WYRD, WISDOM, AND WARRIORS: HEROIC SAPIENCE IN MEDIEVAL GERMANIC EPICS A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Aaron Francis Ralby February 2010 © 2010 Aaron Francis Ralby WYRD, WISDOM, AND WARRIORS: HEROIC SAPIENCE IN MEDIEVAL GERMANIC EPICS Aaron Francis Ralby, Ph.D. Cornell University 2010 This dissertation examines the nature of wisdom in medieval Germanic epics, and how this wisdom characterizes epic heroes. Germanic heroes of legend and those destined to rule a people or kingdom were expected to be both wise and brave; but the notion of what constituted wisdom was different in each of the three main surviving Germanic languages and cultures of the Middle Ages: Old English, Old Norse, and Middle High German. This dissertation examines the major epics from each of these three linguistic/cultural groups: Beowulf in Old English, Völsunga saga in Old Norse, and the Nibelungenlied in Middle High German. A chapter on Old English and Old Norse sapiential poetry—and its relation to the epics under consideration—is also included. Beowulf demonstrates his wisdom through formal speeches, combative dialogues, provision and reception of counsel, and his proverbial knowledge; but the fundamental aspect of Beowulf’s wisdom is his resignation to fate. Völsunga saga emphasizes Sigurðr’s quests for wisdom, presenting a more complex web of components comprising this wisdom: the ability to question, proverbial and mythological knowledge, the ability to answer or give counsel, and a gift of foresight or prophecy. As in Beowulf, however, the most important component remains resignation to fate. The Old English and Old Norse wisdom poems reflect the notions of wisdom presented in Beowulf and Völsunga saga, but the higher power to which one must resign is expressly God, never wyrd or even death. The interplay of social spheres in the Nibelungenlied influences the expression of heroic wisdom, of which the most important aspect seems the ability to negotiate the complexities of the courtly or mythological worlds. But Hagen, the central figure of wisdom, also demonstrates a fearlessness and resignation to fate and death unparalleled by any other character. While the Nibelungenlied presents different social structures and ideals to Beowulf or Völsunga saga—and therefore different perceptions of wisdom—the significance of resignation in characterizing heroic wisdom remains common to all of these texts. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Aaron Ralby grew up in Baltimore, MD, and attended University of Maryland, Baltimore County as an undergraduate. After receiving his B.A. summa cum laude (as valedictorian) in English and Modern Languages and Linguistics with a concentration in German in 2005, Aaron spent a year at the University of Cambridge, where he completed an M.Phil. in Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic at distinction level in July of 2006. He then made his way to Ithaca to begin his Ph.D. in Medieval Studies at Cornell University, concentrating in Old English literature under the direction of Thomas D. Hill. He also studied Middle High German literature with Arthur Groos and Germanic philology with Wayne Harbert. After passing his A-Exams in the summer of 2008, Aaron completed the Árni Magnússon Institute’s summer course in modern Icelandic, then returned to Cambridge for the 2008-09 academic year. While in Cambridge, Aaron worked with Judy Quinn on Old Norse literature, particularly on two chapters of his doctoral dissertation. Aaron also played varsity lacrosse for Cambridge in 2009 and authored a children’s book titled Hammond Undercover: Knights and Warriors, which was published in July 2009 by Langenscheidt. Aaron intends to continue his scholarship in comparative heroic traditions through postdoctoral study. iii To my mother, who embodies the wisdom of the warrior, and To all those who tread the path along the razor’s edge. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation has only been possible with the help of many people along the way. First and foremost I would like to extend my gratitude to my committee: my chair Thomas D. Hill, and my advisors Arthur Groos and Wayne Harbert. I would also like to thank Dr. Judy Quinn at Cambridge University who assisted me with chapters two and three during a year as a visiting scholar in the Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic from fall 2008 to spring 2009. Special thanks also go to Dr. Gordon Johnson, for allowing me to return to Wolfson College as a visiting scholar during the 2008–09 academic year; the Árni Magnússon Institute in Iceland, where I participated in the summer program in modern Icelandic; Andy Galloway, Carin Ruff, Oren Falk, and Paul Hyams for their guidance and instruction; Kyoko Selden for her patience as I struggled in her course in Classical Japanese; Ding Xiang Warner for allowing me to sit in on her course in Classical Chinese; and, of course, the graduate field assistant, Dianne Ferriss. I would also like to thank Kolfinna Jónatansdóttir, for her friendship and help with learning to speak modern Icelandic, and the several friends I have made here at Cornell who have provided inspiration and moral support along the way: Curtis Jirsa, whose outstanding collection of kung fu movies provided essential relief during my first year; Zach Yuzwa and Jane Calder for their friendship and humor; Ben Weber; Jessica Streit; Sarah and Justin Harlan-Haughey; and all those who have inspired me along the way. And, of course, I would like to extend my thanks and gratitude to my family, for their patience, love, and continued support throughout my Ph.D.: to my brothers Ian and Jim, to Stacey, to my dad David, who taught me how to write, and to my mom, Rohini, who teaches me the way of the warrior. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Biographical Sketch . iii. Dedication . iv. Acknowledgments . v. Introduction . 1 1. Wyrd, Wisdom, and the Warrior: Defining Sapience in Beowulf . 18 2. Hann var vitr maðr: Sigurðr and Fate . 70 3. The Wisdom of Wisdom Poetry . 128 4. Wisdom in the Nibelungenlied? . 189 Conclusion . 240 Appendices . 244 References . 257 vi INTRODUCTION This dissertation began as an exploration of the topos of sapientia et fortitudo—the widespread ancient notion that a hero must be both wise and strong— within medieval Germanic epics.1 It has evolved, however, into an analysis of heroic wisdom and the association between wisdom and fate in medieval Germanic epics. What does it mean for a hero to be wise? What is the exact character of heroic sapience? I intend to address these questions as they pertain to the three main medieval Germanic languages: Old English, Old Norse, and Middle High German. Literature of the first two language groups—Old English and Old Norse—is often considered together because of close similarities in culture, despite a significant 1 In the late 1950s R. E. Kaske famously argued that the Greco-Roman and Biblical tradition of sapientia et fortitudo was no less present in the Old English poem Beowulf. See R. E. Kaske, “Sapientia et Fortitudo as the Controlling Theme of Beowulf,” Studies in Philology 55 (1958), 423–56. Kaske went on to explore how the same tradition was present in other Old English texts, such as Judith. See R. E. Kaske, “Sapientia et Fortitudo in the Old English Judith,” in The Wisdom of Poetry: Essays in Early English Literature in Honor of Morton W. Bloomfield, eds. Larry Dean Benson and Siegfried Wenzel (Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publishers, 1982), 13–29. But this depiction of the topos is somewhat problematic. Building on Curtius’s analysis of sapientia et fortitudo in Classical exempla, Kaske examines the theme as a Biblical topos; but an examination of the Biblical references Kaske cites reveals that the primary figure embodying both qualities is God Himself, and that the terms sapientia and foritudo are only paired—without association with further qualities— four times in both the Old and New Testaments (Kaske, “Sapientia et Fortitudo as the Controlling Theme of Beowulf,” 424). Jeremiah 9:23, for example, gives an example of a wise man first, then a strong man, but does not explicitly represent such figures as the same person; furthermore, a rich man is added to the list, so sapientia et fortitudo, while occurring in proximity, do not occur as a unified pair of qualities. It is difficult to say that this represents a real theme. Two of the three explicit pairings of the words sapientia and fortitudo are in Job, both referring to God (Job 12:13 and 12:16). For example: apud ipsum est sapientia et fortitudo ipse habet consilium et intellegentiam, “With him is wisdom and fortitude, he has help and intelligence” (Job 12:13). The third pairing of sapientia et fortitudo is in Daniel 2:20, also referring explicitly to God. Other than God, figures who may perhaps exemplify the theme are kings, such as David and Solomon, even though they may not be described explicitly as possessing both sapientia and fortitudo. It may be that Jerome, a trained rhetorician, simply adopted the established verbal formula to reflect a similar concept in the Hebrew. 1 chronological gap. Old Norse and Middle High German, on the other hand, are more or less contemporary but are separated by a significant cultural gap. All three language groups share a common linguistic and cultural heritage. I intend to exploit this common heritage by analyzing the main epics preserved in each language, which are further connected by what is more or less the same traditional tale: that of Sigurðr the dragonslayer. This dissertation examines Beowulf, Völsunga saga, Old English and Old Norse wisdom poems, and the Nibelungenlied; it argues that despite cultural differences and differences in articulation, the highest ideal of heroic wisdom remains consistent throughout medieval Germanic epic and is defined by the hero’s awareness of his own mortality and through his resignation to fate.