun of Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang. The India with ease. His reign was remarkable manuscripts and texts in the hundreds of thousands in the Nalanda library on subjects for the completion of Qutb Minar, a colossal such as grammar, logic, literature, astronomy victory tower of 243 feet at Delhi, and for the and medicine were lost in the Turkish introduction of copper and silver tanka, the two depredations. basic coins of the Sultanate period.  Since the dynastic traditions of the ‘slave Iltutmish (1211–1236) regime’ were weak, succession to the throne was Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1210-36) of not smooth after Iltutmish’s death. The monarch Turkish extraction was a slave of Qutb-ud- was succeeded by a son, a daughter (Sultana din Aibak. Many of his elite slaves were also Razia), another son, and a grandson, all within of Turkish and Mongol ancestry. They were ten years, and finally by his youngest son Sultan brought to Delhi by merchants from trade Nasir al-Din Mahmud II (1246–66). Iltutmish’s centres like Bukhara, Samarqand and Baghdad. descendants fought long but in vain with their (There were some slaves of other ethnicities as father’s military slaves who had been appointed well). But Iltutmish gave them all Turkish titles. as governors of vast territories and generals of Iltutmish’s reliance on his elite military slaves large armies. They constantly interfered in Delhi (Bandagan) and his practice of appointing them politics, dictating terms to Iltutmish’s successors. for the posts of governors and generals in far- Though Iltutmish’s royal slaves bandagan-i-( off places did not change despite the migration khas) were replaced by junior bandagan, the into North India of experienced military latter were not oriented to their master’s vision commanders from distinguished lineages of a paramount, monolithic Sultanate to the fleeing from the Mongols. same extent as their predecessors. Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, the slave and The slave governors located in the eastern son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, ascended province of Lakhnauti (modern Bengal) and the throne of Delhi setting aside the claim of the Punjab and Sind provinces in the west Aram Shah, the son of Qutb-ud-din Aibak. were the first to break free from Delhi. Those During his tenure he put down the internal in the ‘core territories’ the regions of Delhi

Raziya Sultana (1236-1240). Raziya was daughter of Iltutmish, who ascended the throne after a lot of hurdles put up by the Turkish nobles. According to Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller, ‘Raziya rode on horseback as men ride, armed with a bow and quiver, and surrounded by courtiers. She did not veil her face.’ Yet Raziya ruled for only three and half years. The elevation of an Abyssinian slave, Jalal-ud-din Yaqut, to the post of Amir-i-Akhur, Master of the Stables, a very high office, angered the Turkish nobles. The nobles overplayed her closeness with Yakut and tried to depose her. Since Raziya enjoyed popular support, they could not do anything in Delhi. But while she was on a punitive campaign against the rebel governor Altuniya in southern Punjab, the conspirators used that occasion to dethrone her.

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 140 29-02-2020 13:30:39 Bandagan is the plural of banda, literally military slaves. They were graded according to the years of service, proximity and trustworthiness. This trust led to their appointment as governors and military commanders. The Ghurid bandagan in North India were the slaves of Muiz-ud-Din Ghuri. Since these slaves were without a social identity of their own they were given new names by their masters, which included the nisba, which indicated their social or regional identity. Slaves carried the nisba of their master: hence Mu‘izz al-Din’s slave carried the nisba Mu‘izzi and later Sultan Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish’s slave were called the Shamsi bandagan.

and its suburbs sought to resist the intervention were plundering the area with impunity. Balban of Delhi by consolidating their home bases took it as a challenge and personally undertook and allied with neighbouring chieftains. After a campaign to destroy the Mewatis. Meos two decades of conflict amongst the Shamsi were pursued and slaughtered mercilessly. In bandagan and successive Delhi Sultans, in 1254, the region the Rajput strongholds were Ulugh Khan, a junior, newly purchased slave destroyed, jungles cleared. Colonies of Afghan in Iltutmish’s reign and now the commander soldiers were established throughout the region of the Shivalikh territories in the North-West, to safeguard the roads and deal with rebellions. seized Delhi. He took the title of na’ib-i mulk, Punitive Expedition against the Deputy of the Realm, seizing the throne as Tughril Khan Sultan Ghiyas ud-din Balban in 1266. Balban was ruthless in dealing with Balban (1266-1287) rebellions. He appointed one of his favourite The political intrigues of the nobility slaves, Tughril Khan, as the Governor of Bengal. that destabilised the Delhi Sultanate came to But Tughril Khan soon became rebellious. an end with the accession of Balban as the Amin Khan, the governor of Oudh, sent Sultan. Assertion of authority by Balban led to by Balban to suppress the rebellion meekly constant military campaigns against defiant retreated. Enraged by this, Balban sent two governors and against their local allies. more expeditions, which also suffered defeat. Barani mentions Balban’s campaigns in the Humiliated by these successive reverses, Balban regions surrounding Delhi and in the doab. himself proceeded to Bengal. On hearing During these campaigns forests were cleared, Balban’s approach, Tughril Khan fled. Balban new roads and forts constructed, the newly pursued him, first to Lakhnauti and then towards Tripura, where he was captured and beheaded. deforested lands given to freshly recruited Bughra Khan, a son of Balban, was thereupon Afghans and others as rent-free lands appointed the Governor of Bengal, who carved (mafruzi) and brought under cultivation. out an independent kingdom after the death of New forts were constructed to protect trade Balban. He did not claim the Delhi throne even routes and village markets. in the midst of a leadership crisis and his son Balban and the Problem of Law Kaiqubad’s indulgence in debauchery. and Order Measures against Mongol Threats When Balban took over the reins of power Balban used the threat of Mongols as the the law and order situation in the Ganga, context to militarise his regime. The frontier Jamuna Doab regions had deteriorated badly. regions were strengthened with garrisoning of The Rajput zamindars had set up forts and forts at Bhatinda, Sunam and Samana. At the defied the orders of the Sultan. Meos, a Muslim same time, he took efforts to maintain a good community from north-western region, living relationship with Hulagu Khan, the Mongol in the heavily forested region around Mewat Viceroy of Iran and a grandson of Chengiz Khan.

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 141 29-02-2020 13:30:40 The term Mongol refers to all Mongolic-speaking nomadic tribes of Central Asia. In the twelfth century, they had established a very large kingdom, which included most of modern-day Russia, China, Korea, south-east Asia, Persia, India, the Middle East and Eastern Europe, under the leadership of Chengiz Khan. Their phenomenal success is attributed to their fast horses and brilliant cavalry tactics, their openness to new technologies, and Chengiz Khan’s skill in manipulative politics.

Balban succeeded Ala-ud-din, a nephew and son-in-law of in obtaining from Jalaluddin Khalji, who was appointed governor of him the assurance Kara, invaded Malwa and this campaign yielded a that Mongols would huge booty. The success of this campaign stimulated not advance beyond his urge to embark on a campaign to raid Devagiri, Satluj. Halagu Khan the capital city of the Yadava kingdom in Deccan. reciprocated this On his return he arranged to get Jalaluddin Khalji gesture by sending murdered and captured the throne. a goodwill mission Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296–1316) Balban’s Tomb (New Delhi) to Delhi in 1259. Ala-ud-din and Nobles However, Muhammad Khan, the favourite son Ala-ud-din spent of Balban, who was given the charge of governor the first year of his rule in of Multan to protect the frontiers from Mongol eliminating the enemies aggression, was killed in an encounter. Saddened and strengthening his by this tragedy, Balban fell ill and died in 1286. position in Delhi. Soon he turned his attention 10.3 The Khaljis (1290-1320) to establishing a firm hold over the nobles. Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290-1296) He dismissed several Ala-ud-din Khalji As Balban’ son Kaiqubad was found unfit of his top officers. He (modern representation) to rule, his three-year-old son Kaymars was was particularly severe placed on the throne. As there was no unanimity with the nobles who had shifted loyalty and on the choice of a regent and a council to opportunistically joined him against Jalal-ud-din. administer the empire, the contending nobles Mongol Threats plotted against each other. Out of this chaos a new leader, Malik Jalal-ud-din Khalji, the Mongol raids posed a serious challenge to commander of the army, emerged supreme. Ala-ud-din. During the second year of his rule (1298), when Mongols stormed Delhi, the army While he ruled the kingdom for some time in sent by Ala-ud-din succeeded in driving them the name of Kaiqubad, he soon sent one of his back. But when they returned the following year officers to get Kaiqubad murdered and Jalal- with more men, people of the suburbs of Delhi ud-din formally ascended the throne. However, had to flee and take refuge in the city. Ala-ud- Jalal-ud-din faced opposition on the ground din had to meet the problem head-on. In the that he was an Afghan and not a Turk. But ensuing battle, Mongols were routed. Yet raids Khaljis were indeed Turks settled in Afghanistan continued until 1305, when they ravaged the before the establishment of Turkish rule and so doab region. This time, after defeating them, the they were Afghanized Turks. Jalal-ud-din won Sultan’s army took a large number of Mongols as many battles and even in old age he marched prisoners and slaughtered them mercilessly. But out against the Mongol hordes and successfully the Mongol menace continued. The last major halted their entry into India (1292). Mongol incursion took place in 1307–08.

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 142 29-02-2020 13:30:40 Malik Kafur in 1307 to capture Devagiri fort. Following Devagiri, Prataparudradeva, the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal in the Telengana region, was defeated in 1309. In 1310 the Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala III surrendered all his treasures to the Delhi forces. Malik Kafur then set out for the Tamil country. Though Kafur’s progress was obstructed by heavy rains and floods, he continued his southward journey, plundering Attack of Mongols and ravaging the temple cities of Chidambaram and Srirangam as well as the Pandyan capital Military Campaigns Madurai. Muslims in Tamil provinces fought The inability of the Sultanate to effectively on the side of the Pandyas against Malik harness the agrarian resources of its North Indian Kafur. Malik Kafur returned to Delhi with an territories to sustain its political ambitions was enormous booty in 1311. evident in its relentless military campaigns Ala-ud-din’s Internal Reforms in search of loot and plunder. Ala-ud-din’s The vast annexation of territories was campaigns into Devagiri (1296, 1307, 1314), followed by extensive administrative reforms Gujarat (1299–1300), Ranthambhor (1301), aimed at stabilising the government. Ala-ud- Chittor (1303) and Malwa (1305) were meant to din’s first measure was to deprive the nobles of proclaim his political and military power as well the wealth they had accumulated. It had provided as to collect loot from the defeated kingdoms. them the leisure and means to hatch conspiracies It was with the same plan that he unleashed his against the Sultan. Marriage alliances between forces into the Deccan. The first target in the families of noble men were permitted only with peninsula was Devagiri in the western Deccan. the consent of the Sultan. The Sultan ordered Ala-ud-din sent a large army commanded by that villages held by proprietary right, as free

The Forty System (Chahalgani) The nobles occupied a position next only to the king in status and rank. Enjoying high social status and commanding vast resources they at times became strong enough to challenge the king. In the Delhi Sultanate, nobles were drawn from different tribes and nationalities like the Turkish, Persian, Arabic, Egyptian and Indian Muslims. Iltutmish organized a Corps of Forty, all drawn from Turkish nobility and selected persons from this Forty for appointments in military and civil administration. The Corps of Forty became so powerful to the extent of disregarding the wishes of Iltutmish, and after his death, to place Rukn-ud-Din Firoz on the throne. Razziya sought to counter the influence of Turkish nobles and defend her interest by organizing a group of non- Turkish and Indian Muslim nobles under the leadership of Yakut, the Abyssinian slave. This was naturally resented by the Turkish nobles, who got both of them murdered. Thus in the absence of rule of primogeniture, the nobles sided with any claimants to the throne and either helped in the choice of the Sultan or contributed to the de-stabilization of the regime. The nobles were organized into several factions and were constantly engaged in conspiracies. Balban therefore abolished the Corps of Forty and thereby put an end to the domination of “Turkish nobles”. also took stern measures against the “Turkish nobles” by employing spies to report to him directly on their clandestine and perfidious activities.

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 143 29-02-2020 13:30:41 gift , or as a religious endowment be brought Ala-ud-din’s Successors back under the royal authority and control. Ala-ud-din nominated his eldest son Khizr He curbed the powers of the traditional village Khan, as his successor. However, Ala-ud-din’s offi cers by depriving them of their traditional confi dant at that time was Malik Kafur. So Malik privileges. Corrupt royal offi cials were dealt Kafur himself assumed the authority of the with sternly. Th e Sultan prohibited liquor and banned the use of intoxicating drugs. Gambling government. But Kafur’s rule lasted only thirty- was forbidden and gamblers were driven out of fi ve days as he was assassinated by hostile nobles. the city. However, the widespread violations of Th ereaft er there were a series of murders which prohibition rules eventually forced the Sultan to culminated in Ghazi Malik, a veteran of several relax the restrictions. campaigns against the Mongols, ascending the throne of Delhi in 1320 as Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq. He murdered the incumbent Khalji ruler Khusrau and thereby prevented anyone from Khalji dynasty claiming the throne. Th us began the rule of the Tughlaq Dynasty, which lasted until 1414.

Copper coin of Ala-ud-din Khalji Ala-ud-din collected land taxes directly from the cultivators. Th e village headman who traditionally enjoyed the right to collect them was now deprived of it. Th e tax pressure of Ala- ud-din was on the rich and not on the poor. Ala-ud-din set up the postal system to keep in touch with all parts of his sprawling empire. Ala-ud-din’s Tomb (New Delhi) Sultan’s Market Reforms 10.4 The Tughlaq Dynasty Ala-ud-din was the fi rst Sultan to pay his soldiers in cash rather than give them a share of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq booty. As the soldiers were paid less, the prices (1320–1325) had to be monitored and controlled. Moreover, Ala-ud-din had to maintain a huge standing Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq followed a policy army. In order to restrict prices of essential of reconciliation with the nobles. But in the fi ft h commodities, Ala-ud-din set up an elaborate year of his reign (1325) Ghiyas-ud-din died. intelligence network to collect information on Th ree days later Jauna Khan ascended the throne black-marketing and hoarding. Th e transactions and took the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq. in the bazaars, the buying and selling and the Muhammad Bin Tughlaq bargains made were all reported to the Sultan by his spies. Market superintendents, reporters (1325-1351) and spies had to send daily reports on the Muhammad Tughlaq was a learned, prices of essential commodities. Violators of cultured and talented prince but gained a the price regulations were severely punished. reputation of being merciless, cruel and unjust. If any defi ciency in weight was found, an equal Muhammad Tughlaq eff ectively repulsed the weight of fl esh was cut from the seller’s body Mongol army that had marched up to Meerut and thrown down before his eyes! near Delhi. Muhammad was an innovator. But

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 144 29-02-2020 13:30:41 he, unlike Ala-ud-din, lacked the will to execute Token Currency his plans successfully. Transfer of Capital Muhammad Tughlaq’s attempt to shift the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in Maharashtra, which he named Daulatabad, was a bold initiative. This was after his realization that it was difficult to rule south Tughlaq’s Coins India form Delhi. Centrally located, Devagiri The next important experiment of also had the advantage of possessing a strong Muhammad was the introduction of token fort atop a rocky hill. Counting on the military currency. This currency system had already and political advantages, the Sultan ordered been experimented in China and Iran. For important officers and leading men including India it was much ahead of its time, given that many Sufi saints to shift to Devagiri. However, it was a time when coins were based on silver the plan failed, and soon Muhammad realised content. When Muhammad issued bronze that it was difficult to rule North India from coins, fake coins were minted which could Daulatabad. He again ordered transfer of not be prevented by the government. The new capital back to Delhi. coins were devalued to such an extent that the

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 145 29-02-2020 13:30:42 government had to withdraw the bronze coins Muhammad bin Tughlaq died without naming and replace them with silver coins, which told his successor. The claim made by Muhammad’s heavily on the resources of the empire. sister to his son was not supported by the nobles. His son, recommended by Muhammad’s friend Sultan’s Other Innovative Khan-i Jahan, was a mere child. Under such Measures circumstances, Firuz ascended the throne. Equally innovative was Muhammad Tughlaq's scheme to expand cultivation. But The vizier of Firuz Tughlaq, the famous it also failed miserably. It coincided with a Khan-i-Jahan, was a Brahmin convert to Islam. Originally known as Kannu, he was prolonged and severe famine in the Doab. captured during the Sultanate campaigns in The peasants who rebelled were harshly dealt Warangal (present-day Telangana). with. The famine was linked to the oppressive and arbitrary collection of land revenue. The Sultan established a separate department Conciliatory Policy towards (Diwan-i-Amir Kohi) to take care of agriculture. Nobles Loans were advanced to farmers for purchase Firuz Tughlaq followed a conciliatory of cattle, seeds and digging of wells but to no policy towards the nobles and theologians. avail. Officers appointed to monitor the crops Firuz restored the property of the owners were not efficient; the nobility and important who had been deprived of it during the reign officials were of diverse background. Besides, of Muhammad Tughlaq. He reintroduced the the Sultan’s temperament had also earned him system of hereditary appointments to offices, a lot of enemies. a practice which was not favoured by Ala-ud- Ala-ud-din Khalji had not annexed distant din Khalji. The Sultan increased the salaries territories knowing full well that they could not of government officials. While toning up the be effectively governed. He preferred to establish revenue administration, he reduced several his suzerainty over them. But Muhammad taxes. He abolished many varieties of torture annexed all the lands he conquered. Therefore, employed by his predecessor. Firuz had a at the end of his reign, while he faced a series genuine concern for the slaves and established of rebellions, his repressive measures further a separate government department to attend to alienated his subjects. Distant regions like their welfare. The slave department took care Bengal, Madurai, Warangal, Awadh, Gujarat of the wellbeing of 180,000 slaves. They were and Sind hoisted the flags of rebellion and the trained in handicrafts and employed in the Sultan spent his last days fighting rebels. While royal workshops. he was frantically engaged in pursuing a rebel Firuz Policy of No Wars leader in Gujarat, he fell ill, and died at the end of his 26thregnal year (1351). Firuz waged no wars of annexation, though he was not averse to putting down Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) rebellions challenging his authority. There were Firuz’s father, Rajab, was the younger only two Mongol incursions during his times, brother of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq. Both had and both of them were successfully repulsed. come from Khurasan during the reign of Ala- His Bengal campaign to put down a rebellion ud-din Khalji. Rajab who had married a Jat there, however, was an exception. His army princess had died when Firuz was seven years slew thousands and his entry into Odisha on his old. When Ghiyas-ud-din ascended the throne, way helped him extract the promise of tribute he gave Firuz command of a 12,000 strong from the Raja. A major military campaign of his cavalry force. Later Firuz was made in charge period was against Sind (1362). He succeeded of one of the four divisions of the Sultanate. in routing the enemies on the way. Yet his

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 146 29-02-2020 13:30:42 enemies and a famine that broke out during this period gave Sultan and his army a trying time. Firuz's army, however, managed to reach Sind. The ruler of Sind agreed to surrender and pay tribute to the Sultan. Religious Policy Firuz favoured orthodox Islam. He proclaimed his state to be an Islamic state Firuz Tughlaq’s Tomb largely to satisfy the theologians. Heretics Timur’s Invasion were persecuted, and practices considered un- Islamic were banned. He imposed jizya, a head The last Tughlaq tax on non-Muslims, which even the Brahmins ruler was Nasir-ud- were compelled to pay. Yet Firuz did not din Muhammad Shah prohibit the building of new Hindu temples and (1394–1412), whose shrines. His cultural interest led to translation reign witnessed the of many Sanskrit works relating to religion, invasion of Timur from medicine and music. As an accomplished Central Asia. Turkish scholar himself, Firuz was a liberal patron of Timur, who could claim the learned including non-Islamic scholars. a blood relationship th Fond of music, he is credited with establishing with the 12 century Timur several educational institutions and a number great Mongol Chengiz of mosques, palaces and forts. Khan, ransacked Delhi virtually without any opposition. On hearing the news of arrival Jizya is a tax levied and collected per head by of Timur, Sultan Nasir-ud-din fled Delhi. Islamic states on non-Muslim subjects living Timur also took Indian artisans such as in their land. In India, Qutb-ud-din Aibak masons, stone cutters, carpenters whom he imposed jizya on non-Muslims for the first engaged for raising buildings in his capital time. Jizya was abolished by the Mughal ruler Samarkhand. Nasir-ud-din managed to Akbar in 16th century but was re-introduced rule up to 1412. Then the Sayyid and Lodi by Aurangzeb in the 17th century. dynasties ruled the declining empire from Delhi till 1526. Public Works Firuz undertook many irrigation projects. 10.5 Sayyid Dynasty A canal he dug from Sutlej river to Hansi and (1414–1451) another canal in Jumna indicate his sound policy of public works development. Timur appointed Khizr Khan as his deputy to oversee Timurid interests in the Firuz died in 1388, after making his son Punjab marches. Khizr Khan (1414-21) went Fath Khan and grandson Ghiyas-ud-din as joint on to seize Delhi and establish the Sayyid rulers of Delhi Sultanate. dynasty (1414–51).The Sayyid dynasty The principle of heredity permitted for the established by Khizr Khan had four sultans nobles and applied to the army weakened the ruling up to 1451. The early Sayyid Sultans Delhi Sultanate. The nobility that had regained ruled paying tribute to Timur’s son. Their power got involved in political intrigues which rule is marked for the composing of Tarikh-i- undermined the stability of the Sultanate. Mubarak Shahi by Yahiya bin Ahmad Sirhindi. Within six years of Firuz Tughlaq’s death four By the end of their rule the empire was largely rulers succeeded him. confined to the city of Delhi.

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 147 29-02-2020 13:30:43 The Delhi Sultanate deserves to be In the entire history of the Delhi considered an all-India empire. Virtually all of Sultanate there was only one Sultan India, except Kashmir and Kerala at the far ends who voluntarily abdicated his of the subcontinent, and a few small tracts in throne and moved to a small town away from Delhi, where he lived for three between them had come under the direct rule full decades in contentment and peace. He of Delhi towards the close of Muhammad bin was Alam Shah of the Sayyid dynasty. – Tughlaq’s rule. There were no well-defined and Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath. accepted rules of royal succession and therefore contested succession became the norm during 10.6 Lodi Dynasty the Sultanate. The Sultans required the holders (1451–1526 ) of iqta’s (called muqtis or walis) to maintain troops for royal service out of the taxes collected The Lodi by them. Certain areas were retained by the Dynasty was Sultans under their direct control (khalisa). established by It was out of the revenue collected from such Bahlul Lodi areas that they paid the officers and soldiers of (1451–1489) whose the sultan’s own troops (hashm-i qalb). reign witnessed The territorial expansion was matched by the conquest of an expansion of fiscal resources. The tax rent (set Sharqi Kingdom at half the value of the produce) was rigorously (Bengal). It was his sought to be imposed over a very large area. son Sikander Lodi The fiscal claims of hereditary intermediaries (1489–1517) who Ibrahim Lodi (now called chaudhuris) and the village shifted the capital (modern representation) from Delhi to Agra headmen (khots) were drastically curtailed. The in 1504. The last Lodi ruler Ibrahim Lodi was continuous pressure for larger tax-realization defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat provoked a severe agrarian uprising, notably (1526), which resulted in the establishment of in the Doab near Delhi (1332–34). These and Mughal Dynasty. an ensuing famine persuaded Muhammad Tughlaq to resort to a scheme of agricultural 10.7 Administration of the development, in the Delhi area and the Doab, based on the supply of credit to the peasants. Sultanate Military campaigns, the dishoarding of State and Society wealth, the clearing of forests, the vitality of The Sultanate was formally considered inter-regional trade – all of these developments to be an Islamic State. Most of the Sultans encouraged a great movement of people, preferred to call themselves the lieutenant of the created a vast network of intellectuals and the Caliph. In reality, however, the Sultans were the religious-minded. These factors also made supreme political heads. As military head, they social hierarchies and settlements in the wielded the authority of commander-in-chief of Sultanate garrison towns and their strongholds the armed forces. As judicial head they were the far more complex. Through the fourteenth highest court of appeal. Balban claimed that he century the Sultanate sought to control its ruled as the representative of god on earth. Ala- increasingly diverse population through its ud-din Khalji claimed absolute power saying he provincial governors, muqti, but considerable did not care for theological prescriptions, but local initiative and resources available to these did what was essential for the good of the state personnel, and their propensity to ally with and the benefit of the people. local political groups meant that they could

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 148 29-02-2020 13:30:43 often only be controlled fitfully and for a short figures who played a part in transmitting the period, even by autocratic, aggressive monarchs southern Bhakti and monotheism to Northern like Muhammad Tughlaq. India were Namdev of Maharashtra, a rigorous The Turko-Afghan political conquests monotheist who opposed image worship and were followed by large- scale Muslim social caste distinctions and Ramanand, a follower of migrations from Central Asia. India was seen as Ramanuja. a land of opportunity. The society in all stages was based on privileges with the higher classes An important aspect of Islam in India enjoying a better socio-economic life with was its early acceptance of a long-term coexistence with Hinduism, despite all little regard of one’s religion. The Sultans and the violence that occurred in military the nobles were the most important privileged campaigns, conquests and depredations. class who enjoyed a lifestyle of high standard The conqueror Mu’izzuddin of Ghor had, in comparison to their contemporary rulers on some of his gold coins, stamped the all over the world. The nobility was initially image of the goddess Lakshmi. Muhammad composed of the Turks. Afghans, Iranians Tughlaq in 1325 issued a farman enjoining and Indian Muslims were excluded from the that protection be extended by all officers nobility for a very long time. to Jain priests; he himself played holi and consorted with yogis. The personal status of an individual in Islam depended solely on one’s abilities and The historian Barani noted with some achievements, not on one’s birth. So, once bitterness how ‘the kings of Islam’ showed converted to Islam, everyone was treated as respect to ‘Hindus, Mongols, Polytheists equal to everyone in the society. and infidels’, by making them sit on masnad (cushions) and by honouring them in other Religion ways, and how the Hindus upon paying taxes (jiziya-o-kharaj) were allowed to have their Unlike Hindus who temples and celebrations, employ Muslim worshiped different servants, and flaunt their titles (Rai, Rana, deities, these migrants Thakur, Sah, Mahta, Pandit, etc), right in the followed monotheism. capital seats of Muslim rulers. They also adhered to one basic set of beliefs Economy and practices. Though a monotheistic trend The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in Hinduism had long Al-Beruni was, however, accompanied by some important existed, as, for example in economic changes. One such change was the the Bhagavad Gita, as noted by Al-Beruni, its payment of land tax to the level of rent in cash. proximity to Islam did help to move monotheism Because of this, food-grains and other rural from periphery to the centre. In the thirteenth products were drawn to the towns, thereby century, the Virashaiva or Lingayat sect of leading to a new phase of urban growth. In Karnataka founded by Basava believed in one the fourteenth century, Delhi and Daulatabad God (Parashiva). Caste distinctions were denied, (Devagiri) emerged as great cities of the world. women given a better status, and Brahmans There were other large towns such as Multan, could no longer monopolise priesthood. A Kara, Awadh, Gaur, Cambay (Khambayat) and parallel, but less significant, movement in Gulbarga. Tamil Nadu was in the compositions of the Siddhars, who sang in Tamil of one God, and The Delhi Sultans began their gold and criticised caste, Brahmans and the doctrine silver mintage alongside copper from early in of transmigration of souls. Two little known the thirteenth century and that indicated brisk

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 149 29-02-2020 13:30:43 commerce. Despite the Mongol conquests children to read and write. At a higher level, of the western borderlands, in Irfan Habib’s important texts in various subjects were read view, India’s external trade, both overland and by individual pupils with particular scholars oceanic, grew considerably during this period. who gave instruction (dars) in them. A more institutionalised form of higher education, the Trade and Urbanization madrasa, became widely established in Central The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate Asia and Iran in the eleventh century, and revived internal trade, stimulated by the from there it spread to other Islamic countries. insatiable demand for luxury goods by the sultans Usually the madrasa had a building, where and nobles. Gold coins, rarely issued in India instruction was given by individual teachers. after the collapse of the Gupta Empire, began Often there was a provision of some cells for to appear once again, indicating the revival of resident students, a library and a mosque. Firoz Indian economy. However, there is no evidence Tugluq built a large madrasa at Delhi whose of the existence of trade guilds, which had played splendid building still stands. From Barani’s a crucial role in the economy in the classical age. description it would seem that teaching here The Sultanate was driven by an urban economy was mainly confined to “Quran-commentary, encompassing many important towns and the Prophet’s sayings and the Muslim Law cities. Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Kara, Lakhnauti, (fiqh).” It is said that Sikander Lodi(1489–1517) Anhilwara, Cambay and Daulatabad were the appointed teachers in maktabs and madrasas important cities that thrived on the mercantile in various cities throughout his dominions, activities of Jain Marwaris, Hindu Multanis presumably making provision for them through and Muslim Bohras, Khurasanis, Afghans and land or cash grants. Iranians. The import–export trade flourished well both through overland and overseas. While Historiography the Gujaratis and Tamils dominated the sea trade, In addition to secular sciences that came with the Hindu Multanis and Muslim Khurasanis, Arabic and Persian learning to India, one more Afghans and Iranians dominated the overland notable addition was systematic historiography. trade with Central Asia. The collection of witnesses’ narratives and Industrial Expertise documents that the Chachnama (thirteenth- Paper-making technology evolved by the century Persian translation of a ninth-century Chinese and learnt by the Arabs was introduced Arabic original), in its account of the Arab in India during the rule of the Delhi Sultans. The conquest of Sind, represents advancement in spinning wheel invented by the Chinese came historical research, notwithstanding the absence to India through Iran in the fourteenth century of coherence and logical order of latter-day and enabled the spinner to increase her output historiography like Minhaj Siraj’s Tabaqat-i some six-fold and enlarged yarn production Nasiri, written at Delhi c. 1260. greatly. The subsequent introduction of treadles in the loom similarly helped speed-up weaving. Sericulture centre was established in Bengal by In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the fifteenth century. Building activity attained two most influential orders emerged among a new scale by the large use of brick and mortar, the sufis: the Suhrawardi, centred at Multan, and by the adoption of the vaulting techniques. and the Chisti at Delhi and other places. The most famous Chishti Saint, Shaik Nizamuddin Education offered a classical exposition of Sufism of pre- Certain traditions of education were now pantheistic phase in the conversations (1307– implanted from the Islamic World. At the base 1322).Sufism began to turn pantheistic only was the maktab, where a schoolmaster taught when the ideas of Ibn al-Arabi (died 1240)

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 150 29-02-2020 13:30:43 began to gain influence, first through the Persian Hindu women did not have. In several Hindu poetry of Jalal-ud-din Rumi(1207–1273) and communities, such as among the Rajputs, the Abdur Rahman Jami (1414–1492), and, then, birth of a girl child was considered a misfortune. through the endeavours within India of Ashraf Islam was not against women being taught to Jahangir Simnani (early fifteenth century). read and write. But it tolerated polygamy. Significantly this wave of qualified pantheism began to dominate Indian Islamic thought Sultan Firoz Tughlaq was reputed to possess about the same time that the pantheism of 180,000 slaves, of which 12,000 worked as Sankaracharya’s school of thought was attaining artisans. His principal minister, Khan Jahan Maqbul possessed over 2000 women slaves. increasing influence within Vedic thought.

Caliph/ : Considered to Evolution of Syncretic Culture be the successor of Prophet Muhammad, The interaction of the Turks with the the Caliph wielded authority over civil and Indians had its influence in architecture, fine religious affairs of the entire Islamic world. arts and literature. The Caliph ruled Baghdad until it fell before Mongols in 1258. The Caliphs then ruled Architecture in Egypt until the conquest of Ottomans Arch, dome, vaults and use of lime cement, in 1516-17. Thereupon the title was held the striking Saracenic features, were introduced by Ottoman Sultans. The office of Caliph in India. The use of marble, red, grey and yellow (Caliphate) ended when Ottoman Empire sandstones added grandeur to the buildings. was abolished and Turkish Republic established by Mushtafa Kemal Attaturk in In the beginning the Sultans converted the the 1920s. existing buildings to suit their needs. Qutb-ud- din Aibak’s Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque situated adjacent to Qutb Minar in Delhi and the Adhai Caste and Women din ka Jhopra in Ajmer illustrate these examples. The Sultans did not alter many of the social A Hindu temple built over a Jain temple was institutions inherited from ‘Indian Feudalism’. modified into Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. Adhai din ka Jhopra was earlier a Jain monastery Slavery, though it had already existed in before being converted as a mosque. India, grew substantially in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Both in war and in the With the arrival of artisans from West event of default in payment of taxes, people Asia the arch and dome began to show up could be enslaved. They were put to work as with precision and perfection. Gradually local domestic servants as well as in crafts. The village artisans also acquired the skill. The tomb of community and the caste system remained Balban was adorned with the first true arch and largely unaltered. Gender inequalities remained the Alai Darwaza built by Ala-ud-din Khalji practically untouched. In upper class Muslim society, women had to observe purdah and were secluded in the zenana (the female quarters) without any contact with any men other than their immediate family. Affluent women travelled in closed litters. However, Muslim women, despite purdah, enjoyed, in certain respects, higher status and greater freedom in society than most Hindu women. They could inherit property from their parents and obtain divorce, privileges that Alai Darwaza

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 151 29-02-2020 13:30:44 Qutb Minar, originally a 72.5 metre tower when completed by Iltutmish, was increased to 74 metres by the repairs carried out by Firuz Shah Tughlaq. The Minar is facilitated by 379 steps and it is magnificent for the height, balconies projecting out marking the storeys, the gradual sloping of the tower and the angular flutings creating a ribbed effect around the tower.

as a gateway to the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque received an impetus in the official court. Zia- is adorned with the first true dome. The palace ud-din Barani lists the names of Nusrat Khatun fortress built by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and and Mihr Afroz as musician and dancer Muhammad bin Tughlaq in Tughlaqabad, their respectively in the court of Jalaluddin Khalji. capital city in Delhi, is remarkable for creating an artificial lake around the fortress by blocking Literature the river Yamuna. The tomb of Ghiyasuddin Amir Khusrau Tughlaq introduced the system of sloping emerged as a major figure walls bearing the dome on a raised platform. of Persian prose and The buildings of Firuz Tughlaq, especially his poetry. Amir Khusrau pleasure resort, Hauz Khas, combined Indian felt elated to call himself and Saracenic features in alternate storeys, an Indian in his Nu Siphr displaying a sense of integration. (‘Nine Skies’). In this Sculpture and Painting work, he praises India’s climate, its languages Orthodox Islamic theology considered – notably Sanskrit – its Amir Khusrau decorating the buildings with animal and arts, its music, its people, (modern representation) human figures as un-Islamic. Hence the plastic even its animals. The Islamic Sufi saints made exuberance of well-carved images found in the a deep literary impact. The Fawai’d-ul-Fawad, a pre-Islamic buildings was replaced by floral work containing the conversations of Sufi Saint and geometrical designs. Arabesque, the art of Nizam-ud-din Auliya was compiled by Amir decorating the building with Quranic verses Hassan. A strong school of historical writing inscribed with calligraphy, emerged to provide emerged with the writings of Zia-ud-din Barani, splendour to the building. Shams-ud-din Siraj Afif and Abdul Malik Isami. Music and Dance Zia-ud-din Barani, emerged as a master of Persian prose. Abdul Malik Isami, in his poetic Music was an area where the syncretic composition of Futuh-us-Salatin, records the tendencies were clearly visible. Muslims history of Muslim rule from Ghaznavid period brought their musical instruments like Rabab to Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign. and Sarangi. Amir Khusrau proclaimed that Indian music had a pre-eminence over all the Persian literature was enriched by other music of the world. The Sufi practice the translation of Sanskrit works. Persian of Sama, recitation of love poetry to the dictionaries with appropriate Hindawi words accompaniment of music, was instrumental for Persian words were composed, the most in promotion of music. Pir Bhodan, a Sufi important being Farhang-i-Qawas by Fakhr- saint, was considered a great musician of the ud-din Qawwas and Miftah-ul-Fuazala by age. Royal patronage for the growth of music Muhammad Shadiabadi. Tuti Namah, the was also forthcoming. Firuz Tughlaq evinced Book of Parrots, is a collection of Sanskrit interest in music leading to synchronisation stories translated into Persian by Zia Nakshabi. by translating an Indian Sanskrit musical Mahabharata and Rajatarangini were also work Rag Darpan into Persian. Dancing also translated into Persian.

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 152 29-02-2020 13:30:45 Delhi Sultanate did not hamper the progress of Sanskrit Literature. Sanskrit continued to be EXERCISE the language of high intellectual thought. The Sanskrit schools and academies established in Q.R.Code I. Choose the different parts of the empire continued to flourish. The classical Sanskrit inscription (Palam Baoli) of Correct Answer 1276 in Delhi claims that due to the benign rule of 1. ______was the ruler th Sultan Balban god Vishnu sleeps in peace in the of Sind when the Arabs invaded it in the 8 ocean of milk without any worries. The influence century. of Arabic and Persian on Sanskrit literature was (a) Hajjaj felt in the form of translations. Shrivara in his (b) Muhammad-Bin-Qasim Sanskrit work Kathakautuka included the story (c) Jaya Simha of Yusuf and Zulaika as a Sanskrit love lyric. (d) Dahar Bhattavatara took Firdausi’s Shah Namah as a model for composing Zainavilas, a history of the 2. Mahmud of Ghazni conducted as many rulers of Kashmir. as______military campaigns into India. (a) 15 (b) 17 (c) 18 (d) 19 SUMMARY 3. The Palam Baoli inscription is in ______„„Muhammad Bin Qasim’s expedition against language Sind in 712. (a) Sanskrit (b) Persian „„The first three decades of the 11thcentury (c) Arabic (d) Urdu witnessed the military raids of Mahmud 4. The world famous Khajuraho temple was of Ghazni whose intention was to loot and built by ______. plunder. (a) Rashtrakutas (b) Tomaras „„Muhammad Ghori’s invasion by the end (c) Chandelas (d) Paramaras th of 12 century led to the establishment of 5. Mamluk is the term for the Arabic designation Delhi Sultanate in 1206 under Qutb-ud-din of a ______. Aibak. (a) Slave (b) King „„ Rajput rulers lost their supremacy in the (c) Queen (d) Soldier beginning of 13thcentury in the face of 6. Ibn Batuta was a traveller from ______. superior military tactics. (a) Morocco (b) Persia „„The contributions of five dynasties that constituted the Delhi Sultanate focusing (c) Turkey (d) China on important rulers of Slave, Khalji and 7. ______was the only Sultan who resigned Tughlaq dynasties. kingship and lived away from Delhi for three „„Ala-ud-din Khalji’s several radical military decades in peace. and market reforms (a) Mubarak Shah (b) Alam Shah „„Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s innovative (c) Kizr Khan (d) Tugril Khan measures that were far ahead of his time 8. Match and choose the correct answer and their fallout. (A) Ramachandra 1. Kakatiya „„Firuz Tughlaq’s reforms and measures which (B) Khan-i-Jahan 2. Padmavat earned him the goodwill of the people. (C) Malik Muhamad Jaisi 3. Man Singh „„A cultural syncretism and reciprocal (D) Man Mandir 4. Devagiri influence in the fields of literature, art, (a) 2, 1, 4, 3 (b) 1, 2, 3, 4 music and architecture. (c) 4, 1, 2, 3 (d) 3, 1, 2, 4

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XI History - Lesson 10.indd 153 29-02-2020 13:30:45 II. Write brief answers 3. Compare and contrast Mahmud Ghazni and Muhammad of Ghor. 1. Mahmud becoming the ruler of Ghazni. 4. Discuss the economic reforms of Ala-ud-din 2. Scholars patronized by Mahmud of Ghazni. Khalji. 3. Important ruling Rajput dynasties of Northern India during the Turkish invasion. 5. Estimate the rule of Firuz Tughlaq. 4. Forty System. 6. Give an account of the administrative system of the Delhi Sultanate. 5. Musical instruments brought by Muslim musicians. Activity III. Write short answers 1. Preparing an album with pictures and images 1. Describe the immediate cause for the military of Sultans and the monuments they left expeditions of Muhammad-bin-Qasim? behind. 2. What were the reasons for the military raids 2. Enact a drama on Pirithiviraj, Samyukta of Mahmud of Ghazni in India? episode. 3. Why was thrown out of power? 4. Write briefly about the south Indian REFERENCE BOOKS campaigns of Malik Kafur. 1. Satish Chandra,History of Medieval India, Orient 5. What were the causes for the failure of the BlackSwan, 2009. experiments of Muhammad Tughlaq? 2. Irfan Habib,Medieval India I: Essays in the History IV. Answer the following in detail of India, Oxford University Press, 1999. 3. Irfan Habib,Medieval India: The Study of Indian 1. Mahmud Ghazni’s plundering raids were more of political and economic character than of Civilization, National Book Trust, (2008). religious chauvinism. Elaborate 4. Sunil Kumar,The Emergence of Delhi Sultanate, 2. How did the prove to Permanent Black, 2010. be a turning point in Indian History? 5. Abraham Eraly,The Age of Wrath, Penguin, 2014.

GLOSSARY

aggressive support to one’s own group or 埁쟁垿ய ந�ோ埍埁டைய chauvinism creed தே殿யவாத믍 ceremony to install someone in authority சட柍埁க쿍 செ뿍鏁 பதힿ뾿쯍 investiture or office அம쏍鏍鏁த쯍 magnum a great work of literature, history or art தலை殿றந் கலைꯍ படைꯍꯁ opus treacherous unreliable, betraying 鏁ர�ோக plotting to do something illegal or intrigue ச鎿 harmful conciliatory willing to accept mediation in a dispute இணக்கத் ஏ쟍埁믍 exuberance liveliness உ뾿쏍ꯍꯁ 뮿க் punitive punishing த迍羿埍垿ற garrison troops stationed in a fortress க�ோட்ட埍 காவற்டை collision clash or conflict ம�ோத쯍 incursion invasion 鎿翀쏍 படையெ翁ꯍꯁ

154 Advent of Arabs and Turks

XI History - Lesson 10.indd 154 29-02-2020 13:30:45